SADR South Asia Disaster Report

South Asian Disaster Report 2016 2016

Contact details: Duryog Nivaran W| www.duryognivaran.org E| [email protected] F| +92 51 285 4783 T| Chair: +919824051148 Regional Secretariat: Sri Lanka +94112829412/+94774391575 Country Coordinating points: Are we India +919824051148 Bangladesh +88029854374 Nepal +97714423639 Building Back Better? Pakistan +9251285 6623 Lessons from South Asia 1 South Asia Disaster Report 2016

Copyright 2016 @ Duryog Nivaran Secretariat (www.duryognivaran.org)

Published by Duryog Nivaran Secretariat No 05, Lionel Edirisinghe Mawatha, Colombo 05, Sri Lanka

T | + 94 – 11 – 2829412 F | + 94 – 11 – 2856188 W | www.duryognivaran.org

Illustrations by - Amjad Miandad Cover, layout by - Minidu Abeysekera

2 South Asian Disaster Report 2016 Table of Contents Introduction to the Report 5

Before the Next Cyclone Comes: Is Bangladesh “Building Back Better”? 11

Indian Experience of Building Back Better: Lessons from Recent Disasters 37

Nepal Earthquake of 2015 – Are We Building Better 59

Recurring Monsoon Floods: Pakistan’s Experience of “Building Back Better” 87

Build Back Better and the Experience of Landslide Management in Sri Lanka 111

Protecting Cultural Heritage from Disasters: Recent Initiatives in South Asia 127

Building Back Better: Lessons from South Asia Conclusions 133

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Introduction to the Report By Mihir R. Bhatt1, Kamran K. Durrani2, Ben Wisner3, Amjad Bhatti4, Muhammad Taher5, Karin Fernando6

1 Director, All India Disaster Mitigation Institute (AIDMI), and Founder Member and current Chair of Duryog Nivaran. 2 Deputy Executive Director, Rural Development Policy Institute (RDPI) Pakistan, and Member of Duryog Nivaran. 3 Visiting Professor, Institute for Risk and Disaster Reduction, University College London, UK and Technical and Editorial Advisor to Duryog NIvaran on past and the current SADR. 4 Technical Advisor to the Board of Trustees, Rural Development Policy Institute (RDPI) Pakistan, Steering Committee Member of Duryog Nivaran 5 Research and Evaluation Consultant and Founder Member and currently a Steering Committee Member of Duryog Nivaran 6 Senior Research Professional, Centre for Poverty Analysis (CEPA) and Steering Committee Member of Duryog Nivaran

5 Introduction to the Report

6 South Asian Disaster Report 2016

outh Asia continues to be highly prone national and international development policy and to disasters. It has been agonized by practices. It stressed on the requirement of thinking a variety of natural disasters, including beyond mainstreaming and integration to actively Ssome major events that highlights the consider and adopt only those development policies extreme vulnerabilities of South Asian inhabitants. and infrastructural and non-structural projects that Devastation by recurring disasters, mostly in the increase disaster resilience of the poor people and form of floods and cyclones, adds insult to injury contribute in building back better. of those affected and still recovering from previous events. Over the last decade (2005-15), a total of “Build Back Better” (BBB) emerged as a theme and 481 events –were reported7 in South Asia claiming a framework during the multi-national recovery effort around 135,000 lives, causing heavy economic following the Indian Ocean Tsunami with the intention losses for developing South Asian economies. In of using a holistic approach towards reconstruction 2015, South Asia accounted for 64 per cent of and recovery where the physical, social, and economic total global fatalities that included 52 disasters and conditions of a community are collectively addressed the loss of 14,647 lives8 — over 60% of those lives to create overall improved resilience. In practice, being lost in a single event – the 7.6 magnitude however, BBB framework has been underpinned by earthquake that devastated Nepal in April. numerous challenges at the level of policy, planning, implementation and tracking. Thus South Asia is a region of the world that consistently registers the greatest numbers of The Sendai Framework of Action (UNISDR, 2016) lives and assets lost when natural hazards occur. lists sixteen prerequisites for recovery that leaves However, these countries also show a good people better off in a number of ways, reduces losses record in building resilience. And this capacity from the next hazard event, whatever it might be, and contradiction is its strength. The region offers and produces outside interventions that, at least, many ways of reducing risks spread across time “do no harm”. The sixteen are a mixture of general and space and communities. One of these ways and specific recommendations based on many of reducing risk is to build additional safety into years of experience with the recovery process. The the process of recovering from a disaster each recommendations also overlap and are somewhat time such tragedy strikes. The South Asian repetitive. They can be summarized under six themes. Disaster Report documents how citizens, citizen- • Government: adequate national scale laws, based organisations as well as government play regulations, codes, institutions, uniform risk and essential roles in Building Back Better (BBB) after vulnerability assessment procedures each disaster. Their efforts show that disasters • Economy: provision for economic measures are not only avoidable but also an opportunity to such as insurance and other risk sharing, public- build back better. private finance for construction/ re-construction of safe school, hospital and other essential What Does BBB Mean? infrastructure, support for business resilience (including tourism) and plans for recovery of lost While coping with the disasters, the need, or interrupted livelihoods importance and action for enhancing disaster • Ecology: conservation of natural ecosystem resilience of vulnerable populations has been including those that support cities, land the key subject of consideration by all DRR use planning and measures to reverse land stakeholders; international, regional, national degradation and local. The SADR 2008 highlighted the misperception of viewing disaster in isolation from

7 EM-DAT: The OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database. www.emdat.be - UniversitéCatholique de Louvain - Brussels - Belgium” 8 UNESCAP, 2015. Disasters in Asia and the Pacific: 2015 Year in Review – accessed on http://www.unescap.org/sites/default/ files/2015_Year%20in%20Review_final_PDF_1.pdf

7 Introduction to the Report

• Human Settlement: in situ protection of human settlements and arrangements in advance to Approach and Structure of act as hosts if necessary to an influx of people the Report displaced from somewhere else, tailoring building and land use codes to be feasible in informal This report is not an evaluation, nor a review, settlements but a collaborative thinking on what works and • Safety Nets & Essential Services: attention to can work better in South Asia. It is a field based health care, maternal health care, food security, appreciation of BBB in real life and real time by nutrition and housing sympathetic friends of South Asia. Though at places BBB performance is audited and BBB • Vulnerable Groups: care of people with special processes are traced, the aim is to help the local needs such as those with chronic diseases. people, and all those who help them, to move on, fast and well. The SADR 2016 aims to analyze: The South Asian Disaster Report seeks to provide (1) How the BBB recommendations of Sendai an overview of the ways in which five countries Framework will hold up against the institutional, have begun to approach recovery with attention to resource, capacity aspects in the countries / these themes. Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan context of South Asia; (2) The capability, intent and Sri Lanka have regrettably had a large amount and interest of the existing mechanisms and of experience in rebuilding human settlements, systems of recovery and reconstruction to deliver institutions and livelihoods following cyclones, floods, on BBB principles and recommendations upheld earthquakes and tsunami and landslides. They have in the Sendai framework; (3) The role of capital, learned from these experiences, and much of this development agents and other interest groups in experience went into the synthesis the UNISDR is operationalising BBB; and (4) How meaningful the now calling BBB. The purpose of this report is to BBB recommendations are in relation to prevalent recognize and contribute to current discourse and institutional and policy, political interest scenarios experience sharing on BBB. in South Asia.

BBB is a critical part of disaster recovery that has The case studies focusing on BBB cover the to address structural improvements as well as the Earthquake in Nepal in 2015, the Meeriyabedda underlying drivers that lead to the risk at the on-set. Landslide in Sri Lanka in 2014, the Uttarakhand However, a little over a decade of attempting to apply Floods, Cyclone Phailin and Cyclone Hudhud in the principles of BBB has shown numerous challenges India in 2013, Cyclone Sidre and Aila in Bangladesh and contradictions. In 2015, the Sendai Framework in 2007 and 2011, and the monsoon floods in in its Priority 4 recognised the critical importance of Pakistan in 2012 and 2013. It also looks across BBB and expressed its commitment to “enhancing the region at reducing risks to cultural heritage in disaster preparedness for effective response and to South Asia. “Build Back Better” in recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction”. These chapters narrate country experience, and in each case, the authors focus on some specific A host of contextual challenges that compound the historical or recent hazards that because disaster application were identified by stakeholders during due to the exposure and vulnerability of some the consultations leading up to the formulation of the of their citizens and their livelihoods. However, Sendai Framework: poverty, growing urbanisation, despite these diverse experiences of disaster lack of institutional mechanisms, lack of predictable and recovery in each country, the reader will financing, and secondary hazards from industrial find common themes. These include four sets of units, political instability– to name a few. challenges and four opportunities.

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• Challenge of gaps and lack of coordination at all scales: regional, national and local Deepening and Moving • Challenge of extreme poverty, marginalization Beyond BBB and physical isolation Many aspects of people’s daily lives require even • Challenge of lack of continuity in citizen deeper analysis and proactive inclusion in planning participation at local scale and difficulties for future recovery. Women, who “hold up half the in communicating the benefits voluntary sky” have skills and knowledge and often emerge relocation and other ways of reducing risk as leaders in risk reduction as well as recovery. The • Challenges of new risks produced by top- gendered dimension of DRM come out in some of the down approaches to recovery and to country chapters more strongly than in others. But mega-projects that lack sufficient social and overall it is clear that the meaningful participation of environmental impact analysis women is a critical for BBB. A comprehensive disaster • Opportunities to include community-based management system would be one that recognizes hazard warning systems as part of BBB that disasters – at every stage – disaster preparedness • Opportunities to reinforce people’s livelihoods and response, recovery and reconstruction – affect with cash, insurance and in other men and women differently. This can only be a • Opportunities to focus on education and possibility if disaggregated data by sex, age and children’s well-being disability (SADDD) is available to provide evidence on the capacities, vulnerabilities, levels of exposure, • Opportunities to focus on women’s leadership and the priorities of women and men that can inform role in BBB. DRM policies, plans, programmes and monitoring efforts at local and national levels. In order for these Land use planning, hazard and risk mapping and plans and programmes to work is also necessary to attention to climate change are three of the topics secure meaningful representation, participation and that come up in country chapters that reveal a shift leadership of women, minorities and marginalized in South Asia that adds to the long-standing “love groups who are not just the victims but are also part thy neighbor” approach to disaster response and of the solution. In addition, rigourous monitoring and recovery a new biophilic element: “love thy nature”. evaluation and accountability mechanisms are also More and more ecosystem based BBB such as needed to ensure that the prevailing gender inequality coastal flood defenses that include mangroves, in DRM is reducing. vegetation, stabilizing slopes etc are emerging as an effective and efficient way to increase Nutrition and food is another of these massive realities resilience. Such scattered examples suggest that that need more attention, possibly an entire thematic BBB might have a role in the future transformation report. According to the Food and Agricuture to a green economy. In addition, the report tries to Organisaiotn (FAO) the agriculture sector that includes understand the yet not addressed needs of South crops, livestock, fisheries and forestry absorbs 22% Asia’s informal housing dwellers in BBB process. of the economic losses causes by natural hazards in There is also a chapter on the protection of developing countries. Moreover those that are more national cultural heritage. This might be thought of vulnerable to disasters, who are less able to recover as motivated by the motto, “love thy culture”. Full are also those that are food insecure. However the psycho-social recovery from a disaster benefits agriculture sector is not adequately prepared to greatly by the reassertion of cultural identity and face disasters or recover from them. Disaster Risk belonging that landmarks, museums and historic Reduction is not built into programmes on livelihoods buildings represent. and food production. Far more action and ideas are needed on the location of food, nutrition, and agriculture in long term recovery process in South Asia. These questions are linked to issues of local

9 Introduction to the Report and national food sovereignity and the role of food- Is this report pushing BBB in any direction? as-commodity in regional and global markets. Yes. In common with earlier SADR, this report asserts the importance of linking up recovery, risk Other big picture themes yet to be explored by BBB reduction, mainstream development economic approaches are how recovery can take place in and empowerment of victims in BBB process. A conflict areas and how post-disaster BBB might differ quick review of the six main components of BBB in challenges and opportunities from post-conflict presented at the beginning of this introduction will BBB. When natural hazards impact people living in convince the reader of BBB’s ambition as well as a conflict zone, special negotiation skills are often its necessity. required to provide assess for humanitarian relief and recovery. Access to civilian populations may also be made more difficult by isolation and mountainous terrain. State and non-state institutions need to plan for such contingencies and leaders (including police and military) so that they have the negotiation skills and the logistics of such difficult situations have been thought-through. In post-conflict situations, similar planning and training is required so that recovery does not re-ignite tension due to the perception of inequitable provision of aid in reconstruction. Livelihood recovery is especially important for post- conflict BBB because there are likely to be many former-combatants who need employment and stability. In these ways BBB has a chance.

Actors and Audiences Though the report is by civil society addressed to civil society, and reviewed by experts and authorities from the region, it is not about the work of civil society alone in BBB. This report is a voice of creative grassroots initiatives and views in South Asia and also the learning that governments and civil servants have achieved over the past few decades. What is observed is a wide range of BBB innovations that are scattered and not captured and even less nurtured in the BBB process.

The highlights of this SADR work, then in progress, was shared at the Asian Ministerial Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction in Delhi, November 2016. The response was overwhelming and urgent to finish this report, share it widely, and think of many uses to which it can be put. This report in a small way creates an evidence base, uses the evidence base to analyse system performance, and pinpoints need to make improvements by analyzing information already available.

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Before the Next Cyclone Comes: Is Bangladesh “Building Back Better”?

By Muhammad Taher 1

1 Research and Evaluation Consultant and Founder Member and currently a Steering Committee Member of Duryog Nivaran

11 12 South Asian Disaster Report 2016

Introduction ot long ago, news about Bangladesh in the international media would Noften be dominated by ‘disasters’. Now news media cover many other issues even though the country continues to be one of the most hazard-prone areas of the globe. A range of climate extremes and ‘natural’ hazards affect the country on a regular basis. This includes flood, cyclone, tornado, drought, river erosion and water logging, among others. The recurrent extreme climate events have often contributed to the displacement and impoverishment of thousands of people and their households. According to one recent estimate nearly 56% of disaster affected households on average have suffered loss and vulnerable to the vagaries of nature. It is a regular damage by two major disasters, i.e., 35% by floods phenomenon for them to see cyclonic storms and and 21% by cyclone.2 The country remains one of water surges battering their lives and livelihoods about the most vulnerable in South Asia particularly to once every three years. Some of the major cyclone these two hazards: cyclones and floods, and there events in the recent past have claimed thousands of is a looming risk of earthquake as the country is lives and rendered many more utterly destitute. The located in a seismically active high-risk region3. government, together with national and international On account of slow onset hazards, Bangladesh development agencies has been engaged in offering is now known for growing threats from the many kinds of assistance, notably, helping the adverse impacts of climate change and rising communities become resilient and better prepared sea level. While the whole of the low-lying delta is to withstand the shocks and stresses. Similarly, almost equally affected by regular occurrences of the government has also put in place some policy monsoon floods and impacts of climate change, instruments, administrative structures and plans in it is the population group living near the coast, a bid to reduce disaster risks and disaster impacts which is subject to the hardest blows from tropical (partly in keeping with the Hyogo Framework HFA cyclones. The particular geo-physical position of commitments5). the country in the Bay of Bengal (the funnel shape) is believed to be one of the key reasons for it to For the South Asia Disaster Report (SADR), cyclones receive most of the cyclonic storms brewed up by in Bangladesh have been chosen because, the the ‘depressions’ originating in the Indian Ocean4 country not only has a long history of battling against (see Figure 1). cyclones, but also because Bangladesh illustrates how effective Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) A large majority of the people living in the initiatives undertaken at local and national level may coastal region are extremely disadvantaged and help to achieve one of the four priorities of action set

2 The Daily Star, Dhaka, 27 June 2016 quoting a report by the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics. 3 According to the Asia-pacific Disaster Report, 2010, Bangladesh led the top ten countries in the Asia-Pacific region based on absolute physical exposure for floods; 5th, for storms and 8th for earthquakes. 4 To view the inverse ‘funnel shape’, one needs to look at a map of the sub-continent with eastern coasts of India and western coasts of Myanmar. 5 Bangladesh was a signatory to the Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) as to the SFDRR.

13 Before the Next Cyclone Comes: Is Bangladesh “Building Back Better”?

out in the Sendai Framework, namely to “build back better” following a disaster. Although, the concept of Background and Context 6 Build Back Better (BBB) has not yet been specifically Disaster Risk Context invoked in its different disaster preparedness and recovery work, Bangladesh has taken a number of Bangladesh is the largest delta in the world formed bold steps in line with this idea. mainly by the Ganges-Brahmaputra river systems carrying sediments from the Himalayas in the Cyclones have been chosen as the hazard of focus in north and merging with the Bay of Bengal. One of this chapter because of their major impacts, second the most densely populated countries of the world only to flooding. Cyclones affect the southern coastal (8th most populous), Bangladesh now has over districts of Bangladesh more than the other hazard. 162 million people living in a landmass of 147,570 These districts are regarded as some of the most square kilometres.7 The coastal zone spans over under-developed regions in the country with a high 580 km where about 28% of the population concentration of most disadvantaged groups. Over reside. A higher percentage of the population lives the past several years, the country has experienced in extreme poverty in the coastal area compared some very devastating cyclones, following which to the rest of the country. According to a recent different policies and programmes were undertaken World Bank study (World Bank, 2016), about to help the affected people and their communities. 8 million people in this region are exposed to This report is intended to review how these initiatives extreme weather conditions, i.e., vulnerable to have helped “Enhance(ing) disaster preparedness inundation depths greater than 3 meters due to for effective response and to ‘Build Back Better’ in cyclonic storm surges. With the increase in sea- recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction” (Priority 4, level rise and population growth, the number SFDRR 2015-2030). may go up to 13.5 million people by 2050 (ibid, p-16). The country as a whole is highly exposed The overall conclusion indicates that many past to a range of other natural hazards and climate interventions remained focused on short-term relief extremes.8 Disasters have had a significant impact activities, rather than addressing the inherent socio- economic vulnerabilities of the people. In other words, Box 1: Bangladesh Development and there were hardly any BBB concerns among the Disaster Snapshot policy planners and practitioners. As just noted, there is a very large concentration of most disadvantaged Income level Low- middle- income country groups of people living in the coastal districts who are GDP (current US$) $221.0 billion often the first to bear the brunt of cyclones. Women, children and people living with disabilities and older GDP per capita(current US$) $1,409 people are among the worst affected. Following GDP growth rate 6.9% Cyclone Sidr in 2007, a major shift in the intervention Population, total 162.9 million pattern appeared to have started, including the Poverty headcount ratio (% of 31.5%* population in 2013) promotion of community capacity to make effective emergency response and offer “social safety-net” Extreme Poor population 12.9 % * support to the most disadvantaged. Some of these Natural Disasters Risk Index Extreme risk (NDRI) community interventions are highlighted in this report.

They include changes effected in the organisational *By new estimate income per head @ $1.90 PPP Source: BBS, World Bank, IMF indicators, structures, policies and plans, which might serve as Oct.2016 examples of BBB approach in disaster management.

6 Priority 4, SFDRR: “Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response and to “Build Back Better in recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction”: http://www.preventionweb.net/files/43291_sendaiframeworkfordrren.pdf 7 World Bank 2016, Bangladesh Country Snapshots, The World Bank Group, Dhaka, Bangladesh. http://documents.worldbank.org/ curated/en/579721475673660627/Bangladesh-development-update-sustained-development-progress

14 South Asian Disaster Report 2016 on population groups which are mostly poor and Figure 2 : Disaster effects on number of on the economy as a whole (Box 1). households by types of hazards

Of the 250 thousand deaths worldwide from cyclones in the twenty years, between 1980 and 2000, 60% occurred in Bangladesh. However, in one exceptional event in 1970, over 300,000 people were killed in the coastal districts of the country9. More recently, Cyclone Sidr in November 2007 caused over 3,400 deaths, destroying over a million tons of rice and resulting in over $1.7 billion in damages and losses10. In May 2009, tidal surges by Cyclone Aila affected more than 3.9 million people in 11 coastal districts, damaged and washed away over 1,742 km of embankments, and caused 190 deaths11. by the collapse of Rana Plaza building in Dhaka that housed a number of readymade garment (RMG) Among other hazards, flooding during the factories. It was among the deadliest incidents in a monsoon season is a regular phenomenon. It series of workplace fire and building collapses.13 The often reaches levels high enough to cause massive potential for building collapse intensifies with other displacement of people and damage of property risks such as earthquakes, heavy rainfall, storms and and crops, as did in the recent past in 1998, 2004 strong winds. Disasters in urban areas can generally and 2007. Besides such large monsoonal flooding lead to significant casualties and in densely populated events, there are many smaller occurrences of areas with poorly constructed infand death can reach flooding almost once every two/three years. horrifying levels. Flooding remains the most pervasive and most devastating hazard in Bangladesh. Figure 2 gives Despite remarkable economic growth in recent a picture of the percentage share of affected years (an average of 6 percent per year over the households by different hazards where flood is last decade),14 Bangladesh still faces considerable followed by cyclone, thunderstorm, drought, development challenges. Poverty remains prevalent water-logging etc12. in much of the country. Bangladesh is known to be among the 11 countries most at risk of disaster- Some of the recent events in Bangladesh serve as induced poverty15 (Shepherd et al. 2013). Therefore, a reminder of human-induced urban disasters, and without a sustainable and effective disaster risk their link to structural deficiencies of buildings and reduction strategy, the pace of economic progress infrastructure. For example, in April 2014, more would be seriously affected. As poverty and disaster than 1,000 people died and 2,500 were injured risk are integrally linked and mutually reinforcing, a

8 Climate Change Knowledge Portal (CCKP), http://sdwebx.worldbank.org/climateportal/ 9 https://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/ch6s6-5-2.html 10 GoB. 2008. Cyclone Sidr in Bangladesh: Damage, Loss and Needs Assessment for Disaster Recovery and Reconstruction (in ICF, May 2015). 11 UN. 2010. Cyclone Aila Joint UN Multi¬sectorAssessment & Response Framework. 12 The Daily Star, Dhaka dated, 27 June 2016, referring to a report by the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS) 13 World Bank. 2015. Urban Resilience Project. Project Appraisal Doc. Report No: PAD1023. 14 According to a Daily Star report (6 Oct 2016), the government forecast for 2017 GDP growth rate is 7.2%, although IMF and ADB puts it to 6.9%. 15 Shepherd A., Mitchell T., Lewis K.,Lenhardt A., Jones L., Scott L, and Muir-Wood R. 2013. The geography of poverty, disasters and climate extremes in 2030. Overseas Development Institute, London [as noted in an evaluation report by ICF International (USA) for Global Facility for Disaster Risk Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR) on its work in Bangladesh, 2015, p.2-2.

15 Before the Next Cyclone Comes: Is Bangladesh “Building Back Better”?

more comprehensive and inclusive DRR approach department lists some of the devastating cyclones is very important for the country. The Building Back that have affected Bangladesh from 1960 to 1997 Better (BBB) approach appears to have elements and the number of lives claimed by each event that can meet the needs of an effective emergency (Figure 3)16. response as well as recovery and reconstruction process. Bangladesh is predominantly a flood plain and a deltaic country that abut the foothills of the Himalayas. The country is crisscrossed by many Cyclone Vulnerability and rivers, mostly flowing down from the north in India Disaster Risks to the south into the Bay of Bengal. The coastal areas inhabited by millions of poor people are Although the country has gained a wealth of experience naturally low, with the average height of land in combating disasters and has thus improved on the reaching only up to 3 metres. Major cyclonic level of resilience, the coastal area and most of its storms in the recent past have carried tidal surges people continue to remain underdeveloped, poor and ranging from 3 to 6 meters high. The country has vulnerable. Given the precarious geo-physical location faced about seventy large cyclones since 1970. with extremely limited access to basic services and The table below together with the one above infrastructure, the area became home to some of shows the extent of the loss of lives and property the most disadvantaged people of the country. including the few most recent devastating events Communication links with most of the areas are (Figure 4). very poor, while health, power supply and education services are minimal. The impact of climate change Many people in Bangladesh and overseas believe has affected the livelihoods of many people who have that the cyclone of 1970 actually claimed more than been dependent on fast declining natural resources half a million lives, a significantly higher estimate such as fish, forest products, crop agriculture and than the official estimate of 300,00017 (The reason livestock. The following table by the meteorological being that there was hardly any system of damage Figure 3: The coastal zones of Bangladesh and cyclones

16 Death toll figure for 1970 Cyclone is shown here as 200,000 (the lowest), while we have found it to vary frombetween 200,000 to 700,000. Elsewhere in the report, we have used the commonly accepted estimate of 300,000. 17 MoFDM 2013. Emergency Preparedness Plan for Cyclone Bangladesh, April 2013. P-4, Prepared by the Department of Disaster Management, Ministry of Disaster Management and Relief, Dhaka. URI: http://hdl.handle.net/123456789/144

16 South Asian Disaster Report 2016

Figure 4: The major recent cyclonic storms in Bangladesh

Date of Cyclonic hit Wind speed Height of Tidal No. deaths No. people affected/ Km/hr Surge(meter) value of damage. Roanu, 21 May 2016 102 227 $1.7 million AILA, 25 May 2009 92 190 1 million SIDR, 15 Nov 2007 223 5.0 3,500 2 million 19 May 1997 237 3.1-4.6 155 29 April 1991 225 6.0-7.6 138,882 25 May 1985 154 3.0-4.6 11,069 12 November 1970 224 6.0-10.0 300,000 and loss assessment to confirm the true extent. About twenty years later, in April 1991, another What Constitutes major cyclone hit the coastal districts including Vulnerability? the port city of Chittagong when an estimated 143,000 people were killed. However, there is Bangladesh’s two major recent cyclonic disasters no accurate estimate of damage to property and need to be looked at against the background of its asset loss. It could perhaps be in millions of dollars coastal context. Box 2, prepared on the basis of a because it damaged the Chittagong seaport, a recent World Bank study on the coastal region and big bridge, and the airport in Chittagong, as well its changing scenario in the face of growing disaster as many ships at anchor on the bay and a number and climate risk (Dasgupta, 2016)18 provides a clear of air force planes parked at the airport. understanding of Bangladesh’s coastal region.

Box 2: Bangladesh Coastal Region and its Predicament at a Glance • Coastal area comprises 19 districts (of total 64) and has 148 sub districts (Upazila). • Accounts for 32% of the land area of Bangladesh and 26% population. • Sustains livelihoods of more than 37 million people. • High incidence of poverty: 11.8 million poor in 2010. • Cyclones struck 154 times during 1877 and 1995, and 5 severe cyclones struck between 1995 and 2014. • On average, severe cyclones strike Bangladesh every three years producing storm surges reaching heights up to 10 m (some other estimates put it as 6-9m though). • High river and soil salinity in the southwest coastal region. • Salinity levels in coastal rivers are higher in the dry season than in the monsoon. • Scarcity of drinking/irrigation water serious in the south west coastal region. • Coastal families face recurring inundations from cyclonic storms. • Degradation of natural resources from progressive salinization of land. • Loss of agricultural productivity and loss of fresh water fish species affecting livelihoods of coastal families adversely. • Economic necessity drives many working-age adults to seek outside earnings (migration). • Those left behind face a far greater likelihood of extreme vulnerability/poverty.

18 Dasgupta, Susmita. 2016. Coastal Bangladesh in Changing Climate. PPP Slides. World Bank, Dhaka.

17 Before the Next Cyclone Comes: Is Bangladesh “Building Back Better”?

The marginal character of the coastal districts with the intrusion of saline water crushing through the limited options for livelihoods and limited economic embankments, there was flooding and water- opportunities in the short-term, has compelled logging deep inside the land. According to a study groups of people who are landless, asset-less and report, an “overwhelming majority of the coastal poor to take refuge in and around the area. A majority residents were impoverished and lived in poorly of the people survive as landless agricultural labour, constructed houses, and the cyclone shelters either in crop cultivation or in fishing. With no access were inadequate to protect them all20. The level of to any kind of services, children grow up (if they preparedness was not robust enough to protect survive) with ill health and no education. Women in lives and property in the case of Cyclones Sidr the coastal community have almost no paid work. On and Aila. Inappropriate and inadequate cyclone the other hand, death from cyclonic storms threaten shelters, weaker private houses, breaches on the their existence almost on a regular basis. Most embankments (made by the shrimp farm owners communities living near the coast are dependent on to bring in saline water) and other environmental- nature for their livelihoods and are mostly poor and degradation activities by local residents were held vulnerable. They have little or no means to defend as responsible for causing a deeper negative themselves adequately against the mighty winds and impact. tidal surges. The post-Aila period has also seen some positive change in the method and approach of recovery Learning from Sidre and Aila and reconstruction. This refers to the aftermath 21 On 15 November 2007, a massive cyclone named of a series of recent devastating cyclones in Sidr, with wind speeds of 250 kilometres per hour hit the coastal areas together with the existing slow- the south-western coastal districts carrying along a 5 onset disaster of salinity incursion caused by meter high tidal surge. The devastation was stunning. climate change impacts and water logging vis-à- An initial assessment report by the UN said that about vis shrimp cultivation in the south-western part of 8.5 million people were affected, a third of whom the country. Varying programmes of work have needed emergency assistance. The death toll rose been undertaken by different agencies to help the to 3,500 and the government asked for international affected people and their communities recover. assistance of $1 billion to rebuild the area19 (Thomson The work includes livelihood development Reuters, 1 Jan 2008 update). Among other damages, support, building cyclone shelters and cyclone 1.4 million homes were either completely destroyed resistant houses, and ensuring food security, or partially damaged. 1.25 million head of livestock particularly for women and children and livelihood also perished while 2 million acres of cropland development through agricultural support services was severely damaged. Many roads and coastal and micro-credit. Community preparedness embankments were also destroyed. systems and contingency plans have been developed, school safety and water and sanitation While still recuperating from the impact of Sidr, programmes are continuing among a number of another major cyclone named Aila with a wind other such interventions by government and non- speed of 100 kph carrying a 7 metre high surge hit governmental agencies. the coastal area on 25 May 2009 triggering a tidal surge and flooding - that killed 190 people. Aila Coordinated efforts by the government and non- invaded many of the areas which had already seen governmental organisations (NGOs) have seen the devastation caused by its predecessor, Sidr. With significant progress not only in reconstruction and

19 http://news.trust.org/spotlight/cyclone-Sidrsidr/, for Aila: http://news.trust.org/spotlight/cyclone-Aila/ 20 Paul, B.K. and Dutt, S. 2010. Hazard Warnings and Responses to Evacuation Orders: The case of Bangladesh’s Cyclone Sidr. The Geographical Review, 100 (3): 336-355 in Ashraf and Shaha, 2016. 21 This list would include: cyclone Sidr (15 November 2007), Aila (25 May 2011), Mahasen (16 May 2013), Komen (31 July 2015), Roanu (21 May 2016)

18 South Asian Disaster Report 2016 rehabilitation with improved housing and shelter November 1970. News about the cyclone reached provisions, but also with local capacity building the national media about 24 hours after the great through training and contingency planning. Trained tragedy occurred. There may have been an early community volunteers comprising women and warning message from the radio station, but the use men are now ready to take immediate action with of radio receivers was not common among the rural dissemination of early warning messages and are people. Lack of detailed information with the local equipped with rescue and first aid materials. They authorities on the loss and damage caused by the now participate in periodic emergency response Cyclone Bhola made them wait before reaching out drills and know how to evacuate people to safety to the affected people with emergency assistance. in case a cyclone warning signal is raised. The communities now have their risk reduction action In 1970 the ‘central government’ run by the military plans (RRAP) prepared through a risk assessment was sitting far away in Pakistan. They failed to show process known as CRA. their concern about the tragedy and refused to send the required emergency help demanded by the Besides, households have been made aware local authority and political leaders. Meanwhile, an about adopting different livelihood strategies for estimated 200,000-500,000 people perished. It was survival. They now know how to diversify income one of the worst disaster experiences in the political sources by seeking second jobs, cultivating saline history of the sub-continent, immediately before tolerant varieties of rice and vegetable crops and Bangladesh was born. According to many, the level rearing poultry and livestock using improved of apathy and lack of preparedness demonstrated methods. According to Ashraf and Shaha (2016, by the then government partly influenced the results p-36)22, “people with better socio-economic of the first general election of the country held in circumstances ….were better prepared to cope December 1970. The mandate of the people of with the aftermaths of Aila.” This may not be seen Bangladesh (then East Pakistan) was unequivocally as a surprise to their neighbours in lower socio- against the government in power and in favour of economic circumstances, many of whom are autonomy sought by the Bengalis. Bangladesh now also empowered and educated to find their eventually rose “from the ashes” about a year later own ladder for upward mobility. They, however, in December 1971 to found an independent country. conclude that with the community based disaster risk management approach, people’s participation in the decision making process was a significant Economic vs. Human Cost achievement. Their knowledge about new coping A disaster in a developed country generally causes mechanisms and adaptation strategies have higher economic losses with a lower death toll, but it is helped the cyclone affected people to significantly the opposite for a low-income country (when there is reduce their vulnerability and made them resilient an equivalent disaster). Low-income countries suffer to future disasters. higher death tolls and lower economic loss. This also seems to work on a regional basis. For example, Figure 4 above might indicate a declining trend “although the Americas were gravely affected by in the of death toll rate by successive cyclones natural disasters in 2010, especially in terms of in recent years (relative, of course to wind speed fatalities, the number of disaster victims remained by and location factors). This may be construed as far the highest in Asia. As much as 89.2% of global a result of improved resilience and preparedness disaster victims in 2010 were from Asia, compared of current coastal communities compared to the to 5.6% from the Americas23. The following table of past. There were almost no disaster risk reduction human fatalities since 1950 demonstrates this finding programmes to prepare people for disasters in (Figure 5). Bangladesh tops the list of the table with the past as was the case in the cyclone of 12

22 Ashraf, Mirza Ali and Shaha, Satya Brata Satya Brata 2016. Achieving Community Resilience: Case Study of Cyclone Aila Affected Coastal Bangladesh. International Journal of Social Work and Human Services Practice.Vol.4No.2, June 2016, pp-33-41 23 ADSR, 2010 as quoted in Rahman, M. 2011

19 Before the Next Cyclone Comes: Is Bangladesh “Building Back Better”?

Figure 5: Top 10 Global Human Fatality Events (1950-2016) Date Event Location Economic Insured Fatalities Loss (USD) Loss (USD) November 1970 Tropical Cyclone Bangladesh 90 million N/A 300,000 July 27, 1976 Earthquake China 5.6 billion N/A 242,769 Dec. 26, 2004 EQ/Tsunami Indonesia 14.0 billion 3.0 billion 227,898 January 12, 2010 Earthquake Haiti 8.0 billion 100 million 222,570 April 1991 Cyclone Gorky Bangladesh 2.0 billion 100 million 138,866 May 2008 Cyclone Nargis Myanmar 10.0 billion N/A 138,366 August 1971 Flooding Vietnam N/A N/A 100,000 May 12, 2008 Earthquake China 85.0 billion 366 million 88,000 October 8, 2005 Earthquake Pakistan 5.2 billion 50 million 88,000 Summer 2003 Drought/Heatwave Europe 13.5 billion 1.1 billion 70,000 Source: 2016 Annual Climate Catastrophe Report, p-57, AON Benfield Analytics.

300,000 deaths in one single event in 1970 with the physical as well as socio-cultural landscape of the lowest economic loss of US$ 90 million. This obviously coastal area. explains that the most disadvantaged groups of people in the developing countries tend to live in The investors would of course secure their high-risk marginal areas as we find in Bangladesh. investments by adopting adequate safety The coastal districts remains relatively less accessible measures to protect their investment and adopt and less developed and people live in many kinds of insurance plans, but how would this affect the uncertainties of life, where the idea and availability of local communities and environment? Would the insurance cover has not penetrated. nature of impact by cyclones impact change? Will this plan help reduce the level of vulnerability of the excluded groups there? Will the existing disparity Plan to Change the Coastal and marginalisation be significantly alleviated? Landscape Answers to these questions are difficult to guess at the moment, but advance thinking about these The above equation of low economic loss and high issues is very important from a BBB perspective. fatality rate by disasters might take a different turn This would also be a politically expedient action in the coming years, when Bangladesh hopes to to avert the kind of controversy generated by the progress to a “middle-income country” from its current Rampal Power Plant issue24. low-income status. Bangladesh is a fast growing economy with an average annual GDP growth rate of 6 Although, the site selected for the coal fired power per cent. In order to maintain the upward momentum plant is about 14 km away from the Sundarban of economic growth, the government has adopted forest, according to experts in civil society groups, plans to make huge investments in infrastructural “The Rampal power plant threatens the biological development through joint venture initiatives with wealth of Sundarbans as well as the economy of Chinese, Japanese and Indian companies, besides people of Bangladesh and will render the coastline others. A number of such investment plans are likely vulnerable to natural disasters like cyclones”. to change the look of the coastal area with new According to Professor Anu Muhammad, who ports, faster rail and road links with the capital city, leads a civil society campaign against such new power plants, special economic zones (SEZ) and projects, claims that the 1300 megawatt capacity tourist centres. These would dramatically change the Rampal Power plant would emit a huge quantity

24 There has been a general strikes and street protests by civil society groups against a planned power plant at Rampal, near the Sundarban forest in the south-western coastal zone.

20 South Asian Disaster Report 2016 of CO2 and fly ash to affect the forest severely. a part of the Annual Development Programme (ADP) Moreover, the plant will use about 12,000 tonnes by the government, such as building new roads, of coal everyday which will be shipped by 500 bridges and embankments to improve connectivity boats through the forest. The annual consumption between rural and urban centres and the introduction of coal will be 4.7 million tonnes. According to of new health and education support services. Some them, studies by UNDP and others have shown of these can also be related to building back better that these will have long-term disastrous effects on ideas although these are not necessarily guided by the forest. An Environmental Impact Assessment the particular BBB concept. Nonetheless, these (EIA) conducted by Khulna University has also have been able to make a significant contribution to reportedly shown that the implementation of reducing disaster risks. Some of these activities help the power plant would cause water logging, build resilience of the vulnerable people and help river erosion, noise pollution, health hazards, the communities return to a better-than-pre-disaster decrease in water table, loss of aquaculture and stage with enhanced capacity to absorb shocks and agriculture25. stresses.

Resilience Building in the Build Back Better Coastal Communities Understanding the Relevance of Cyclone disaster management experience at Build Back Better community and national level is quite rich in The four priority actions spelled out in the Sendai Bangladesh. There are organised volunteer Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (SFDRR) groups (CPPP26) to communicate early warning are key to achieving the objectives of this global signals, transfer people and valuable assets agreement. Adopted for a timeframe of fifteen years (e.g., livestock animals) to the safety of cyclone (2015-30), there are seven targets to achieve following shelters and offer other assistance required a set of guiding principles, but the essence of the during and after cyclones. NGOs and CBOs offer entire the SFDRR may be found in its comprehensive capacity building training and provide equipment goal statement which reads: “Prevent new and reduce to community groups, school students, and existing disaster risk through the implementation of volunteers to help people save lives and property. integrated and inclusive economic, structural, legal, Procedures for engaging government officials in social, health, cultural, educational, environmental, relief and recovery activities have been issued technological, political and institutional measures that through a set of “Standing Orders on Disaster”, prevent and reduce hazard exposure and vulnerability while community based CBOs and NGOs assist to disaster, increase preparedness for response affected people on restoring livelihoods. Besides and recovery and thus strengthen resilience.” having the National Disaster Management Act, The pathways to reach the Goal are laid out in the policies and plans, the government also has a four priority actions of: i) understanding disaster separate Cyclone Preparedness Plan27. In all of risk, ii) strengthening disaster risk governance, iii) these, there are elements of building back better investing in disaster risk reduction, and iv) enhancing as evidenced by different studies. disaster preparedness for effective response and to “Build Back Better” in recovery, rehabilitation and Alongside these, many large and small regular reconstruction. development schemes are being implemented as

25 Tiasa Adhya. 02 November 2016,correspondent, Down To Earth. For the full interview/report, please check: http://www. anumuhammad.net/article/282-Sundarbanssundarbans-is-no-dumping-ground-for-rejected-technology 26 With about fifty thousand volunteers in 13 coastal districts, the Cyclone Preparedness Programme (CPPP), is implemented by Bangladesh Red Crescent SocietySocirty (BDRCS). http://cpp.gov.bd/ 27 GoB 2014. “Emergency Preparedness Plan for Cyclones in Bangladesh”. Ministry of Disaster Management and Relief, Government of Bangladesh, Dhaka.

21 Before the Next Cyclone Comes: Is Bangladesh “Building Back Better”?

The experience from cyclone hazards, as discussed administrative arrangements, in the quality of above, show how the ever growing risk of disaster materials and equipment and having an “inter- and climate change impact and the increased connection” between all the above. What is the exposure of people and assets require an enhanced situation like in Bangladesh in this respect? quality of preparedness in anticipation of the events Discussed below is its current preparedness and following the principles of the BBB approach. In order integration status in light of the foregoing premise. to “making the nations and communities resilient to disasters,” the SFDRR (Priority 4, Para 32) offers a Starting from re-structuring the administrative check-list of outputs to achieve and to ensure that and management arrangements, putting policies the Build Back Better approach is prioritised into and legislations in place, strengthening technical Bangladesh’s policies, plans and actions. It has a list capacity of the concerned people and institutions of 16 recommended actions to be implemented at in DRR and connecting vulnerable communities the local and national level and eight at the regional with the process of resilience building, the and global level. government of Bangladesh together with different non-government agencies have been active in Going by this list of BBB stipulations, Bangladesh, ensuring an improved national profile in disaster over the past decade and a half, has made significant risk reduction. Bangladesh now has trained progress in consolidating its position in disaster professionals with advanced academic degrees management with many positive examples. It has in disaster management and vulnerability studies, remained attentive to its particular national needs in addition to having started university level study and meeting international obligations on taking some courses at a few eminent national institutions important actions to reducing disaster and climate including Dhaka University. There are dozens of risks. As a result, the enhanced preparedness of field level programmes and projects all over the different government agencies and civil society country implemented by government and national groups would already appear to have made a and international NGOs to prepare communities progress in respect to Build Back Better priority to face disaster events through building individual actions. Alongside government agencies, there has and community resilience. Besides this, there been significant complementary contributions made are several alliances and networks to collectively by Community Based Organisations (CBOs) and Civil make effective interventions and avoid overlaps. Service Organisations (CSOs) in building community The government plays a supportive role in level capacity in DRR and strengthening community facilitating these efforts. One of the key examples resilience. for ‘integration’ at the top level may be reflected in the government’s decision to bring disaster Some of the milestones achieved that correspond to management and relief (previously the two were the BBB approach are highlighted below. separate) under one Ministry and its active efforts towards mainstreaming disaster and climate Enhanced Preparedness and change risk reduction into all development plans Integration and programmes. Coordination mechanisms for private sector and establishing an effective disaster “Enhanced disaster preparedness and integration” response and recovery across the whole country refers to the statement for Priority 4 under Priorities of from national to community level and between Action in SFDRR. This is fundamental to implementing NGOs, private sector and government agencies the Building Back Better concept to eventually have have been introduced to achieve an inclusive and a comparatively better quality recovery, rehabilitation sustainable development. An inclusive approach is and reconstruction. Here, ‘preparedness’ is intended to ensure that women, children, elderly, understood in a rather comprehensive sense, i.e., the disabled and different socially marginalised readiness in systems, policies, programme plans, groups are among the key beneficiaries of all

22 South Asian Disaster Report 2016 disaster management efforts in the country28. opportunities for the poor. However, in the wake Further examples in this respect may be found in of a number of disaster events during the 1980s some of the following paragraphs as well. and the growing importance and activities of this department, a separate Ministry of Relief was formed Re-organisation in Government in 1988. As the nomenclature appeared inadequate Structure to describe longer-term disaster interventions, it was changed to Ministry of Disaster Management and The level of importance accorded to disaster Relief (MoDMR) in 1994. However, this was again management by the government in Bangladesh unified with the Ministry of Food to now assume has seen many ups and downs as indicated by the title Ministry of Food and Disaster Management organisational changes. Although there was a (MoFDM). Following a review (during design of the dedicated Ministry of Relief and Rehabilitation CDMPII)30 of the organisational structures and the since the birth of the country, it was changed in role of the government in assuming an increased 1982 when it was merged with the Ministry of coordination role of disaster management activities Food. The Relief and Rehabilitation (DRR) became in the country, the old name MoDMR was restored one of the two departments of the Ministry, with in 2012, following the enactment of the Disaster Food being the other department. The reasoning Management Act, to again have a dedicated Ministry being that, the instrument of food played a major of Disaster Management and Relief. A Department role in undertaking different types of ‘relief and of Disaster Management (DDM) is now responsible rehabilitation’ assistance such as ‘Food For Work’ for implementing all different projects and activities (FFW) for building rural roads and bridges and Test related to disaster management. The following Relief (TR29) to create post disaster employment organogram (Figure 6) also indicates the two top-

Figure 6: Organisation of Disaster Management in Bangladesh

28 GoB 2016. DRR in Seventh (Five Year) Plan (draft document).. Ministry of Disaster Management and Relief, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh. , Bangladesh Secretariat, Dhaka. July, 2016, P 1. 29 “Test Relief” is an old instrument of giving employment support to disaster affected people. This is a mixed food and cash based work typically used for maintenance and repair of rural roads. 30 CDMP: Comprehensive Disaster Management Programme was a 10 year long disaster management project under the Ministry of Disaster Management and Relief.

23 Before the Next Cyclone Comes: Is Bangladesh “Building Back Better”?

level committees to be convened during the time of emergencies. The National Disaster Management Box 3: List of Key Policy and Plan Council (NDMC) is headed by the Prime Minister while Documents by GoB the Advisory Council meetings would be convened by Disaster Management the Minister of MoDMR. • Disaster Management Act 2012 enacted.

• National Plan for Disaster Management Apart from the organisational restructuring, the (NPDM) 2010-15 government has gradually placed increased • National Policy for Disaster Management importance on mainstreaming the disaster and 2010-15 climate change risk reduction concept in different • Standing Orders on Disasters (SOD), development ministries and departments. An official 2005 document prepared by the MoDM for inclusion into the Seventh Five year Plan (GoB 2016 op cit) notes Climate Change that efforts within the government, NGOs and private • Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and sector will be undertaken for effective risk reduction. Action Plan (BCCSAP) 2009 Disaster risk reduction and response mechanism will • National Adaptation plan of Action (NAPA) be introduced across the country to help achieve 2005 (updated in 2009) “sustainable development from national to community • National Environment Management level”. It further adds that disaster management Action Plan (NEMAP) 1995 efforts will primarily benefit “Women, children, elderly, • Cyclone Preparedness Programme (CPP) the disable and other socially marginalised groups”. On-going since 1972 The Department for Disaster Management is now entrusted to implement the objectives of the Disaster Development Planning Management Act (2012). The Act empowers the • DRR integrated in the Sixth (national) Five authority (DDM) to oversee the implementation of risk Year Plan (2011-15) reduction plans and policies. All of these changes through reorganisation and introduction of policies and awareness about their roles and responsibilities. plans by the government demonstrate a significant It is, therefore, important that there should be progress for the country towards strengthening its increased provision of capacity building training capacity in DRR. for the members of local government bodies at Union, Upazila and District levels. Policies and Plans on Disaster Risk Reduction in Bangladesh The National Plan for Disaster Management (NPDM) is an outcome of national and Over the last ten years, the government has made international commitments made by the significant progress in developing all necessary Government of Bangladesh to address disaster policies and plans required for disaster risk reduction risks comprehensively. This model is designed and adaptation to the impacts of climate change. The with the aim of strengthening national and local box below has a list of the key documents (Box 3): government work in DRR. The focus of the

model is to enforce implementation of Standing Some of the above documents have just become out orders on Disaster (SoD) in addressing disaster of date, however, work to revise them has reportedly risks reduction through (re)activation of Disaster been initiated. Some of the policy instruments Management Committees (DMCs) at district, listed above also require revision and updating. The Upazilla, union, Pourashva (Municipality) and city documents call for active participation of the members corporation levels. of the local government bodies in different DRR and climate risk reduction activities. But it has been observed that the intended level of their participation is often insufficient due to their limited knowledge and

24 South Asian Disaster Report 2016

The Social Safety Nets (SSN) Box4: Key Characteristics of Extreme With a vision to graduate Bangladesh into Poverty in rural Bangladesh a “developed” nation (high income country) by 2041, policy makers are putting a lot of • Lack of any significant productive assets, emphasis on expanding the size and scope of including land, and dependence on the macro-economy by adopting many ambitious unskilled wage labour, demand for which infrastructural development projects, as revealed varies significantly by season. As a result, by different policy decisions and signing of household income or expenditure is below agreements with foreign investors in the recent the lower poverty line. past. On the other hand, the existence of a high • Weak social networks and social level of poverty in the country continues to remain marginalisation resulting in a lack of ‘voice’ to a major concern. Disparity between the rich and influence decision-makers and secure basic the poor is very high. The situation with regard services and rights. In Bangladesh, 62% of to the extreme poor is particularly alarming with households from indigenous communities lack of food, income security and low levels of are poor and 36% are extremely poor. nutritional intake (consuming less than 1800 Kcal/ • A significant proportion of the extreme poor day). Under the situation, the government has are chronically ill or physically disabled and introduced a number of major social safety-net dependent on others for their livelihoods and programmes to especially eradicate ‘extreme survival. poverty31’ from Bangladesh. • Many of the extreme poor live in remote and marginal areas that are exposed to natural The SSN programmes have been instrumental disasters and affected significantly by climate in reducing extreme poverty and vulnerability. change. According to experts, poverty in general has Source: DFID, 2015 reduced from 48.9% in 2000 to 24.8% in 2015 at the rate of 1.6 percent decline per year. The package,” comprising skill and awareness building extreme poverty rate, which had previously been support to women beneficiaries. This two year very ‘obstinate’ for a long time, has also had a support is expected to help households ‘graduate’ slide during the same period from 34.3% to from their extreme vulnerable status33. Some of these 12.9% (1.4% per year)32. Alongside the Ministry programme activities are often inevitably linked with of Disaster Management and Relief (MoDMR), disaster and climate vulnerability of the communities. the Ministry of Women and Children’s Affairs One such programme is being introduced with (MoWCA) also has SSN programmes aimed support from the UNDP, known as “Women and at helping destitute women and their families Girls’ Adaptive Capacity to Climate Change.” belonging to extreme poor households. They are supported with safety net assistance from the VGD The box below gives a summary view of the SSN (Vulnerable Group Development) Programme. programmes undertaken by MoDMR aimed at VGD usually offers (assistance given to 750,000 offering income and/or food support to vulnerable families in 2015-16) extreme poor households with families during and after a disaster (Box 4). 30 kg rice per month along with a “development

31 According to GED (General Economics Division), Planning Commission, Ministry of Planning (2015), “Extreme Poverty is calculated by daily calorie intake measure. People having less than 2122 kilo cal per day are considered poor, while those who have less than 1805 Kilo calorie, are extreme poor. Prof. Binayak Sen, quoted in the Daily Prothom Alo, 12 February 2015, p-13 32 Ali, SM Zulfiqar. 2016. Leave No One Behind: Critical Issues to Fight Extreme Poverty. Presentation at the BIDS Critical Conversations 2016, Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies, Dhaka. 33 GoB 2017. MOWCA Annual Report 2015-16. Ministry of Women and Children Affairs.http://www.mowca.gov.bd/site/view/annual_ reports/Annual-Report

25 Before the Next Cyclone Comes: Is Bangladesh “Building Back Better”?

Box 5: Income and Food Support Programmes

Vulnerable Group Gratuitious Relief Test Relief (TR) Employment Generation Feeding (VGF) (GR) Programme for Extreme Poor (EGPP) This feeding support This is a mechanism This is a mixed food and cash People who have lost their livelihood programme is to offer employment based employment support for about five months in a year to intended to help the support to disaster to disaster-affected people. disaster are offered a 40/100 days disaster victims with victims in public The usual work includes work. Usual work includes raising food support for a works programmes maintenance and repair of rural road or homestead heights to escape time during and after (food for work). infrastructure (roads, culverts flooding, or excavating ponds/ canals. a disaster. etc.)

Far from adequate though, these are nevertheless was launched. It was later turned into a multi- useful social protection measures. Indeed, these agency support framework on DRR additionally programmes have significantly contributed to reducing participated by the EU, Australian Aid, NORAD, and extreme vulnerability and poverty levels in Bangladesh. SIDA. From inception, it aimed at mainstreaming The key problem that is often highlighted by studies DRR into the development process. and media reports regards their governance. Often there are allegations of leakage of food, mis-targeting While necessary national policy and plan of beneficiary groups and undue political interference. instruments were being developed (The Standing Order on Disaster (SOD) was already in place), Institutionalisation of Disaster it was felt that there was a strong need to give Preparedness (CBDP) ground level work with the communities a more organised and effective shape. For those working For a long time, Bangladeshi communities and at the local level starting from Union, Upazila, government agencies tackled emergencies and and district (and above), a need for a harmonised disasters in their own way, which were often not model of DRR work process was felt. The idea very effective and efficient. Handing out of sporadic was to connect the institutions at different tiers of relief assistance to a section of the victims within the administration and strengthen the capacities reach of local volunteers without having a longer- of concerned people working within the local and term recovery and rehabilitation perspective was the national institutions on DRR. Thus, a continual norm. This had started to change from the 1990s process of capacity building by institutionalising when the professionalisation of disaster management national Disaster Management systems was put by trained personnel started. With the turn of the in place. century, knowledge, experience and assistance from different international organisations enabled local The BBB principles were unmistakably reflected34 and national actors become more organised and in the objective of this bottom-up approach of systematic in their work approach. Closer linkage and Community Based Disaster Preparedness (CBDP). interaction with the UNISDR and Hyogo Framework Institutionalisation of the model was aimed at of Action on disaster risk reduction (HFA) has helped increasing resilience and establishing a culture of the country to share its own disaster experiences with disaster risk reduction among communities and the broader international community. A multi-year institutions vulnerable to hazards in Bangladesh. Comprehensive Disaster Management Programme This model focuses on strengthening the state (CDMP) by the government of Bangladesh (MoFDM) mechanism for disaster preparedness through with initial support from DFID and UNDP Bangladesh Community Based Rural and Urban Disaster

34 Para 32 under Priority 4: “Integrate disaster risk reduction in response preparedness and ensure that capacities are capacities are in place for effective response and recovery at all levels.” SFDRR 2015-30, p-21.

26 South Asian Disaster Report 2016

Preparedness35. At the heart of this approach are and one of the key projects for cyclone preparedness the local level Disaster Management Committees (http://cpp.gov.bd/cpp). It was launched in 1972 (DMCs). The DMCs give leadership to different after the dreadful experience of the mega cyclone of activities including playing the role of environmental November 1970. It was initially under the purview of watchdogs. the Bangladesh Red Crescent Society, but was later taken over by the government (see Box-5 below). It is As the process of developing the model saw now under the Department of Disaster Management, a wide-ranging participation of communities in which ensures rapid dissemination of cyclone different disaster prone areas and active NGOs, warning signals issued by the Meteorology office to the ownership of the model is almost universal in communities in 13 coastal districts. It has a large the country. The participatory CRA (community army of about 50,000 volunteers (men and women) risk assessment) and RRAP (risk reduction action who not only help spread the warning messages, but plans) tools and methods are very effective and are also help in transferring people to shelters, carrying known to be used by others outside the country. out rescue operations and giving medical first aid However, field level observation shows that there services. CPP also works in the early recovery and are challenges faced by this model in Bangladesh. rehabilitation phase. In many of the vulnerable areas, One is related to the DMCs and the other concerns some NGO programmes have also developed similar risk reduction plans. With the passage of time, if volunteer groups for emergency response and thankfully, there was no immediate disaster event equipped community members with relief and rescue after the plans were adopted and committees materials (e.g. USAID/Proshar [www.acdivoca. were formed, both entities started to become org], and the NARRI37 network members). These dysfunctional as the level of interest waned, are mostly intended to fill the gaps, align with and resources and actions dissipated36. The plans strengthen government initiated programmes and often become out of date with relevance gradually structures for disaster management at different levels declining with time and with change in the local of local government bodies (e.g., Union, Upazila). situation. However, because disaster threats and They conduct periodic drills and make people aware risk level remain mostly unchanged (especially of cyclone risk and what needs to be done during an in an era of climate change, demographic and emergency. socio-economic changes), there needs to be a mechanism of regular monitoring of these Following the devastation caused by Cyclone Sidr in committees and updating the plans and allocation 2007 in the coastal areas, and many other disasters, of funds on a periodical (bi-annual) basis. the government undertook an “Emergency 2007 Cyclone Recovery and Restoration Project” (ECRRP). Cyclone Preparedness It had a component titled, “Disaster Risk Mitigation and Reduction”. This helps strengthen capacity of For cyclone disaster, the government has the local Disaster Management Committees (DMCs) shown concern by introducing different support through training and simulation exercises. The instruments for vulnerable coastal communities. programme also encourages the communities to Apart from introducing improved and more develop their respective local DRR action plans. rapid early warning methods and response mechanisms, the capacity of the Cyclone Preparedness Programme (CPP) has been further strengthened. CPP continues to be the oldest

35 GoB 2016. Community Based Disaster Preparedness Institutionalisation Model. Department of Disaster Management, Ministry of Disaster Management and Relief, Dhaka.http://narri-bd.org/documents/cbdp/CBDP%20Institutionalization%20model%20English%20 Final%20June%202014.pdf 36 This is based on author’s own recent experience of visiting different local government institutions in different parts of the country in connection to other studies. 37 http://www.narri-bd.org/

27 Before the Next Cyclone Comes: Is Bangladesh “Building Back Better”?

Box 6: The Government adopts an ‘NGO’ Programme - CPP – The Case of Cyclone Preparedness Programme In the aftermath of the country’s deadliest cyclone of 1970 that claimed a staggering 300,000 lives, the Bangladesh Red Crescent Society (BDRCS) mobilised volunteers in the coastal region under a project named CPP or “Cyclone Preparedness Programme”. This was started in February 1972 with the help of the League of Red Cross. When the League of Red Cross (now known as IFRC –International Federation of Red Cross) withdrew its support in 1973, the new Government of Bangladesh decided to take over its responsibilities in consideration of CPP’s continued relevance and importance for the coastal region and its people. CPP became a joint venture between civil society (BDRCS) and the government. Imbued with courage and dedication, the volunteers of CPP have faced many cyclone emergencies on the frontline to help local people and their communities cope better.

CPP has now grown into a massive programme spread across 13 coastal districts with about 50,000 trained, equipped and registered volunteers. Following the administrative reforms made in 2012, CPP has been better integrated into the country’s formal public administration system. The government now contributes to the sustenance of the programme and the movement it has created. BDRCS continues to manage the technical and operational components, while the government has created Director and Assistant Director level positions to work at district, sub district and Municipal levels. By incorporating the CPP into the Standing Orders on Disasters (SOD) and the National Plan for Disaster Management (2010- 2015), the programme now has a more solid status as an important national actor on disaster (emergency) management. Source: MoDMR 2013, CDMP II Flyer for CPPP 2012.

Empowerment of Women and household chores. As a result, men have learned Excluded Groups to show increased respect to women and now happily involve them in the household decision Most policy and programme documents in making process. An Action-Aid Bangladesh case Bangladesh now emphasise the inclusion of a focus study states, “This was certainly the case for the on gender and people with disabilities on all issues. women of Kolapara [a coastal district], who went Similarly, most DRR and development projects in to be trained in water and sanitation management, Bangladesh prioritise women as the direct recipients sustainable agriculture, building flood resilient of different development assistance. Since women shelters, vegetable gardening, and rehabilitation.” play their traditional gender roles of doing key According to Abdul Alim, Manager humanitarian household chores, feeding the family, and looking after response, DRR and Climate Justice, Action-Aid the children and aged, the additional responsibilities Bangladesh, women were now demonstrating accorded by development interventions often tend leadership capabilities in deciding for community to over-burden them with too many responsibilities. actions to cope with disasters38. However, development projects have learned this and now have ways to strike a balance. Experience The new five-year plan document of the from the field shows that shouldering increased Bangladesh government declares to “Protect community responsibilities (often linked to a DRR and support the most vulnerable groups during project), has enabled women to demonstrate their disaster and post recovery stages, especially new skills and abilities beyond their traditional women, children and disabled groups and older

38 The Economist Intelligence Unit, 2014. The South Asia Women’s Resilience Index: Examining the role of women in preparing for and recovering from disasters. ActionAid, London.

28 South Asian Disaster Report 2016 people.” However, this appears to have assessed inappropriate locations of the centres – often too far the issue of discrimination and marginalisation from the villages where poorer people lived. In the rather narrowly, because the measures (input new design of shelters, these limitations have been indicators) suggested, only include establishing addressed and some of the older shelters, mostly “effective targeting mechanism”. This is an doubling as children’s schools, are seen to have indirect reference to the problem of malpractice taken steps to overcome these limitations. in the process of SSN benefits, delivery of food and cash, about which the government is very Coastal Area Development Plan concerned. But the deeper reasons lie in the lack of the voice of women and other marginalised Following the completion of a coastal development groups. Even the women leaders of the elected programme named, “Integrated Coastal Zone local government bodies are often found to be Management Programme (ICZM-P)” under the sidelined by male dominated committees. The ministry of Water Resources, the Government of official measures to foster gender equality are Bangladesh adopted a Coastal Development Policy often mechanically perceived, for example, in and a coastal Development Strategy in 2005. allocating seats for women in committees and Following on from there, the government, with giving material assistance to them – much of which support from international donors, is now developing never reach them. Thus, the underlying causes of a longer term (50 to 100 years) plan to be known as vulnerability of women often remain unaddressed. Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100 (BDP). The details are One study conducted after Cyclone Aila found still emerging, but it would have a “holistic vision” and the key reasons for vulnerability of women were should be linked with the national Five Year Plans lack of access to knowledge, education and (ICCCAD 2015, p-28). Like in the case of ICZM-P, resources39. The situation is exacerbated by the government of the Netherlands has committed to politicisation of resource distribution, inadequate offer the lead assistance in the process. relief management and constraints on women’s mobility40. Kamal (op.cit) added that in the wake of Meanwhile, the government of Bangladesh has disaster, women were exposed to risks of sexual already signed agreements with different foreign harassment and violence as well. Some of these governments and companies to initiate massive issues often do not get highlighted by the disaster infrastructure development projects. This will see management professionals on the ground. building of new rail and road links between Dhaka and the key coastal development zones to connect with There have been criticisms about many cyclone a new seaport, power plants and special economic and flood shelters that were not very sensitive to zones. However, it is still not known if/how these will the needs of women and differently-abled people. form part of the BDP 2100. Environmentalists have For example, most cyclone shelters did not have already expressed their concerns about the possible any concern about the need of privacy for women negative impact some of these might have on the local (even during an emergency). There were no environment and communities. We have previously separate toilet facilities for women and no ramps mentioned how civil society activists in Bangladesh for wheel chair users or sick and aged people. As are reacting against the planned Rampal coal-fired a result, many cyclone shelters have been avoided power plant to be established near the Sundarbans41. by many families despite receiving storm warning messages. There were also complaints about the

39 Kamal, Abu Hena. 2015. Vulnerability of women living in coastal region after cyclone Aila. From the “Gobeshona” organised Conference proceedings on research on climate change in Bangladesh, organized by ICCCAD at IUB, Dhaka, January 2015. P-14 40 Kamal, Abu Hena Mostofa, 2015.“Conference Proceedings” of The Gobeshona: Conference for Research on Climate Change in Bangladesh 07-11 January 2015, ICCCAD, Dhaka. P-14. 41 A half-a-day general strike was called on 26th January 2017 by the “National Committee to Protect Oil, Gas and Mineral Resources” protesting against the government decision of establishing a coal-fired power plant at Rampal, near Sundarbans, the largest mangrove forest in the south-western coastal belt and a World Heritage site declared by UNESCO.

29 Before the Next Cyclone Comes: Is Bangladesh “Building Back Better”?

However, in a plenary discussion session at the (BCCTF) – and one must recall that the most- 47th Annual Meeting of the World Economic Forum, costly and deadly disasters in Bangladesh are held in Davos, on 19th January, the Prime Minster climate-related. In a recent research conference of Bangladesh defended the issue by explaining in Dhaka, some of the participants questioned that the project would not affect the forest. This on- the “ability of Bangladesh to coordinate and going controversy over the Rampal issue might alert implement” internationally agreed DRR and the planners to other upcoming projects in coastal climate policies. They pointed out underlying areas, so that the environmental and social concerns governance limitations which continue to challenge expressed by the CSOs are considered seriously the country (ICCCAD 2015, p-24)43. Moreover, enough. a recent study by Transparency International Bangladesh (TIB) on “Climate Financing and Local BBB and Good Governance Government Institutions: Good Governance in Project Implementation,” found irregularities in In Bangladesh, BBB has generated a lot of enthusiasm the process of allocating funds from Bangladesh among disaster management professionals, Climate Change Trust Fund (BCCTF). According legislators and policy planners. A Build Back Better to the study, “Political influence plays a significant Foundation (BBBF) has been formed and a couple role in allocation of budgets from the BCCTF”. of Parliamentary Meetings were held on the subject Conducted on six of the 108 projects involving in June and November 2015. These meetings were Tk.353 crore ($45.2 million), the study found attended by eminent members of the Bangladesh irregularities at different stages. In a meeting with parliament, senior government officials, donor the press on 23rd January 2017, the TIB chief said, representatives and academics. The head of the Inter “Due to lack of good governance, projects are Parliamentary Union (IPU) and UNISDR Champion for approved for areas that are less endangered than DRR, Mr. Saber Hossain Chowdhury42 has also taken other(s)44.”The Trust has rejected the allegations an active part in these meetings. This may be seen as through a rejoinder to the Daily Star, while TIB also a very positive development in which the legislators stood by their conclusions. and professionals demonstrate their commitment to executing a policy theme and approach adopted by At the end of 2016, a similar dispute between the the international community. Bangladesh authorities and the government of the UK had resulted in the cancelling of a £13 million This is also good news from the perspective of Climate Change Resilience Fund (Bangladesh governance of development interventions and Climate Change Resilience Fund) which DFID resources allocated for those. Awareness is wanted to channel through the World Bank office increasing on the critical importance of management in Bangladesh. The limited governance capacity capacity and the vital role of transparency. This rising of the recipient government was implied as the national awareness comes against the background reason for this. But Bangladesh was concerned of allegations about misuse of public funds and that the World Bank would attach unfavourable prevalence of corrupt practices at a different level. “strings and conditions”, and thus declined to There is a particular case in point that should alert accept the funds. However, donations to the anyone concerned with BBB and DRR. This is related fund were later known to have been accepted.45 to the Bangladesh Climate Change Trust Fund According to a climate change expert, Dr.Salimul

42 MoDMR 2015. Concept Note on “Parliamentary Meeting on Build Back Better in the context of the SFDRR, 28 July 2015, Dhaka”. Brochure of BBBF 43 A discussion point noted in the “Conference Proceedings” of The Gobeshona: Conference for Research on Climate Change in Bangladesh 07-11 January 2015, ICCCAD, Dhaka. P-24. 44 The Daily Star, 2017.“TIB finds mishandling of climate projects”, p-1& 10, Dhaka, 24 January 2017.Following the publication of the news, the BCC Trust sent a rejoinder to the Daily Star saying that the report was not correct and narrowly based on just a small number of projects. TIB however, stood by their report and rejected the BCCT claim. 45 The Guardian, 2016. Climate finance dispute prompts Bangladesh to return £13m of UK aid. 10 November 2016. https://www. theguardian.com/global-development/2016/nov/10/climate-finance-dispute-bangladesh-return

30 South Asian Disaster Report 2016

Huq of the International Centre for Climate Change women and marginal groups play an important role. and Development (ICCCD), it was a wrong step. However, the plans lose relevance over time and Instead of implying lack of confidence on the need updating, and committee membership must Bangladesh counterparts, DFID could have asked be renewed, especially in the light of outmigration. for establishment of a more stringent monitoring It is hard to maintain the motivation of committee and evaluation system to ensure that the funds members unless the relevance of what they are doing were properly utilised. is made obvious. This requires strategy and resources to keep the committees alive and active“ before the Such disputes or allegations often only result in next cyclone comes.” depriving the vulnerable communities living in the coastal areas (in many of the cases) and affected Alleged governance inadequacies in managing DRR by the impacts of disasters or climate change. It is and Climate Funds require urgent attention to make therefore; very important that the country must do those more productive and free from complaints. enough to overcome these challenges on a priority This is a challenge to the positive image the country basis. If not, its progress and achievements in has built over many years in this field of work. Strong many other fields as noted in this report, are likely monitoring and supervision systems must be put to be tarnished. in place so that there are no loopholes left to allow further complaints.

Conclusions When Bangladesh plans to undertake massive Bangladesh appears to have a lot of interest infrastructural and industrial development projects, and preparedness to meet the SFDRR Priority of policy makers and planners need to be extra cautious BBB. Its preparedness in disaster response and about potential environmental and social costs. The resilience-building looks very strong, with systems, longer-term interests of the country through the structures, policies and plans in place. What it now preserving of its environment and eco-system must needs is to concentrate on specifically building be taken into account with utmost earnestness. This BBB elements into the recovery, rehabilitation and will ensure avoiding the kind of controversy currently reconstruction plans and tools. The country has a existing between the government and CSOs. good level of experience and preparedness to face cyclone disasters compared to the past. However, Although we have not reviewed the action points poverty and marginalisation for many people living for global and regional levels in this report/chapter in the coastal areas continues to keep them at (there are eight action points under Priority 4 /BBB a vulnerable level. The impact of climate change for this), there is a general impression from the review is now adding new challenges to the coastal of literature that South Asian regional cooperation people who have to battle with salinity incursion and coordination is not very strong and effective. resulting in lower crop production and shrinking The amount of regional exchanges of knowledge, employment opportunities. This is particularly information and practical collaboration appear to be true for the communities living along the south- very limited, compared to some of the other regions western part of the coast. Without any remedial in the world. Established methods and mechanisms action, this slow-onset disaster is likely to spread to support this process seem to be lacking as well. to other parts of the country. Scarcity of water for In this context, we believe that regional initiatives drinking and irrigation purposes has made life very like SAARC Disaster Management Centre (SDMC) difficult. Hence, vulnerability reduction for these and Duryog Nivaran (DN) have a lot of scope and most disadvantaged communities must continue opportunity of cooperation and collaboration. to be the key priority.

Community level preparedness and the process and tools for it remain one of the most impressive achievements in Bangladesh’s recent past, where

31 Before the Next Cyclone Comes: Is Bangladesh “Building Back Better”?

Families lost their houses to Cyclone Raonu, May 2016

Houses destroyed by cyclone “Roanu” at Banshkhali, Chittagong

Red Crescent volunteers use loudspeakers to call people to evacuate before “Roanu” hit in Cox’s Bazar

‘It is not always easy to convince people about the graveness of danger posed by natural calamities. Sometimes people do not want to move out.’“However, when the tide water started entering their area, they realised the graveness of the danger and they started looking for the volunteers,” he added.

32 South Asian Disaster Report 2016

Hundreds of thousands of people have been marooned by flash flood triggered by cyclone ‘Roanu’ in the coastal Barguna district

A cyclone shelter in use near a coastal area

A new design of a cyclone shelter by CPP

33 Before the Next Cyclone Comes: Is Bangladesh “Building Back Better”?

References GoB 2015. Bangladesh: Towards Resilience HFA and Beyond, CDMP, Department of Disaster Management, Ministry of Disaster Management and Relief, Dhaka, March 2015.GoB 2006.

Women’s Resilience Index, The Economist Intelligence Unit, London, UK.

ICZMP 2006. State of the Coast 2006. Integrated Coastal Zone Management Programme (ICZMP), Water Resource Planning Organisation (WARPO), Ministry of Water Resources, Dhaka.

AON 2017. “2016 Annual Climate Catastrophe Report”, p-57, AON Benfield Analytics, Plc. http:// thoughtleadership.aonbenfield.com/sitepages/display.aspx?tl=638

Rahman, M. Mizanur, 2011. NARRI: A national platform for disaster risk reduction. The Daily Star, June 17, 2011. Dhaka.

Heimann, Thorsten and Mallick, Bishawjit 2016. Understanding Climate Adaptation Cultures in Global Context: Concept Paper and a Proposal for an Explanatory Framework, 9 December 2016

Bishawjit Mallick 2016. Cyclone shelters and their locational suitability: an empirical analysis from coastal Bangladesh. Institute of Regional Science, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Germany

Shamsuddoha, M. Raihan, S and Hossain, Tanjir. 2012. Displacement and Migration from Climate Hot-spots in Bangladesh: Causes and Consequences. ActionAid Bangladesh, Dhaka.

Mallick, Bishawjit & Vogt, Joachim 2014. ‘Population displacement after cyclone and its consequences: empirical evidence from coastal Bangladesh’. Natural Hazards Journal of the International Society for the Prevention and Mitigation of Natural Hazards ISSN 0921-030X Volume 73 Number 2 Nat Hazards (2014) 73:191-212

Zakia Sultana and Bishawjit Mallick 2015. Adaptation Strategies after Cyclone in Southwest Coastal Bangladesh – Pro Poor Policy Choices. American Journal of Rural Development, 2015, Vol. 3, No. 2, 24-33

EIU 2014, The South Asia Women’s Resilience Index, The Economist Intelligence Unit, London, UK.

Hallegatte, Stephane, Adrien Vogt-Schilb, Mook Bangalore, and Julie Rozenberg. 2017. Unbreakable: Building the Resilience of the Poor in the Face of Natural Disasters. Climate Change and Development Series. Washington, DC: World Bank.

Ashraf, Mirza Ali and Shaha, Satya Brata 2016. ‘Achieving Community Resilience: Case Study of Cyclone Aila Affected Coastal Bangladesh’. International Journal of Social Work and Human Services Practice. Vol.4 No.2, June 2016, pp-33-41.

GoB/DDM 2016. Community Based Disaster Preparedness Institutionalization Model. Supported by NARRI Consortium. http://www.narri-bd.org/

MOEF-GOB, 2009. Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan 2009, Ministry of Environment and Forest (MOEF), Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh (GOB), Dhaka.

DIFID 2015 Assessment and Scoping Mission Report for DFID Bangladesh’s New Climate Change Programme by Ruth Phillips Itty, Federica Chiappe and Dr Ahsan Uddin Ahmed, April 2015.

BBS 2011 Household Income and Expenditure Survey (HIES) 2010 http://sdwebx.worldbank.org/climateportal/

34 South Asian Disaster Report 2016 http://www.preventionweb.net/files/43291_sendaiframeworkfordrren.pdf

Flood Forecasting and Warning Centre

Bangladesh Meteorological Department

JDS Programme e-Library on DM

Disaster Management Act 2012

Standing Orders on Disaster-2010

National Plan for Disaster Management 2010-15 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rampal_Power_Station_(Proposed)

Protest in India too: http://www.thedailystar.net/backpage/Rampal-power-plant-protest-india-too-1300690 https://www.facebook.com/nationalcommittee.bd/ https://nationalcommittee.wordpress.com/

35 36 South Asian Disaster Report 2016

Indian Experience of Building Back Better: Lessons from Recent Disasters

By Mihir R. Bhatt1 and Mehul Pandya2

1 Director, All India Disaster Mitigation Institute (AIDMI), and Founder Member and current Chair of Duryog Nivaran. 2 Senior Coordinator, All India Disaster Mitigation Institute (AIDMI)

37 Indian Experience of Building Back Better: Lessons from Recent Disasters

Abbreviations ADB Asian Development Bank AMCDRR Asian Ministerial Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction BBB Building Back Better CAG Comptroller and auditor general of India CBFEWS Community-based Flood Early Warning System CBRN Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear CCA Climate Change Adaptation CDKN Climate and Development Knowledge Network CRM Climate Risk Management CRPF Central Reserve Police Force DIA Disaster Impact Assessment EIA Environmental Impact Assessment EWS Early Warning System GEERP Gujarat Emergency Earthquake Reconstruction Project GoO Government of Odisha GSDMA Gujarat State Disaster Management Authority HICAP Himalayan Climate Change Adaptation Programme HTL High Tide Line IAF Indian Air Force IBEF India Brand Equity Foundation JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency MGNREGA Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act NCRMP National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project NDCs Nationally Determined Contributions NDMA National Disaster Management Authority NDMP National Disaster Management Plan NDRF National Disaster Response Force NIDM National Institute of Disaster Management ODRAF Odisha Disaster Rapid Action Force ODRP Odisha Disaster Recovery Project OSAP Odisha State Armed Police OSDMA Odisha State Disaster Management Authority PMNRF Prime Minister’s National Relief Fund RCDC Regional Centre for Development Cooperation SFDRR Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction UDRI Uttarakhand Disaster Recovery Initiative UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change USAC Uttarakhand Space Applications Centre USDMA Uttarakhand State Disaster Management Authority

38 South Asian Disaster Report 2016

will only increase. Even vulnerability to disasters or Disasters in India - emergencies of Chemical, Biological, Radiological Country Context and Nuclear (CBRN) origin have increased on account of socio-economic development6. India is one of ten worst disaster prone countries of the world. Out of 35 states and union territories In the decade 1990-2000, an average of about 4344 in the country, 27 are disaster prone. Almost 58.6 people lost their lives and about 30 million people per cent of the landmass is prone to earthquakes were affected by disasters each year7. According of moderate to high and very high intensity; over to UNICEF, 65 million people on an average in India 40 million hectares (12 per cent of land) is prone were affected by disasters every year between 2000 to floods and river erosion; of the 7,516 km long and 20098. Data from the (EM-DAT) OFDA/CRED coastline, nearly 5,700 km is prone to cyclones International Disaster Database for the period of and tsunamis; 68 per cent of the cultivable area 1990-20149 shows that while earthquakes, floods is vulnerable to drought and hilly areas are at risk and storms are the biggest killers in India, droughts from landslides and avalanches3.‘Disaster risks and floods affect most people in India. Further in India are further compounded by increasing analysis of data from EM-DAT shows that both, in vulnerabilities related to changing demographics terms of frequency and economic damage, floods and socio-economic conditions, unplanned top the list with highest economic damages in India urbanisation, development within high-risk zones, followed by storms and earthquakes. According to environmental degradation, climate change, India’s Twelfth Five Year Plan, natural disasters in geological hazards, epidemics and pandemics’4. the decade of 2001-2010 claimed 21,975 lives and damaged 1, 50,22,070 houses10. In India, risk in terms of both human and economic exposure to disasters is extremely high. A report Analysis of data related to human and economic on global disaster risks5 ranks India second in the losses in India between 1980 and 2010 show that world in terms of human exposure to droughts, natural disasters have killed 4614 people and affected floods, and cyclone, fourth in terms of cyclone 49, 087,940 people each year, including average and tsunami, and eighth in terms of earthquake. economic damage of (US$ x 1000)1,550,44611. The report ranks India fourth in the world in terms India’s average annual economic loss due to of economic exposure to floods, ninth in terms of disasters is estimated to be $9.8 billion. This includes cyclone and landslides, 16th in terms of tsunami more than $7 billion loss on account of floods12. The and 25th in terms of earthquake. And, with the most severe disasters in the country and their impact impact of global warming, it is likely that both, in terms of people affected, lives lost and economic human and economic exposure to disaster risks damage is given below.

3 Ministry of Home Affairs (MoHA), Government of India (GoI), Disaster Management in India, 2011. MoHA: New Delhi. 4 NDMA. N.d. Vulnerability Profile, http://www.ndma.gov.in/en/vulnerability-profile.html 5 India Risk Profile, Source of Data: 2009 Global Risk Assessment Report, http://www.preventionweb.net/english/countries/statistics/ risk.php?iso=IND 6 Ministry of Home Affairs (MoHA), Government of India (GoI), Disaster Management in India, 2011. MoHA: New Delhi. 7 Ministry of Home Affairs, GoI. 2005. Disaster Management in India, http://www.unisdr.org/2005/mdgs-drr/national-reports/India- report.pdf 8 UNICEF, UNICEF in Emergencies, http://www.unicef.org/india/emergencies.html 9 CRED EM-DAT: The OFDA/CRED - International Disaster Database www.emdat.be Universitécatholique de Louvain Brussels - Belgium., http://www.preventionweb.net/countries/ind/data/ 10 Planning Commission, Government of India, Twelfth Five Year Plan (2012–2017) Faster, More Inclusive and Sustainable Growth (volume I), http://planningcommission.nic.in/plans/planrel/fiveyr/12th/pdf/12fyp_vol1.pdf 11 PreventionWeb. ND. India – Disaster Statistics. http://www.preventionweb.net/english/countries/statistics/?cid=79 12 Thakur P. 2015. Disasters cost India $10bn per year: UN report, http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Disasters-cost-India-10bn- per-year-UN-report/articleshow/46522526.cms

39 Indian Experience of Building Back Better: Lessons from Recent Disasters

People affected, lives lost and economic damage due to Disasters in India between 1990 to 2015 Disaster type Disaster subtype Events count Total deaths Total affected Total damage (‘000 US$)

Drought Drought 5 20 351175000 2041122 Earthquake Ground movement 12 32911 7832486 4122000

Tsunami 1 16389 654512 1022800 Epidemic Bacterial disease 10 1155 55032 0

Parasitic disease 4 121 30135 0

Viral disease 19 1867 171453 0 Extreme Cold wave 19 3186 25 0 temperature Heat wave 14 9522 25 400000

Severe winter conditions 2 320 0 0 Flood Riverine flood 132 24367 297272962 39504729

Flash flood 21 2530 15943526 322000

Coastal flood 4 569 11500000 275000 -- 35 8834 230943112 7923600 Landslide Landslide 24 1542 1332748 4500

Avalanche 6 532 10256 50000 Storm Convective storm 30 1637 699639 2387000

Tropical cyclone 42 17940 52613655 14419012 Wildfire Forest fire 1 6 0 0

Source: “EM-DAT: The OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database

Recognising the critical need for having stronger national, state and district level authorities with legislation to promote and protect human rights clear plans and guidelines. In this structure, at during disasters, the government of India enacted the apex level, the National Disaster Management The Disaster Management Act in 2005. The Act Authority has the responsibility for formulation of deals with provisions regarding protection of human policy and guidelines for all disaster management rights by virtue of providing specific guidelines with work in the country. The state authorities further reference to minimum standards of relief and number lay down guidelines for departments of the of other administrative measures for reducing disaster state and the districts falling in their respective risks in India. These legal provisions are considered jurisdictions. Similarly, district authorities direct civil to be sacrosanct legislative measures as the intent administration, departments and local authorities of enacting this Act is to provide for the effective such as the municipalities, police department management of disasters and to uphold the human and civil administration. The State Executive rights of the disaster affected people13. Committees are responsible for development of state disaster management plans and execution The Act makes it obligatory for the country to evolve of the tasks envisaged therein. a more organised disaster risk governance system and shift its approach from post-disaster relief The recently released National Disaster and rehabilitation to pre-disaster and pro-active Management Plan (NDMP) on 1 June 2016 by preparedness and mitigation by formation of the the Government of India, fulfils one of the key

13 C.E.Pratap on 09 February 2012, Disaster Management and Law - A Human Rights Perspective, http://www.lawyersclubindia.com/ articles/Disaster-Management-and-Law-A-Human-Rights-Perspective-4497.asp#.UeZuPvWqnps

40 South Asian Disaster Report 2016 requirements of Section 11 of the 2005 Disaster the Uttarakhand state government reported 169 Management Act14 and complies with the global people dead as well as 4,021 missing and presumed Sendai Framework for disaster risk reduction. The dead. Among the 4,200 affected villages, more than NDMP is an opportunity to integrate climate action 200,000 people engaged in agriculture, horticulture, and India’s Nationally Determined Contributions and animal husbandry lost their livelihoods, with (NDCs) as it not only lays down guidelines for 11,091 livestock lost and 2,513 houses destroyed18. preparation of state-level disaster management plans and plans by each central ministry and After the mid-June disaster, the central government department, but also provides for horizontal sanctioned INR11.14 billion ($171,993,356), and and vertical integration of government agencies the Prime Minister’s National Relief Fund(PMNRF) and departments at various levels15. However, contributed INR1.54 billion ($23,776,460). In December ‘the national plan needs to be supplemented by 2013, a Cabinet Committee on Uttarakhand(CCU), appropriate roadmaps for disaster resilience with formed under the Uttarakhand Reconstruction and clear goals, targets, timeframe, and measures Rehabilitation Plan and headed by the Prime Minister, about how resources shall be mobilised for its allocated INR73.46 billion($113,416,803) for relief and implementation’16. rehabilitation of flood-hit Uttarakhand19. This package includedINR18.85 billion ($291,030,051) for centrally sponsored schemes; INR 12 billion ($185,271,120) Indian Experience of went to the National Disaster Response Force (NDRF); Building Back Better INR 31.61 billion ($488,035,009) was allocated for spending on externally aided projects; and INR 11 Uttarakhand Floods 201317 billion ($169,831,860) was disbursed under Special Plan Assistance. In mid-June 2013, the Indian state of Uttarakhand was hit by torrential rains. In some parts of the The private sector extended generous support to state, massive flash floods and landslides resulted complement government initiatives by participating in widespread devastation. To make things in government measures such as cash transfers and worse, the rains coincided with the peak tourist pursuing their own initiatives in such key sectors as and pilgrimage season, causing an even greater agriculture, animal husbandry, and micro-enterprise number of human causalities amid wide-spread recovery. Keeping in view the likelihood of increased destruction. Worst affected were the districts of demand for public works employment due to the Bageshwar, Chamoli, Pithoragarh, Rudraprayag, floods, the central Government provided additional and Uttarkashi. On 9 May 2014, according to the financial assistance for up to 50 days of employment National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM), in Financial Year 2013–14 under Mahatma

14 Ministry of Law and Justice 2005, The Disaster Management Act, 2005, http://www.ndma.gov.in/images/ndma-pdf/DM_act2005. pdf 15 Prime Minister’s Office 2016.The plan aims to make India disaster resilient and reduce loss of lives, Press Release, http://pib.nic.in/ newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=145840 16 PG Dhar Chakrabarti 2016. The new National Disaster Management Plan has several flaws, http://www.hindustantimes.com/ analysis/the-new-national-disaster-management-plan-has-several-flaws/story-LrHOFHXg9gwrtOgYjXJDrK.html 17 Information relating to response and short-term measures is readily available. But reconstruction and recovery is not well documented. Although some pointers of consideration for building back better are available in planning documents of larger scale recovery and reconstruction projects by the World Bank and ADB, it is difficult to determine their success in Uttarakhand and Odisha as these initiatives are still underway. However, efforts were made to collect latest information and data from state authorities and included to the extent possible. Due to availability of limited resources at authors disposal, full-fledged field investigation was not possible. 18 National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM): Uttarakhand disaster 2013 (New Delhi, NIDM, 2015),http://reliefweb.int/sites/ reliefweb.int/files/resources/ukd-p1.pdf. 19 The Hindu: “Centre approves INR 7,346 crore compensation package for Uttarakhand” (11 December 2013), http://www.thehindu. com/news/national/other-states/centre-approves-rs-7346-crore-compensation-package-for-uttarakhand/article5444877.ece [accessed 14 July 2015].

41 Indian Experience of Building Back Better: Lessons from Recent Disasters

Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act relief items and other relief operations to help flood (MGNREGA)20. Assuming primary responsibility victims. On 12 November 2013, the Government for compensation and reconstruction, the state of Japan provided a second batch of assistance, government provided the following assistance to aiming to assist the citizens of the Himalayan victims of the crisis:21 region of India in overcoming this disaster, and pledging $150 million (INR 9,715,491,545) to • allocated INR200,000 ($3,088) for damage to or support reconstruction in the state of Uttarakhand. loss of home or a proportionately higher amount On April 11, 2014, the Japan International for the loss of commercial properties; Cooperation Agency (JICA) signed a Japanese ODA loan agreement with the Government of India • set rent payments at INR2,000 per month in New Delhi to provide up to 11,390 million yen ($31), later revised to INR3,000 ($46), for those for the Uttarakhand Forest Resource Management rendered homeless; Project23. The initiative is hosted and executed • exempted payment of water tax, electricity by Uttarakhand’s Forest Department, and will be dues, and interest on agriculture loans extended completed by March 2022. by cooperative banks for the remainder of the financial year; and The state government is currently implementing • declared a one-year moratorium on repayment of the World Bank-assisted Uttarakhand Disaster loans to state credit agencies. Recovery Project, with primary focuses on restoring roads and bridges; reconstruction of In May 2014, the Uttarakhand government launched public buildings; and technical assistance and the Tourism Accommodation Scheme for Disaster building government capacity in risk mitigation and Affected Districts of Rudrapryag, Chamoli, Uttarkashi, response. The Uttarakhand Disaster Recovery Pithoragarh, and Bageshwarin (GoU 2014).22 The Initiative (UDRI) reports that the government is also scheme provides a capital subsidy of up to 50 per implementing the ADB-supported Uttarakhand cent, or a maximum of INR2.5 million ($38,598), Emergency Assistance Project, which focuses for the construction of tourism infrastructure and on restoring roads and bridges; enhancing accommodation, at normal bank interest rates. The government capacity in urban water supply risk scheme was launched with immediate effect for a mitigation and response; restoration of tourism duration of about five years (till March 2019). infrastructure in five of the affected districts; and improving disaster preparedness through civil Major international contributions to Uttarakhand’s aviation facilities for effective evacuation and 24 recovery and development included support from emergency relief operations . the Government of Japan, the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank (ADB). Immediately after the flood, the Government of Japan provided an emergency grant aid of $ 200,000 (INR 12,953,988) through the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies to support the distribution of

20 MoRD(New Delhi, 2013),http://nrega.nic.in/Netnrega/WriteReaddata/Circulars/Special_DispensationRela_notified_flood_affected_ UK.pdf [accessed 14 July 2015]. 21 NIDM, op. cit. 22 GoU: A letter from UmakantPawar, Secretary, Tourism, and CEO, Uttarakhand Tourism and Development Board, Govt. of Uttarakhand (Dehradun, 8 May 2014), http://uttarakhandtourism.gov.in/utdb/sites/default/files/tenders/document/tourism_ accommodation_scheme_for_disaster_affected_districts_24_5_14.pdf[accessed 27 September 2015]. 23 Japan International Cooperation Agency(JICA):“Signing of a Japanese ODA loan agreement with the Government of India – Support for forestry management, together with recovery of the disaster-stricken areas in the state of Uttarakhand”, press releases (11 April 2014), http://www.jica.go.jp/english/news/press/2014/140411_01.html[accessed 16 July 2015]. 24 Uttarakhand Disaster Recovery Initiative (UDRI): Projects (n.d.), http://ukdisasterrecovery.in/[accessed 7 October 2015].

42 South Asian Disaster Report 2016

preparedness of the Government of Odisha (GoO) Cyclone Phailin 2013 and the coastal communities and their resolve to Cyclone Phailin which made landfall at the coast ensure zero casualties resulted in prompt action to of Odisha near Gopalpur in Ganjam district on the warning of the cyclone. Around one million people October 12, 2013left 44 people dead, damaged along with their livestock resources were evacuated about 256,600 homes and affected about 13.2 to nearby cyclone/flood shelters and to other million people in over 18,370 villages. Eighteen identified safe buildings. This was one of the largest of the thirty districts in the state were affected by evacuations ever undertaken in recorded history of the storm and subsequent floods. The cyclone disaster management in India25.

State Government Response to Cyclone Phailin26 The GoO was proactive and well prepared to deal with the impending cyclone. In addition to the updates from IMD, the path, intensity and magnitude of the cyclone were continuously tracked at OSDMA and a range of preparatory activities were launched to face the cyclone with a zero casualty approach. Prior to landfall, the OSDMA conducted mock drills at all the cyclone shelters and also checked and replaced equipment available at many of these shelters. Cyclone and Flood Shelter Management and Maintenance Committees were activated in order to facilitate the evacuation of vulnerable populations. All 14 cyclone prone districts were provided with satellite phones for communication in case of failure in telecommunication lines. In addition, the state government ensured that 4,197 free kitchen centers were opened from October 11 onwards that covered more than 2 million affected people. In addition, 185 medical teams and 338 medical relief centers were also opened. As the disasteroccurred during the Indian festive season of ‘Dussehra’ all government employee holidays were cancelled and all field offices were kept open. About 30 nodal NGOs were also engaged in various vulnerable blocks of the coastal and flood prone districts.

To ensure zero casualties, the GoO ordered all people living in low lying areas and kutcha houses or tin roof houses within 0-10 km of the coastline to be evacuated to nearby cyclone shelters or other identified safe buildings. Similar steps were undertaken to shift the livestock to safer places. Over 1 million people were evacuated within 36 hours preceding the landfall of Cyclone Phailin, which is one of the largest emergency evacuations carried out in a record timeframe. These efforts were made in close collaboration with the Odisha Disaster Rapid Action Force (ODRAF), National Disaster Response Force (NDRF), Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF), Odisha State Armed Police (OSAP) and the Indian Air Force (IAF). Cyclone Phailin and the floods that followed after heavy rainfall caused extensive devastation in the affected districts, uprooting vast number of trees, damaging roads, public buildings and disrupting telecommunications and power.

Due to the effective pre-positioningof men, machinery and materials, and the able coordination among State, National and Local agencies, the restoration of connectivity was carried out in an impressive manner. Major roads were cleared within 24 hours. About 5.7 metric tonsof dry food were airdropped by IAF helicopters to inaccessible areas. Over 0.5 million families were provided with temporary shelter and elaborate arrangements were made for safe drinking water and power supply. Medical teams and sanitation kits were also deployed to all affected areas.

25 Government of Odisha, ADB and World Bank. 2013. INDIA Cyclone Phailin in Odisha: Rapid Damage and Needs Assessment Reporthttp://www.osdma.org/Publication.aspx?vchGlinkId=GL005 26 Source: Government of Odisha, ADB and World Bank. 2013. INDIA Cyclone Phailin in Odisha: Rapid Damage and Needs Assessment Reporthttp://www.osdma.org/Publication.aspx?vchGlinkId=GL005

43 Indian Experience of Building Back Better: Lessons from Recent Disasters

The severe cyclonic storm followed by floods in Preparedness policies, plans and October, 2013 adversely affected about 132.35 programmes lakh people in 171 blocks, 44 ULBs, 2,164 GPs The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction and 18,374 villages in 18 districts of the state. Large (SFDRR) requires countries to prepare or review areas of agricultural lands were sand cast due to and periodically update disaster preparedness floods / flash floods in several affected districts. An and contingencypolicies, plans and programmes, area totalling about 11 lakh ha. of agricultural crop including strengthening of national laws and lands was affected with an estimated loss of about procedures on international cooperation. India Rs.2,300 crore. Of the total croplands affected, crop has a wide range of disaster management damage was over 6.51 lakh ha. amounting to about related legislation, policies and plans at various 50 percent. About 5.41 lakh houses were damaged. levels. At national level, India has a Disaster The destruction and damage to livelihoods, Management Act of 2005, National Policy on economy, agricultural and physical infrastructure Disaster Management 2009 and National Disaster was of gigantic magnitude. Agriculture production Management Plan (NDMP) of 2016. At state level, was severely affected resulting in negative growth various state governments have their own disaster of the agriculture sector during the year 2013-1427. management acts, policies and plans. Since, the By various estimates, the 2013 Cyclone Phailin in NDMP was only made available recently, the Odisha resulted in massive economic losses to the state disaster management plans of Uttarakhand state. This also implied that distress migration from and Odisha require to be revisited, reviewed and rural sites to urban centers also increased. Disasters updated as per the requirements laid down by the are so enmeshed in the fabric of society that they NDMP. have profound impacts on the social and economic aspects of the communities they strike. Lack of disaster preparedness in Uttarakhand was widely criticised. As pointed out by theComptroller Preparedness for Effective Response and auditor general of India(CAG), the Uttarakhand and to “Build Back Better” in Recovery, government in the wake of Uttarakhand tragedy Rehabilitation and Reconstruction admitted that it had fallen short of the disaster ‘Disasters have demonstrated that the recovery, preparedness standards laid down by the rehabilitation and reconstruction phase, which NDMA29. NIDM interaction with district, block and needs to be prepared ahead of a disaster, is acritical local administration revealed that at many places opportunity to “Build Back Better”, including through a DM plan existed but most officials were not integrating disaster risk reduction into development aware of its contents and were ignorant about measures, making nations and communities resilient their duties and responsibilities as these plans to disasters’28.The Uttarakhand flash floods and had not been updated for a long period and SOPs Cyclone Phailin revealed both infirmities as well were not available30. This lack of understanding as strengths in certain areas of our response and resulted in weak sub-optimal coordination at reconstruction. Some of the important lessons learnt state, district and local levels. It became clear that from the Indian experience of managing these two having DM plans was not enough. They needed to calamities and building back better are reviewed in be updated and should have been complimented this section. with SOP for various departments to respond in time and effectively. Under the World Bank

27 Government of Odisha 2015. Odisha Economic Survey, 2014 -15, http://www.odisha.gov.in/pc/Download/Economic_ Survey_2014-15.pdf 28 UNISDR 2015: Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015 - 2030. Geneva: Switzerland, http://www.preventionweb.net/ files/43291_sendaiframeworkfordrren.pdf 29 Monish G. 2013. DNA. Uttarakhand: Falling woefully short of disaster management standards, http://www.dnaindia.com/india/ report-uttarakhand-falling-woefully-short-of-disaster-management-standards-1852393 30 NIDM 2015. Uttarakhand Disaster 2013. http://nidm.gov.in/PDF/pubs/ukd-p3.pdf

44 South Asian Disaster Report 2016 supported project draft rules and a structure for warning system in its entirety34. ICIMOD is working the Uttarakhand State Disaster Management with the Indian Institute of Technology in Assam to Authority (USDMA)were prepared, which have fine tune its award winning Community-based Flood been approved31. Early Warning System35.

On the other hand, Odisha was well-prepared with most aspects of responding to the Cyclone from ICIMOD’s experience with Community- warning to evacuations and emergency response. based Flood Early Warning System However, the ‘need [for]constant monitoring of (CBFEWS)36 critical infrastructures for safety standards in consonance with worldwide safety benchmarks In 2013, ICIMOD and Aaranyak installed 32 and strengthen, where deficient’ in Odisha . CBFEWS in the Jiadhal and Singora rivers in Assam37, India under the Himalayan Climate People-centred multi-hazard, multi- Change Adaptation Programme (HICAP). During sectoral forecasting and early warning the floods, the CBFEWS in the Jiadhal River systems warned community members in Dihiri of the Strengthening of a people-centred multi-hazard approaching floods, helping them save assets, early warning mechanism is one of the key including livestock valued at USD 3,300. The components of Building Back Better (BBB). following year at the United Nations Framework Although the IMD provided warning of ‘heavy to Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) very heavy rain’ in Uttarakhand, there was little Conference of Parties (COP) 20/CMP10, inkling that the rain could induce such a massive UNFCCC awarded ICIMOD and Aaranyak disaster. The lack of a warning system for flash the Momentum for Change 2014 Lighthouse floods and the inability to predict area specific Activity Award under the ICT Solutions category. precipitation were evident. Mr. Anand Sharma, ICIMOD, together with the local government and Director, Meteorological Centre, Dehra Dun partners, have continued to outscale CBFEWS explained that although accurate warning was along the Koshi River in Nepal and Dushi River issued 72 hours in advance to the authorities in Afghanistan. and pilgrims, communication was poor and the tragedy was not averted33. An effective early warning system necessitates that various hydro- met data inputs are seamlessly available for accurate modelling of flash floods or rain induced landslides, which was lacking in Uttarakhand. Thus, Uttarakhand requires to review its early

31 Uttarakhand Disaster Recovery Initiative. ND. Technical Assistance & Capacity Building for Disaster Risk Management. http:// ukdisasterrecovery.in/index.php/projects/udrp1/ta-cbdrm 32 NIDM 2014, India Disaster Report, http://nidm.gov.in/PDF/pubs/India%20Disaster%20Report%202013.pdf 33 Menon M. 2014. All weather communication need of the hour in Uttarakhand, http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/ all-weather-communication-need-of-the-hour-in-uttarakhand/article6275478.ece 34 NIDM 2015. Uttarakhand Disaster 2013. http://nidm.gov.in/PDF/pubs/ukd-p3.pdf 35 Menon M. 2014. All weather communication need of the hour in Uttarakhand, http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/ all-weather-communication-need-of-the-hour-in-uttarakhand/article6275478.ece 36 ICIMOD 2016. Outscaling Community Based Flood Early Warning System in Assam, http://www.icimod.org/?q=24081 37 Note: The system consists of a water level sensor, signal processor, transmitter, receiver, alarm siren and batteries with solar panel. When the water level reaches at pre-defined maximum risk level, the siren automatically produces, warning signal. This message is communicated by mobile phones to the downstream communities. For more information please visit: http://www.icimod.org/?q=12758

45 Indian Experience of Building Back Better: Lessons from Recent Disasters

‘Investments in infrastructure development related is soaked by three major river systems, the Kosi, to weather, glacial lakes, river flow monitoring, Narayani and Karnali and exposed to floods etc. are fundamental for improving the accuracy of annually. Practical Action Nepal has been working risk mapping, thereby allowing more lead-time for on establishing EWS in the Terai region of Nepal warnings provided by IMD, CWC, GSI, NRSC, etc’38. since 2002. The approach developed by Practical Currently, with assistance from the World Bank, the Action combines all the key aspects of effective state is strengthening Hydro-Meteorological Network early warning system such as risk awareness, and Early Warning System (EWS) by modernising of monitoring and warning, dissemination of warning the hydromet observation and information systems39. and community response and the following Uttrakhand can learn lessons from community-based lessons are transferable to the Uttarakhand early warning system of Terai region in Nepal, which context as well as to other flood prone regions of India.

Learning and experience of establishing a In the case of Cyclone Phailin, tracking of Community Based Early Warning System cyclone, early warning and evacuations were 40 in Nepal most effective. IMD, state authorities and non- • Investment in EWS is a cost effective use of state actors all played crucial roles in minimising limited resources where risk can be anticipated loss of life and financial losses.After the IMD and measured. Vulnerable communities have issued the first warnings on October 8, 2013, the a right to such warning. Government of Odisha and Odisha State Disaster Management Authority (OSDMA) immediately • High tech/high cost systems are not only commenced a wide-range of preparatory activities inappropriate but also unsustainable. Use of with a zero causality goal such as alerting all the local resources both cuts costs and ensures districts and planning evacuations and emergency greater ownership. response, including provision of emergency • Systems should provide information, aid. Timely warning, effective coordination and not warnings per se. Making information communication right upto the last-mile were key intelligible and user friendly are fundamental to evacuating over one million people in 36 hours to any system. to safety. • Users of information should be active participants in systems, not beneficiaries Resilience of new and existing of them only. Systems must be established which put users first and at their centre. infrastructure • Systems should be based on the principle of Disaster recovery and reconstruction provide a “demand for”, not “supply of” information. window of opportunity to promote resilience of • Successful EWS are the product of effective new and existing public-private infrastructure person to person communication and efficient such as power, bridges, dams, roads and urban social networks communication technologies infrastructure development. According to India merely complement these. Brand Equity Foundation (IBEF) ‘India needs Rs • Systems should dictate the technology and 31 trillion (US$ 454.83 billion) to be spent on not technology the system. infrastructure development over the next five years, with 70 per cent of funds needed for power, roads and urban infrastructure segments’41. Around 70%

38 NIDM 2014, India Disaster Report, http://nidm.gov.in/PDF/pubs/India%20Disaster%20Report%202013.pdf 39 Uttarakhand Disaster Recovery Initiative. ND. Technical Assistance & Capacity Building for Disaster Risk Management. http:// ukdisasterrecovery.in/index.php/projects/udrp1/ta-cbdrm 40 Practical Action 2009. Early Warning Saving Lives. http://practicalaction.org/docs/region_nepal/early-warning-saving-lives.pdf 41 IBEF 2016. Infrastructure sector in India, http://www.ibef.org/industry/infrastructure-sector-india.aspx

46 South Asian Disaster Report 2016 of infrastructure in India is yet to be developed with the provisions regarding protection of human which is a huge opportunity for integrating disaster rights by virtue of providing specific guidelines with risk mitigation and climate resilience in future reference to minimum standards of relief and a number infrastructure development (TERI: 2)42.The ‘Make of other administrative measures for reducing disaster in India’ initiative of Government of India ‘intends to risks in India. These legal provisions are considered to develop industrial corridors and build smart cities be sacrosanct legislative measures as the intent of with state-of-the-art technology and high-speed the legislature in enacting this law is to provide for the communication’43. Keeping in view the multi- effective management of disasters and to uphold the hazard scenario and vulnerability of a particular human rights of the disaster affected people47. area, governments are required to ensure that critical infrastructure such as water, health, Experience shows that human rights concerns during power, transportation, telecommunications and disasters can be better addressed with policies and educational facilities remain safe, effective and plans that recognise the importance of rights-based operational during and after disasters. This aspect frameworks and approaches. Wide spread damage of BBB is not only important to ensure provision of and destruction to housing and infrastructure, basic services in the post-disaster phase, but also including livelihoods, especially in Uttarakhand to safeguard rights of disaster victims. warranted a comprehensive and careful planning for recovery with the ‘build back better’ approach. Rights of disaster victims are protected by The state government initiated a comprehensive international human rights instruments as well reconstruction and rehabilitation programme with as national constitutions and laws. For instance, assistance from the Central Government and the Article 21 of the Constitution of India guarantees World Bank, including support from ADB and others. all its citizens the right to survival44. Although, The World Bank assisted Uttrakhand Disaster both government and humanitarian agencies Recovery Project is restoring roads and bridges, are obligated - legally, morally and politically to resilient housing and public buildings and technical ensure that recovery efforts are consistent with assistance and capacity building. The Project design the human rights of victims45, in reality, human incorporated lessons learned from previous national rights protection remains a secondary concern and global post-disaster recovery projects to ensure for humanitarian agencies (both national and that the recovery is targeted, effective and is built international) as it is the national government back “smarter”48. The owner driven construction of that is charged with the primary responsibility of resilient houses aimed to support reconstruction of protecting the rights of its citizens46. Recognising 2499 houses. Under the ADB assisted Uttarakhand the critical need for having stronger legislation Emergency Assistance Project the state government to promote and protect human rights during is rebuilding and strengthening roads and bridges, disasters, the government of India enacted the urban water supply, tourism and civil aviation Disaster Management Act in 2005. The Act deals infrastructure. The project is restoring basic public

42 TERI (2014) Climate Proofing Indian Cities: A Policy Perspective. India: New Delhi. Available at: http://www.teriin.org/policybrief/ docs/Urban.pdf 43 Government of India 2016. MAKE IN INDIA: THE VISION, NEW PROCESSES, SECTORS, INFRASTRUCTURE AND MINDSET, http://www.makeinindia.com/article/-/v/make-in-india-reason-vision-for-the-initiative 44 AIDMI 2013. Towards HFA 2: Emerging Insights from the Grassroots, Issue no. 94, http://www.preventionweb.net/ files/34468_3446894snethfa2.pdf 45 Lewis, Hope, “Human rights and natural disaster: the Indian Ocean tsunami” (2006). School of Law Faculty Publications. Paper 3. http://hdl.handle.net/2047/d20001074 46 The Brookings Institution – University of Bern and All India Disaster Mitigation Institute, Protecting and Promoting Rights in Natural Disasters in South Asia: Prevention and Response, Summary Report, April 2009, Chennai 47 C.E.Pratap on 09 February 2012, Disaster Management and Law - A Human Rights Perspective, http://www.lawyersclubindia.com/ articles/Disaster-Management-and-Law-A-Human-Rights-Perspective-4497.asp#.UeZuPvWqnps 48 Uttarakhand Disaster Recovery Initiative. ND.World Bank Assisted, Uttrakhand Disaster Recovery Project. http://ukdisasterrecovery. in/

47 Indian Experience of Building Back Better: Lessons from Recent Disasters

and social infrastructure and raising the design and 5 km from the High Tide Line (HTL) in Ganjam, construction standards for the physical infrastructure Khordha&Puri Districts of Odisha52. by focusing on build back better49. Incorporation of DRM into A massive evacuation effort ahead of cyclone Phailin post-disaster recovery and in 2013 in Odisha was enabled by investment in emergency roadways and cyclone shelters by the reconstruction state government under the National Cyclone Risk A crucial aspect of BBB is the incorporation of DRM Mitigation Project (NCRMP). The states of Odisha into post-disaster recovery and reconstruction and Andhra Pradesh are adding 1,000 km of new processes to reduce future risks. Disaster recovery evacuation roads, 23 bridges to better connect operations are largely guided by post-disaster communities, 285 new cyclone shelters, and 140km recovery and reconstruction guidelines, plans and improvements to existing coastal embankments schemes issued by governments. Post-disaster under NCRMP50. These developments are important recovery and reconstruction are essentially but the importance of feeder roads for creating quick developmental issues. Thus, guidelines on land- access to markets and main roads and availability of use planning, building codes and construction cyclone shelters in adequate numbers seems to be techniques, including use of materials and other key to emergency evacuation and rapid economic non-structural measures such as insurance play recovery. Following the cyclone Phailin, the OSDMA an important role. India’s 2009 National Policy approved policy guidelines for post cyclone Phailin on Disaster Management advocates the need for Resilient Housing’ taking up World Bank supported incorporating disaster resilient features with ‘build disaster resilient housing projects in the Phailin back better’ as the guiding principle. affected areas of Ganjam, Puri and Khorda districts. The Policy Guidelines aimed at establishing the In spite of having the Uttarakhand Flood Plain framework for providing safer housing to about Zoning Act of 2012, many of new buildings were 30,000 affected households in compliance with constructed in the flood zone. These were badly relevant environmental and social safeguards of the affected during the floods. Thus, the Government Bank and applicable statutory provisions51. Based of Uttarakhand needs to ensure that provision on these guidelines about 30,000 disaster resilient of the Act regulating construction within the houses were taken up with World Bank support under flood plain of river are prohibited and all the old the Odisha Disaster Recovery Project (ODRP) within encroachments are removed53.

Flood Plain Zoning Flood Plain Zoning Act has been enacted by the Govt. of Uttarakhand & Uttarakhand state will be the first state to implement the act. IRI Roorkee has been nominated as the liaising authority to prepare the flood plain zoning maps of two reaches of River Ganga & River Bhagirathi as pilot projects. Flood plain zoning/ map of both the reaches for a 25 year return period flood has been completed and provided to concerned flood plain zoning authorities, headed by District Magistrates. Transferring of data corresponding to flood plain boundary for a flood of 25 years return period on to the ground is in progress.

Source: Government of Uttarakhand 2016. Irrigation Department, Uttarakhand. http://uttarakhandirrigation.com/uploads/documents/doc_982_final_newsletter_1_issue_1_dec.pdf

49 Uttarakhand Disaster Recovery Initiative. ND. Uttarakhand Emergency Assistance Project, http://ukdisasterrecovery.in/index.php/ projects/ueap/adbrb 50 The World Bank 2014. Disaster Planning Pays of in Odisha, India. http://www.worldbank.org/en/results/2014/10/07/disaster- planning-pays-off-odisha-india 51 OSDMA 2013. Policy Guidelines for Post Cyclone Phailin Resilient Housing. http://www.osdma.org/Download/Policy_Housing.pdf 52 OSDMA 2014. Odisha Disaster Recovery Project. file:///C:/Users/Mehul/Downloads/ODRP-Website_30.01.15.pdf 53 NIDM 2015. Uttarakhand Disaster 2013. http://nidm.gov.in/PDF/pubs/ukd-p3.pdf

48 South Asian Disaster Report 2016

The state also requires that landslide risk zonation mapping is undertaken and followed and illegal Since 1999, Odisha has improved its disaster mining of the riverbeds is stopped and repair preparedness and management capacity significantly and construction of roads is done in a scientific by incorporating DRM into post-disaster recovery and manner keeping in view evacuation requirements reconstruction. It has built 200 multi-purpose cyclone and durability during disasters. ‘For clearance shelters in which, the government runs schools, of all hydro-power and other mega projects in anganwadis and community centres to ensure regular ecologically sensitive regions like Uttarakhand, the maintenance, and several new cyclone shelters are Disaster Impact Assessment (DIA) should also be being built under the NCRMP56. School buildings made compulsory besides Environmental Impact in the vulnerable areas are being constructed in a Assessment (EIA)’.54 Following the June 2013 manner that these could be put to use as community floods in Uttarakhand, the apex court ordered the shelters during emergencies; 9664 primary school formation of a committee, which recommended in buildings have been strengthened and 5683 new its April 2014 report that at least 23 hydropower buildings have been constructed57. Considering the projects be scrapped to save the ecologically high vulnerability to climate risk, Odisha pioneered fragile region.55 Another 11-member committee the Climate Change Action Plan in 2010. While the was subsequently formed in June 2015 by the budget allocation for climate change increased from Environment Ministry to assess the cumulative Rs 1,700.17 crore during 2012-13 to Rs 2,184.35 impact of hydroelectric projects on the upper crore in 2013-14 and to Rs 3,207.26 crore in 2014- reaches of the Ganga river in Uttarakhand. 15, several adaptive measures such as disaster

Case example of risk transfer and insurance Following the 2013 Cyclone Phailin, a study58 examines the experience with disaster insurance in Odisha. 125/160 claims were successfully settled with a combined payout of 400507 INR ranging from 1750 to 17000 INR against yearly premiums of 148 INR. These clients are victims of the 2011 floods and 2013 cyclone Phailin. Risk transfer and insurance emerged as an important theme for build back better. With climate change exacerbating the severity of disasters in the developing world, a tool like insurance is of the utmost importance for poor and vulnerable populations. In cyclone Phailin, it helped low income families to recover from the loss. Disaster insurance can help the vulnerable and poor in developing countries to break the vicious cycle of poverty. The core message from the study on effectiveness of disaster insurance in Odisha was that insurance and other ex-ante mechanisms are crucial to manage disaster risk and adapt to climate change.

The study found that, women are a natural target segment for micro-insurance providers. So far, the contribution from women, particularly in building knowledge on the concept and importance of disaster insurance is very high. Women have been found to be more financially literate and responsible. It has been shown that financial empowerment of women has secondary efforts, including improved self-esteem and respect within communities, decreased violence, and better nutritional care and education for children. The contribution of women in Odisha was very fruitful to achieve the results and build ownership and sustainability of the disaster insurance product.

54 NIDM 2014, India Disaster Report, http://nidm.gov.in/PDF/pubs/India%20Disaster%20Report%202013.pdf 55 Aggrawal M. 2015. Panel formed to assess impact of hydropower projects in Uttarakhand. http://www.livemint.com/ Politics/1VwXWhGiKKJGcSSrECNbXL/Panel-formed-to-assess-impact-of-hydropower-projects-in-Utta.html 56 Down to Earth. 2013. How Phailin was different from super cyclone 1999, http://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/how-phailin-was- different-from-super-cyclone-1999-42452 57 OSDMA. ND. School Cum Cyclone Shelter, http://www.osdma.org/ViewDetails.aspx?vchglinkid=GL007&vchplinkid=PL041 58 http://cdkn.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/Summary-Report-Assessment-of-Effectiveness1.pdf.

49 Indian Experience of Building Back Better: Lessons from Recent Disasters

preparedness, construction of flood and cyclone government of Uttarakhand require the setting up shelters, improvement in agricultural productivity of an alternative back up communication system including cultivation of climate resilient crop varieties, in case of the failure of normal communications increasing perennial fruit plantation and adoption of during disasters. integrated farming systems have been implemented59. Coordination with an approach for building back Coordination and Funding better will play an important role in the move towards eco-power, eco-tourism, ecology, eco- Clearly defined roles and responsibilities of public preneurship, horticulture, and village tourism for institutions and its workers is key for improving development, particularly mountain development. coordination and funding mechanisms and Based on the Uttarakhand floods, it is important procedures for disaster recovery and reconstruction. to understand that development needs to be Funding mechanisms for disasters is well-established holistic keeping in mind the limitations, aspirations in India. India has not only set up Disaster Relief and requirements of the communities in the hill as Funds at all levels but also launched the National well as in the plains. Disaster Response Fund, which is financed through the levy of a cess (MoEF 2015)60. The Ministry The Government of India with UNDP and various of Home Affairs, Government of India has items state governments have worked to reduce the (these include gratuitous relief, search and rescue risk and impact of disasters, empowering over operations, relief measures, clearance of affected 300 million people in 150,000 villages in 17 states area, agriculture, animal husbandryassistance to to better understand the warning signs, and take small and marginal farmers, fishery, assistance to the action needed to protect themselves and their artisans, housing, infrastructure, procurement of families. Such coordinated efforts build impact equipments for response, capacity building and in the long run and provide important learning to state-specific support) and norms of assistance from strengthen thebuild back better approach. The the State Disaster Response Fund and the National GFDRR’s assessment resulted in a $250 million Disaster Response Fund. recovery and resilience project in Uttarakhand with the World Bank. The project is based on the In its response to the Uttarakhand Flash Floods, assessment recommendations that aim to ensure a Coordination Committee under the leadership sustainable social and economic restoration. The of the Chief Secretary was formed.The State assessment also aimed to give the Government Government also established a Missing Persons of Uttarakhand ‘build back smarter’ guidelines Cell on June 27, 2013 at theDisaster Mitigation and to incorporate resilience into reconstruction Management Centre (DMMC) at Dehradun. ‘Despite projects62. the most arduous and difficult terrain, inclement weather and lack ofconnectivity, approximately The Uttarakhand Disaster Recovery Project was 1,20,000 persons, stranded/ trapped in different put in place to help with recovery after the 2013 locations (which included both pilgrims and local flash floods in Uttarakhand, India. World Bank residents) were safely evacuated and taken to the teams helped communities better understand relief camps’61. In Uttarakhand, the impact of flash the recovery policies and engage in the project floods on telecommunication was massive and by communicating more in the local language, adversely affected emergency operations. Thus, the promoting transparency and accountability.

59 Business Standards. 2015. Odisha readying climate plan for 2015-20, http://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/ odisha-readying-climate-plan-for-2015-20-115052801829_1.html 60 The Ministry of Environment & Forests (MoEF) 2015. India’s Intended Nationally Determined Contributions, http://www4.unfccc.int/ submissions/INDC/Published%20Documents/India/1/INDIA%20INDC%20TO%20UNFCCC.pdf 61 NIDM 2014, India Disaster Report, http://nidm.gov.in/PDF/pubs/India%20Disaster%20Report%202013.pdf 62 http://www.worldbank.org/en/results/2014/07/29/rapidly-assessing-flood-damage-uttarakhand-india.

50 South Asian Disaster Report 2016

Additionally, model pre-engineered houses were to the 2013 flash floods. Management of flash floods constructed in each district headquarters and in Uttarakhand highlighted the inadequate level of communities were invited to examine them. With trainings of officials and stakeholders in DM. The a greater sense of ownership and understanding mechanism of Incident Response System needs to of available options, more than 50% of the project be established and be dovetailed into the disaster beneficiaries started rebuilding their own houses management plans66. within six months of the project cycle63. The World Bank Assisted, Uttrakhand Disaster The response to Cyclone Phailin was one the best Recovery Project is focusing on building capacity coordinated efforts in the history of India. The of the state administration in a number of areas Government of Odisha ensured that the response such as Risk Assessment, Modelling and Capacity was coordinated with the Odisha Disaster Enhancement of Uttarakhand Space Applications Rapid Action Force (ODRAF), National Disaster Centre (USAC), slope stabilisation and river Response Force (NDRF), the Central Reserve morphology, capacity building of USDMA, emergency Police Force (CRPF), Odisha State Armed Police response, early warning and decision support (OSAP) and the Indian Air Force (IAF). About 185 system67. In 2016 (February 2016- May 2016), medical teams were mobilised, 338 medical relief the Disaster Mitigation and Management Centre, centres were opened and about 30 NGOs were Government of Uttarakhand organised a series of 10- also engaged in various vulnerable blocks of the days search and rescue training programmes for all coastal and flood-prone districts64. the hazard prone districts in the state68. The state has also been conducting mock drills on earthquake and Capacity Development chemical/industrial disasters with NDMA since 2011.

SFDRR requires state governments to promote The Odisha State Disaster Management Authority preparedness for emergency response and is strengthening capacity of the state disaster recovery. This includes capacities for evacuation, management administration through development of providing access to safe shelter, emergency relief disaster management plans at state and sub-national as well as capacity for undertaking rapid needs levels as per the guidelines laid down by the Disaster and damage assessments. Management Act of 2005, including ongoing training and capacity building activities of the state and The government of Uttarakhand has developed non-state actors. Capacity of state administration Standard Operating Procedures for its police, to execute orders and awareness of community Public Works Department, Power Corporation, about disaster risks, including effective coordination Agriculture Department, Irrigation Department with non-stake actors is being enhanced. On the and Jal Sansthan65, including manuals on warning mainstreaming front, about 18 state departments and evacuation and disaster management in Odisha have developed their own departmental information system. But much of these remained disaster management plans69. Recently, under on paper and was of little use during the response the GoI-UNDP Project on ‘Enhancing Institutional

63 Progress report on Mainstreaming DRM in World Bank Group Operations (March 25, 2016); World Bank. http://siteresources. worldbank.org/DEVCOMMINT/Documentation/23713857/DC2016-0004-DRM.pdf. 64 NIDM 2014, India Disaster Report, http://nidm.gov.in/PDF/pubs/India%20Disaster%20Report%202013.pdf 65 Official Website Of DISASTER MITIGATION AND MANAGEMENT CENTER, Government of Uttarakhand. ND. http://dmmc.uk.gov.in/ pages/display/59-standard-operating-procedures 66 NIDM 2014, India Disaster Report, http://nidm.gov.in/PDF/pubs/India%20Disaster%20Report%202013.pdf 67 Uttarakhand Disaster Recovery Initiative. ND. Technical Assistance & Capacity Building for Disaster Risk Management. http:// ukdisasterrecovery.in/index.php/projects/udrp1/ta-cbdrm 68 Official Website Of DISASTER MITIGATION AND MANAGEMENT CENTER, Government of Uttarakhand. 2016. http://dmmc.uk.gov. in/files/pdf/Final_proposed_training_new.pdf 69 OSDMA. ND. Departmental Disaster Management Plans, http://www.osdma.org/Download/Departmental_Disaster_ ManagementPlan.pdf

51 Indian Experience of Building Back Better: Lessons from Recent Disasters

and Community Resilience to Disaster and Climate women to recovery too often go unrecognised. Change’, OSDMA in partnership with AIDMI has This marginalises their skills and knowledge and developed training of trainers on ‘Mainstreaming limits their opportunities to play a greater role in Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate Change building back better71. Mainstreaming gender into Adaptation’70. reconstruction provides for faster and deeper recovery, in addition to the benefits gained in Gender promoting gender equality and addressing gender based vulnerabilities72. Numerous examples point out that families and communities fare much better in combating natural Ecosystem for Integration disasters and effects of climate change when women lead and play a central role. The focus on It has been demonstrated that ecosystem services strengthening capacities of women is likely to enhance can be used for climate change adaptationand the effectiveness of DRR and adaptation actions. disaster risk reduction (IPCC 2012). For example, Damage, needs, and vulnerability assessments forests provide flood and landslide regulation too often fail to capture the differential impacts of services, a phenomenon that is harnessed disasters and disaster response on men and women, in watershed management programmes. including children. As a result, the contributions of Ecosystems are not invulnerable to current anthropogenic pressures and are being degraded. At the policy level, the importance of including Engendering recovery with active sustainable ecosystem management for DRR and participation of women CCA is recognised. The UNFCCC Paris COP 12 Following the 2001 Gujarat earthquake, the largest agreement and SFDRR both prominently feature direct focus on women was led by SEWA, which ecosystem based approaches to adaptation and provided relief to 40,000 women and their families risk reduction. The Uttarakhand disaster triggered in three districts and built 8,000 houses for rural acceleration to national and international thought women in 78 villages to assist decision-making on process on the role of ecosystems and their shelter type, location, safety and costs. The shelters services in terms of DRR and reducing people’s are registered in the names of these women and vulnerability. Partnership of Environment and DRR are designed to complement their livelihood efforts. (UN-PEDRR) has evolved a mechanism called The district federations of SEWA set up learning Ecosystem approach to DRR, which is now being centres for local women to make their recovery considered through the state authority created for faster and less painful, including tools, techniques guiding post-disaster rehabilitation and recovery and information about government schemes. The in Uttarakhand74. Similarly, in Odisha the Regional centres continued intoearly 2009 and have served Centre for Development Cooperation (RCDC) as focal points during flood recovery in years since implemented the Paribartanprojectin Kendrapara the earthquake73. and Jagatsinghpur following Cyclone Phailin75.

70 AIDMI 2015. Training of Trainers on ‘Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate Change Adaptation’, http://www.osdma. org//ckeditor/CKFiles/12-Jan-2016Training%20Module%20on%20Mainstreaming%20DRR%20and%20CCA.pdf 71 IRP, UNDP, ISDR, Guidance Note on Recovery Gender, 2010 72 IRP, Knowledge for Recovery Series info kit 1 73 Gareth Price and Mihir Bhatt, HPG Working Paper, The role of the affected state in humanitarian action: A case study on India April 2009, odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/4281.pdf 74 Uttarakhand Disaster 2013 - Floods and Landslides: Lessons of Ecology Not Yet Learnt; http://isebindia.com/13_16/13-10-2.html. 75 Chatterjee J. 2016. Mangrove nurseries protect coasts and livelihoods, http://www.indiawaterportal.org/articles/mangrove- nurseries-protect-coasts-and-livelihoods

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Health and Community Key Conclusions Resilience Failing to “build back better” can have dire Health care systems provide core capacities in consequences. Hurricane Matthew, which killed response, build back better and risk reduction. at least 1000 people and destroyed thousands of The limited basic health services and infrastructure houses in Haiti is another reminder. Since the 2010 hugely compound the challenges of disaster earthquake, which claimed 222,750 lives in Haiti, response and recovery. Primary health care cholera has claimed more than 9000 lives and focuses on basic services to improve health infected more than 720,000 people due to poor water status, which in turn builds community resilience and sanitation and the failure to control the disease and provides the foundation for responding manifested into a current crisis situation in 2016 with to emergencies. The strategies need to be a surge of infections in areas hardest hit by Hurricane flexible enough to take into account the diverse Matthew.77 Sidelining local stakeholders, about 94% composition of modern communities, and include of the US$13.5 billion pledged by the international migrants and people from different ethnic and community after the earthquake went to private cultural groups, and with different health seeking contractors, donor nations’ own civilian and military behaviour. It is also in line with the SFDRR target entities, INGOs and UN agencies, which hampered – substantially reduce disaster damage to critical any serious effort to address disaster risk or empower infrastructure and disruption of basic services, locals to access resources, education, livelihoods and among them health and educational facilities, health78. Holding those who contribute to economic including through developing their resilience by development as well as those who receive money for 2030. “building back better” accountable for creating new risk and reducing existing ones is thus necessary to The Phailin recovery efforts by the state and make the Sendai Framework a reality. the World Bank have emphasized urban health infrastructure. The health benefits from urban The 2001 Gujarat recovery experience from India infrastructure at Berhampur which is the largest shows that when applied the “building back better” component has avoided illnesses and reduced principle has potential to mobilise participation risk of mortality from lack of water and sanitation and contribute to people-centred sustainable access. Improved water and sanitation services development. The Gujarat Emergency Earthquake result in a reduction in the number of infections of Reconstruction Project (GEERP) claims that, as part several major diseases, including typhoid, cholera, of recovery, the state government implemented the shigellosis, and rotavirus.76 world’s largest housing reconstruction project with over 900,000 houses repaired and nearly 200,000 reconstructed79. When the project closed in October 2008, it had invested over $500m in housing construction (61%), roads and highways (14%), irrigation and drainage (13%), state and local public administration (10%), and other social services (2%). The reconstruction investments directly focused on owner-driven shelter reconstruction as well as multi-

76 Odisha Disaster Recovery Project, Project Appraisal document. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/ en/372771468049771502/pdf/834520PAD0P148010Box382122B00OUO090.pdf. 77 Jason von Meding and Giuseppe Forino 2016. Hurricane Matthew is just the latest unnatural disaster to strike Haiti, http:// theconversation.com/hurricane-matthew-is-just-the-latest-unnatural-disaster-to-strike-haiti-66766 78 Jason von Meding and Giuseppe Forino 2016. Hurricane Matthew is just the latest unnatural disaster to strike Haiti, http:// theconversation.com/hurricane-matthew-is-just-the-latest-unnatural-disaster-to-strike-haiti-66766 79 Rediff News. 2004. Three Years after Killer quake, Gujarat Emerges Stronger, http://www.rediff.com/news/2004/jan/25quake.htm

53 Indian Experience of Building Back Better: Lessons from Recent Disasters

sector rebuilding of social, economic and physical sustainable recovery. Gradually, in India various infrastructure to revive the economy and provide the state governments have started taking initiatives basis for economic recovery80. The Gujarat State for building back better. Governments across Asia Disaster Management Authority (GSDMA), which are taking housing, infrastructure and livelihood came into existence following the Gujarat Earthquake recovery on a priority basis and disaster risk was awarded the prestigious UN Sasakawa award management is being integrated in the recovery 2003 for outstanding work in the field of disaster process with ‘Build Back Better’ accepted as the management and risk reduction. basic principle of recovery.

The Indian experience of building back better confirms The Asia Regional Plan for Disaster Risk that investment in local capacities (both people and Reduction, which has been adopted in the Asian institutions) is a long-term disaster reduction strategy Ministerial Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction and is more effective compared to short-term and (AMCDRR) in New Delhi in November 2016 top-down or donor driven approaches. The Gujarat highlights and incorporates key considerations earthquake not only saw the world’s largest housing for building back better in implementation of the reconstruction project but also resulted in the Sendai frameworkin Asia to achieve its goals. The development of state, district and taluka level disaster ten-point agenda outlined by the Prime Minister of management plans, including setting up of disaster India at AMCDRR reinforces the basic approach preparedness committees in all affected villages with and principle of BBB. ‘Post-disaster recovery is active participation of Panchayats. In the tsunami, an opportunity to not just to ‘build back better’ in where the elected Panchayats were sidelined by terms of physical infrastructure, but also in terms the traditional Panchayats and the local community of improved institutional systems for managing leaders, the risk of entrenching existing caste and risk.’ The lessons listed below are relevant to gender biases increased81. both, guiding recovery in Nepal as well as ARP implementation in Asia. Both the states of Uttarakhand and Odisha are highly vulnerable to multiple disasters as well as to the 1. Focus on poor and anti-poverty initiative. adverse impacts of climate change. In comparison Every disaster offers an opportunity to upgrade to Uttarakhand, a more experienced and better and improve national disaster management equipped state administration in Odisha was in a much frameworks, policies and plans to reduce better position to face a disaster in 2013. Continuous and avoid future risks. The government work of the state government and non-state actors and donors engaged in Nepal recovery and since 1999 Super Cyclone in Odisha to improve reconstruction must focus on improving an disaster management system, ensured a much better enabling environment for safer recovery to take preparedness and response, including improved place. This may include, revising and revisiting management of recovery and reconstruction. The existing polices and plans for disaster risk need to further strengthen disaster preparedness for management, including existing structures effective response and building back better is widely and decision making hierarchies. Helping and recognised. Disasters offer unique challenges as supporting the national government of Nepal well as opportunities for serving people in distress in developing specific recovery standards and developing systems for reducing such distress. will be an important area for donors and the Relief efforts in a disaster scenario can serve not only international community to bring about long- to reverse losses but also to spearhead long-term

80 Gareth Price and Mihir Bhatt, HPG Working Paper, The role of the affected state in humanitarian action: A case study on India April 2009, odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/4281.pdf 81 Gareth Price and Mihir Bhatt, HPG Working Paper, The role of the affected state in humanitarian action: A case study on India April 2009, odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/4281.pdf 82 Press Information Bureau, Government of India. 2016. Prime Minister’s address at Asian Ministerial Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction. http://pib.nic.in/newsite/pmreleases.aspx?mincode=3

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term change in preparedness, response and and at risk and suffer the most when a disaster recovery practices. For example, donors strikes. Disasters can have several direct as need to ensure that the National Building well as indirect negative effects on children. The Code of Nepal is enforced properly and its AIDMI, experience of working with UNICEF and provisions are incorporated in municipalities Save the Children shows that while short-term and urban local bodies which are responsible needs of disaster affected children such as food, to issue building permits in Nepal. AIDMI has water, health and shelter are easily addressed; witnessed in 2001 Gujarat and more recently long-term needs are often overlooked. Long- in Odisha in response to the cyclone Phailin term needs of children following a disaster include what effective administration and enabling continued support for education, immunization policy environment can do to achieve safer and nutritional diets, including the development recovery and saving lives. of child-friendly infrastructure and adequate provision of WASH facilities. But all of these 2. Start from where people are (and not require detailed assessment of children specific where agencies are). Reconstruction needs and data. Similarly, the AIDMI experience of shelters and restarting livelihoods is of working with State Disaster Management fundamental for recovery efforts in Nepal. Authorities (SDMAs) in India shows that school As we have seen in many disasters in last safety audits are necessary to protect children two decades, the level of satisfaction with from disaster risks. Nepal must prioritise safety housing is directly related to participation and and education of children as a long-term risk ownership of the process and output by the reduction measure. communities. Owner-driven approaches tend to succeed more and score more points in 4. Local solutions are often of more value comparison to donor-driven reconstruction. than best solutions. A review and overhaul of Suitable provision of water and sanitation local district disaster management plans across services in and around households is also Nepal, especially of earthquake hotspots is long important for owner satisfaction. Since access overdue. A third party review of the plans of to clean drinking water and sanitation still key districts is overdue. The AIDMI experience remains an unfulfilled promise in many areas shows that most local disaster management of Nepal, housing reconstruction offers a plans are prepared with constraints of necessary new opportunity to make a sizable difference knowledge, skills and resources and remain top- in increasing the number of households down and a single-time exercise. These plans with suitable WASH facilities. In South-Asia, and processes are hardly shared between two home-based work is a way of life for many districts or made inclusive from the point of view poor households. For them the house is also of the poor and marginalised. As envisaged by the a place to work. Thus, housing reconstruction SFDRR, government and donors must support approaches and strategies in Nepal must development and up-gradation of local disaster recognize this link and the process itself must management plans in Nepal. Similarly, donors lead to employment opportunities for owners. must also consider supporting emergency The unemployment rate in Nepal is as high management exercises, including mock-drills as 40 percent and agriculture supports more to improve community and system response to than 70% of the population. Thus, special natural disasters and climate extremes. Such attention must also be given to agriculture exercises in India have been well-received and allied sectors. and extremely useful to gauge the capacity of response systems and strengthening resilience. 3. Children and education is not one of the It is also important to review how panchayats last but one of the first relief agenda items. and other local institutions have been involved in Along with women, elderly, disabled and planning and evaluating recovery. certain socially and economically excluded groups, children remain most vulnerable

55 Indian Experience of Building Back Better: Lessons from Recent Disasters

5. Financial measures such as cash transfers the 2001 Gujarat earthquake shows that it is and insurance help in some instances. possible for governments to promote such Since the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, the long-term risk reduction measure. overwhelming majority of reviews in South Asia 6. Understand and consider using market show that cash is an effective option to re-build based solutions emerging for recovery, lives and livelihoods, especially when markets are and study why and how they perform. functional and accessible to communities as they Micro and small enterprises are often among offer important advantages such as speed and the worst sufferers of disasters. Continuity flexibility and most importantly to shift the power of their businesses is crucial for promoting a of decision making to victims. Cash transfers also speedy and lasting community recovery. Still, boost local market recovery. limited knowledge exists on how disasters AIDMI with EU and DFID support used cash affect them and what measures can make transfers in 2001 for the Gujarat earthquake them more resilient. Thus, it is crucial that victims and over the years has pursued cash government and donors support assessment transfers across six states and four types of of disaster impact and risk to micro and disasters covering an estimated 18,000 families small enterprises in Nepal for the crucial over ten years, showing when cash works. requirements for rapid recovery in terms of The AIDMI experience of using cash transfers business continuity, capital requirement for shows that even though most cash transfer development and growth and risk reduction, interventions are not envisioned as a long-term including risk transfer and social protection economic solution, cash transfers are used could be mapped and addressed. beyond the intended use of meeting immediate 7. Mainstream DRR for resilience. Recovery needs to repair houses and restore critical and reconstruction in Nepal should go beyond community infrastructures, including re-starting restoring what is lost or damaged i.e. services of micro-enterprises and sending children and rebuilding houses and infrastructure back to school. The recent drive on using cash to incorporate measures to address future transfers for development and disaster recovery risks in the light of existing vulnerabilities spearheaded by the MGNREGS and a number and multi-hazards scenario. Integration of civil society organisations in India indicates of Climate Change Adaptation (CCA) and that cash can also be used to support recovery DRR in recovery is an important aspect of of MSMEs. Cash transfers can keep many addressing the root causes of vulnerability as community members employed during the the scientific community has already warned recovery phase; our experience shows that cash about a series of more fatal extreme climate transfers can effectively be used as an entry point and geological events such as earthquakes, for active women participation in the later stages volcanoes and tsunamis, including floods of reconstruction. Similarly, micro-insurance and cyclones. AIDMI work on Climate can be a potentially viable option for protecting Risk Management (CRM) with Climate and the assets of the poor against disasters but is Development Knowledge Network (CDKN) often unavailable to them. Despite its potential, suggest that both governments and donors micro-insurance is rarely used in humanitarian should approach Nepal recovery as a long- contexts and very little is known about how it term risk reduction process and not a short- actually benefits the poor and micro enterprises. term recovery activity. Mainstreaming DRR AIDMI is currently, piloting a micro-insurance in development processes and key sectors scheme in three cities of India with HIF support for resilience is a long-term goal. Risk arising to explore who benefits from such arrangements out of natural disasters and climate extremes and how. Nepal recovery is an opportunity for the needs to be understood and integrated into government and donors to introduce risk transfer development plans, sectors, legislation, mechanisms. The housing insurance programme structures as well as national budgetary of the government of Gujarat introduced following

56 South Asian Disaster Report 2016

allocations. Nepal recovery is an opportunity for establishing a more comprehensive and more effective multi-hazard early warning system.

Nepal has a unique opportunity for building back better lives and livelihoods including public infrastructure and essential services. Reconstruction and recovery in Nepal is also an opportunity for testing the implementation modalities for Sendai as well as the recently released Asia Regional Plan in the context of building back better.

57 Indian Experience of Building Back Better: Lessons from Recent Disasters

The involvement of women in leadership roles can Communities find ways to adapt to the climatic threats increase the speed of recovery. A female farmer from that they face. A womens’ self help group in Philin cyclone Kanmer village in Kutch who has managed the 2001 affectedvillage in coastal Odisha producing and marketing local organic varieties of vegetables to adapt to salinity earthquake recovery (January 2017) (Photo Mihir R. ingress, uncertain cyclone and drought conditions, and Bhatt. Thanks to Dr. Lyla Mehta) increasing heat waves. (From CDKN Consultation on Implementing NDCs in India, March 2017.) (Photo Mihir R. Bhatt)

Disaster and extreme events lead to a large number Women’s leadership is essential to any local of vulnerable people migrating in search of food, fuel, sustainable recovery in India. A farmer group leader in and income. A Rabari family of Kutch migrating to Jagatsinghpur in Odisha narrating why preparedness South Gujarat in January 2017. (Photo Mihir R. Bhatt) works when women lead, March 2017. (Photo Mihir R. Bhatt)

58 South Asian Disaster Report 2016

Nepal Earthquake of 2015 – Are We Building Better

By Gehendra B. Gurung1 and Achyut Luitel2

1 Head of Programme, Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate Change, Practical Action South Asia and Member of Duryog Nivaran. 2 Regional Director of the Practical Action South Asia Office and Steering Committee Member of Duryog Nivaran.

59 Nepal Earthquake of 2015 – Are We Building Better

Abbreviations ADB Asian Development Bank AEPC Alternative Energy Promotion Centre BCPR Bureau for Crisis Prevention and Recovery - UNDP (BCPR-UNDP) CBDRR Community-based Disaster Risk Reduction CBRC Community-based Reconstruction Committee CBS Central Bureau of Statistics CEO Chief Executive Officer CL-PIU Central Level Project Implementation Unit CNDRC Central Natural Disaster Relief Committee CNI Confederation of Nepalese Industries CRED Central Regional Education Directorate DCA Dan Church Aid DDC District Development Committee DEOC District Emergency Operation Centre DFID Department for International Development of the UK DPRP Disaster Preparedness and Response Plan DRR Disaster Risk Reduction EIA Environment Impact Assessment EM-DAT Emergency Events Database GESI Gender and Social Inclusion GoN Government of Nepal HI Handicap International HRRP Housing Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Platform IFC International Finance Corporation ILO International Labour Organisation IOM International Organization for Migration JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency LWF Lutheran World Federation MoEn Ministry of Energy MoEv Ministry of Environment MoF Ministry of Finance MoFSC Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation MoHA Ministry of Home Affairs MoI Ministry of Irrigation MoIC Ministry of Information and Communication MoLE Ministry of Labour and Employment MoLRM Ministry of Land Reform and Management MoPE Ministry of Population and Environment MoSTE Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment

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MoTCA Ministry of Tourism and Civil Aviation MoUD Ministry of Urban Development MoWCSW Ministry of Women, Children and Social Welfare NDMA National Disaster Management Authority NEOC National Emergency Operation Centre NGO Non-governmental Organisation NPC National Planning Commission NRA National Reconstruction authority NSDRM National Strategy for Disaster Risk Management OFDA Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance PAF Poverty Alleviation Fund PDF Post-disaster Framework PDNA Post-disaster Need Assessment REFLECT Regenerated Freirean Literacy through Empowering Community Technique SD Swiss Development SOP Standard Operating Procedure SWC Social Welfare Council UNDP United National Development Programme UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNFPA United Nations Population Fund UN-HABITAT United Nations Human Settlements Programme UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund UNOPS United Nations Office for Project Services UNV United Nations Volunteers UNWOMEN United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women USAID United States International Development Agency VDC Village Development Committee WB World Bank WCF Ward Citizen Forum WFP World Food Programme

61 Nepal Earthquake of 2015 – Are We Building Better

Nepal is becoming more and more risk-prone and Disasters in Nepal - disaster-affected as a county. Country Context The main reasons for such high risk and hazard epal is highly exposed to multi-hazards. impact are mainly due to high vulnerability because In 2015, globally Nepal ranked highest as of high susceptibility to hazards, low coping and Nthe country most affected by disaster in adaptive capacity10, and the fact that the frequency terms of number of lives lost, third from view of and magnitude of hazards are also high. Inadequate economic damage, and fourth according to the preparedness and mainstreaming or integration number of people affected3. In 2014, Nepal was at of DRR into development, poor governance and the 7th position among the countries which were inadequate knowledge, information and education of most adversely affected by climate events4. Nepal the known risk are also some of the reasons behind is rated as the 4th most vulnerable country in the the high vulnerability. world according to the climate change vulnerability index5. In 2005, a report by the World Bank ranked Nepal at 11th among the most exposed countries Earthquake of April 2015 to multi-hazards6, and in 2004, Nepal was ranked On April 25, 2015 at 11:56, Nepal was struck by an at 11th position from an earthquake vulnerability earthquake of 7.6 Magnitude on the Richter scale point of view and 30th from flood and landslide with an epicentre at Barpak village of Gorkha district, disaster point of view7. west from Kathmandu valley11. The same day at 12:30 another quake with a magnitude of 6.6 with its Since the year 2000, every year an average of epicentre at Ghyalchowk (Gorkha), some kilometres 329 people lost their lives due to various disasters north from Barpak (Gorkha), hit the country. On April reaching as high as 850 in severe years8. A 25, there were 16 aftershocks registering more than report published by the then Ministry of Science, 4 on the Richter scale following the first hit (Figure 1). Technology and Environment (MoSTE) shows The aftershocks continued for several months ranging that the direct cost of impacts of water-induced from at least one a day to as many as 15 a day. On disaster alone ranged from US$270 to 360m per April 26, an aftershock with a magnitude of 6.9 at year during a 30 year period (1980-2010) which Richter scale hit the country again with its epicentre was 1.5 - 2% of the GDP at 2013 value, reaching in Bigu (Dolakha). On May 12, two aftershocks hit the to as high as 5% in extreme years; while the country again with magnitudes of 6.8 and 6.2 with their indirect cost was as high as 100% of the direct epicentres at Bigu (Dolakha) and Jhyaku (Dolakha) impact9. A short review of these global disasters (Tablel 1). The 2015 April earthquake in Nepal was and risk ratings show that Nepal is among the the most destructive one after the earthquake in 1934 highest risk and disaster-affected countries in the which recorded a Richter scale reading of 8.4. The world. An overview of the past decade shows that

3 EM-DAT (25th January 2016) : The OFDA/CRED - International Disaster Database www.emdat.be Université catholique de Louvain Brussels - Belgium 4 Sönke Kreft, David Eckstein, Lukas Dorsch & Livia Fischer (2016) GLOBAL CLIMATE RISK INDEX 2016 Germanwatch e.V. 5 Maplecroft (2011). Climate Change Vulnerability Indes accessed at https://maplecroft.com/about/news/ccvi.html 6 World Bank (2005). Natural Disaster Hotspots: A Global Risk Analysis 7 UNDP/BCPR (2004), A Global Report Reducing Disaster Risk-A Challenge for Development, United Nations Development Programme, Bureau for crisis Prevention and Recovery, Geneva 8 Nepal Disaster Report 2015, The Government of Nepal, Ministry of Home Affairs (MoHA) and Disaster Preparedness Network-Nepal (DPNet-Nepal) 9 MoESTE 2014, Economic Impact Assessment of Climate Change in Key Sectors in Nepal 10 Institute for Environment and Human Security (2016) WorldRiskReport, 2016. United Nations University 11 GON, NRA, 2072, Reconstruction and Recovery Policy, 2072

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Figure 1: One month After-shocks following April 25, 2015 Earthquake, Nepal

7.8

7.3

6.8

6.3

5.8

5.3 Magnitude (ML)

4.8

4.3

3.8

April 2015 earthquake severely affected 14 districts Table 1: High Scale Aftershocks after the of Nepal with an additional 17 districts affected with first earthquake of 7.6 at Richter scale high impacts (Map 1). The total economic loss from Date Magnitude Epicenter the earthquake has been estimated at US$ 7,065m 2015/04/25 7.6 Gorkha of which the private sector loss is US$ 5,404m and the public sector loss is $ 1,661m. Initially the 2015/04/25 6.6 Gorkha resources need for rehabilitation and reconstruction 2015/04/26 6.9 Dolakha was estimated at $6,695m for all sectors12 which has 2015/05/12 6.8 Dolakha been re-estimated at US$7,534m (approx.) for five 2015/05/12 6.2 Dolakha years rebuilding13. Table 2 provides brief highlights of Source: http://www.seismonepal.gov.np/ the physical impacts of the earthquake. For the medium to long term, the PDNA (Post-

12 Post Disaster Need Assessment, GoN, 2015 13 Sectoral Plans and Financial Projection, NRA, May 2016

63 Nepal Earthquake of 2015 – Are We Building Better

Table 2: Summary of impacts of April 2015 earthquake in Nepal S. No. Particular Impacts in Number 1 Lives loss 8,896 2 Person injured 22,303 3 Private houses - destroyed 498,852 4 Private houses - damaged 256,697 5 Government building - destroyed 2,656 6 Government building - damaged 3,622 7 School building – class room destroyed 19,000 8 School building – class room damaged 11,000 Source: Reconstruction Policy, GoN 2016 (Lives loss and Person injured revisited based on NRA 201714)

14 NRA 2017. Major Progress Report on Reconstruction and Rehabilitation till the first week of Poush 2073 (3rd week of December 2016)

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Disaster Need Assessment) has prioritised and decided to implement a “one door” system recommended the following: for rescue and relief in which all humanitarian supports should be closely coordinated with the • improvements in legal and institutional government to ensure no victim is left out, no one arrangements gets repeated supports and no one gets sub- • measures to mainstream DRR into the standard packages. However, different partner developmental sector, particularly housing, organisations distributed the goods and materials private and public infrastructure, social sectors with different standards as per their institutional (health and education), and livelihood and standards and decisions; while some tried to • measures to improve integration of climate follow the international standards17. (There is a change adaptation and DRR need of standardisation of relief materials for the disaster affected communities)

The Search, Rescue and For Search, Rescue and Relief, the government Relief Phase mobilised 66,069 Nepal Army, 41,776 Nepal Police, 24,775 Armed Police Force and 22,500 During the Search, Rescue and Relief phase, pre- civil servants within one month18. The government earthquake NEOC/SOP- 2072 (2015)15 guided the also realised that national capacity was not operation. The Standard Operation of Procedure adequate to address this level of disaster and (SOP) guides the National and District Emergency requested the international community for support Centres (NEOC/ DECOs) for prompt communication in Search, Rescue and Relief, and mobilised 4,521 of the event, mobilising response teams, coordinating rescuers from 34 countries who came with 141 nationally and internationally and reporting of canines. There were also 78 international medical the event. Following the earthquake the National teams with over 1,400 members for emergency Emergency Operation Centre (NEOC) and District medical service. Nepal has a relatively well defined Emergency Operation Centres (DEOCs) were National Strategic Action Plan on Search and activated as per the SOP which played vital roles in Rescue19; however, during this disaster it was disaster information communication, management observed that the implementation aspect of the and stakeholder coordination. Measures for Action Plan was inadequate. Had the Plan been Rescue and Relief for Disaster Affected (2006/07) properly implemented, there would have been and National Disaster Response Framework trained rescue teams and systems not only at the (2013) also guided the government in deciding the national level, but also at local levels as well. relief packages for the disaster affected people. However, the Central Natural Disaster Relief Committee (CNDRC) had to make a number of ad- hoc decisions, especially formation of committees, coordination mechanisms and standardising of relief packages16. Such standardised needs were not reflected in the existing legislation. There was not adequate guidance for the standard of materials and goods to support the victims. The government

15 NEOC/SOP- 2072 (2015) 16 Ministry of Home Affairs, one month report of Search, Rescue and Relief, 2015 17 Ministry of Home Affairs, one month report of Search, Rescue and Relief, 2015 18 Bhandari, B. Nepal Gorkha Earthquake, 2015. Workshop on: Implementing the Sendai Framework for DRR, 1-3 September, 2015. Sri Lanka MoHA organised by Duryog Nivaran (shared through presentations) 19 The Government of Nepal Ministry of Home Affairs, National Strategic Action Plan on Search and Rescue, August 2013

65 Nepal Earthquake of 2015 – Are We Building Better

In order to help mainstream and integrate disaster Disaster Management management into development, Nepal has Local Legislations in Nepal Disaster Risk Management Planning Guidelines (LDRMP Guidelines, 2010/2011, MoFALD). The Nepal has a relatively good Disaster Risk guidelines are helpful in integrating and mainstreaming Management Strategy20. The strategy envisions a disaster risk management in development. However, National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) it has been observed that the earthquake affected with three high level sub-committees under districts had hardly any LDRM plan. Although some the coordination of relevant ministers. These districts had the plans, like Sindhupalchowk, the sub-committees are namely 1) Preparedness plan did not explicitly assess the risk and did not Management Committee, 2) Rescue and Relief inform the development line agencies adequately Management Committee and 3) Rehabilitation concerning required level of risk reduction measures. and Reconstruction Committee. It also envisions Even where the plans did provide risk reduction Regional, District and Local Level Disaster recommendations, they did not receive adequate Management Committees for effective attention in terms of resource mobilisation and implementation of the disaster management capacity building21. Besides that, Nepal has Disaster programmes and activities by integrating and Preparedness and Response Plan (DPRP) Guidelines mainstreaming the DRM into the development (2011). However, the scale of impact of April 2015 process. However, these provisions in the earthquake showed that these legal documents were Strategy have not yet been fully materialised. not adequate applied in practice. One of the reasons is the lack of legislation for the implementation of National Disaster Risk Management Strategy. The existing Natural Calamity Relief Act 1982 has a limited scope which only covers the Rescue and Relief management activities. The new Disaster Management Bill has been under discussion for the last several years and is still to be endorsed by the government. It is now considered a matter of urgency to finalise and endorse the National Disaster Management Bill, including the lessons from the learning of the April 2015 earthquake as well.

20 Government of Nepal, 2009 NSDRM- 2009 21 Practical Action 2014, Impact Assessment of Jure Landslides of Sindhupalchowk

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The Reconstruction and Recovery of Nepal After the earthquake of April 2015, Nepal has gone through a series of activities for post-disaster reconstruction and recovery. Table 3 gives some of the key activities that took place following the earthquake.

Table 3: A Chronology of Activities after the April 2015 Earthquake of Nepal till one year

Date and Time Event 2015/04/25: 11:56 An earthquake of 7.6 Richter scale with epicentre at Barpak village of Gorkha district struck Local time Nepal Immediately the cabinet meeting decided to release NRs 500m for humanitarian purposes. The government declared a state of emergency in 11 most affected districts, mobilised Nepal Army, Nepal Police, Armed Police Force and Civil Servant of the Government for Search, Rescue and Humanitarian actions. The government also appealed for international support in search, rescue and humanitarian supports. 2015/04/26 Additional one district declared as state of emergency. A coordination committee formed to manage the emergency situation under the Joint- Secretary of office of the Prime-minister 2015/04/30 Two additional districts declared as state of emergency 2015/05/03 Deployment of Joint Secretary to all the earthquake affected districts for the management of the relief activities 2015/05/27 Nepal Rastra Bank released Guidelines for Reconstruction Loan 2015 May Post-disaster Need Assessment conducted 2015/06/25 International Conference on Nepal’s Reconstruction organised 2015/06/28 Cabinet decided on a package for temporary shelter with immediate cash support of NRs 15,000 per household. The cabinet also decided to form a monitoring committee under the coordination of Deputy Prime Minister and the Home Minister and defined the committee’s roles and responsibilities 2015/07/08 Annual Programme of Government (2015-2016) addresses reconstruction of Nepal 2015/08/13 and CEO of NRA appointed and resigned 2015/10/25 2015 August Nepal Recovery and Reconstruction Policy Drafted 2015/10/1-2 Regional Earthquake Recovery Dialogue organised for Building Back Better in Kathmandu 2015/12/20 Reconstruction Act, 2015 2015/12/25 New CEO of NRA appointed 2016 Reconstruction Grant Guidelines 2016/04/11 Non-governmental Organisation (NGO) Mobilisation Procedure 2016 May Post Disaster Recovery Framework finalised 2016/05/20 Budget of 2016/17 speech (addresses the post-earthquake rebuilding) 2016/05/30 Public Procurement Guidelines for reconstruction 2016/05 Sectoral Plans and Financial Projections – Elaboration of Post-disaster Reconstruction Framework for its Implementation 2016 Guidelines for Reconstruction Fund Management 2016 Timber Production, Supply and Management Guidelines for Reconstruction 2016/05/30 Agreement Template between NRA and Intermediary Bank for Reconstruction Grant Management 2016/06/25 Reconstruction Training Delivery Management Guidelines 2016 Community based Reconstruction Committees Guidelines 2016/07/06 Grievance Management Procedure

67 Nepal Earthquake of 2015 – Are We Building Better

National Reconstruction Authority (NRA) is updating its progress through web-posting. Following is the progress so far made until 6 April 2017.

Table 4: Progress of NRA thus far

S. No. Sector Progress Date thus far 1 HOUSING AND COMMUNITY INFRASTRUCTURE Agreement signed for housing grant (hh) – outside valley 486,164 6 Apr 2017 Agreement signed for housing grant (hh) – inside valley 75,681 6 Apr 2017 No. of identified beneficiaries (hh) – outside valley 532,266 6 Apr 2017 No. of identified beneficiaries (hh) – inside valley 94,459 6 Apr 2017 First tranche grant delivered (hh) – outside valley 477,048 6 Apr 2017 First tranche grant delivered (hh) – inside valley 65,497 6 Apr 2017 Second tranche grant delivered (hh) – outside valley 3,746 6 Apr 2017 Second tranche grant delivered (hh) – inside valley 0 6 Apr 2017 Third tranche grant delivered (hh) – outside valley 420 6 Apr 2017 Third tranche grant delivered (hh) – inside valley 0 6 Apr 2017 No. of Household Surveyed (hh) – outside valley 715,319z 3rd week of Dec 2016 No. of Household Surveyed (hh) – inside valley 108,806 3rd week of Dec 2016 Grievances registered (case) – outside and inside valley 207,453 6 Apr 2017 Grievances settled (case) – outside and inside valley 93,374 6 Apr 2017 Multi-hazard assessments completed (location) 117 23 Aug 2016 2 EDUCATION Schools under construction (no.) 1,200 23 Aug 2016 Reconstruction tender processes underway (no) 62 23 Aug 2016 Agreement finalized rebuilding schools (no) 600 23 Aug 2016 3 HEALTH Number of health sector buildings under construction 200 23 Aug 2016 (prefabricated materials) Reconstruction agreements finalized (no) 444 23 Aug 2016 4 TOURISM AND HERITAGE Reconstruction tender process completed (No.) 51 23 Aug 2016 Heritage structures under reconstruction (No.) 17 23 Aug 2016 Dharahara conceptual design completed 23 Sep 2016 5 PUBLIC BUILDINGS Reconstruction of prefabricated buildings underway: 178 23 Aug 2016 Reconstruction of Nepal Army buildings underway (1,109 21 23 Aug 2016 damaged) (No.) Design of Army building underway (No.) 1,088 23 Aug 2016 Police buildings damaged 143: Design underway 143 23 Aug 2016 Armed Police Force buildings damaged 35: Design 35 23 Aug 2016 underway Local government buildings damaged – 4 DDC, 77 23 Aug 2016 municipalities, 172 VDCs (Budget allocated for temporary arrangement of municipality and VDC offices)

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6 HUMAN RESOURCES MOBILISATION Total staff mobilized for reconstruction: 3,578 23 Aug 2016 NRA Staff (permanent and contract) 125 23 Aug 2016 Ministry of Urban Development CL-PIU* 2,726 23 Aug 2016 Ministry of Federal Affairs and Local Development CL-PIU 476 23 Aug 2016 Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Civil Aviation CL-PIU 83 23 Aug 2016 Ministry of Education of CL-PIU 168 23 Aug 2016 7 BUDGET AND FINANCES Agreements signed with Development Partners (US$) 2,723,684,500 16 Oct 2016 Agreements signed with NGO for FY 2016/17 (approx. 399,489,966 16 Oct 2016 US$) GON allocation for FY 2016/17 under different ministries 838,340,390 16 Oct 2016 (approx.US$)

* CL-PIU: Central Level – Project Implementation Unit Sources: GoN/NRA 2016. Fact Sheet (Progress and Plans) as of 23 August 2016 GoN/NRA 2016. Annual Report, 2072/73 GoN/NRA 2017. Progress Report as of 6 April 2017

NRA has started its programme in 17 less affected rebuilding based on detailed learning coming from districts from 3rd of April 2017. The programme the ongoing development process. started from by handing over the housing grant by the CEO to 50 households in Kaski district. It has Disaster Recovery Framework: planned to launch its programme in the remaining 16 less affected districts from 9th of April 2017. (http:// The Post-disaster Recovery Framework (PDRF) nra.gov.np/news/details/221) provided a broad guidance to the reconstruction. The Framework constituted of 6 elements, namely: The Disaster Recovery and 1. Setting up of Recovery Vision and Strategic Objectives Reconstruction Programme 2. Policy Needed for Recovery and Reconstruction One year after the earthquake, the Government of Nepal has laid the ground work for recovery and 3. Institutional Framework for Recovery and reconstruction of the nation. Institutional mechanisms Reconstruction and legal foundations have been established. Such 4. Implementation Arrangements for Recovery prerequisites were needed especially to mobilise and Reconstruction government resources and mechanisms. The 5. Recovery and Reconstruction Financing and process took time mainly because of frequent change Financial Management in the government, the process of formulating a new 6. Steps Towards Implementation of Post- national constitution, a transit problem at the borders disaster Recovery Framework between Nepal and India, and political unrest by some of the political parties who were not fully satisfied with This framework is the main document for guiding the new constitution. The following paragraphs will the rebuilding of Nepal after the April 2015 provide highlights of the post-earthquake recovery earthquake. Following the framework, the sectoral and rebuilding of Nepal. In fact there is very little plan and financial projection has identified 18 lesson learning so far, but there are some areas that sectors with estimated financial resources needed. can be identified as critical for better recovery and

69 Nepal Earthquake of 2015 – Are We Building Better

Table 5 and 6 provide information of these sectors To deliver these 18 sectors a total of US$7,535m has with responsible government line ministries and been estimated as needed (Table 7). major development partners for the programme.

Table 5: Top Sectors and Responsible Institutions

S. No. Component/ Sector Lead Ministry for Overall Lead Development Other Development Responsibility Partner Partners 1 Policy NPC UNDP USAID 2 Institutional Framework NPC World Bank 3 Financial MoF, NPC World Bank IOM, USAID, CNI 4 Implementation, MoFALD, NPC, CBS, SD UNDP IOM, UNDP, USAID, Communications, M&E WB, CNI Source: Sector Plans and Financial Projections, May 2016, NRA

Table 6: Major Sectors and Responsible Institutions for Implementation

S. No. Component/ Sector Lead Ministry for Lead Other Development Partners Overall Execution Development Partner 1 Housing and MoUD, MoFALD, World Bank Housing: JICA, DFID, IOM, UNDP, USAID, Settlement (Rural), MoLRM UN-HABITAT, WB, UNV, CNI, HRRP, Tear and Community Fund, LWF Infrastructure Community Infrastructure: UNDP, UNOPS, UNV, WFP, PAF 2 Water and Sanitation MoWs, MoFALD Embassy of UNICEF, UN-HABITAT, DFID, Practical Finland, WB Action, World Vision, DCA, PAF 3 Environment and MoEv, MoFSC UNDP UNDP Forestry 4 Transport MoPIT, MoFALD, ADB WB, WFP, MAF and Access, MoIC Communication 5 Commerce and MoI ILO DFID Industry 6 Electricity and MoEn, MoLRM, WB WB, Practical Action Renewable Energy MoPE, AEPC 7 Housing and MoUD, MoFALD, UN-HABITAT UN-HABITAT, DFID, UNDP, UNOPS, CNI Settlement (Urban) MoLRM 8 Cultural Heritage MoTCA UNESCO 9 Health and Nutrition MoH WHO, UNICEF IOM, UNFPA, UNICEF, WFP, WB 10 Education MoE, MoFALD JICA, ADB UNICEF, UNESCO, UNDP, WB, EU, USAID, DFAT, VSO, Plan International 11 Government Building MoUD, MoE ADB 12 Tourism MoCTCA UNDP IFC, DFID, WFP, CNI 13 Agriculture and MoA, MoIrrigation, FAO FAO, DFID, WFP, Practical Action, LWF, PAF Irrigation MoFALD 14 Social Protection MoWCSW, ILO, WB IOM, UNICEF, UNV, Plan International, WFP MoFALD 15 Employment and MOLE ILO, WFP UNDP, UNWOMWN, CNI, Tear Fund, DCA, Livelihood PAF 16 Governance PM, MoFALD UNDP UNDP, IOM, PAF

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17 Disaster Risk MoHA UNDP UNDP, ADB, JICA, DFID, IOM, UNICCEF, Management UNFPA, USAID, UNWOMEN, UNV, WFP, Practical Action, DCA, Save the Children, PAF 18 Gender and Social MoWCSW UNWOMEN UNWOMEN, ADB, IOM, UNDP, UNICEF, Inclusion UNFPA, WB, HI Source: Sector Plans and Financial Projections, May 2016, NRA

Table 7: Major Sector and Estimated Fund Required

Total Budget for Resource Funding S. Five Years Budget (in Million NRs) five years available Gap Remark No. Budget FY 16 -17 FY 17-18 FY 18-19 FY 19-20 FY 20-21 1 Heritage 8,302 8,518 7,570 5,821 5,007 35,219 2,875 32,344 2 Education 67,152 52,851 52,485 5,912 2,229 180,628 52,272 128,356 3 Government 7,342 8,793 6,610 3,959 1,735 28,439 4,828 23,611 building 4 Health 6,229 5,248 4,373 2,624 1,749 20,223 20,223 0 Gap Calculation is not clear 5 Nutrition 1,504 1,504 1,504 1,504 1,444 7,461 Gap calculation not available 6 Rural 73,340 77,460 68,430 39,245 27,585 286,060 136,408 149,652 Housing and Community Infrastructure 7 Urban 19,814 19,475 17,694 17,569 15,507 90,059 20,000 70,059 housing and settlement 8 Agriculture, 6,724 6,724 5,379 5,379 2,689 26,894 Gap Livestock calculation and Irrigation not available 9 Tourism 338 313 144 66 56 917 -do- 10 Electricity, 3,613 5,196 3,406 2,198 615 15,028 -do- Renewable Energy, 11 Transport 3,674 5,770 7,742 5,659 2,079 24,924 3,178 21,746 (Strategic and Local Road Network) 12 Water, 6,453 7,585 3,104 3,103 1,003 21,247 Gap Sanitation calculation and Hygiene not available 13 Disaster Risk 940 980 940 705 684 4,249 1,293 2,956 Management 14 Employment 1,470 1,469 1,175 882 882 5,878 Estimate and is not Livelihood clear and the gap is also not calculated

71 Nepal Earthquake of 2015 – Are We Building Better

15 Environment 12,014 11,622 1,790 2,175 850 28,451 Gap and Forestry calculation not available 16 Gender 1,419 2,143 798 140 142 4,642 4,642 -1 Equality And Social Inclusion 17 Governance 655 655 610 585 560 3,065 Gap calculation not available 18 Social 4,634 2,576 548 7,758 20 7,738 Protection Grand Total 225,616 218,882 184,302 97,526 64,816 791,142 (NPR)

Source: Sector Plans and Financial Projections, May 2016, NRA The reconstruction is largely focused on rebuilding and procedures promulgated thereafter by the housing and infrastructure that was destroyed by National Reconstruction Authority using its authority. the earthquake. The policies, act and guidelines In this report the reconstruction programme will be for reconstruction overall reflect a build back highlighted with focus in the following issues across better approach through addressing the following: the 18 key sectors. • safer building and earthquake resistance, • Understanding risk including risk of climate • decentralisation and coordination change mechanisms, • Addressing livelihood needs of the people • use of local resources, • Gender and social inclusion • self-driven reconstruction, • Decentralisation for local level empowerment. • mainstreaming DRR and mobilisation of stakeholders, Understanding the Disaster • grant uniformity, • addressing GESI, Risk Including Risk of • avoiding social dispute and harm to local Climate Change culture, • maintain goodwill, The vision of the reconstruction policy is “establishment of a safe, well-managed and prosperous community”. • scaling up and scaling out of learning from The primary responsibility of the National good practices during reconstruction Reconstruction Authority (NRA) is reconstruction of the housing and physical infrastructure destroyed The reconstruction policy and the framework also and damaged by the April 2015 earthquake22. address the needs for capacity building within Therefore the reconstruction programme is the newly-established National Reconstruction basically focused on infrastructure including private, Authority (NRA). The reconstruction framework public and government structures and physical envisions the programme for the period of 5 years, infrastructure. However, the recommendations by 2016/17 – 2020/21. For the implementation of PDNA cover a much wider range of activities to be the framework, the government has approved addressed including DRR mainstreaming, climate Reconstruction Policy, Reconstruction Act, change integration, livelihoods rehabilitation and Reconstruction Bylaws and different guidelines

22 Reconstruction Act, 2016

72 South Asian Disaster Report 2016 improvements. Disaster risk management is also one to be applied for relatively large reconstruction of the 18 key sectors identified in the Sector Plans of programmes including resettlement, construction Reconstruction Framework. of infrastructure like roads, drinking water, high rise building, projects that affect significant areas For housing and infrastructural repair and of forest land, projects that generate significant reconstruction including cultural heritage structures amount of waste and rubbles, etc. But the EIA and landmarks, schools buildings, health-posts, rural guideline is very much focused on the effects of and urban housing, the policies and the follow up the project activities on environment, very little on documents mandate the programme to adhere to the other way round; that is the effects of climate national building codes. Furthermore, the framework change or near future potential disaster on the also indicates that the international standards for sectors. resilient physical infrastructure of cultural heritage sites will be applied. However there is very little So the problem is that there are several guiding information on climate risk assessment and documents available, but all of them cannot be integration of climate risk reduction measures in simultaneously applied. While requesting the the sectoral plans on how the risk will be assessed use of all of these existing guidelines, there are and how it will be integrated or mainstreamed. very likely chances that these documents can be overlooked by practitioners on the ground The Challenge of Overlapping and where they use tools and methodologies as per Competing Guidelines their convenience and capacity. A consolidated guiding document or framework is required to Disaster risk management and climate change be used across all reconstruction sectors by all resilience would imply adoption and expanded the stakeholders. Such a consolidated guiding application of community-based DRR, school-based document should address the needs of future DRR, multi-hazard risk management, mainstreaming disasters, very importantly disasters triggered by of DRR and climate change across sectors and climate change because climate-related hazards investments. The further implication is that in addition such as floods, landslides, thunderstorms, and to tools falling under implication of the Reconstruction extreme weather events will be more frequent Act, other tools, methodologies and legal documents and intense according to the scientific consensus for DRR and climate change resilience should inform (IPCC 2013). the recovery process. Examples include Climate Resilient Planning Tools of NPC23, Local Adaptation Furthermore, the policy directs integration and Plans of Actions24 under Ministry of Population and mainstreaming of reconstruction programmes Environment, the Disaster Preparedness Framework into normal development programmes. The under Ministry of Home Affairs and Local Disaster government has a 14 step development planning Risk Management Plan (LDRMP) preparation process and the local consultation under this guidelines under the MoFALD. There is a need of development planning process starts sometime in a single comprehensive guideline to be used November each year at VDC level. But it is not clear during the post-earthquake rebuilding phase that how the normal development planning process would incorporate these pre-existing guidelines will address reconstruction needs or how the for integration of disaster risk management and reconstruction programme can be integrated in the climate change adaptation. development planning process. There is a need to inform the development sectors clearly that In addition, a new set of EIA guidelines has been they are legally mandated to address the need approved by the government after the earthquake of reconstruction in the sectoral development

23 NPC, 2011: Climate-Resilient Planning. [WorkingDocument], Government of Nepal, National Planning Commission, Kathmandu, Nepal 24 GoN, 2011. National Framework on Local Adaptation Plans forAction. Government of Nepal, Ministry of Environment, Singhdurbar

73 Nepal Earthquake of 2015 – Are We Building Better

programme. The integration of disaster risk 2) humanitarian organisations. During the emergency reduction and climate change is essential in all period, both types of organisations were involved 18 different sectors that have been identified in disaster response and currently both categories for rebuilding and reconstruction. The sectors are working for long-term resilience. During the need to build their own resilience to disaster and relief and humanitarian phase, the development effects of climate change. At the same time, they organisations were lacking in experience of relief and also contribute to reducing the risk of disaster of humanitarian work. On the other hand after the event, the system in which they are part of. Examples the humanitarian organisations raised a substantial include the health as a sector that plays a vital role amount of funds, and are currently involved in for humanitarian assistance in post disaster, but reconstruction and rebuilding. However, it is very likely also build the resilience of the communities before that the humanitarian organisaitons use approaches the disaster. The same example holds true for all that are appropriate for humanitarian actions, and not the sectors for reconstruction. necessarily suitable for long term resilience building. Therefore, the Government should encourage the The NRA has conducted a multi-hazard risk humanitarian organisations to be prepared for long- assessment for 117 settlements of which 57 have term resilience building work whereas development been identified for need for relocation25. However agencies should be prepared for emergency works the detailed report is yet to be made public together as well. Alternatively there is a need for coordination with the detailed tools and methodologies used and collaboration between the two categories of the for the assessment. The NRA has also endorsed agencies. a legal procedure for relocation of risk prone settlements26. Regarding individual household Furthermore the humanitarian tools may not be assessment, the basic guiding principle is focused appropriate for long-term resilience. Since there on earthquake resilience followed by landslides is no standard or common tool and methodology, and floods. Long-run scenario-based resilience the non-government organisations, especially the building tools and methodologies that addresses International Non-government Organisations are needs of DRR and climate change resilience using diverse approaches such as Community Based are not in use in the Rebuilding and Recovery DRR or School Based DRR for risk assessment. The Programme. This has already been realised by the need for uniformity has already been discussed in the organisations engaged in rebuilding programmes previous section as well. on the ground (Goreto Gorkha). The affected communities themselves have also The Issue of Expertise and been active, having found that existing infrastructure Capacity presented problems during the earthquake and its aftermath, particularly access routes. When the Lack of expertise with experience in rebuilding houses fell on such routes there was a big problem and reconstruction in both government as well of access for search and rescue teams. So, for as non-government organisations in Nepal has example, people from Harisiddhi village in Lalitpur been faced as a challenge too. The challenge municipality have decided to widen the access road to the NRA is the internal limited capacity to while they rebuild their houses and infrastructure. address multiple fields. It has to date only about Such local initiatives, while praiseworthy, also require half of the required staff27. In the case of NGOs, technical advice and support. Also at the local scale, conventionally there are two categories of the post disaster recovery programme has identified organisations: 1) development organisations and the need for disaster education in schools, but such

25 http://www.nra.gov.np/ 26 NRA (2017), Procedure for Relocation and Re-habilitation of Hazard- Risk Settlements 27 WB, personal interview on 1 August 2016

74 South Asian Disaster Report 2016 courses are yet to be designed and made available as the next important hazard followed by floods. to the schools. But other hazards like climate change have received little attention. The World Bank, as the main donor to support the government with Rs200,000 for individual house grants and soft loans has clearly expressed its Addressing Livelihood interest that the grants and the loans should not be Needs of the People used for construction of houses in flood and landslide prone areas. Beneficiaries are free to choose the during Rebuilding and modus operandus for building their own houses but they are also given suggestions for rain water Reconstruction harvesting, preparation for fire hazards, building of It has been estimated that around 20% of toilet, etc., although these additional structures are households have been indebted in the course of not mandatory for accessing the grant and the loan. coping with the effects of the earthquake in the six months following the event30. This situation can After the earthquake, 4,312 new landslides were increase the gap between poor and rich families, seen in Nepal28. One of the major problems faced thereby creating a vicious cycle of poverty among by reconstruction programmes for building safer and poor households. Remittances played a vital role resistant infrastructure is the unavailability of sites safe during the coping phase as a good proportion from landslides and floods for those locations where of the rural population is in foreign employment. infrastructure like schools and health-posts can be The Post Disaster Framework (PDF) has identified relocated. For resistant structural rebuilding, there Employment and Livelihood as one of the key is strict application of building codes and designs to sectors. It provides broad and good scope for be approved by the government of Nepal. However, local economic development by focusing on the earthquakes, floods and landslides are mainly few promotion of local labour and utilisation of local of the hazards potentially faced by people in their resources during the reconstruction phase. The everyday lives. Technical assistance is necessary to Framework provides broad guidelines on what complement local knowledge in seeking out safe sites livelihood activities, for whom, and where. Use for building and reconstruction and also in mapping of local resources, skills, material and labour and planning for other hazards. has been mandated in order to promote local livelihoods and the rural economy. There are discussions in some communities about addressing multi-hazards issues including landslides, There is an estimated need of around 60,000 floods, thunderstorms and others while reconstructing artisans for the reconstruction phase, and the and rebuilding their houses and infrastructure, but government is attempting to train the locals there is a lack of technical support at local level to to meet this demand which will generate local assess the multi-hazards risk and provide technical employment. As of December 2016, 19,000 support. There is very high risk of climate change in artisans have been trained31. The need for capable Rasuwa from ecological sensitivity point of view29, microfinance institutions was also strongly but this has not been adequately considered in realised during the humanitarian phase as most the rebuilding and reconstruction programme. The of the organisations including the government reconstruction is primarily focused on earthquake adopted cash grants and cash-for-work instead resistant houses. Landslides have been considered

28 Kargel, J.S. et. al. (2015). Geographic and Geologic Controls of Geo-hazards Induced by Nepal 2015 Gorkha Earthquake, Science expressed, 17 December 2015. 29 Ministry of Environment (2010). Climate Change Vulnerability Mapping for Nepal 30 Sector Plans and Financial Project (Working paper), May 2016, NRA 31 NRA (2017). Progress of Re-construction and Re-habilitation as of December 3rd week, 2016 (http://nra.gov.np/uploads/docs/ ctQFbclKaF161229054220.pdf)

75 Nepal Earthquake of 2015 – Are We Building Better

of providing goods and materials to the targeted agriculture, livestock, skill development and livelihood beneficiaries that aimed at local livelihoods and activities together with community infrastructure like market. Some of the private properties are historic trails, health posts and schools. Until now there is and have architectural value. Restoring of such very little hardware field work in terms of the housing traditional architecture is too expensive for the sector, most of the activities are on software including local people, so such historic and architectural awareness, assessment and skill building. artefacts like wooden doors and window will most likely be replaced by metal frames because Most of the NGOs have also opted for cash-for- of cost implications if the individuals are not work as a support to community livelihood and supported. Unavailability of construction material income generation during the rebuilding and is also another challenge. Currently the NRA is reconstruction phase. Such an approach is adopted conducting market system assessment in some when the activities are community infrastructure like districts to ensure that construction materials are rehabilitation of drinking water, small irrigation canals, available in time at the right sites with competitive school building, health post building and other or cheaper prices. infrastructure similar to these. This encouragement for participation in such activities has targeted The NRA works with different sectors and socially and economically disadvantaged people stakeholders including government ministries, and communities. A lack of a youth labour force is private sector, NGOs and international agencies apparent due to the increasing outmigration of young to harness opportunities for income generation people seeking employment. Since young men were and livelihoods support for earthquake affected hard to find, participation of women is high in skill people. The livelihood programmes include building trainings and engagement in cash-for-work. tourism, agriculture sectors including vegetable farming, poultry and livestock rearing, non- In communities like Harisiddi in Lalitpur, there is farm based activities and skill based activities. evidence of people selling land in order to fulfil cash Livelihood and employment have been built into needs for rebuilding stronger houses which would all rebuilding sectors to the extent possible. The be expensive compared to the traditional houses. livelihood recovery strategy follows a two-pronged Additionally, people were living in these houses which approach - a livelihood restoration package and were originally built a generation or two earlier and employment creation. The reconstruction policy costs of the material and labour has now increased states that entrepreneurship should be promoted significantly. Traditional architecture is now very and communities should be encouraged expensive to restore. So cash-for-work might help to establish co-operatives for self-help and communities to minimise the sale of properties empowerment. Government resources are and reduce the amount of debt they incur. Cash- mostly mobilised towards infrastructure including for-work will also help people to cope with harsh housing, government infrastructure and cultural economic conditions during the period of rebuilding heritage sites, and to schools and health post and reconstruction and make funds available for buildings. Whereas most of the non-government subsequent economic activities in the communities organisations are involved in social mobilisation, once the construction work has been completed. software training, skill development and livelihoods The government should also introduce innovative activities depending on their institutional strategic cash mechanisms that reach communities to meet focuses and expertise. The government has asked needs so people will not have to sell their land and and encouraged the NGOs to focus on livelihoods properties. sectors and in some districts like in Gorkha, give less priority to rural housing programmes, Sustainability of livelihood activities being initiated especially the hardware aspect32. Therefore, NGOs during the rebuilding phase is a matter of concern. have been focusing on small irrigation canals, It is because the interventions have been initiated

32 NRA, Gorkha, personal interview on 8 August 2016

76 South Asian Disaster Report 2016 with little or no assessment of market systems and Nepal has relatively good GESI legal documents local resources and capacity. The interventions have developed under the Ministry of Children, Women been identified on short-term need basis as a coping and Social Welfare (MoCWSW). The Ministry mechanism to address the immediate problem faced of Finance (MoF) has also developed Gender by the communities, with little consideration for the Responsive Budgeting Guidelines (2008)35. long term livelihood needs and long-term sustainability Furthermore, most of the relevant ministries and of the current interventions. departments have GESI strategies. The rebuilding programme recognises these strategies, guidelines and legal documents, and indicates that Gender and Social Inclusion they will be applied at the time of the rebuilding The NRA aims to develop solutions that benefit the phase. However, the capacity of the NRA and the poorest and ensure that interventions are tailored to personnel involved in rebuilding needs orientation meet their needs. The Post-disaster Reconstruction on the use of these strategies, guidelines and and Recovery Programme(PRRP) focuses on three documents. It is also very important for the key points for Gender and Social Inclusion (GESI) communities to be aware of GESI considerations. consideration – engaging in the decision making Once all the foundations for rebuilding are ready, process mainly at the implementation level, economic it will move relatively fast, and there is a chance empowerment and social protection. It is stated that GESI issues could be overlooked. Legislative that particular efforts would be made to organise guidelines are needed to apply the existing community groups to support the reconstruction of approaches through official communications. houses of single women, persons with disabilities, In this way GESI guidelines will not merely be senior citizens, marginalised groups and communities advisory but have the force of law. living in remote and inaccessible areas and to help them access recovery assistance from the Most of the rebuilding sectors have recognised government and its partners. The Community Based GESI considerations on the relevant documents. Reconstruction Committee Guidelines33 approved In the School Sector, the specific needs of girls by NRA encourages the inclusion of at least three students have been recognised; the Health and female members in a committee of 7 members, Nutrition Sector highlights needs of children, ensuring that women are represented in local level pregnant and lactating women, and women decision making bodies. Communities are allowed reproductive health; in the Rural Housing Sector, to have all committee members women or socially priorities have been given to housing of vulnerable disadvantaged members if they wish so34. Women groups and individuals like single woman and have many skills and energy that can be utilised elderly people; in the Disaster Risk Reduction in the recovery process, but this potential is often Sector, attention has been paid to the needs of overlooked by officials if not purposefully addressed. vulnerable; in the Forest and Environment Sector, As an example, the women groups in Rasuwa district attention has been paid to needs of poor and were found to be very active in the reconstruction and vulnerable communities and individuals who have rehabilitation programme. In the Tamang community, forest based livelihoods; the Governance Sector women are relatively empowered and most of the adopts a rights-based approach to gender and male members outmigrate for additional income to disadvantaged groups in the communities during the household. So the communities have a higher the reconstruction period; the Employment and number of women in the population compared to Livelihood Sector targets vulnerable groups of men. This has led to women being active. people as the priority groups; the Social Protection Sector asks all other sectors to consider children

33 Guidelines for formation of Community Based Reconstruction Committee, NRA, 2073 (2016) 34 Guidelines for formation of Community Based Reconstruction Committee, 2016 35 Gender Responsive Budget Formulation Guidelines, Nepal, MoF (2008)

77 Nepal Earthquake of 2015 – Are We Building Better

under five and the most vulnerable people while focus and attention have been paid to vulnerable undertaking the sector implementation plans communities including single women, disabled by making these groups more aware of the individual, people who lost their family members during programmes and building their capacity to be the earthquake, children, and socially disadvantaged engaged and to be benefitted. groups like so-called dalit and janajati. Furthermore they do have their own Gender Strategies which In some sectors, the GESI considerations are still they are applying. Many of them are consistent with lacking. For example in the case of government government guidelines. But there are potentials buildings, the sector documents do not detail how for gaps. So, all the development partners should government infrastructure will be GESI responsive use at least the minimum standard as given by the or friendly. Not only community structures, but government guidelines and exceed them if they can. also government structures should address the For example, the World Bank supported programme needs of GESI and adhere to Gender Responsive has been promoting women focused training for Budgeting Guidelines of the government. masons despite the social stigma against women taking the job of masons. Orientations on building GESI inclusion is complicated by the issue of resilient houses are being given to women through citizenship. Access to the housing government focused group training and awareness programmes grant requires a citizenship certificate and a land for women. ownership certificate, but there is a significant number of the population who do not hold such The implementing partners (local NGOs) have also documents. Such people are from disadvantaged focused on activities that are directly related to women and vulnerable groups. Secondly there are in order to reach the women beneficiaries such as absentee household heads because many of in the area of women’s hygiene. Women have been the family members are abroad for remittance encouraged to join newly formed committees for earning. This situation has created procedural reconstruction and recovery and also to be engaged and official difficulties for the beneficiaries. In in the activities that have been implemented such as Nepalese societies, there are joint family systems cash-for-work. Women’s participation in rebuilding with members ranging from grandparents to activities is high and encouraging. However there are great-grandchildren in which properties and difficulties in registration of women headed families assets have not been separated for generations. and providing them access to government grants. The land certificates are only in the name of one As noted earlier, the system requires the presence of the family members usually the grandfather, of family member who holds the land ownership or in many cases even if the grandfather has certificate for house construction, and usually this is passed away, there is no transfer of ownership, the male member of the family. The government is and the records are not up-to-date. There were reviewing this system so that a consent letter from grievances from some communities that in order the land owner can authorise the non-owner family to get the government housing grant, one had member including female member or any member of to spend an amount of money equivalent to the the family to process the application and access to grant for travelling several times from a remote the government benefits. village to update official documents and to collect the instalments of the grant money. Therefore it is imperative that the government provides Decentralisation and effective and efficient services at the doorstep of Governance the beneficiaries without their needing to spend significant amount of money in order to receive The reconstruction act, policies, and guidance has the government grant. provisioned for multilayer coordination committees from national to local level. The committees are The majority of the NGOs are aware of GESI represented by different relevant government line and this is reflected in their programmes where ministries. Twenty-three ministries and government

78 South Asian Disaster Report 2016 line agencies have been identified as the coordinating fully authorised; they have been considered as and implementing partners of the reconstruction supporting committees to NRA resource centres programme. They will coordinate the relevant and the district level reconstruction coordination programmes activities and provide technical support committee. So a full decentralisation with local and guidance needed. The government line agencies level authorities up to village level is missing. will be supported by 13 development partners and several Non-Government Organisations through Since the central level and district level coordination technical and financial assistance. A Housing mechanisms are represented by the existing Reconstruction and Recovery Platform (HRRP) has government civil servants and parliamentarians been set up for coordinating with non-government as per the law, there is no room for creating organisations, space for representatives suggested by GESI considerations. This seems a major contradiction The Reconstruction Policy directs that the local to implementing the GESI policy in the NRA. committees be empowered and the central committees remain as the supporter, facilitator, The NGOs had started field level early recovery monitor and evaluator36. However, in reality practice activities as early as November 2015 after the does not follow this formal system. It seems that most relief and response phases of about 6 months of the decisions are made at the central level, and was completed. They mostly focused on skill the local coordination committees and community- development for house repair and reconstruction based committees are responsible for delivery of the and livelihood programmes. They started their action plans as supporters of the NRA. At the central work with different existing community-based level, Consultative Council, Board of Directors and organisations before the promulgation a year Executive Committee have been formed to guide after the earthquake of guidelines for Community- NRA. At the local level, the coordination mechanism based Reconstruction Committees. Some of at present exists only for the districts. The District these pre-existing committees are Ward Citizen Coordination Committee (DCC) should have at least Forums (WCFs) which are formal forums formed three members including existing parliamentarians under the legal provision of MoFALD. The Ward from the respective district, the Chief District Officer Citizen Forum has been used as a local level and the Local Development Officer. The DCC will be committee by several NGOs, and the NGO coordinated by the parliamentarian and if there is more mobilisation guidelines that also came a year after than one parliamentarian in the district, they will rotate the earthquake direct NGOs to work with WCFs. on a 6 monthly basis as coordinator. Such a rotating Those organisations which focus on infrastructure system might leave room for a lack of follow up on like personal houses, trails, etc. have coordinated decisions made by the previous parliamentarian if the with the Ward Citizen Forums. But organsations subsequent coordinator has a significantly different that undertake school programmes have view or ideology from the previous coordinator. coordinated with the existing School Management For VDCs and Municipalities levels there is no such Committees, and for the Health Post work, coordination mechanisms, a NRA resource centre will Health-Post Management Committees have manage at this level. been the local partners. These are legally formed as per the relevant existing sectorial regulations. At the local level, the lack of local government has However, after the recent promulgation of new been found to be one of the main bottlenecks to the School Management Act (2016), the existing reconstruction and rebuilding programme. Nepal has school management committees have become no elected local government since 2001. In order defunct. But, on the ground, they are working to fill this void, the NRA has endorsed guidelines since there is no new committee formed as per for community-based reconstruction committees the new Education Act. Those NGOs working on (NRA, 2016). However, these committees are not agriculture development have been working with

36 Reconstruction Policy, 2016

79 Nepal Earthquake of 2015 – Are We Building Better

farmers’ groups and in forestry with Forest Users’ Government of Nepal in coordinating the national Groups. Women groups are also local community- reconstruction programme especially with NGOs38. based groups with whom several NGOs are working for field activity implementation. One of the feedbacks as shared by the beneficiaries is that they are not allowed to receive external supports So different development organisations are if they want to receive the government grant for house working through different community-based reconstruction. This has become an obstacle for self- organisations depending on the sector and the reconstruction and rehabilitation and the communities institutional approach they had been promoting feel dis-empowered and barred from benefits. This before the earthquake. It was obvious at the is particularly important. As per the current fund time that standardised national institutional management guidelines, the beneficiaries will receive approach and tools and methodologies were not Rs 300,000 in three instalments of Rs 50,000, Rs in existence. 150,000 and Rs 100,000 which is a burdensome process especially for the people from remote Recently the government has promulgated villages, as noted earlier. Three visits to the district technical monitoring guidelines, especially for headquarters on foot for several days to receive housing reconstruction to ensure proper use reconstruction grant money of Rs 300,000, might of grant money and adherence to earthquake cost almost the same amount with the beneficiary resistance standards. However there is no finally getting no significant amount in hand. The equivalent monitoring and evaluation system instalment system is considered burdensome and for other post-earthquake rebuilding and costly in terms of days of work missed and travel reconstruction activities that are not covered expenses. under government grants. For housing reconstruction, the MoUD will provide There are information gaps among the stakeholders technical support and the MoFALD will facilitate the at district level as what local NRA offices (District financial transaction. NRA is also recruiting technical and Area level37) do. The stakeholders feel that staff to work at District level and Area Offices at local the local NRA has not been delegated adequate level. NRA has completed survey in all 14 most affected authority as required, and those powers that are Districts and has identified 626,695 households as delegated are not clear to stakeholders. Effective eligible as of 6 April 201739. The main criteria for communication has been a challenge. It may also household survey were 1) low socio-economic status be that the media (national and international) has not and 2) damage of house. Simultaneously, there are been able to comprehend the complete structure over 200,000 grievance cases concerning missing and progress of the reconstruction process. For registration, wrong categorization and missing instance, various media outlets reported that documents. As of 6 April 2017, 93,374 grievances there were no houses rebuilt. However, it must have been addressed. A grievance hearing and be understood that this is a lengthy process responding mechanism SOPs has been established and various foundations for reconstruction were at VDC, Municipality and District levels. These required such as policy making, training masons grievance cases must be taken seriously. and engineers and stock piling of construction materials, etc. The HRRP (Housing Recovery and At the time of writing, it has already been 20 months Reconstruction Platform) helps in sharing and since the earthquake struck Nepal. The NRA communicating between agencies involved in progress is significantly delayed because of a border recovery and reconstruction and to support the blockade problem between Nepal and India, and

37 Area is a cluster of VDCs, the number of VDC ranges depending on the geography and topography 38 http://hrrpnepal.org/non-nav-pages/about-hrrp.aspx 39 NRA 2017, status of private house reconstruction as of 6 April 2017

80 South Asian Disaster Report 2016 delay in the establishment of the NRA legally and the formulation of new rules and regulations which did Conclusion not exist. A clear lesson is that national governments The rebuilding and reconstruction programme everywhere need all the formal structures and in Nepal after the earthquake of April 2015, has necessary legislation to support disaster recovery not yet taken on full-fledged implementation. The well before the disaster happens. Local people rebuilding and reconstruction is expected to be think the process of the rebuilding is too slow. But completed in five years. To date, the government from this point onward a good foundation has been has been involved in establishing institutional, established and recovery and reconstruction should policy and legislation foundations for rebuilding. speed up. The process of signing agreements with The initial starting activities such as skill training NGOs has been more complicated compared to the and delivery of government grants have started process for normal development agreements. To and are expected to be accelerated. But, there work in recovery, NGOs must go through a process are still some gaps in the NRA for a fully functional involving VDC, Municipality, DDC, Sectoral Ministry, reconstruction and rebuilding programme. Some NRA and Social Welfare Council (SWC). Whereas key gaps are that neither funding nor human for development work, the process only involves the resource requirements are yet adequate to DDC and SWC. meet the needs. Additionally, in order to make the reconstruction more DRR, Climate Change There are inadequate guidelines for partnership and and GESI responsive, a consolidated approach sharing among the Non-governmental Organisations must be developed. Currently there exist several (NGOs), and this leaves room for the individual tools, methodologies and approaches even NGOs to work as per their convenience. The HRRP within the government ministries, departments should enhance the coordination for sharing learning and National Planning Commission, and the NRA and different processes and approaches during the policies and subsequent documents indicate that course of rebuilding and reconstruction. As per the these existing policies will be used. But in the NGO mobilisation procedure40 the NGOs have to absence of a consolidated document, there will sign a tripartite agreement with the NRA and the be wide variation in the approach being adopted implementing institution of the government at the by practitioners. This will make monitoring of central level. The NGO will locally coordinate between progress difficult as there is no standard approach them and implement with different community or methodology applied. groups including Community-based Reconstruction Committees. The projects have to be implemented The same is also true in case of governance as there under the direct monitoring and guidance of the is a wide range of community-based approaches district and area office of NRA or the officer prescribed including CBDRR, CBRC, REFLECT, WCF, Credit by that office in the district or resource centre41. Groups, etc. and implementing partners especially The NGO guidelines also ask the NGOs to work in the NGOs are working with different community collaboration with Ward Citizen Forum and Local groups to fit to their programmes. Disaster Management Committees. However NGOs are also using other community approaches based A well-structured monitoring plan for the NRA is on their organisational models, including REFLECT, also needed at different scales. CBDRR, Community-based School DRR, and the respective sectors they work in. In case of livelihood programmes, assessment of market systems is essential, and the short-term approach that promotes interventions just for

40 Procedures on Mobilization of NGOs for Reconstruction and Rehabilitation, 2016 (2072), NRA 41 Procedures on Mobilization of NGOs for Reconstruction and Rehabilitation, 2016 (2072), NRA

81 Nepal Earthquake of 2015 – Are We Building Better

coping purposes will very likely not meet the need hazards while building livelihoods and infrastructure for sustainable livelihoods. for the communities and households. It should also be thoughtfully carried out under the current The post-earthquake rebuilding and rehabilitation ongoing state restructuring process where the local programme should also consider potential long- governments own the process by mainstreaming, term events like climate change and interrelated integrating and mobilising its resources to the efforts.

Coordination and Institutional Mechanism between Government, NRA and other Stakeholders involving in Reconstruction of Nepal

Sectoral Ministry NRA Central Office I/NGO Central Office

Sectoral Department NRA Sectoral Unit

District Coordination Committee I/NGO District Office CDO, DDC, NRA

Sectoral District NRA District Office Office

Sectoral Area NRA Area Office NGO Field Office Office

Sectoral Community VDC/ Municipality Based organisations

Community Based Reconstruction Committee

Individual Beneficiary

82 South Asian Disaster Report 2016

Organisational Structure of NRA

83 Nepal Earthquake of 2015 – Are We Building Better

Pledges and Agreements as of September 2016

Source: NRA Annual Report, 2016 /2017

84 South Asian Disaster Report 2016

Irrigation rehabilitation

Mason training Sanitation Awareness to Women Health Workers

T-shelter for elderly

85 86 South Asian Disaster Report 2016

Recurring Monsoon Floods: Pakistan’s Experience of “Building Back Better” By Kamran K. Durrani1

1 Deputy Executive Director, Rural Development Policy Institute (RDPI) Pakistan, and Member of Duryog Nivaran.

87 Recurring Monsoon Floods: Pakistan’s Experience of “Building Back Better”

Index (HDI) with most indicators lower than most Disasters in Pakistan - countries in South Asia”5. Country Context Based on its probable exposure to a number Pakistan is one of the most populous countries in of natural hazards and extreme climates, the world. With an estimated population of 188.93 accompanied by high vulnerability, Pakistan is million2, it is ranked second among South Asian considered to be one of the highly vulnerable and countries, after India, and sixth among the global disaster-prone countries at a global scale as well community. Pakistan’s total land area is 880,000 as among the South Asian countries (Figure 1). km2, with a dynamic topography including extended “A range of hydro-meteorological, geo-physical cultivated plains, five deserts, five major rivers, record and biological hazards including avalanches, high mountains of Himalayas including K2 and Nanga cyclones and storms, droughts, floods, glacial Parbat, and a long coastline of about 1,046 kilometres lake outburst floods (GLOF), earthquakes, (km) along the Arabian Sea3. landslides, tsunamis and epidemics pose risks to Pakistani society. Some of these hazards According to Government estimates, a staggering (e.g. floods, landslides etc.) are predominantly 29.5% of the country’s large population lives below seasonal and occur on an annual basis, whereas the poverty line4 and the Country “ranks 147 out other hazards such as earthquakes and tsunamis of 188 countries in the 2015 Human Development

Figure 1: Pakistan Multi-Hazard Vulnerability and Risk Assessment

Source: UNOCHA

2 United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2015). World Population Prospects: The 2015 Revision, World Population 2015 Wallchart. ST/ESA/SER.A/378. 3 ADB. Islamic Republic of Pakistan: Country Environment Analysis. 2008. 4 World Bank. Pakistan Country Overview. http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/pakistan/overview 5 Ibid

88 South Asian Disaster Report 2016

Figure 2: Losses by Natural Disasters in Pakistan (1981-2013)

are rare events but potentially highly destructive”6. improve the national policies and plans for disaster In the World Risk Report7, Pakistan has been risk reduction and management at federal, provincial ranked at 72 out of the total 171 countries of the and district levels. “On average, in Pakistan between world based on the factors of exposure to natural 1980 and 2010, 1.87 million people per annum were hazards, susceptibility, lack of coping capacities, affected by disasters resulting in economic damage of and lack of adaptive capacities. Making it more USD593 million each year. Pakistan has experienced alarming, Pakistan stands at number 14 among several major disasters in the last nine years including 171 countries when ranked for lack of adaptive the earthquake of October 2005 which killed over capacities. Pakistan is also among the World’s 73,000 people and the floods of 2010 and 2011 Top 10 in terms of vulnerability to the impacts which affected over 18 million and 9 million people of climate change, and the cost of adaptation is respectively”9. estimated at $10.7 billion per year for the next 40- 50 years8. An analysis of the available data shows that the severity of disasters and associated losses have The country of Pakistan has witnessed a vast somewhat declined during the past fifteen years from range of natural disasters over the 70 years’ 2001 to 2015(Figure 2)10. The earthquake of 2005 and history of its existence. Some of these brought floods of 2010 were momentous calamities which enormous devastation in terms of human, also resulted in convincing the then Government, structural, economic, and environmental losses institutions, and other stakeholders to come up with to the affected districts and the country. These a new set of organisations, policies, and plans. calamities, however, also resulted in highlighting the crucial need to revisit and substantially

6 NDMA Pakistan. DRR Policy 2013. http://www.ndma.gov.pk/plans/drrpolicy2013.pdf 7 UNU-EHS, BündnisEntwicklungHilft; University of Stuttgart. World Risk Report2016. 8 UNDP. Pakistan Country Profile.http://www.pk.undp.org/content/pakistan/en/home/countryinfo/ 9 Abbasi Z, Few R, Jan M, Qazi U, Scott Z, Wooster K. Strategic Research into National and Local Capacity Building for DRM: Pakistan Fieldwork Report. 2014. 10 Data from UNISDR Disaster Information Management System

89 Recurring Monsoon Floods: Pakistan’s Experience of “Building Back Better”

Pakistan’s National BBB: Post-2005 Earthquake Reconstruction following the October 2005 Disaster Management earthquake in Pakistan is widely recognised amongst System shelter sector actors, donor agencies and the Pakistani Government as one of the most successful Disasters in Pakistan have predominantly been examples of owner-driven reconstruction. In rural treated with post-hoc relief-driven perspectives. areas, this decentralised programme has resulted in Disaster management systems and structures high levels of reconstruction, good occupancy rates were heavily dictated by the flood as a recurring and satisfaction levels, as well as in the adaptation phenomenon undermining other hazards like of indigenous housing technology, facilitating earthquake, drought, landslides, GLOF, tsunami widespread and sustainable vulnerability reduction. In etc. The legal framework on disaster management contrast, the Urban Development Strategy has been included: West Pakistan National Calamities unable to overcome the complexities of coordinating (Prevention and Relief) Act 1958 (as amended housing construction with services and infrastructure upto 1959)12; Civil Defense Act 1952 (as amended and, in some cases, resettlement. Thus, urban upto 1953) and the Local Government Ordinance, dwellers did not receive the same level of efficient 2001. reconstruction response as rural counterparts. There has been rural-urban dichotomy in post-earthquake The term ‘disaster’ varies in four different laws. reconstruction in Pakistan. Some reports have The National Calamities (Prevention and Relief Act investigated the achievements and difficulties faced (1958) used ‘calamity’ and there is no mention in the rural housing reconstruction programme, of ‘disaster’ in this premier Act. This Act enlists and analysed the barriers to implementation of flood, famine, locust or any other pest, hailstorm, decentralised, people-centred reconstruction in fire, epidemic or any other calamity which, in the urban areas. opinion of Government warrants action under this

Figure 3: DRM System in Pakistan

DRM System in Pakistan 1958: West Pakistan Calamities Act 1971: Emergency Relief Cell at Cabinet Division 2005: Earthquake Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Authority 2007: National Disaster Management Ordinance 2007: National Disaster Management Commission 2007: National Disaster Management Authority 2007: National Disaster Risk Management Framework 2010: National Disaster Management Act 2010: National Disaster Response Plan 2012: National Disaster Management Plan (2012-2022) 2013: National Disaster Risk Reduction Policy 2014: National Policy Guidelines on Vulnerable Groups in Disasters 2014: Guidelines and Framework for Action on Separated,

11 http://practicalaction.org/access-to-services/docs/ia3/building-back-better-lyons-schilderman.pdf 12 The Act covers only post-disaster relief measures; there are no provisions for early warning systems, capacity building of the communities and related departments towards disaster prevention. The Act is also silent on rehabilitation of the disaster hit areas.

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Act.13 The ‘opinion of Government’ in this Act leads to arbitrariness without giving a solid basis and Post-Earthquake 2005 reasons for the holding of such an opinion. It also Reforms opens room for controversies and inconsistence as it lacks a conclusive definition of a disaster or The intensity and magnitude of the 2005 earthquake, a calamity. resulting in a wide range of associated losses and operational challenges once again underscored the The Local Government Ordinance 2001 defines grave need of a robust and comprehensive disaster disaster “including14 famine, flood, cyclone, fire, risk management system in the country. The same earthquake, drought, and damage caused by year witnessed the global community agreeing on and force majeure”. The definition equates hazard with adopting the Hyogo Framework for Action, to which disaster without qualifying the effects of hazard Pakistan is also a signatory. After the earthquake, (famine, flood, fire etc). the immediate action in Pakistan was establishing the Earthquake Reconstruction and Rehabilitation According to the National Disaster Management Authority (ERRA) in 2005. Responding to the need Ordinance 2006 (adopted as an Act in 2010) of a comprehensive system, the National Disaster disaster means, “a catastrophe or a calamity in Management Ordinance of 2007 (later converted an affected area arising from natural or man-made to National Disaster Management Act 2010) was causes or by accident which results in substantial introduced by the Government of Pakistan. loss of life or human suffering or damage to, and destruction of, property.”15 The term “substantial” The Act establishes three tiers for the disaster remains unsubstantiated in the Act. management system: i.e., national, provincial and district levels. Under the Act, the National Disaster The NDM Act 2010 enlists preparedness, Management Commission (NDMC) was established response, recovery and rehabilitation, and at the national level, and has the responsibility for reconstruction but there is no mention of ‘disaster laying down policies and guidelines for disaster risk risk reduction’ while defining disaster management management and approval of the National Plan. The in legal lingo. Also, the Act remains vague on National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) was declaration and definition of “affected area”. While established in 2007 in line with the Ordinance (now Earthquake Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Act Act), and serves as the implementing, coordinating 2011 defined “affected areas” as areas affected and monitoring body for disaster risk management by the earthquake and its aftershocks and notified at the national level. The National Disaster Risk as such by the Federal Government16. Management Framework (NDRMF) was prepared by the NDMA in March 2007, which serves as an overall guideline for disaster risk management at national, provincial and district levels. In March 2010, the NDMA formulated the National Disaster Response Plan(NDRP) identifying specific roles and responsibilities of the relevant stakeholders in emergency response including Standard Operation Procedures (SOPs)”17.

13 Section 3, The National Calamities (Prevention and Relief Act (1958) 14 Section Ix, Local Government Ordinance 2001. 15 Section 2 (a), (b) and (c), National Disaster Management Act 2010. 16 Section 2 (a), Earthquake Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Act 2011. 17 NDMA Pakistan. National Disaster Management Plan 2012. http://www.ndma.gov.pk/plans/NDMP-Main%20Vol.pdf

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13 Section 3, The National Calamities (Prevention and Relief Act (1958)

To extend the DRM system down to the provincial • National Disaster Management Plan: Main and district levels, Provincial Disaster Management Plan Commissions (PDMC) as well as Provincial and • Human Resource Development Plan on District Disaster Management Authorities (PDMA & Disaster Management: Vol. I DDMA) were also established (Figure 4). The plans • Multi-Hazard Early Warning System Plan: Vol. and policies at national level were trickled down to II provincial and district levels through a number of • Instructors’ Guidelines on Community Based response, relief, contingency and management plans Disaster Risk Management: Vol. III as well as through SOPs. In addition, yearly National Monsoon Contingency Plans have been regularly The NDMP was followed by National Disaster Risk prepared since 2008 and disseminated among Reduction Policy 2013, National Policy Guidelines all the relevant stakeholders for better planning, on Vulnerable Groups in Disasters 2014, and by preparedness and response to any floods during the Guidelines and Framework for Action on Separated, monsoon season. Unaccompanied, and Missing Children in Disasters 2014. While focusing on capacity building and In 2012, a comprehensive ten-year National Disaster trainings of relevant stakeholders for informed Management Plan (NDMP) was prepared to enhance management of disaster risks and responses, the capacity of Pakistan’s DRM system. To assist the the National Institute of Disaster Management Government of Pakistan and NDMA, this exercise (NIDM) was established in 2010 with an objective was led by the Japan International Cooperation “to plan and promote training and research (JICA) in consultation with national and international in the field of disaster management, develop stakeholders. “The components of NDMP published core competencies of government officials and in one main document with three supporting volumes, develop a national level information base relating besides the Executive Summary, are”18: to disaster management policies, prevention

18 Ibid

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Figure 5: Pakistan Flood Hazard Map - 2015

Source: ReliefwebInt mechanism and mitigation measures”19. To cater for the financing requirements for the national and Recurring Floods – The provincial disaster management programmes, Living Dilemma a National Disaster Management Fund was also established under the statutory cover of National With six major rivers and a large number of small rivers Disaster Management Act of 2010. and tributaries, one of the constant hazards faced by Pakistan is the recurring riverine floods, especially in Overall, it has to be appreciated that during the the monsoon season (Jul-Oct). The extreme weathers last decade (2005-2015) Pakistan has made in the country, coupled with changing climate, also significant progress in improving its DRM system results in heavy snow-melt downstream from big by introducing and/or modifying a number of mountains as well as sporadic rain hill torrents causing legislations, institutions, policies, frameworks and flash floods even outside the monsoon season. The guidelines at national, provincial and district levels. poor drainage systems, besides encroachment of It has also followed principally, and to a fair extent waterways in form of construction of housing and practically, the guidelines of Hyogo Framework commercial buildings, also is a major cause of urban for Action since 2005 and then its successor flooding in case of heavy rains in the urban centres. instrument, the Sendai Framework for Disaster The southern regions of the country, including riverine Risk Reduction. Having said that, there is still a districts from South Punjab and Upper Sindh are significant need to take concrete steps in terms of usually the most affected by frequent floods. These on-ground implementation of plans and policies, recurring floods have been causing continuous misery especially at the district level, by promoting and devastation for the affected population in form of institutional awareness among the responsible human casualties, internal displacement, structural state departments as well as by strengthening the damages to buildings and shelters, cattle fatality networking among all the relevant stakeholders. and economic losses in billions of dollars. “Pakistan

19 NIDM Pakistan. http://www.nidm.gov.pk/About/Mission

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has suffered a cumulative financial loss of more than According to a World Bank Report of 201522, US$ 38.165 billion during the past 68 years. Around approximately 3 million people are affected every 12,177 people lost their lives, some 197,230 villages year by natural disasters in Pakistan and it has damaged/ destroyed and an area more than 616,598 been ascertained by analysing historical data Sq.km was affected due to 23 major flood events. since 1977 that approximately 77 percent of The 2010 floods saw the worst flooding for the past the affected population has been impacted by 80 years in the region”20. floods. While discussing the impacts of disasters on the fiscal health of Pakistan, the same report Since 2010, monsoon floods have become an highlights that flooding causes an estimated annual dreadful phenomenon for the country and annual economic impact of 3-4 percent of the for the vulnerable population at risk (Table 121).The federal budget, i.e., an estimated US$1.2 billion unfortunate drill of displacement, waiting for arrival to US$1.8 billion, equivalent to 0.5–0.8 percent of of rescue and relief, helplessly watching the floods national gross domestic product (GDP). take away loved ones and life-long savings, and then reconstructing and recomposing life is a living Within the administrative structure and system to dilemma that the poor population, with extremely weak cope with floods in the country, a Federal Flood resilience, have to go through every year. From the Commission (FFC) is also available. The FFC was data given here, it is clear that almost half of the direct established in 1977 for country-wide integrated losses calculated for past 68 years were sustained flood management. The functions of FFC are during the last six years. Similarly, the floods in these mainly focused on flood prevention and control. six years took the toll on human lives equivalent to Ten-year flood protection plans are prepared by one third of the total human lives lost to floods in FFC, which are then supposed to be implemented 68 years. While it can be attributed presumably to a by provincial governments with federal government weak system of loss assessment and data collection providing the resources for meeting the costs23. in early years, the frequency and intensity of the floods are also attributed to changing patterns in the It has been recognised by the global community regional and national climate, and hence raise the for years now that while disasters bring need of a matching effort to prevent and manage devastation in many forms, it should also be seen such disasters with an efficient and effective system as an opportunity to learn pragmatic lessons from of disaster risk reduction and management. them and to use the same wealth of knowledge in “building back better”. Table 1: Pakistan Floods Losses 2010-2015

Pakistan Floods Losses (2010-2015 Year Direct losses (US$ Lost lives (No) Affected villages Flooded Area (Sq- million) (No) km) 2010 10,000 1,985 17,553 160,000 2011 3,730 516 38,700 27,581 2012 2,640 571 14,159 4,746 2013 2,000 333 8,297 4,483 2014 440 367 4,065 9,779 2015 170 238 4,634 2,877 Total 18,980 4,010 87,408 209,466

20 Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Water and Power. Annual Flood Report 2015. 21 Data Source: Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Water and Power. Annual Flood Report 2015. 22 World Bank Group; Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery. 2015. Fiscal Disaster Risk Assessment Options for Consideration: Pakistan. World Bank, Washington, DC. © World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/21920 License: CC BY 3.0 IGO 23 Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Water and Power. Annual Flood Report 2015.

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Build Back Better: Rediscovering an indigenous architecture24 Yasmeen Lari, Pakistan’s celebrated architect has built over 40,000 low-cost shelters using just mud, lime and bamboo. “You don’t need wood, cement and steel to build strong homes,” she says.

Lari was the first woman to qualify as an architect in Pakistan and now directs a local humanitarian NGO, the Heritage Foundation. Her team of architects and engineers started experimenting with new materials in disaster relief after the great flood of 2010 submerged a fifth of Pakistan, left 2,000 people dead and thousands of people homeless. Their shelters in Sindh Province, says Lari, have since withstood year after year of flooding.

Later she visited Darya Khan Sheikh, a village on the banks of the Indus River, which the Heritage Foundation helped to rebuild after the 2010 devastation. “The village was flooded with up to four feet of water but the houses were intact, their grain and water was safe,” Lari told thethirdpole.net. “Only a little plaster had come off the walls.”

Established by Lari in 1980, the Heritage Foundation’s original mandate was conservation of cultural sites. But it turned to post-disaster reconstruction after a 7.8 magnitude earthquake devastated Pakistan-administered Kashmir and the adjoining North West Frontier Province in 2005.

The materials used by Lari’s team are local, cheap and have a low-carbon footprint. “Mud is recyclable and it’s everywhere; bamboo is very strong and environmentally sustainable and you can get a new bamboo crop every two years,” she explains. “Lime is the only material that requires small amount of fuel to heat it, but twigs are enough and so there is no need to chop mature trees or burn any fossil fuel.”

Lari has designed some of Karachi’s biggest buildings – her signature glass and granite edifices have a distinctive mark, though she says she wouldn’t build much of it again. After more than 30 years as a commercial architect Lari gave it up in 2000 to devote her time to writing. “I am no longer tied to what the client wants; it has freed me,” she says.

Her new clients are the poor and disenfranchised. “I have always maintained that they need to be given the same degree of importance as is given to corporate clients,” she says. Her aim is to teach villagers how to “make their buildings long-lasting”.

“You cannot come out of poverty if you keep re-building every year. The only way forward is to build the technical capability of communities and improve their earning capacity so that they can fend for themselves when disaster strikes,” she says.

Unsustainable disaster relief With increasingly erratic weather patterns the world is growing more vulnerable to extreme weather events and Pakistan is one of the world’s most vulnerable countries. Paradoxically, those coming forward to provide humanitarian aid after extreme events promote construction with steel and cement thereby increasing carbon emissions and contributing to the climate change that triggers these events.

24 https://www.thethirdpole.net/2014/08/27/pakistani-architect-pioneers-fresh-approach-to-disaster-relief/

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Lari argues the current model of disaster relief work will have to change: “There are scores of NGOs and international organisations that come with good intentions to rebuild but in the process leave a huge carbon imprint.”

Disasters affect communities’ food security and education as well as infrastructure, and the response should reflect this, believes Lari. Her team is working with 12 villages of between 100 to 300 people in two districts of Sindh, Mirpur Khas and Tando Allahyar, to make everything flood resistant. They are building safe shelters, eco toilets and raised earthen platforms to place grain, potable water, livestock and fodder during floods. The organisation is also training people to grow vegetables on rooftops, make compost out of human and livestock excreta, purify water with sunlight and make organic soap.

“We ensure the community is motivated enough to send their kids to school, empowered to pressure the teacher to turn up, and that if there is a government health facility, its dispensary is not only equipped with drugs but that absenteeism of the staff is duly reported,” she says.

Focus on women Empowering women is at the centre of this strategy, and perhaps the reason for the project’s quick success.

For many villagers, says Lari, the most prized structure is the raised stove and small outdoor kitchen area designed by the Heritage Foundation. “People don’t know what a woman goes through while cooking,” says Lari. “It’s our most popular product and has been transformative for the family.”

The design team, she says, took time to really understand the needs of village women. The twin burner stove is fuel-efficient and the attached chimney allows smoke to leave the house. “Because it is built on a raised platform, it automatically gives the woman an elevated position, as if she is sitting on a throne,” says Lari. Crucially, the height also protects the stove from flood waters.

Best of all, there are now trained stove makers in each village. These “barefoot entrepreneurs”, as Lari calls them, teach others for a charge of Rs 200 (US$2). Local women have also learned how to make mud bricks. “We are happy because the construction is better and the techniques are shared and adopted; they are happy because they are making money in the process,” says Lari

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available, many are lagging behind with no plans. Out Building Back Better – of the total 148 districts, DRM plans for only 29 are As guided by the Sendai available on NDMA website. Another serious concern is that even after so many years of adopting the Framework for Disaster new DRM structure, District Disaster Management Authorities (DDMAs) in many districts have not Risk Reduction been practically established and are believed to 26 Although it is too early to gauge Pakistan’s be available on paper only . It is very alarming for performance against the actions and activities reasons that DDMAs are supposed to be the first recommended by SFDRR, yet the country has responder in terms of DRR and DRM activities. In made considerable progress in line with some of such areas, the general district authorities (e.g., the key dimensions of building back better over Office of Deputy Commissioner) are burdened with the last decade. A quick analysis of the progress DRR and DRM activities in addition to their district so far is discussed in the following paragraphs. management responsibilities. Adding more to the on-ground vulnerability, the newly elected (2015-16) Disaster Preparedness - Contingency local government representatives have overall no Policies, Plans and Programmes clue of their responsibilities with respect to their DRM responsibility, under the respective Provincial Local “During the 2010 floods, NDMC became irrelevant Government Acts, and about mainstreaming DRR as the Council of Common Interests took key into development programs. decisions on compensation and recons¬truction strategy. Additionally, another body, the National The economic losses due to disasters, especially by Oversight Disaster Management Council, was repeated losses due to floods every year, is one of the established in August 2010 in a bid to ensure major impediments in improving the livelihood and transparency in aid distribution. Damage socio-economic status of the already vulnerable and assessment of the 2010 floods was steered by impoverished population in Pakistan. For now, there the provincial governments, while NDMA was is no major public plan or programme for disaster risk sidestepped by the Planning Commission in flood financing and / or insurance in the country, however reconstruction and rehabilitation planning and progress has been made on the subject. Upon execution. After the 2008 earthquake in Balochistan request from the Government of Pakistan, the World the provincial Social Welfare Department took Bank conducted a study in 2015 and presented a the lead in relief coordination. Awaran was taken “series of complementary options for development over by security forces after the 2013 earthquake. of a national disaster-risk financing strategy, based During the IDP crisis in KP in 2010, the role of the on a preliminary fiscal risk analysis and a preliminary PDMA was replaced with the temporary Provincial review of the current budget management related to Emergency Response Unit and the NDMA was disasters in Pakistan” (Table 2)27. Subsequent to this by-passed by the federal-level Special Support report, Pakistan has recently signed an agreement 25 Group, led by the law-enforcement agencies” . with the Asian Development Bank for establishing a National Disaster Risk Management Fund (NDRMF) Disaster preparedness and planning at District with a “total outlay of $3 billion of which the ADB Level also remains critically insufficient. While will provide $1bn in five tranches. The Australian some of the districts in the country have disaster government will co-finance the fund and other donors management and flood contingency plans

25 Bhatti A. Risk Governance. DAWN. July 2015. http://www.dawn.com/news/1196987 26 Wasif S. Calamitous: Many Disaster Bodies Exist on Paper Only. The Express Tribune. January 2017. 27 World Bank Group; Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery. 2015. Fiscal Disaster Risk Assessment Options for Consideration: Pakistan. World Bank, Washington, DC. © World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/21920 License: CC BY 3.0 IGO

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Table 2: Options for a National Disaster-Risk Financing Strategy in Pakistan

Time Frame Options for Disaster Risk Financing

Short term Develop a central database of disaster losses and expenditures to better predict future financial costs of disasters

Short term Operationalize the National and Provincial Disaster Management Authorities (NDMA and PDMAs)

Short term Clarify contingent liability associated with post-disaster cash transfer programs, and restructure their financing sources to ensure efficient access to funds in the event of a disaster

Short to medium term Develop financial disaster risk assessment tools, including development of financial catastrophe risk models for the Ministry of Finance

Short to medium term Develop a national disaster risk financing strategy that proposes models for improving financial response capacity to disasters Medium term Establish a robust catastrophe risk insurance program for public assets

Medium to long term Promote property catastrophe risk insurance for private dwellings

Source: World Bank Report such as Norway, Belgium and Switzerland also expressed interest in making contributions to it”28. This Fund is “being established as a government- owned non-bank financial intermediary with a corporate structure. The NDRMF will reduce the socio-economic and fiscal vulnerability of the country and its population to natural hazards by prioritising and financing investments in disaster risk reduction and preparedness that have high economic benefits, taking into account climate change, as well as disaster risks and their impacts”29. The proposed financial mechanisms can bring benefits to multiple beneficiaries, especially the poor and farmers (Table 3).

28 Ahmed A. Govt to Establish Fund for Disaster Management. DAWN. December 2016. http://www.dawn.com/news/1300181 29 Asian Development Bank. Pakistan: National Disaster Risk Management Fund. 2016. https://www.adb.org/projects/50316-001/ main

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Table 3. Disaster Risk Financing and Insurance Policy Areas and Benefits

Policy Area Beneficiaries Benefits Sovereign Governments Increases financial response and reconstruction capacity by improving Disaster Risk • Resource mobilisation, allocation, and execution; Financing • Insurance of public assets; and • Social safety net financing. Protects the stability of public finances by reducing the financial volatility in public expenditure generated by disasters • Clarifies the government’s contingent liability following disasters in terms of public assets, the private sector and state-owned enterprises, and the poor • Provides incentives for public investment in risk reduction measures Property Homeowners • Provides access to compensation for physical property damage and indirect Catastrophe and SMEs losses arising from that damage Risk Insurance • Increases awareness and understanding of financial vulnerability to disasters • Helps distribute risk and burden of recovery between public and private sectors • Can incentivise investment in risk reduction by business and households Agricultural Farmers • Provides access to compensation for production losses and damage to Insurance productive assets • Helps distribute risk and burden of recovery between public and private sectors • Increases awareness and understanding of financial vulnerability to agricultural risks • Encourages farmers to invest more in risk reduction measures • Allows for the adoption of higher-yielding, but riskier, farming methods • Increases access to financial services and markets for low-income households (insurance, banking, savings) Disaster- The poorest • Mitigates financial shocks by providing compensation for livelihood or asset Linked losses through flexible social safety nets Social • Increases awareness and understanding of vulnerability to disasters Protection • Can incentivise investment in risk reduction by the government or the at-risk affected population • Safeguards vulnerable people from falling into poverty

Source: World Bank, Financial Protection against Natural Disasters: An Operational Framework for Financial Risk Financing and Insurance, Working Paper 94988 (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2014).

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Overview of agricultural insurance: Pakistan30 Agricultural insurance is relatively undeveloped in Pakistan. Livestock insurance was first introduced on a pilot basis in 1983 by two private insurers, Adanijcer Insurance Company and the Eastern Federal Union Insurance Company. Crop insurance is new and was introduced in 2008 under a public private partnership for a national (in scope) crop loan insurance scheme. Livestock and poultry insurance has been written on a small-scale in the past by various private insurance companies Since Rabi31 season 2008/09 a group of ten insurance companies in conjunction with 20 commercial banks have been involved in the implementation of the national crop loan insurance scheme. The insurers include New Jubilee, EFU General, East West, National Insurance Company, UBL, Adamjee, United, Silver Star, Atlas and Alfalah.

Agricultural insurance products available Livestock insurance is available on a limited basis and includes both livestock cattle, buffalo, small ruminants and poultry insurance. Since rabi 2008/09 individual grower multiple peril crop insurance has been available for field cereal crops and sugar cane. The policy adopts a unique two-trigger indemnity procedure: 1) catastrophe losses as a result of an insured peril that exceeds 50 percent of the normal average regional area yield must first be declared by a competent authority, and 2) this opens the policy for a loss adjustment at the individual farmer level.

Delivery channels For crop insurance, the most important delivery channel is through linkage to agricultural credit for farmers through the banks.

Voluntary versus compulsory insurance Agricultural insurance is compulsory for farmers who have taken seasonal loans from the banks.

Agricultural reinsurance The scheme carries a maximum agreed indemnity limit of 300 percent loss ratio. There is a stop loss reinsurance cover that is placed with international reinsurers. It is understood that on account of the very severe flooding in 2010 the stop loss reinsurance programme has incurred high losses. No further details of the stop loss treaty are available.

Public support for agricultural insurance The crop loan insurance scheme attracts premium subsidy support from government (SBP, 2010).

Premium subsidies According to SBP (2010), in 2008/09 the government reimbursed the banks Rs 183 million (US$2.2 million) for the cost of premium subsidies to subsistence farmers. This would be equivalent to a premium subsidy level of 58 percent.

30 https://agrihunt.com/articles/pak-agri-outlook/overview-of-agricultural-insurance-pakistan/ 31 Rabi season is the Winter cropping season that takes place from October to March

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Five-year results The crop loan insurance scheme has only been operating for the past two years. According to SBP (2010), in 2008/09 the scheme written premium was US$3.8 million against paid claims up to December 2009 of US$0.28 million with an implied loss ratio of about 73 percent. In 2010, Pakistan incurred devastating flooding that destroyed much of the kharif 2010 crop. It is understood that the 2009/10 premium may be in the order of about US$6 to 8 million, and that the value of crop losses resulting from these floods may be as high as between US$10 to 20 million. However, these preliminary and informal estimates need to be confirmed. It is also understood that there have been severe flood losses in the livestock and poultry sectors in 2010 and that at least part of these losses are insured. No further details are available.

Crop Loan Insurance Framework in Pakistan In spite of various initiatives taken in the past to introduce crop insurance, no fruitful result could seen, mainly due to low involvement of private sector insurance companies and non-availability of reliable data on calamities, cropping pattern, etc. As such, the risk of losses from natural calamities to the farming community remained without insurance cover. Additionally banks considered agri. credit a high risk and non-viable business which hampered the expansion of credit to the farming community. Therefore, in order to improve access to credit for the farming community especially to the small farmers, SBP initiated the task of development of a crop loan insurance framework with the help of stakeholders. The member insurance companies of the Working Group reviewed the existing structure of agri. financing and various schemes and products of agricultural production loans with the objective of perspective risk portfolio and size of the business to develop a workable market based insurance framework.

The biggest challenge was the acquisition of data on calamities, district wise & crop wise agricultural disbursements/recoveries, NPLs, cropping cycles, etc. The required data was collected and compiled by SBP to facilitate insurance companies in assessing potential risks and negotiating with reinsurers abroad. Insurance companies also reviewed the crop loan insurance schemes offered by two insurance companies viz. East West Insurance and United Insurance to the agricultural borrowers of The Bank of Punjab and Askari Bank Ltd. respectively. Based on the information provided by SBP, banks and negotiations with reinsurers, a well-structured & comprehensive framework was jointly prepared by the member insurance companies of the Working Group. The framework covered all dimensions of crop loan insurance which, inter alia, include crops to be covered, insured risks, maximum sum insured per borrower, maximum rate of premium, indemnities, etc. It was also suggested that in order to save time and effort, the insurance companies could jointly reinsure the entire portfolio of agricultural crop production loans but the suggestion was not supported by insurance companies as most of them have developed their own products based on the State Bank of Pakistan (SBP) framework.

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Early Warning Systems and Communication 0.5 billion) for flood control on country-wide basis. Mechanisms A few projects under the NDMP stand already approved/under approval by the concerned Weather data and flood flow information is collected agencies include in-particular the following: and forecasts are prepared by the Flood Forecasting Division of the Pakistan Meteorological Department32 a) Short & Medium Range Forecasting (all four with the help of technical equipment and models, provinces, federal capital); including weather radars, satellite stations, and b) Up-gradation of Islamabad Weather weather forecasting computer models. The Surveillance Radar; information is disseminated to relevant stakeholders in the government system. Flood alerts are then c) Up-gradation of Karachi Weather Surveillance passed-on to communities at risk through national Radar; and local media, and announcements at local d) Satellite based Integrated Flood Alert System mosques and by sounding sirens by the Civil Defence for flash floods.”34 Department. In recent years, flood alerts have also been communicated by Short Messaging Service (SMS) with the help of telecom companies and was found helpful in providing quick information to the communities. One of the important limitation of the Met Department is the non-availability of early warning system for flash floods in hill torrents, whereas the “deficiency as well as old vintage of meteorological and hydrological sensors has a bearing on qualitative, quantitative and precision of weather forecast, especially against erratic weather pattern viz-a-viz climate change phenomenon”33.

Recognising the existing weaknesses and the imminent requirement of a robust system, a complete volume of the National Disaster Management Plan 2012 was dedicated to development of multi-hazard early warning and evacuation systems over a period of ten years (2012-22). The plan, focuses on four major components, including strengthening of forecasting and early warning system, preparing hazard maps at local scale in targeted locations, strengthening early warning dissemination systems, and developing capacity of early warning and evacuation systems. “The multi-hazard early warning system plan contains an exclusive investment of PKR 50 billion (approx. $

32 Pakistan Meteorological Department. http://www.pmd.gov.pk/PMD/pmdinfo.html 33 NDMA. National Monsoon Contingency Response Directive. 2016. http://www.ndma.gov.pk/plans.php 34 NDMA. National progress report on the implementation of the Hyogo Framework for Action (2013-2015). http://www. preventionweb.net/files/42312_PAK_NationalHFAprogress_2013-15.pdf

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Experience of a monsoon flood forecasting model An extremely pertinent case study that may be followed by Pakistan is a monsoon flood forecast model developed and being used successfully in Bangladesh. “A project to develop and apply monsoon flood forecasts was undertaken in 2000-09 within the Climate Forecast Applications Network (CFAN), a consortium of international and Bangladeshi organisations and institutes. The resulting forecast system uses a variety of data including: weather forecast data from a European climate model; satellite and surface precipitation data from US satellites and local data collection; daily measures of the Ganges and Brahmaputra streamflow and meteorological data such as wind, humidity and temperature. Since 2004, the Bangladesh Flood Forecasting and Warning Centre (FFWC), with support from CFAN and later the Regional Integrated Multi-Hazard Early Warning System (RIMES), has been using its model to produce daily, 7-10-day flood forecasts. The forecasts are integrated into Bangladesh’s disaster- management protocol by local experts. In 2007, six flood-prone unions (equivalent to counties) were developed as pilot sites for community-level use of the forecasts. Community leaders were trained to receive forecasts by cell phone and to use local landmarks to express the likely level of flooding in terms that are clear and useful for villagers. Community leaders advise action such as telling farmers to harvest their crops or take cattle to safety, and telling households to store water, food and personal belongings ahead of a flood”35. The role, education, and training of community leaders and the population at large is pivotal for the success of any early warning system and hence must be given due importance in Pakistan also.

Figure 6: Results of Case Study: Flood Early Warning in Bangladesh Did it make a difference? Bangladesh experienced three major floods in 2007 and 2008. Each was forecast successfully 10 days in advance and action was taken. Communities moved to evacuation points in advance, fisheries were protected by nets, crops were harvested early ahead of impending floods, households were warned to store food and drink in advance, and mechanised boats were readied in case evacuation of farmers on river islands became necessary.

Speaking of the 2008 floods, the Imam from Sirajgong District tells: “In my field, T. Aman [a type of rice] was at seedling and transplanting stage, I used the flood forecast information for harvesting crops and making decisions for seedling and transplantation of T. Aman...Also we saved household assets.”

One analysis concluded that approximately US$40 was saved for every dollar invested in the regional forecasting and warning system. The Asian Disaster Preparedness Center estimated that the average savings were US$400-500 per affected household. Preventing the loss of one livestock animal, for instance, was shown to save a household around US$500: about one year’s income in Bangladesh.

Source: UNISDR Scientific and Technical Advisory Group Report 2013. Case Study 3

35 UNISDR. UNISDR Scientific and Technical Advisory Group Report 2013. Case Study 3: Flood Early Warning in Bangladesh. http:// www.preventionweb.net/files/workspace/7935_casestudy3.pdf

103 Recurring Monsoon Floods: Pakistan’s Experience of “Building Back Better”

• Strategy-4: Implement appropriate structural Ensuring Resilience of and non-structural measures in flood prone New and Existing Critical areas taking into account comprehensive and integrated flood management plans. Infrastructure • Strategy-5: Enhance disaster risk Ensuring disaster resilience of critical public management capacity including fire in urban infrastructure is a highly challenging undertaking for areas. any country, much less for a developing country like Pakistan. The scope of critical sectoral infrastructure – The plan and strategy is, however, silent on the including transportation, communication, power and importance of ensuring resilience for power, energy, educational and health sector services, water water supply, transportation and communication and sanitation services, and housing – is massive sectors and facilities, the presence of which is vital and daunting. “Making infrastructure resilient calls in quick and effective disaster response. for engineering and non-engineering measures that take into account the links between built and natural In addition to all the relevant DRR and DRM environments and among institutional frameworks. activities, there is a dire need to undertake all Careful consideration of development goals, prevailing possible measures for integrated flood and water situations, resources, and opportunities is needed management in rivers and linked waterways to to push the resilience agenda forward. Given the prevent the outflow of floods to the adjacent rural multifaceted dimensions of resilience, coordinated and urban areas. The Federal Flood Commission action from various sectors and stakeholders is (FFC) in Pakistan holds this responsibility and imperative for achieving a safer future”36. works through a wide range of federal and provincial government departments to conduct its Pakistan’s National DRR Policy 2013 adopts functions. Since 1977 the FFC has implemented “strengthening the structural and non-structural three flood protection plans, i.e. 1978-88, 1988- 37 resilience of key infrastructure and lifelines in 98 and 1998-2008. The Commission reports Pakistan” as one of its objectives. The National in 2015 that the plan for 2008-18 “could not be Disaster Management Plan also sets an intervention approved for implementation at that time due for infrastructure development for DRR with following to the low priority given to the Flood Sector”. five strategy points: This decision in a flood-prone country, during times when National Disaster Risk Management • Strategy-1: Develop schools, hospitals and other Framework was being adopted, was certainly important public facilities to be safe against surprising. The super-floods of 2010 shattered • disasters. the wishful assumptions of all those at the helm of affairs but even then, preparation of the next • Strategy-2: Develop important coastal facilities to flood protection plan started only in 2013 and be safe (i.e., ports and industrial facilities) against plans for 2015-25 came into shape. The same disasters taking into consideration climate report states that for years 2009 to 2015, an change (sea level rising, increment of intensity of allocation of PKR 3.91 billion (approx. $ 38.71 cyclones, etc.). million) was made by the Government of Pakistan • Strategy-3: Enforce the building code in against a demand of PKR 24.50 billion (approx. construction of buildings. $242.57 million) for flood protection schemes. On

36 Asian Development Bank. Making Infrastructure Disaster-Resilient. 2013. https://www.adb.org/documents/making-infrastructure- disaster-resilient 37 Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Water and Power. Annual Flood Report 2015.

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Figure 7: Number of Training Courses by NIDM (Source: NIDM)

average this amounts to a meagre $6.5 million and training of relevant stakeholders, particularly per year which by any means is not sufficient including the vulnerable communities. for enhancing the flood protection structures in the country. Despite the national fiscal limitation in Pakistan’s developing economy, it would be Capacity Building, DRR prudent enough to allocate a reasonable amount Education and Knowledge to ensure preventive investment instead of post- disaster spending of billions on rescue, relief, and Sharing reconstruction. Pakistan’s National Disaster Management Plan Huge infrastructure losses were incurred due contains a complete volume on the Human Resource to repeated floods in the last 5-6 years, which Development Plan. As part of following the plan, the also provided an opportunity to incorporate National Institute of Disaster Management has been hazard resilient elements in the recovery and established which “will provide facilities for planning, reconstruction. A flood assessment report in 2014 promoting training, research and developing core estimated recovery needs at around $440 million, competencies in the area of disaster management. It is including $56 million for building resilience of the also responsible for documentation and development affected population and their productive assets38. of national level information base relating to disaster management policies, prevention mechanisms and 39 The challenges, however, remain in putting policy mitigation measures” . Over a period of six years to practice. Weak governance, lack of monitoring, (2010 to June 2015), the NIDM has provided training un-willingness and low interest of the affected to 4,968 participants through 138 training courses. population in adhering to the policies, regulations, and guidelines kept the country far from achieving The NGOs and CSOs in the country have a significant the goal of DRM integrated recovery and contribution in developing training material and reconstruction. This aspect of building back better providing trainings on Community Based Disaster cannot be exercised as a stand-alone measure and Risk Management and Child Centred Disaster Risk is closely linked to awareness raising, education Management as part of major programmes or stand-

38 http://reliefweb.int/report/pakistan/adb-220-million-aid-help-pakistan-build-hazard-resilient-infrastructure 39 NDMA. National progress report on the implementation of the Hyogo Framework for Action (2013-2015). http://www. preventionweb.net/files/42312_PAK_NationalHFAprogress_2013-15.pdf

105 Recurring Monsoon Floods: Pakistan’s Experience of “Building Back Better”

Pakistan Flood—Gender-Inclusive Needs Assessment40 The Asian Development Bank and the World Bank led a gender-inclusive damage and needs assessment following the massive flooding across Pakistan in 2010. The needs assessment examined the devastation and identified major needs for recovery and rehabilitation. The assessment was based on data collected from separate focus group discussions with displaced women and men living in relief camps, along with interviews with key observers such as teachers, humanitarian workers, village leaders, and representatives from non-governmental organisations.

Post-disaster needs confirmed that pre-existing gender inequalities in Pakistan had exacerbated after the floods and that the trend was expected to continue. In particular, the assessment identified that (i) many women and girls felt a loss of honour and dignity due to lack of privacy in the camps; (ii) several suffered from severe malnutrition and poor hygiene conditions; (iii) women had limited access to incomes, assets, or livelihoods; and (iv) they faced an increased vulnerability to violence against women and girls.

On the basis of the findings of the needs assessment, the following gender issues emerged for post- flood reconstruction: (a) women’s inclusion in the reconstruction process, (b) professional jobs for women, (c) gender-sensitive facilities such as vocational schools for women and health clinics, and (d) land acquisition by women.

alone projects. The participation of women and girls Women, Children and Vulnerable Groups are ensured in these trainings. It may be recommended The effects of disasters may be bleaker for women, that all such intervention by donors and NGOs should children, elderly and persons living with disabilities, be made in consultation and coordination with NIDM especially in a particular environment, culture, so that the trainings are well directed according to the or society. These groups in our societies have needs of the relevant areas, and also to ensure the special and separate needs as well as a number best use of scarce resources. of vulnerabilities during any calamitous situation. At the same time the role and equal participation To bring DRM into mainstream education, a few of women is extremely important in successful universities in the Country, including Quaid-e-Azam DRR and DRM planning and implementation in a University, University of Peshawar, NED University particular community, society, and country. of Engineering and Technology, Karachi, University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore, Karakoram In Pakistan, gender equality and empowerment is International University, and Preston University offer promoted and treated as a cross-cutting subject research courses in disaster risk management, for any programme or project on any theme, safer structural engineering, climate change, and including disaster risk reduction, management, environment. Some of NGOs and CSOs also provide and response. The National Disaster Management trainings to school children and college youth but Act and the National Disaster Risk Management these are not sufficient for a population of 189 million. Framework also purposes to “integrate To enhance the outreach of DRM education and the needs of vulnerable groups in planning training, it needs to be incorporated in the syllabus of and implementation, capacity building, and schools and colleges across the Country. mainstreaming the considerations of vulnerable

40 http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/gender-inclusive-disaster-risk-management_0.pdf

106 South Asian Disaster Report 2016 communities at all levels”41. To enhance particular focus on gender empowerment and to give special Pakistan—Empowering Women through attention to the needs of women, children, elderly Post-Disaster Housing Reconstruction43 and special persons, a Gender and Child Cell was established under NDMA in 2010. After extensive Following the 2005 Pakistan earthquake, the consultations with stakeholders from government, Asian Development Bank’s Earthquake-Displaced donor organisations and NGOs, the Cell prepared People Livelihood Restoration Program helped National Policy Guidelines on Vulnerable Groups in rebuild permanent seismic-compliant homes for Disasters in 2014 to present a particular framework 2.7 million people, of which 55,000 belonged to ensure the inclusiveness of said groups of the to households headed by women. More than society. This was followed, in the same year, 20,000 women were trained in building houses to by SOPs on Separated, Unaccompanied and withstand future earthquakes. While most families Missing Children in Disasters. did not build the houses themselves, the training helped them ensure that their new homes met the To build on these policies and frameworks, recommended standards. concrete implementation plans and monitoring mechanisms needs to established to ensure the Local customs denied women the right to own desired results. “Women groups from both rural or inherit property, limiting women’s access to and urban areas in Pakistan should be included in emergency supplies, reconstruction initiatives, the disaster management decision-making cycle. and other services due to lack of identity papers, At the sub-national and operational levels, women land title documents, and banking experience. The should particularly be recognised as ‘agents programme initiated mobile registration services of change’ and be utilised in risk reduction, as well as legal aid centers in the most remote preparedness and inducted as rescue and relief areas. As a result, women, particularly households workers. The capacity of female local enumerators headed by women, gained land titles that were should be built to enable needs assessment, traditionally held almost exclusively by men. as well as design, planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of DRR and DRM programmes and strategies. Local capacities of women and women’s organisations, as well as other actors at grassroots level, should also be supported to enable effective gender-based violence prevention and response in times of crisis”42.

41 NDMA. National Policy Guidelines on Vulnerable Groups in Disasters. 2014. http://www.ndma.gov.pk/plans/gcc_policy.pdf 42 UN Women, Care International in Pakistan, Gender Equality and Governance Group. Pakistan Statement on Gender Equality and Gender Based Violence towards the World Humanitarian Summit 2016. (Conference Paper). 43 http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/gender-inclusive-disaster-risk-management_0.pdf

107 Recurring Monsoon Floods: Pakistan’s Experience of “Building Back Better”

Earthquake when a temporary Federal Conclusion and Relief Commission was established which Recommendations was subsequently merged with the ERRA. Institutional overlaps need to be addressed • Evident disconnects between horizontal and through a coordinated policy framework. A vertical policy coordination and absence of study has recommended, “it is important convergence point on disaster risk reduction are to provide greater clarity about the specific some of the core issues emerging from current roles of NDMA and PDMAs to avoid friction systems and structures of disaster management among them and to properly align the NDMA in Pakistan.44 These policy and institutional Act with the (18th) constitutional devolution discords need to be bridged through inter- amendment (DEC, 2012).46 governmental consensus-building. • DDMAs are assigned with 33 functions • Currently there are four federal laws and five regarding disaster management. However, (subordinate) provincial laws dealing with DDMAs remain ad hoc bodies without any various dimensions of disaster management in dedicated office, staff, resources or executive Pakistan.45 There is one national commission authority and technical competence to and four provincial commissions functioning as undertake disaster risk reduction measures at governing bodies of the national and provincial the local levels. DDMAs need to be linked with disaster management authorities. The district the local government system for a substantive disaster management authorities are supposed contribution in DRR and BBB. to be established by each district – some districts • Despite the existence of elected local have notified these authorities ‘on paper’ without government systems in all four provinces giving them any substantial authority to regulate including Islamabad Capital Territory (ICT), disaster risk reduction at the local level. Local the DDMAs are headed by administrative level authorities need to be empowered and heads (DCOs) which creates a conflict resourced to undertake DRR and BBB initiatives. between already existing district development • At the federal level, both the NDMA and ERRA committees (DDCs) headed by the elected are attached to the Prime Minister’s Secretariat; representatives of Provincial or National however, they have different governing bodies. Assembly.47 The District Development The NDMA is governed by the 16-member Committee makes decisions about the National Disaster Management Commission approval of annual development plans, (NDMC) headed by the Prime Minister, while the schemes and projects at the district level, ERRA is governed by its 7-member Council also while the DDMAs are assigned to review headed by the Prime Minister. There is another the development projects with disaster federal body, Emergency Relief Cell attached to risk perspective. DDMAs cannot effectively the Cabinet Division, which was sidestepped in influence the decision of DDCs because the reforms introduced after the 2005 October of overlapping membership and weak

44 Federal Emergency Relief Cell was the lead organisation for disaster management, yet it is still operational with no distinct role to perform. There exists a long list of responding agencies in case of a disaster including Civil Defence, Fire Fighting, Army, Police Emergency, Pakistan Red Crescent Society (PRCS) etc. Same gap exists in relation to institutionalising early warning and information management by addressing to the linkages of NDMA with organisations like Pakistan Meteorological Department and SUPARCO. Other important institutions which are not formally linked with the National Disaster Management System include: Federal Flood Commission, Dams Safety Council, and Geographical Survey of Pakistan etc. 45 West Pakistan National Calamities (Prevention and Relief) Act 1858; Civil Defense Act 1952 (as amended up to 1953) ; National Disaster Management Act 2010, Earthquake Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Act 2011; Punjab Emergency Service Act 2006. 46 DEC. (2012). “Disaster Risk Reduction in Pakistan: The Contribution of DEC Member Agencies, 2010-2012” URL: http://www.dec. org.uk/sites/default/files/files/Evaluations/Pakistan/DEC%20Pakistan%20DRR%20Report.pdf 47 This is more relevant to the Province of Punjab as the Provincial Government of Punjab has notified District Development Committees on the basis of rotating chairpersonship given to the elected representatives of treasury benches.

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composition of the DDMA. A harmonious role have caused and exacerbated the flood problem is required at the local level for an effective itself.51 DRR and BBB. • Existing disaster management systems do • Literature on disaster risk reduction not seem to have taken development-induced recognises that hazards are being reshaped disasters into account. The NDMO 2006, and new hazards introduced by contemporary NDRMF 2007 and NDMA 2011 does not development trends. Recent studies have provide for any preventive or punitive clauses indicated that a new trend of development- to address the whole spectrum of disasters induced disasters is emerging in developing induced by ill-designed development projects. countries.49 Left Bank Outfall Drain (LBOD), Disaster-development linkages need to be Right Bank Outfall Drain (RBOD), Chashma recognised in future development and making Right Bank Canal Irrigation Project new developments more risk-responsive as a (CRBCIP), Taunsa Barrage Remodeling and key element of BBB. Rehabilitation Project (TBRRP) are some oft-cited examples of disasters caused by mega development in drainage and irrigation sectors in Pakistan. Some analysts have termed 2010 Flood at Taunsa (South Punjab) as a result of ‘engineering failures’50 because the very structures meant to control flooding

48 UNDP. (2004). “Reducing Disaster Risk, A Global Report”. Bureau for Crisis Prevention and Recovery, UNDP, New York. 49 Manila-based NGO Forum on ADB (Asian Development Bank), reflects some of this thinking.URL: 50 Mushatq Gadi. (2010). “Engineering failures”, Daily Dawn. URL: 51 Ibid

109 Sindh, Pakistan: “The Survival Within” Ghotki, Pakistan: “Living Flood to Flood”

Dera Ghazi Khan, Pakistan: “The Misery of Losing Dera Ghazi Khan, Pakistan: “Helpless and Hopeful” Everything”

Rajanpur, Pakistan: “Vulnerability Defined” Ghotki, Pakistan: “No Home Again”

110 South Asian Disaster Report 2016

Build Back Better and the Experience of Landslide Management in Sri Lanka

By Menake Wijesinghe1

1 Disaster Response and Resilience Advisor, Plan International, Sri Lanka. Formerly Senior Manager, Disaster Risk Reduction / Climate Change Adaptation, Janathakshan GTE Ltd. Member of Duryog Nivaran

111 Build Back Better and the Experience of Landslide Management in Sri Lanka

focus of the NDMC was to counter post disaster Disaster Management in Sri situations so that affected communities will receive Lanka – Country Context immediate assistance. Therefore, relief was the main involvement of the NDMC. At present, the Sri Lanka, being an Island nation in the Indian Ocean same institute functions as the National Disaster has a history of many hazards. Droughts, epidemics, Relief Services Centre under the Ministry of floods and a tsunami are some of the hazards Disaster Management. Following the impacts of recorded in a few of the nation’s leading historical the catastrophic 2004 tsunami, the Government documents. The Mahavansa, the great historical of Sri Lanka was compelled to take on far more chronicle of Sri Lanka, mentions the work of early active role in disaster management. The Disaster rulers in building massive tanks in the north and Management Act No. 13 of 2005, passed by the north central plains of the island to conserve water Parliament of Sri Lanka on 13th May 2005, was to cope with drought. Furthermore, the Mahavansa therefore the key policy document in the nation’s mentions a great sea-surge (probably a tsunami) on history of disaster management. It paved the way the western coast during the time of the king ‘Tissa’ for the establishment of the Disaster Management (160 BC) ruler of Kelaniya - a city situated a few miles Centre (DMC) under the guidance of National inwards from the west coast. As per the Mahavansa, Council for Disaster Management (NCDM). The this phenomenon compelled the king to sacrifice NCDM was envisaged as the country’s decision his daughter ‘Devi’ to ‘sea-gods’ to stop the sea making pinnacle for disaster management. By overflow the land2. In the same way, local folk tales default its chair is the President of the country, with and legends speak of a few occasions when some the Prime-minster and some cabinet ministers human habitats were changed due to epidemics representing relevant Ministries functioning as such as malaria. More recent documented history of members5. A per the Act, the NCDM should provide Sri Lanka records several major malaria epidemics. guidance to the Disaster Management Centre. It is The most devastating of these was the epidemic of expected to be the prompt decision making body 1934 – 1935 during which the districts in the wet during major emergencies nevertheless having the zone and the intermediate zone experienced high authority of declaration of National Emergencies. incidence resulting in nearly 1.5 million patients and However, gaps were identified in the functioning 80,000 deaths3. However, when going through the and actions of this pinnacle body. For example, history of coastal hazards and floods, the recorded as per the Act, the NCDM has not been convened number of casualties or damage is low until the last when there were national emergencies (i.e. floods half century. Such records of lower hazard impacts and landslide in May 2016) and the decisions it has could be the result of smaller human populations taken for effective disaster risk reduction appears along the coastal line and community preparedness ambiguous as no document on its decisions were for seasonal flooding. Before the great Indian Ocean published. Tsunami (2004), considerably devastative4 hazards were the cyclone in 1978 (with 720 deaths), floods Following the establishment of the DMC, in 1986 (with 320 deaths), and floods and landslides each district (25) of the country received a in 2003. disaster management coordinating unit or what was commonly known as a District Disaster In 1996, Sri Lanka established the National Disaster Management Coordination Unit (DDMCU). Each Management Centre (NDMC) under the Ministry DDMCU was attached to the District Secretariat of Social Services to respond to disasters. The key of the respective District. The DDMCU is headed

2 http://mahavamsa.org/ (2007), last accessed in 2017 3 http://www.malariacampaign.gov.lk/precentation/AboutUs.aspx 4 http://www.desinventar.lk/ 5 http://www.disastermin.gov.lk/web/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=54&Itemid=78&lang=en

112 South Asian Disaster Report 2016 by an Assistant Director, Disaster Management agencies, many other organisations such as INGOs, who reports to the District Secretary. At present, the Sri Lanka Red Cross Society, NGOs and most of the disaster risk reduction activities at the UN agencies supported Disaster Risk Reduction district level are conducted with the consent of the measures of the DMC. Particularly, preparedness DDMCU. planning for disasters at the community level was done through the networks and financial supports As a requirement of the Disaster Management of such agencies. The DMC made some efforts Act, a Disaster Management Policy was to establish community level disaster response published in 2013. In addition, a National units or Village Disaster Management Committees Disaster Management Plan for 2014 to 2018 was (VDMCs). However, considering the experiences of published by the Disaster Management Centre. recent disasters the sustainability of such VDMCs is The Disaster Management Act requests all other questionable. Government Ministries represented at the NCDM to prepare their Disaster Management Plans. The Landslides as a Major Hazard in Sri Lanka DMC has the mandate of facilitating this process. Demographic changes and diverse land-use practices For example, the Ministry of Education developed together with changes in climate have escalated the a National Guideline for School Disaster Safety in frequency and impacts of landslide disasters in Sri 2008 and through a Ministerial Circular requested Lanka. Figure 1 clearly shows the increase in the all government schools to have disaster number and intensity of landslides during last three management plans. decades. Excluding the tsunami of 2004, landslides have been the cause of the highest number of deaths There were large scale investments for Disaster (650) due to natural disasters in Sri Lanka since the Risk Reduction in Sri Lanka under different year 2000, and have affected more than 142,680 Government Ministries. The Disaster Management people and is expected to impact many more in the Centre has published hazard profiles covering the future. (Disaster Management Centre, n/d) entire country and addressing all major hazards. Simultaneously, the National Building Research The reason that landslides are considered a major Organisation has developed Hazard Zonation hazard is because nearly 20,000 km2 covering 10 Maps for landslide prone districts. Such maps districts are prone to landslides. This is about 30% are accessible online. Apart from government of Sri Lanka’s land area (Bandara, 2005). However,

Figure 1: Incidences of Landslides in Sri Lanka (1981 – 2015)

Source: Disaster Management Centre (n/d).

113 Build Back Better and the Experience of Landslide Management in Sri Lanka

Figure 2: Percentage spread of areas with including identified landslide locations in mountainous districts in Sri Lanka

Source: Derived by the author with data from National Building Research Organisationwww.nbro.gov.lk this does not mean that 30% of the country is numbers of harmful landslides are becoming more landslide prone but that this areas could have many frequent in the island. Sri Lanka has also been critically vulnerable locations and therefore vulnerable categorised as a global landslide hotspot along populations. Landslides in Sri Lanka occur mostly with the southern coast of India (UNISDR, 2005). in mountainous districts (Badulla, Kandy, Kegalle, In effect, the form of landslides seen in Sri Lanka Mathale, Nuwara Eliya, and Rathnapura). However, have a two in one (floods and landslides) effect the adjoining slopes of surrounding districts (Galle, resulting in a double impact. Hambanthota, Kaluthara, Kurunegala, and Mathara) have also reported landslides (figure 2). The most recent landslide in the country was the devastating landslide of 18th May 2016 at Landslides are isolated events specifically dependent Aranayake in the Kegalle District with estimated on unique geo-physical factors of a given point deaths of over 150 (District Disaster Management (Arambepola et al., 1997). In Sri Lanka, landslides Unit, Kegalle, 2016). Controversially, in this case, are not seismic related and are triggered by rain the largest number of deaths were reported in a coupled with other underlying geographical features. low risk area as per the Hazard Zonation Maps of Situated off the southern tip of the South Indian sub- the NBRO. Previously at another landslide (29th continent, Sri Lanka receives rains from the south- October 2014) in Meeriyabedde, in the Badulla western and north-eastern monsoons precipitating District, almost 37people were buried alive (District mainly on its western and eastern mountain slopes. Disaster Management Unit, Badulla, 2016). The Inter-monsoonal torrential rains also contribute to solution to ensuring people’s safety requires precipitation, so that at any time of the year, there a mix of solutions of preparedness, prompt is a probability for heavy rain and subsequently and effective early warning methods, structural landslides. However, it is during the months of May – mitigation measures, support for recovery and July and November – January at the onset of the two effective relocation options. This chapter draws monsoons that the most number of landslides are from recent experiences in Sri Lanka, especially reported. Correlating with land occupation patterns the case of the Meeriyabedde landside (of 2014) and population growth in mountainous regions the to illustrate the impacts of the current disaster

114 South Asian Disaster Report 2016 management system. The chapter goes on to the relief stages of the disaster event. However, offer some recommendations to build back better some work has been done on risk assessment and in landslide prone areas. mitigation. Mitigation action has taken place along with assessment of elements at risk, such as the Current Landslide Management Strategies population (people, who either live, work, or spend and Actions some time in the area affected by landslides), buildings and engineering works, economic activities, public The key agency dealing with landslides in service utilities (such as water or electricity supply) and Sri Lanka is the National Building Research infrastructure (roads and communication facilities) in Organisation (NBRO), under the Ministry of the area potentially affected by landslides(Sri Lankan Disaster Management. The Ministry of Disaster Geotechnical Society, 2005). Management oversees the NBRO, the Disaster Management Center (DMC), and the Department Some mitigation measures put in place include all or of Meteorology (DOM). The three organizations a combination of activities such as building retaining fulfill specific roles and collaborate with each other walls, ground anchors (soil nails), proper surface water to deal with landslide hazards. At the same time, drains and sloping of surface to prevent pounding when implementation of the guidelines or technical of water, filling of ground cracks with clay soils, or decisions given by the above agencies is required, revalidation of slopes (Ratnayake and Herath, 2005). the local administrative bodies, provincial and One example is the surface draining system used local governing bodies (provincial councils and in Beragala, along the Avissawella – Wellavaya (A4) local councils) play vital roles. road. Here major construction has taken place using large concrete structures. Another such system can The NBRO is a research and development institute be seen in Gampola, just beyond the Gampola town established in 1984. The NBRO consists of several along the A5 road. Here too, a surface draining system divisions that provide services for construction was built with concrete gutters to avoid surface water and land development. The ‘Landslide Research reaching the spaces between layers of soil, which and Risk Management Division (LLRMD)’ is could eventually trigger landslides (Bandara, 2009). mandated to be the focal point for landslides The Peradeniya Landslide mitigation site gives us in the country. The LLRMD provides Landslide yet another example of mitigation measures. This Risk Management Services, develops landslide project was started to prevent further escalation of hazard zonation mapping, identifies landslide the disaster following the Peradeniya landslide which hazards and assesses landslide risks. Given that blocked the main Colombo–Kandy (A1) road in 2006. many of the landslides are aggravated by cutting The mitigation work was completed in June 2013. failures, the NBRO has developed guidelines for construction and land use planning in hilly Several other mitigation measures were undertaken areas and is authorised to see that construction for sites in the Nuwara Eliya district as well. The cost clearance is obtained before building on mountain for such mitigation is immense: for example, the slopes. In 2005, the NBRO’s landslide zonation mitigation in Peradeniya was Rs. 51.38 Million (USD maps were used by the National Physical 0.35 million), Mahaweva Rs. 441 million (USD 3.06 Planning Department in the formulation of the million), and several millions of rupees spent for small National Physical Planning Policy of Sri Lanka. mitigation sites in Matale and Badulla (NBRO, 2016). Based on the hazard maps, the central hills were Much of the mitigation has taken place to protect demarcated as a fragile and environmentally the major roads – sometimes funded through donor sensitive area where further settlements are not funds or loans. However, this may not apply to a recommended (Sugathapala, 2010). range of smaller mitigation measures especially those that protect poorer communities. Such measures While progress has been made to improve have to be considered and budgeted into the action disaster management in Sri Lanka, the focus has plans of both the Ministry of Disaster Management been on putting in place systems and processes as well as other agencies (i.e. the National Housing to manage the disaster and also to deal with

115 Build Back Better and the Experience of Landslide Management in Sri Lanka

Development Authority (NHDA), the Department of people had not been able to move. Eventually Irrigation, the Health sector etc.). the disaster they faced, affected 330 people in 57 families, damaged 150 houses and left 75 children Efforts to carry out landslide mitigation on roads can orphaned (DMC, 2016). Further, damage was be linked to large economic losses incurred with the caused to a range of infrastructure – the Kovil, destruction of the roads. However, the high costs the community centre and livelihood structures of landslide mitigation increases the probability for such as dairy collection centres, shops and mitigation projects to be delayed or de-prioritised. A communication facilities that the community had landslide would not affect a large number (a maximum invested in over time (ibid). of several hundred) of people. Flood mitigation would benefit many thousands and secure vital economic The 75 families affected were living in the centers. Therefore, when allocating funds from Ampitakanda tea estate of the Maskeliya limited budgets provided by the government, large Plantation Company. They are part of Sri Lanka’s (flood mitigation or road development) projects get “estate” community– a group of people brought prioritised over landslide mitigation. As a result, many to Sri Lanka as bonded labour during the British communities especially the poor living on vulnerable colonial era. They are tied to the tea estate as slopes may have to live with high risks for many years. their place of work and place of residence. They were living in “line rooms” that are built, owned In the context of mitigation and averting risks, one and maintained by the plantation company. From area still lagging behind is that of relocation and those affected,10 households had individuals resettlement. Presently landslide resettlement in Sri working for the Maskeliya Plantation. A majority Lanka focuses mainly on post disaster resettlement. were born on the estate, but were working outside For instance, the Meeriyabedda area where a massive the estate as casual labourers, but some also did landslide occurred in October 2015 had been casual work for the estate. Many of the youth have declared fragile in 2005, but a plan to relocate the migrated to other areas in search of jobs. The community had not been put in place (Somarathne community do not own these houses but earn the 2016). Despite being warned that they were in danger right to live in them – if at least one member of of a landslide people did not move due to complex the family works for the plantation company. This socio economic reasons. The case study of the rule is not enforced rigorously as can be seen in Meeriyabedde landslide that follows illustrates the this estate, and families stay on due to the historic ground situation especially in relation to relocation, a links to the estate, but also because they have no key aspect of landslide risk management. access to land elsewhere and have community/ family ties in the area.

Case Study: The Story of The Relief Stage Meeriyabedda In the immediate aftermath of the landslide, rescue and relief operations fell into place. The At 7.30am on October 29, 2014, the people of Ministry of Disaster Management led rescue and Meeriyabedda in the Haldummulla division, were relief operations with the support of the Provincial suddenly engulfed in an influx of soil, boulders and and District political and administrative arms, and rubble as they faced one of the most severe landslides sectoral agencies such as the health sector, the to affect Sri Lanka. The landslide was triggered by armed forces and the police. Temporary shelters monsoon rains and was about 3 kilometres (1.9 miles) were set up in two local schools and supplies in length (DMC,2014). According to the NBRO, it had (food, rations, clothes etc.) came pouring in issued a warning of possible landslides on the night of through state structures, civil society and the 28 October, 2014 and the DMC had communicated general public. this warning to the vulnerable communities. In fact, before this event, several warnings had been issued In October 2014, the two relief centres were and the people asked to relocate. However, the taking care of 839 people. This number included

116 South Asian Disaster Report 2016 not just the affected people but also others who centre, community centre and health care centre) evacuated after the event, based on warnings (DMC, 2014).The “Hazard Resilient Village” plan issued by the NBRO (DMC, 2014). According to also mentions assistance for the orphaned children newspaper reports in 2015, 91 families were still (accommodation, supplies, schooling) as well as in crammed temporary shelters (Nagraj, 2015) livelihoods support although specific details are and in 2016, 2 years after the disaster, 75 families not available (DMC, 2014). In February 2015, the continued to live in the Mahakanda tea factory, Ministry of Hill Country New Villages, Infrastructure each family in a single small room (Kaviratne, and Community Development, together with the 2016). The living conditions were extremely poor, Sri Lanka Army, the Urban Development Authority, with limited rations and the uncertainty of when and the NBRO, commenced work on the housing they could restart their lives hanging over their scheme. On the 22nd of October 2016, after more heads. than 2 years in transition shelters, the new houses with basic infrastructure were ceremoniously handed “We lost everything, our loved ones, earnings over to the affected families by the Minister of Disaster throughout our lives, and now we are left with Management with several other local politicians in no choice but to be crammed in together with attendance. minimum basic facilities, and barely able to survive with the rations given to us”, The Relocation – What Has Taken Place On a visit to this location the author met with the A person affected by the landslide, community and local officials to gauge their reaction Meeriyabedde still living in a temporary shelter and perceptions of the disaster management in 2016 (quoted in Kaviratne, 2016) process they experienced. The focus was primarily on resettlement. This quote highlights the plight people face over a long period of time when such disasters take The houses were built on land belonging to the place and the recovery interventions are not Maskeliya Plantation Company. Each family was swiftly implemented. People cannot manage with given a house with approximately 7 perches of land. the rations provided and are unable to restart their A housing unit has a veranda, living area, two rooms, livelihoods which could provide a supplementary a kitchen and a toilet with water and electricity (see income to the hand-outs. Some also incur picture 1 and 2). They also received compensation of unanticipated rental costs and have therefore Rs. 100,000 for each family member who had died. taken the decision to move back. Hence, they were compensated for the 37 deaths. The circular on resettlement does not say that a “Many of them live in rented houses, and are victim is entitled to both a house and compensation considering a protest to make their voices but in this case, they received both. A special cabinet heard. Many have returned to line houses, approval was given to pay the compensation. In with no water or electricity, and live under addition, each family has received 25,000 to aid them abhorrent conditions.” with the relocation, while certain households received (quoted in Kaviratne, 2016) some goods as well. As the former houses were ‘line rooms’, that were old and not well maintained, those In terms of housing and resettlement, the DMC who participated in the discussion expressed their committed to building a “Hazard Resilient satisfaction at the improved housing conditions. As Village” for this community – post landslide with the line rooms belonged to the estate, the fact that the technical assistance and supervision of the they received ownership of the new houses was also NBRO (DMC 2014). The plan included providing greatly appreciated. basic furniture, water and sanitary facilities, and basic amenities, as well as support such as There were, however, some concerns about the rain gauges for community based early warning small size of the toilet as well as the lack of privacy in systems and community facilities (e.g. a religious how the toilets are positioned (see picture 3 and 4).

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As the houses are all built on an incline soil erosion living. In addition, there is no waste management is already visible. While some efforts are being made system introduced to the community. The urban by the District DMC – Badulla to carry out some soil council which collects garbage does not cover erosion protection (See Picture 5), residents would the new location. Subsequently, many individuals have to build their own soil protection barriers, which are polluting the surrounding forests and water has not been part of the housing construction. The ways by dumping garbage. This could escalate children continue to attend the two government environmental damage and water pollution in schools functioning on the estate premises that they the highlands and also have repercussions in the attended before the landslide. The schools are about lowlands. 1 and ½ km from the new houses. Managing the Process of Resettlement The relocation has created some problems in terms Administrative hurdles were faced from the initial of livelihoods. The housing units are 5km away from stages of the housing construction. Community Koslanda (the closest small town on the Beragala – participation was low in terms of the design of Wellavaya road) and not close to an urban centre or the houses and community voice also seems other forms of employment. Therefore, they have to to be less effective on administrative decisions. travel a long distance to find work. The community For example, in the transit shelters, in some also expressed their concern with the lack of space for cases, three families were forced to live in single home gardens. Before the disaster many households partitioned room of 10 x 10 feet. They faced were rearing livestock (fowl, goats and cattle) and sanitary issues, lack of storage space, and severe almost all families had a small home garden in which privacy issues with no avenues for recourse. At the they grew vegetables as supplementary income. time of allocating houses, proving their identity or justifying the state of victimisation was difficult due “We used to have a small home garden in front to a lack of proper documentation. In one case, a of our house. I planted vegetables. Some in my female protested against her disqualification for a community were breeding animals such as goats house. Her father, mother and the sister were killed and chicken. Here there is not much space to in the landslide, but at the time of the landslide this have a garden except for few plants. Cannot lady was working in Dubai and her daughter was breed animals as we don’t have common areas” being looked after by her parents. As she was not (Female, home owner) living in the line homes she was disqualified by the authorities without much consideration. However, The Plantation Company had informed the relocated she is now in a vulnerable situation needing to community that they were not entitled to any extra care for her daughter and needing a place to live. land and the use of the land given to them for these The community also mentioned that they received purposes would disqualify from the housing scheme. threats or harsh words from the authorities asking This has an impact on the household’s income and them to stop creating ‘problems’ by demanding nutrition status and a lifestyle that they had got used various things. They also complained about the lack to. In addition, they are facing a new threat due to the of transparency on the sum spent on rehabilitation fact that the houses have been constructed in close and housing. The Divisional Secretariat had also proximity to an elephant corridor. requested them to sign documents that are in the Sinhala Language (instead of Tamil) which some The community expressed their gratitude to the Sri could not read or understand (see picture 6). As Lanka Army unit from Diyathalawa who provided food described by the home owner below, and as can and other supplies and medical care while they were in be seen in picture 6, the documentation on the the transition camps and for building the housing units. house is not a regular deed to a house. This has However, one of the changes they are facing now is created doubts among the community about the that after two years they have stopped receiving free relocation process. supplies and are facing some difficulty due to a lack of income and the lack of a proper plan for making a

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“there were many forms to be signed. Some Further, the estate who are responsible to maintain authorities said that we need to sign all, if not the houses, made no effort of its own before the we would not get houses. I can understand landslide to facilitate the relocation of the workers. Sinhalese. But most of us living here cannot. While taking up issues related to getting better quality I too don’t understand big words. However, housing for workers is also within the mandate of the there was no government logo in the document trade unions, relocation due to landslides was not an given to sign as the deed of the house. We don’t issue they pursued. understand the legality of those documents. Now the estate officials are warning us that The estate community is also one of the poorest these lands belong to the estate, therefore, we groups in Sri Lanka with little savings and disposable should comply with the estate rules or would income. Haldamulla and the Grama Niladari (GN) lose our houses” division (Kotabakma) where Meeriayabedde is Male, house owner located was classified in 2006 by the Department of Census and Statistics as among the poorest Moving forward the community members do not DS and GN divisions in Sri Lanka. Hence, in such know whom to contact for certain requirements. a situation the capacity of the local authorities They are not clear who or what organisation to carry out mitigation and assisted relocation is manages the premises. The role of the doubtful. Additionally, issues of ethnic identity and government in the land owned by the plantation is cultural acceptance restrict the ability of the estate not clear. Houses were handed over to the heads community to relocate unassisted. The warnings itself of the households. But the document given to are issued by authorities in Colombo or agencies at the incumbents as the deed of the house does a distance from the site of the landslide. However, not have clauses ensuring fully legal rights to the landslides are local incidents that depend on many land ownership. The land where the housing units local conditions related to weather and geography. were built is owned by the plantation company Hence, the need of establishing local early warning and the housing construction was done as per systems was highlighted. a memorandum of understanding between the plantation company and the central government. To implement landslide disaster risk reduction measures, it is necessary to overcome complex Challenges to Landslide Disaster Risk administrative red tape, long preparatory procedures, Reduction (DRR) in Sri Lanka as well as social and economic hurdles (Bandara, 2009). As the key agency responding to landslides, Soon after the Meeriyabadde incident,the issuing the NBRO has taken structural landslide mitigation of early warnings became a prominent topic of measures. But with budgetary limitations and many discussion. There were some allegations levelled hundreds of identified landslide sites; applying such at the DMC, that it failed to issue an early warning. structural mitigations would be a long or somewhat However, that was not the case. The District DMC impossible process. Badulla, did issue warnings but the victimised families did not evacuate from the area. This was Furthermore, local authorities in landslide prone an eye opener to the analysis of factors behind areas are instructed to take steps to relocate families unsuccessful relocation efforts. under threat. In some instances, families were to be given substitute locations. However, the relocation of When trying to understand why this community houses in the landslide prone areas of the country has did not heed the warnings to move, it is important reportedly not been completed despite a circular sent to examine the circumstances of their lives. Given by the Disaster Management Ministry in February, that the community were relying on the line rooms 2011 (Kumar, 2011). Complex administrative for housing, did not have access to other lands arrangements and lack of funding or political interests or the means to buy land or rent houses, and as could be undermining the slow process of relocation. their livelihoods were also linked to the estates or At present, the majority of threatened communities in the vicinity, they were not in a position to move.

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living on vulnerable slopes do not have relocation 4. There cannot be forced relocation in a plans. Furthermore, relocating of populations democratic nation (unless you are an illegal could be impractical and may lead to unfavourable encroacher) and communities need to be economic and social consequences (Sugathapala convinced to migrate. and Prasanna, 2009). Relocation involves opportunity costs such as, compromising existing relationships Simultaneously, communities believe that they of extended families, matters related to children would lose some benefits if they relocate. They and peer groups, education institutes, mental and have seen the opportunities of living with the physical hardship of being in temporary relocation known risks and circumstances over losing them shelters over an extended period of time, challenges because of relocation. This is mainly due to: in establishing new businesses, transportation to workplaces and schools, recognition and social 1. The lack of assurance that they will have at cohesion in a new society, cost of living in new areas, least similar living conditions after relocation. availability of essential resources, and climate. Such New lands could be far away from urban aspects sometimes convince communities to live centres and with less conveniences. with risk or to have a ‘risk culture’ rather than move 2. Lack of resources/capital to acquire land away from risk (of landslide). with similar or better conditions such as adequate space, water, fauna and fertile soil Present government initiatives on relocation also etc. and having to accept land offered by the seem mismatched with such standards. As the Sri government even if conditions are poor. Lanka government’s Ministry of Finance Circular NBC 152E/2011 –‘Guidelines for Provisions of Relief 3. Difficulties of adjusting to new environments to the Public in an Emergency Disaster Situation and and social networks. Restoration of Damaged’, elaborates on provision for 4. Psychological factors of not having relocation due to disasters and states that a maximum experienced frequent catastrophic landslides of Rs. 100,000.00 is given to those who lost houses as these are rare events. with a certification from the Grama Niladhari. In addition, a family will receive a maximum of 20 perches People living in mountainous terrain practice of land. The latter will depend on land availability in the traditional measures to prevent soil erosion and to relevant Division. The procedure becomes somewhat avoid the sliding of soil masses. During the colonial complicated when the family to be relocated has to era, such systems were put in place in the tea and go through legalities to prove ownership status and/ rubber estates. Building structural barriers with or occupancy – as experienced by the community in stones, constructing surface drainage systems, Meeriyabedda. Complex procedures and red tape and demarcating forested areas on slopes and obviously make relocation a long wait. The option of valleys were some measures practiced by the relocation has its unique problems. Some of which colonial planters. The post-colonial era has seen are: a rapidly increasing land utilisation rate with 1. Relocation requires suitable lands and finding utilisation overtaking the threshold of balanced soil lands is extremely difficult. structures in many ecosystems. (Wickramasekara and Sinnathambi, 1996). 2. Finding solutions for many socio-economic requirements related to relocation is complex. If Conducting mitigation activities for landslides could such requirements are not met it would generate become an issue of cost-benefit especially when further complicated social problems such as allocating budgets from the National Treasury increased poverty and environmental exploitation. with comparisons being drawn between the costs 3. People have strong links with their native lands. required for landslide mitigation and other disaster They compare the benefits with prevailing threats mitigation. When comparing the cost and the and conclude that living on their own land number of beneficiaries per landslide mitigation outweighs the risk of disaster. project and the costs of mitigation projects of

120 South Asian Disaster Report 2016 other disasters (such as floods and drought which DMC and local administration. For example, serves a large number of people), the ratio of when it comes to early warning the Divisional cost and number of beneficiaries is much lower in Admiration is expected to have local emergency landslide mitigation projects. Hence, conducting response mechanisms in place, evacuate people such mitigation activities in all or most of the or find safe locations for people who evacuate landslide disaster prone areas maybe unfeasible. as per early warning. Currently the role and the This presents the practical dilemma of ensuring coordination of DMC and local administration has that adequate mitigation measures are in place for gaps due to the lack of proper role identification. all landslide sites. 3. Moving to Risk Maps from Hazard Maps The hazard zonation maps developed by technical Recommendations for Build agencies should be used as a base to develop ‘risk maps’ taking into consideration vulnerability Back Better in Relation to factors. Risk maps would be more appropriate to develop strategies for ‘risk reduction’ among Landslides communities living in mountainous areas. The initial challenge of build back better is that Appropriate awareness or early warning systems the measures have to be location and disaster targeting particular communities at risk could specific. The types of vulnerabilities are also linked be developed. Risk mapping should bring in the to the socio-cultural practices of the communities. socio-cultural practices of the area, the livelihoods Hence a localised targeted approach is needed. that will determine how people are affected and Following are some of the suggestions: how they can cope. 4. Comprehensive relocation planning 1. Efficient land-use planning Most relocation happens following catastrophic In landslide prone districts, all Local Councils incidents. However, investing in long-term (as the agency responsible for approving relocation plans for critically threatened areas private buildings within local boundaries) before disastrous incidents take place, would and Divisional Secretariats (as the agency save lives, property, relief costs, compensation responsible for land management) should costs for victims, rehabilitation and reconstruction refer Hazard Zonation Maps developed by costs. Such relocation should consider the the technical agency (i.e. NBRO in Sri Lanka) present lifestyles of dwellers in identified areas. in the approval process. New plans should They should gain or should be assured of better be subjected to technical advice from the benefits after relocation compared to their technical agency. In Sri Lanka, this process is current state of living. The decision for voluntary happening and it is mandatory in the building relocation(r) would take place when a person’s approval process. perception of risk (PR) (by understanding the hazard and level of vulnerability) surpasses the 2. Disaster risk reduction and legal perceived value of benefits(PB) that he receives background by living in a particular area. This could be The Disaster Management Center is described as: responsible to respond different hazards in the country. However, when it comes to r= ƒ (PR, PB),if PR> PB=>r implementation, government administration (especially at District and Divisional levels), and Therefore, in addition to providing risk provincial and local governance structures information, relocation plans should demonstrate play a crucial role. Therefore, having the their benefits to the vulnerable communities so Disaster Risk Reduction as a mandatory that they can make a more informed decision subject of the government officers in local to leave their homes and property. As most levels would help the coordination between democratic countries are unable to use force

121 Build Back Better and the Experience of Landslide Management in Sri Lanka

for relocation, such relocation proposals should 6. Preparing for the worse case consider livelihoods, amenities such as access to Despite early warning there could still be energy sources and water-sanitation and social victims of landslides who would need quick infrastructure. Investing in social research as well attention. Local disaster response services as town and country planning would be needed to should be strengthened to coordinate with avoid landslides in future settlements. For those each agency through which effective services who are socially and economically vulnerable, the could be delivered. Contingency planning need for an assisted process is crucial. should be done with the participation of different government agencies and other relief 5. Community based early warning services. Standard Operation Procedures Community based early warning is an option that (SOPs) to attend to such scenarios should could prepare communities to live with hazards. be developed, agreed and tested. Annual This involves making communities aware of risk or bi-annual table top exercises should be and planning for emergency response following conducted. At risk communities, should be early warnings generated at local level. Though made aware and community-based drills early warnings cannot lead to evading the onset should be conducted. of a disaster, it would minimise the harm on human lives and property. Compared with other Sri Lanka is facing a severe threat of landslides and available options for landslide threats, early the threat is increasing. While Sri Lanka has been warning dissemination is an effective solution categorised as a ‘global hotspot’ for landslides it which allows populations to live with the threat. has a low capability of recovery from major events Particularly, because there is no system of in comparison with countries that have strong issuing location and time specific warnings for economies and reserves (United Nations, 2015). landslides other than a ‘blanket’ warning for an The increasing threat of landslides is demanding entire area (usually done by the NBRO through risk reduction measures as more and more the DMC in Sri Lanka). To address this issue people and infrastructure become vulnerable. in local landslide scenarios, it is best to have a There is bound to be an ever increasing number of system through which a particular community or requests for funding for landslide mitigation each group of houses could specifically be aware of year for long-term relocation plans with adequate the state of their vulnerability. socio-economic infrastructure. As an island, with a higher population density, it would be hard to find Sri Lanka has tested a Community Based Early land for relocation for hundreds of communities. At Warning method that uses portable simple the same time, complex socio-economic matters rain gauges with community preparedness for related to relocation would be more challenging. evacuation. In this method, identified communities However, as an immediate solution, landslide with landslide threats were facilitated to conduct preparedness planning with effective landslide risk-mapping in their communities and to make early warning would be a lifesaving strategy but preparedness plans to act in case of an early it also needs to be accompanied by a more long- warning. Such communities will prepare maps term strategic plan to invest in landslide mitigation, with evacuation paths and safe locations so that and relocation schemes. they could evacuate during an emergency. At the same time, communities will have a system where portable rain gauges are used to measure rain fall and issue local early warnings based on the reading. This method has proven to be successful (Wijesinghe, 2016). It is cost effective, sustainable and easy to apply. This would be an option when relocation schemes or structural mitigation takes place.

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Photo Documentation

Picture 1: The model house ceremonially opened by the Minister of Disaster Management

Picture 2: A View of the housing units/scheme constructed for Meeriyabedda landslide victims

Picture 3: Very small space in the toilet for washing, bathing and sanitary purposes

123 Build Back Better and the Experience of Landslide Management in Sri Lanka

Picture 4: At the back of each house, the door to the toilet is outside the main house and the women expressed the lack of privacy in the way the toilets are placed.

Picture 5: Some actions taken by the Disaster Management Unit – Badulla to reduce soil erosion in the housing scheme

Picture 6: The document given to prove the ownership of the housing unit.

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References 1. Arambepola, N.M.S.I., Pallewala, P.P.D.H., and Bandara, R.M.S., (1997) ‘Landslide Hazards Zonation Mapping and Geo-Environmental Problems Associated with the Occurrence of Landslides’. Proceedings of the Natural Hazards in the Urban Habitat, NBRO, Colombo. 2. Bandara, R.M.S. (2005) ‘Landslides in Sri Lanka’ Vidurava Vol. 22, No. 2. 3. Disaster Management Centre (2014) Strategies to Address the Needs of the Victims of Meeriyabedda, Landslide at Haldumulla in Badulla District 29 October 2014. Available at: www.dmc.gov.lk.(accessed online 12/9/2016). 4. Disaster Management Centre (n/d), Disaster Information Management System, available at: http://www. desinventar.lk (accessed online 12/9/2016). 5. Kaviratne, I. Y. (2016) ‘Meeriyabedda, Aranayaka, Salawa: Divergent Destinies’. Sunday Observer, 19 June 2016, (accessed online 31/10/ 2016). 6. Kumar, M. S. (2011)‘Slow relocation of houses from landslide-prone areas’ Sunday Times, Online Edition, 21 August, 2011, Available at: http://www.sundaytimes.lk/110821/News/nws_048.html 7. Nagraj, V. (2015), ‘A story of being homeless and helpless’. Sunday Observer, 15 November 2015. Available at: http://archives.sundayobserver.lk/2001/pix/PrintPage.asp?REF=/2015/11/15/fea11.asp(accessed online 31/10/ 2016). 8. Ratnayake, U. and Herath, S. (2005), ‘Changing Rainfall and its Impact on Landslides in Sri Lanka’, Journal of Mountain Science, Vol. 02. 9. Somarathna, M. Geological Society of Sri Lanka. Available at: http://www.gsslweb.org/challenges-to- overcome-an-overview-of-koslanda-landslide/ (accessed online 12/9/2016). 10. Sri Lankan Geotechnical Society (2005), Geotechnical Journal Vol.3, No.1. October 2005. 11. Sugathapala, K. and Prasanna, J. (2009) Issues in Implementation of Landslide Mitigation Programmes in Landslide Vulnerable areas of Sri Lanka: Special Reference to Hanguranketha Landslide Area, Human Settlements Division, National Building Research Organisation, Publications of symposium 2009. 12. UNISDR (2005) Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015: ISDR, International Strategy for Disaster Reduction, Available at: www.unisdr.org/wcdr. (accessed online 12/9/2016). 13. Wickramasekara, K.and Sinnathamby, R. (1996), Some Landslides of Sri Lanka Criteria for Early Warning, NBRO Publications, NBRO. 14. Wijesinghe, M.R. (2016), Community Based Early Warning System for Landslides The Case of Four Grama Niladhari Divisions of Matale District, Sri Lanka, 6th International Disaster and Risk Conference IDRC Davos 2016 in Davos, Switzerland. 15. United Nations (2015), Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction 2015.

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Protecting Cultural Heritage from Disasters: Recent Initiatives in South Asia By Rohit Jigyasu1 and Vanicka Arora2

1 UNESCO Chair/Professor, Institute of Disaster Mitigation for Urban Cultural Heritage, Ritsumeikan University, Kyoto, Japan and Senior Advisor at the Indian Institute for Human Settlements (IIHS) and President of ICOMOS-India. 2 Consultant - Heritage Management, for National Disaster Management Authority, India and the Development and Research Organisation for Nature, Arts and Heritage (DRONAH).

127 Protecting Cultural Heritage from Disasters: Recent Initiatives in South Asia

this pressing challenge, requiring the need to Introduction undertake measures to reduce disaster risks from South Asia boasts of a rich tangible and intangible natural hazards as well as human actions. cultural heritage ranging from monuments, archaeological sites, sacred sites, cultural landscapes, Rapid urbanisation in the region, increasing museum collections as well as living skills, crafts, populations and climate change are increasing rituals and practices. Many of these cultural heritage the vulnerability of South Asian countries to assets represent the shared past of our region and disasters thereby posing greater risks to cultural thrust a collective responsibility upon us to protect heritage than ever before. Poverty, lack of and manage them for future generations. Much of protection, maintenance and monitoring and this heritage plays a role in the lives of ordinary people, insufficient institutional capacity are other factors not just tourists or scholars. Heritage gives a sense of contributing towards the increasing vulnerability identity, is a starting point for early education through of cultural heritage. However, there are countless school field trips and visits, and some heritage sites examples of traditional knowledge evolved in offer places of quiet recreation and contemplation communities through a series of trials and errors to families and individuals. Thus, the protection of that demonstrate that cultural heritage can be cultural heritage sites as well as whether, and above an effective source of resilience. Through this all, how they are restored, must be vital issues for accumulated wisdom these communities have disaster risk reduction. developed effective indigenous mechanisms of dealing with earthquakes and floods rather than Unfortunately, the region is also vulnerable to trying to only resist them through technocratic disasters caused by natural and human induced measures. This is well illustrated by many hazards such as earthquakes, landslides, tsunamis, traditional buildings in Bhutan, Kashmir and floods, cyclones and fires that have caused enormous Gujarat that survived the earthquakes of 2009, damage to cultural heritage assets. On 26th April 2005 and 2001. 2016, a fire in the National Museum of Natural History in Delhi gutted almost the entire organic collection. Recent approaches internationally, mark a Two devastating earthquakes in Nepal on 26th April significant shift towards the inclusion of cultural and 12th May 2015 and many aftershocks that heritage as an aspect to be considered within followed have caused significant loss to over 700 the ambit of disaster risk management. In 2005, listed cultural heritage sites such as temples, palaces, the Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA 2005-15) squares, museums and libraries, including those mentioned the potential role of ‘traditional and listed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in the indigenous knowledge and cultural heritage’ and Kathmandu Valley. Flash floods and accompanying the need to account for culture for disaster risk landslides in Uttarakhand State in India in 2013 reduction processes. A decade later, the Sendai caused enormous damage to the vernacular and Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (SFDRR sacred heritage of the area. In 2012, a fire destroyed 2015-30) has explicitly articulated cultural heritage historic Wangduephodrang Dzong in Bhutan, which concerns by calling the States Parties to “protect is on the tentative UNESCO World Heritage List. The or support the protection of cultural and collecting 2010 floods in Pakistan affected many archaeological institutions and other sites of historical, cultural sites and vernacular settlements along River Indus. heritage and religious interest”. The SFDRR also advocates systematically evaluating, recording, Cultural heritage sites are also increasingly the target sharing and publicly accounting of cultural of violent extremism, that destroy not only the symbols heritage impacts, as appropriate, in the context of of history but also result in the killing of pilgrims and event-specific hazard-exposure and vulnerability visitors through senseless acts of terrorism. Attacks information. on shrines such as Rehman Baba, Data Ganj Bakhsh and the most recent attack on the 800-year-old shrine During recent years, countries in the South Asian of Lal Shehbaz Qalandar in Sindh, Pakistan illustrate region have undertaken some pioneering initiatives

128 South Asian Disaster Report 2016 towards disaster risk management of cultural Nepal heritage, which are briefly summarised below: A few weeks after the 2015 earthquakes, the International Centre for the Study of Restoration and India Preservation of Cultural Property (ICCROM) based in Recent policy initiatives in India reflect the growing Rome, in collaboration with Nepal’s Department of concern for including cultural heritage within the Archaeology (DoA), International Council on Museums overall purview of disaster risk reduction. The (ICOM), Risk Preparedness Committee of International National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS-ICORP), under the Government of India has been in the and the Smithsonian Institution based in the US, process of developing draft National Guidelines led a joint initial damage assessment mission and on Disaster Risk Management for Museums carried out in-field training for evacuation, salvage since July 2016, following extensive consultation and stabilisation of movable and immovable heritage. processes among experts and professionals It is worth noting that besides heritage professionals, in the field. The approach of these guidelines is onsite training on preliminary documentation, to serve as a template to museums and cultural handling and salvage of fragments from collapsed heritage sites and precincts to develop their own or damaged heritage buildings as well as collections disaster risk management plans and strategies was also imparted to civic defence agencies such through risk assessment, risk reduction measures, as Army and Police, as well as volunteers from preparedness and emergency response measures local community based organisations. This was and planning for post-disaster recovery. The first time that such a concentrated effort for cultural objective is not to be prohibitive, but rather enable heritage in post disaster situation was undertaken in heritage professionals to integrate disaster risk the region through collaboration between national management within the overall management of and international organisations. Also for the first heritage sites, collections and visitors. time, cultural heritage was included as an essential component in the post disaster needs assessment Within these policy initiatives, several workshops to (PDNA). generate awareness and build capacity have also been organised in collaboration with institutions In February 2016, at the request of DOA, ICCROM such as the National Institute of Disaster in collaboration with ICOMOS Nepal, and with the Management (NIDM) and the National Museum support of the Norwegian Ministry of Climate and Institute (NMI) along with Central Museums such Environment carried out another set of workshops as the Indian Museum and the Victoria Memorial on post-disaster recovery of movable and immovable Museum in Kolkata, the National Museum in Delhi heritage. The primary goal was to enhance the and the Salar Jung Museum in Hyderabad. The capacity of the Department of Archaeology (DoA) for last few years have also witnessed the formulation leading the systematic recovery of cultural heritage and implementation of comprehensive disaster sites and collections, and for incorporating risk risk management plans for City Palace Museums management in every day practice. in Jaipur and the World Heritage Site of Jantar Mantar in Jaipur and Jaisalmer Fort. As part of As part of this training and a follow up project these plans, emergency drills have also been initiated by the local museum staff, the salvaged conducted for developing standard operating collection from the damaged national museum was procedures for emergency responses in these given emergency treatment and put up in temporary heritage sites. storage cum display to ensure business continuity of the museums during the recovery process. As a result of these activities a network of trained professionals has been established and future One year later in February 2017, another workshop training programmes are currently being planned on post disaster recovery of cultural heritage was for the next two years in collaboration with national organised by the DoA in cooperation with Ritsumeikan and international agencies. University, Kyoto, Japan to build further capacity of

129 Protecting Cultural Heritage from Disasters: Recent Initiatives in South Asia

the freshly recruited staff of DoA on the decision- The National Disaster Management Authority making process for the recovery of monuments and is contemplating development of policies and cultural heritage sites. capacity building initiatives for disaster risk management of cultural heritage in cooperation Bhutan with the Department of Archaeology. Such initiatives will go a long way in protecting rich In December 2010, the Ministry of Home and Cultural cultural heritage from disasters. Affairs of the Royal Government of Bhutan, convened an International Conference on Disaster Management and Cultural Heritage: Living in Harmony with the Conclusions and Four Elements in Thimphu, Bhutan, with financial and technical support from the Global Facility for Disaster Recommendations Reduction and Recovery, World Bank, SIDA, UNDP, The recent initiatives outlined above, only mark the UNESCO and UNISDR. The Conference gathered starting point for a long and challenging endeavour 153 participants, 55 international participants from aimed at making our irreplaceable cultural assets 23 countries and 98 participants from Bhutan, safe from disasters so that future generations can including experts and field practitioners involved in cherish them as sources of identity and resilience. various fields of disaster management to reflect on Some of the key areas that require sustained the following five themes: research and action are: a. Policy and Institutional Framework for Disaster • Streamlining post-disaster reconstruction Management of heritage sites into overall rehabilitation b. Technical Aspects of Disaster Management processes nationally, and reconciling the c. Traditional Practices for Disaster Risk Reduction theoretical frameworks for cultural heritage that are sometimes at odds with the idea d. Post-Disaster Recovery of Cultural Heritage of Build Back Better. However the critical e. Capacity Building and Networking challenge is to reduce vulnerability of cultural heritage while retaining the heritage values During intensive conference deliberations, the to the maximum possible extent. This would participants discussed the linkages between disaster require a multi-disciplinary dialogue involving management and cultural heritage under each of the conservation and disaster management five conference themes. The Thimphu Declaration professionals. Current reconstruction in was adopted as the outcome of this international Nepal and Myanmar highlight these debates conference for the first time in South Asian region. and offer the opportunity to investigate ways via which reconstruction of heritage sites Bangladesh can provide a safe and secure future for communities while reinforcing their social and A training workshop on disaster risk management cultural identity. of cultural heritage was organised by Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET) in • Mainstreaming cultural heritage into overall cooperation with ICOMOS-Bangladesh in May 2016. sustainable development agendas so The five-day workshop trained managers of heritage that it may feature more cohesively within sites ranging from the Department of Archaeology, reconstruction and rehabilitation frameworks architects, and engineers in private practice as that exist nationally as well as internationally. well as representatives of local NGOs to undertake Given the significant contribution made by comprehensive risk assessment and develop cultural heritage towards building resilience integrated disaster risk management plans for cultural of communities for mitigating disasters heritage sites and museums in Bangladesh. as well as recovering from them through Pakistan livelihood opportunities, integrating heritage within overall recovery plans is a critical area

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that needs to be examined. The inclusion of cultural heritage in the new Urban Heritage Agenda and the Sustainable Development Goals also provides an unique opportunity to advance efforts in this area • There is immense potential for South Asian networks to be developed so that countries may learn from each other and that capacity may be built at a regional level through joint workshops, long term collaborations and exchanges. For instance, India’s recent policy initiatives can be used as an important opportunity to create a dialogue within South Asia through inter-governmental cooperation. SAARC nations and the SAARC Centre for Disaster Management should take up cultural heritage as a priority area and potentially establish a regional working group on protecting heritage from disasters. This can be achieved by engaging with existing international networks and institutions of cultural heritage such as ICOMOS (International Council on Monuments and Sites) and ICCROM (International Centre for the Study of Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property) as well as disaster management organisations such as the UNISDR (United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction). • Campaigns for awareness and raising the profile of cultural heritage need to be carried out at a larger scale to make an impact within South Asia. Existing efforts by individual institutions should be used to create new partnerships across borders in order to achieve this goal by creating synergies.

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Building Back Better: Lessons from South Asia Conclusions By Ben Wisner1 and Mihir R. Bhatt2

1 Visiting Professor, Institute for Risk and Disaster Reduction, University College London, UK and Technical and Editorial Advisor to Duryog NIvaran on past and the current SADR. 2 Director, All India Disaster Mitigation Institute (AIDMI), and Founder Member and current Chair of Duryog Nivaran.

133 Building Back Better: Lessons from South Asia Conclusions

he case studies presented in this report, distill sustainability and continuity of community- and discuss BBB in the context of the 2015 based groups that often rely on a few active Tearthquake in Nepal in 2015, a deadly landslide people with little time to spare. It is important in Sri Lanka in 2014, floods and cyclones affecting for agencies to start from where people are India in 2013, cyclones with which Bangladeshis had instead of where agencies are. For effective to cope in 2007 and 2011, and the monsoon floods community engagement - leadership, a in Pakistan in 2012 and 2013. Reflecting the rich strategic approach to engaging partners, recovery experience provided by these preceding and a wide spectrum of public engagement chapters, the recovery experiences of five South Asian events, can be key factors that enable countries carry lessons in three areas: Planning and community engagement that support the Community Participation, Livelihoods and Resource BBB and building community resilience. Management, Coordination and Risk Governance. • Utilisation of All Capacities. The capacities of various stakeholders must be assessed and Lessons for Planning and addressed for the whole system to adequately and appropriately respond. Sectoral views Community Participation of capacities helps for taking action, but for a longer direction what is needed is a whole • Continued Learning. Post-disaster response system view. and recovery interventions should have disaster- resistant features integrated into them. The focus • Action Channels. Planning and implementation should be on expanding the existing knowledge channels for preparedness – between base and use of time-tested methods on one governments, NGOs and communities – need hand as well as continuous modernisation of to be formalised. Government institutions the working methods and adoption of new and should encourage humanitarian organisations innovative ecosystem based technologies and to be prepared for long-term resilience construction materials. This implies the need building work whereas development agencies for constant dialogue among those working in should be prepared for emergency works as mainsteam development, risk reduction and well. recovery. Both vertical and lateral learning, make • Communication Channels. Channels for recovery more sustainable. information dissemination are needed that • Integrated Planning. Disaster preparedness allow the wider humanitarian community to and response requires integrated planning and learn and adapt from innovative, experimental action. An increasing number of plans - national approaches to integrated action. For to local – are being prepared now and their example, effective governance is critical to performance is also being monitored. What will ensure proper implementation of shelter help is quantifying these plans and the results programmes. For shelter, it is important they achieve on the ground. The focus on poor that the government defines and supports and anti-poverty initiatives is highly important. a clear strategy underlining the role of each Recovery is an exploration of intimacies, stakeholder, including of the home owner and boundary making and breaking, and porousness the local private sector. of the planning process through which the poor • Leadership. For response and recovery and victims come to be connected with the rest programming, community participation, in of the society. fact leadership, with a focus on vulnerable • Community Involvement. Communities need groups (especially women), is an important to be involved in the design of preparedness priority. It is particularly important to consider systems. This includes involvement of children vulnerability for shelter construction processes and women and other excluded groups. to give women complete ownership and However, attention must be directed to the accountability of their shelters.

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specific needs and data. Similarly, school safety Lessons for Livelihoods, audits are necessary to protect children from Social Protection and disaster risks. Children and education are one of the first priorities of a relief and recovery agenda. Resource Management • Development-Induced Disaster. Mega-project • Everyday Disaster. Extreme poverty, investments do not necessarily benefit the marginalisation and physical isolation add poorest people or cohere well in recovery efforts. burdens of “everyday disaster” such as poor Care should be taken by government authorities health, food insecurity and lack of clean water and NGO watchdogs to assure that big projects to the challenge of recovery. do not create new risks. Adequate social and environmental impact studies and monitoring is • Cash and Risk Transfer. Moving from cash essential. Post disaster rehabilitation programmes transfer to risk transfer will aid BBB to move must consider potential long-term events like towards long term proactive measures. This climate change and interrelated hazards while implies development of accessible insurance building livelihoods and infrastructure for the and micro-insurance systems. Insurance communities and households. and other ex-ante mechanisms are crucial to manage disaster risk and adapt to climate • Land Use and Hazard Mapping. Local land use change. Risk transfer and insurance is of the mapping and mapping of hazard and risk are utmost importance for poor and vulnerable keys to future early warning and risk reduction. populations to break the vicious cycle of This implies building institutional capacity at poverty. district and local scale. • Business Continuity. Rebuilding micro • Sustainable Development. The role of actors to and small enterprises are needed to assist promote and strengthen the usage of renewable the vulnerable to recover. Micro and small energy and sustainable forestry; stronger gender enterprises are often among the worst victims focus within programming and implementation of disasters. Continuity of their businesses is related to climate change adaptation; crucial for promoting a speedy and lasting programmes with dedicated finance support community recovery. However, limited for gender in climate change adaptation and knowledge exists on how disasters affect mitigation; and linkages for sustainable practices them and what measures are needed to at the household and community level for the increase resilience. Further focus is required implementation are also important factors that to understand and consider using market have to considered when thinking of long term based solutions emerging for recovery, and recovery programmes. study why and how they perform. • Vital Role of Schools. Along with socially and economically disadvantaged and/or excluded groups such as the elderly and disabled, children remain most vulnerable and suffer the most in disaster situations. Disasters can have several direct as well as indirect negative effects on children. Long-term needs of children following a disaster include continued support for education, immunization and nutritional diets, including development of child-friendly infrastructure and adequate provision of WASH facilities. But all of these require detailed assessment of children

135 Building Back Better: Lessons from South Asia Conclusions

of people displaced by disaster does Lessons for Coordination not adequately address the recovery of and Risk Governance sustainable livelihoods. BBB is a transformative opportunity to move to shared prosperity. • Clear Mandates. Multiple government bodies • Ecology: There are efforts at forest and often exist at national scale with overlapping coastal wetland vegetation, reafforestation missions. Clarity about their responsibilities and and use of renewable sources of energy; coordination among them is required. however, these are scattered and not linked • Transparency. Confidence in a national up with recovery programmes. government’s role in recovery is increased if • Human Settlement: There are limited there are strong and transparent systems of attempts to enforce building codes in the accountability for use of disaster recovery funds. region’s large informal urban settlements. • Missing Links. Gaps often exist at the sub- Urbanisation and climate change seem set national (district) scale, where capacity and to accelerate faster than efforts to control resources for DRR and BBB implementation dumping of solid waste and expansion of self- maybe weak. built housing into flood prone areas. Much • Advocacy and Voice. The role of NGOs and more effort is required. corporate entities need to be directly focused on • Safety Nets and Essential Services: Some ensuring equitable delivery to the most vulnerable school and hospital vulnerability assessments and less about the delivery of infrastructure are done, but many essential services remain and housing at a large scale. Both can bring in exposed to disruption. key actors and missing voices of the victims, • Vulnerable Groups: Elderly people, people especially the poor and women. living with disabilities, ethnic and religious minorities, children and women so far lack Is South Asia Building Back sufficient attention and recognition – attention to their specific needs in recovery and Better? recognition of their unique skills and what they can bring to community-based recovery If one returns to the summary of the UNISDR’s 16 planning and action. BBB components presented in the Introduction to this report, the answer becomes apparent: Yes, countries are moving in the right direction, but more progress Finally, BBB depends on looking out for what is needed. As highlighted in the introduction, these works, who makes things work, and what is components were condensed into six categories. needed to make things work; an appreciation of the efforts of all the actors is needed. Collaborate • Government: National institutions and legislation and synergies among a whole host of actors exists, but there is some overlap and confusion far beyond the official disaster management about the mission and responsibilities of national machinery is needed to reach the ambitious institutions, and there are gaps at the sub- objective of building resilient communities national scale where implementation may break and ensuring that the poor and vulnerable are down. Transparency and coordination could protected. be improved. Development sectors must be aware that they are legally mandated to address the need of reconstruction in the sectoral development programme. • Economy: There are few insurance or micro- insurance systems. Resettlement and relocation

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137 SADR South Asia Disaster Report 2016

Contact details: Duryog Nivaran W| www.duryognivaran.org E| [email protected] F| +92 51 285 4783 T| Chair: +919824051148 Regional Secretariat: Sri Lanka +94112829412/+94774391575 Country Coordinating points: Are we India +919824051148 Bangladesh +88029854374 Nepal +97714423639 Building Back Better? Pakistan +9251285 6623 Lessons from South Asia 138