Approaching Vigilantism in American History, Society and Culture Through Dexter
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THE UNIVERSITY OF HULL Dissecting the Dark Defender: Approaching Vigilantism in American History, Society and Culture through Dexter being a Thesis submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the University of Hull by Madeleine Smith, BA (Hons) Film Studies August, 2015 Contents Introduction p.1 Chapter One: Vigilantism and American History in Dexter p.39 Part One: Justifying Vigilantism in Dexter p.42 Social Upheaval, Change and Problems p.45 Responsive and Persistent Forms of Crime p.57 Law Enforcement and the Judicial System p.64 Part Two: Manifestations of Vigilantism in Dexter p.73 Geography and Landscapes p.75 Brown’s ‘Three-Tier’ Social Model p.82 Socially Beneficial versus Socially Destructive Vigilantism p.88 Racial, Religious and Political Vigilantism p.97 Family Feuds and Vendettas p.110 Chapter Two: Masculinity, Patriarchy and Vigilantism in Dexter p.116 Part One: Father, Sons, and the Perpetuation of Vigilantism p.118 Harry and Dexter p.122 Dexter’s Disciples p.147 Part Two: Violence and Murder in the Nuclear Family Unit p.163 Chapter Three: Dexter and Vigilantes in American Popular Culture p.175 Part One: The Western, Crime and Vigilante Authority in Dexter p.183 Part Two: 1970s Vigilante Film Cycles and Dexter p.192 Doakes, Vigilantism and Blaxploitation p.193 Harry, Debra and Vigilante Cops p.201 Lumen and Rape-Revenge p.210 Part Three: Superheroes and Post-9/11 Vigilantism in Dexter p.222 Conclusion p.238 Appendices p.247 Appendix One: Articles and Amendments in the American Constitution p.247 Appendix Two: Film and TV Vigilantism, 1900-2015 p.250 Bibliography p.268 1 Introduction Vigilantism. Its act or mere mention can have a polarising effect, provoking fear or excitement, disapproval or endorsement, and even imitation in the American public. Vigilantism features regularly in American history, news reports and popular culture references alike, a subtle yet pervasive feature of American life. It is also often highly political, prompting contemporary debates amongst critics and politicians into issues such as self-defence and gun laws, rising crime and social breakdown, and suggests a tendency of the American people to employ or resort to violence. Such debates are not new, however, with outspoken critics on each side of the argument. Ted Robert Gurr, for instance, writing from a conservative perspective, argues that recorded crime rates in America have been inconsistent and are artificially inflated. He states that such claims are exaggerated and have supported a wider perception of American society as being an overtly violent one (1989: pp.21-54). Although Gurr aims to challenge the perception of violence as being generally high in America, he wrote his initial essay for a government report into violence during the 1970s, suggesting a potentially biased perspective. Such an approach ignores the significance of particularly persistent forms of violence in American society, like vigilantism. In contrast, and writing specifically in relation to the often overlooked prevalence of vigilantism in American life, Arnold Madison argues that vigilantism is a persistent feature of American history that will continue to efface American society until the nation’s proclivity to employ violence in such a manner is confronted (1973: p.214). Such opposing outlooks and approaches make clear that vigilantism is a controversial issue that causes extreme responses on both sides of the political spectrum. More so, it can often encompass or be related to other complex social issues, such as anarchism, terrorism and even euthanasia. This highlights the problem of classification surrounding the topic and suggests its applicability to many often conflicting and controversial aspects of modern life. As such, vigilantism is not often recognised as an entity worthy of discussion in its own right, and is often shied away from completely. This thesis will demonstrate how Dexter (Cr. Jeff Lindsay and James Manos Jr, Showtime Networks, US, 2006-2013) is a highly pertinent text through 2 which in-depth, nuanced and wide-ranging discussions of vigilantism are possible, and can inform future subsequent research on the topic. The first time I watched Dexter, it struck me how the opening sequences of the first episode played with the expectations of the viewer, subverting the anticipated serial killer persona by displacing it with themes pertinent to vigilantism instead. For instance, the opening scenes of ‘Dexter’ (1.1) follow protagonist Dexter Morgan (Michael C. Hall) as he drives through the city of Miami at night. As he prowls the streets, the camera pans over multicultural crowds and portrays social problems such as drugs, homelessness and prostitution. In line with Harold Schechter’s assertion that serial killers often target society’s most vulnerable people, one would expect a serial killer to take a victim from this scene (2003: p.2). However, Dexter’s comments about these things are positive or merely observant of social change, instability and decay; this displaces the sense that Dexter may pose a threat to society by presenting society itself as akin to Hell, suggested by the suffusion of red lighting throughout the scene. Rather than simply providing a feeding ground of society’s most vulnerable for a serial killer, Dexter reflects reasons why vigilantism has occurred in American history, and then subverts them. This is emphasised as Dexter arrives in a contrasting community and watches an evening choir before pointing out his victim: respectable white, middle-class male choir-master Mike Donovan (Jim Abele). Pictured with his nuclear family, Donovan is clearly involved with church and community, symbolising conservative middle-class life. However, Dexter captures Donovan and with a noose around his neck forces him to drive to a rural location. Challenging these apparently socially beneficial institutions, Dexter then exposes Donovan as a paedophile and serial killer of children. Thus, initial concern for Donovan is displaced by shock at the revelation of his monstrous actions, further subverting and playing with notions of victimhood. Institutions such as church and family are exposed for concealing extreme violence and murder and are thus presented as damaging to society. It is also of note that vigilante iconography, such as night-riding, nooses and lynching, is evident in these opening scenes; this further invokes aspects of America’s vigilante history, informing the audience that this is an act 3 of vigilantism, rather than a ‘normal’ serial killer murder. In this respect, the theme of vigilantism is used to subvert viewer expectations and notions of victimhood by presenting an unexpected victim in unexpected circumstances. Finally, the sequence also engages with popular cultural expectations of vigilantism by openly forcing the viewer to consider Dexter himself as a ‘moral’ killer in comparison to Donovan. This distinction is made as Dexter, forcing Donovan to look at his victims, says in disgust: “But children - I could never do that.” Thus the show invokes the most heinous crimes of paedophilia and child murder to distinguish Dexter from other killers, suggesting that he is beneficial to society in removing harmful and deadly forces. Dexter is also shown to be judge, jury and executioner as he demands answers and truths from Donavan, before killing and disposing of him. This clearly situates Dexter as an anti-hero akin to America’s past historical and screen vigilantes in doing what needs to be done to protect society from threatening forces in the absence of effective law and order. Such a figure can be discussed in relation to American popular cultural forms like the anti-hero of Westerns and superhero films, and can be considered as challenging the primacy of serial killers in American popular culture, by displacing viewer expectations with aspects of vigilantism instead. As the series of Dexter progresses it becomes increasingly ambiguous, not just on a moral level, but through the show’s prompting of active empathy with Dexter the serial killer, as George A. Reisch (2011: p.xii) and Douglas L. Howard (2010: pp.xiii-xiv) have pointed out. Rather, what is most compelling about the show is the opposite of this, as Dexter fundamentally exposes America’s most personal and serial relationship with vigilantism and violent extremism as being akin to serial killing. It suggests that the ‘serial killer’ Dexter is essentially a vigilante, conditioned and encouraged by his father to systematically hunt and kill criminals who have escaped justice for the “good” of society. The real moral dilemma in Dexter, then, revolves around revealing America’s relationship with vigilantism itself - Dexter is American vigilantism. This notion presents serial killing in Dexter as a metaphor through which to understand vigilantism, and situates it as a traditional, generational and inherited act by 4 positioning its perpetuation as a crucial feature of the father and son relationship, as represented by Dexter and his (dead) father Harry (James Remar), and Dexter and his son Harrison (various child actors). More so, it suggests that vigilantism is not only ingrained in American history, but reveals it to be a significant feature of American society and culture too, realms that must also be considered so American vigilantism can be fully understood. As such, vigilantism in American history, society and culture as represented in Dexter will be discussed herein, and are crucial areas for approaching the topic and understanding its relationship to American identity. As the series progressed through different seasons, I noted that various phases, themes and models of vigilantism in American history outlined by writers such as Madison (1973) and Richard Maxwell Brown (1975) could be applied to Dexter. Indeed, the show engages with all of their key theories over time, providing particularly fruitful representations to be explored within. This factor clearly illustrates that Dexter is a unique show through which one can approach and decipher the fundamental representations and various meanings of vigilantism, and of the vigilante figure, to American life.