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Undertaker's and Funeral Director's Review and Mbnumental ~Sons' This electronic thesis or dissertation has been downloaded from Explore Bristol Research, http://research-information.bristol.ac.uk Author: Edwards, M. J Title: Vital commonplaces : Dickens, Tennyson & Victorian letters of condolence. General rights Access to the thesis is subject to the Creative Commons Attribution - NonCommercial-No Derivatives 4.0 International Public License. A copy of this may be found at https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/legalcode This license sets out your rights and the restrictions that apply to your access to the thesis so it is important you read this before proceeding. Take down policy Some pages of this thesis may have been removed for copyright restrictions prior to having it been deposited in Explore Bristol Research. However, if you have discovered material within the thesis that you consider to be unlawful e.g. breaches of copyright (either yours or that of a third party) or any other law, including but not limited to those relating to patent, trademark, confidentiality, data protection, obscenity, defamation, libel, then please contact [email protected] and include the following information in your message: •Your contact details •Bibliographic details for the item, including a URL •An outline nature of the complaint Your claim will be investigated and, where appropriate, the item in question will be removed from public view as soon as possible. V I TAL COMMONPL_ACES: Dickens, Tennyson & Victorian Letters of Condolence M. J. Edwards A thesis submitted to the University of Bristol in accordance with the requirement of the degree of Ph.D. in the Faculty of Arts. Department of English. SeptlJld)er. 1995. ABSTRACT Th~S the~is is a study of nineteenth century forms of grief and mournLng, wlth particular reference to the peculi.ar pressures of writing to the bereaved, and how these were, 0'- were not, overcome. Although the focus is mainly on the letters of condolence and on the poems of Tennyson, and the novels, journalism and letters of condolence of Dickens, use is also made of letters by the following: Thomas Carlyle, Edward FitzGerald, Benjamin Jowett, Cardinal Newman, Dante Gabriel Rossetti, and Queen Victoria. Letters of condolence to Henry Hfillam after the death of his son, Arthur, (given in appendix from unpubl ished originals in Christ Church College Library, Oxford), and also Letters of condolence to George Eliot, are also studied. Twentieth century psychological studies of bereavement by Freud (Mourning and MeLancholia [1917]), Eric Lindemann (Symptomoiogyof Grief, [1944]) Geoffrey Gorer (Death and Bereavement in Contemporary Britain [1965]), and by Col in Murray Parkes (Bereavement; studies of grief in adult life [1986]), serve to identify common and universal features of the processes of grief and mourn i ng. Correspondence about Arthur Hallam's life and death, and about the exhumat i on of Rosset t i 's poems, show how the language wit h which death and grief is treated in letters, is fraught with difficulties. This thesis establishes a link between the language of fiction, poetry and letters, and between the conventions of expressing sympathetic grief in the form of condolences, and Victorian conventions of funerals and mourning, as found in fiction, letters, art criticism, Dickens' journalism, a publication for undertakers, and in the monuments at Highgate Cemetery. Delineating the fears which faced a condoler, reveals the common awareness that words of comfort can seem useLess and empty. It ls also seen that in the Victorian age, the conventions of grief and mourning were felt to have separated from the sentiment within. This felt inadequacy had serious impl icatlons for the wrlter of a letter of condolence. This thesis identifies the feeling which many condolers shared: that'· words of comfort seemed merely comnonplace and formalised, and were therefore unable to convey sincerlty, or to mark partlcularity. That writing cannot fully record the modulations of a voice, or convey action, presents a writer of a letter of condolence with a further difflculty. Words already felt to be commonpLace or conventional, mlght seem dead on the page, without voice or gesture. This thesis del ineates the convent lons and conmonplaces of funerals, of mourning, and of letters of condolence, as a problem whlch ls ever-renewed. Close readings of Tennyson's letters of condolence and of In Memorl4m are provided, in order to establish how, In part icular contrast to Dickens, Tennyson was able to resurrect such comnonplaces. A study of Our MUtU4l Frlend and of Dickens' letters of condolence shows how, Dickens seeks to deny the anguish of grlef. Whereas Dlckens is confldent and certain about his power to condole and about hls vlews of an after-life, Tennyson is hesitant and reticent. Whereas Dickens seeks to rouse and be heartfelt, Tennyson is cautious. For Rachel This thesis is my own work. The views expressed are those of the author and not those of the University. INTRODUCTION D.EATH IN LI FE It is impossible to separate the idea of the dead froM the companionship of the living, Charles Dickens! It is now a commonplace of sociology to observe that death and mourning are treated with much the same prudery as sexual impulses were a century ago. 2 Whereas sex is said to have been the great taboo of the nineteenth century, mourning was very public. In the last half of the twentieth century, however, it is sex which has become public, and now, I death is the last taboo'.:3 I t is true that death has beome an increasingly private event, for today, over seventy per cent of deaths occur in hospital. A hundred and fifty years ago, however, most deaths happened in the home, and it would not have been unusual for the family to have been present at the deathbed. In his history of the changing Western attitudes to .... dying, The Hour of Our Death, Philippe Aries maintains that the hospitalization of the dying, means that death -- 'a phenomenon of nature' - has been I turned ... into an accident of illness which must be brought under cont rol' . ~ Thi s vain at tempt to cont rol that which is pre-eminently beyond our control, has meant that compared with the Victorians, the late twentieth century can be said to have lost the arts of dying and mourning. Since death in hospital was not usual in the Victorian age, it was common for a corpse to remain in the house until the burial some days later. Thus the corpse could become the focus for the bereaved's grief. Corpses were 'laid-out', a ritual which invol ved the washing of the dead body, the plugging of ori fices, the cloSing of the eyes and the mouth, the straightening of limbs, and the dressing of the body in 'grave clothes'. The bereaved spent the time from death to burial watching the corpse; just as the dying would not be left alone, so the bereaved would not leave the dead. Before the funeral, there was a 'viewing', or the 'last look', a custom which allowed friends and relatives of the deceased to make a respectful visit of condolence. The dead would be touched, sometimes kissed. s At a time of intense inner turmoil and outer disorganizat ion, these rituals provided the bereaved with the means by which emotions and events could be structured. Such conventions provided both opportunities and procedures for the bereaved and the condoler to give form to, and thus perhaps express, what Dickens called 'the first sharp moments of bereavement'.'" Today, however, death does not have such a familiar or domestic presence. Indeed, death is often reduced to a problem of sanitation. It is quite usual for corpses to be quickly hurried off to cold storage, with the result that the bereaved are suddenly parted froa the deceased at an early stage of the process of mourning. By contrast, past rituals of watching and viewing the corpse Mant that the bereaved were faced with the physical realities of death which could help to facilitate the realisation of griefj as Freud observed, part of 'the work of gr lef ... [is) declaring the object to be dead' 7. Moreover, Victorian convent ions of mourning, such as the wearing of crape, widow's weeds, and jet jewellery during the period of mourning, gave the mourner socially agreed forms by which to disclose his or her state or condition, and by which to indicate, through changes in dress, the degree or stage of mourning. As the wearing of mourning precluded certain activities, so the bereaved could only make the transition to a more normal life gradually. 8 Nowadays, however, it is impossible to know at a glance who has been bereaved, and the loss of the convention of a period of mourning means that the bereaved are often hurried through, or denied, the process of mourning. Philippe Aries has remarked that public expressions of grief have become distasteful; now, 'mourning is a malady ... like a contagious disease'. 8 It is now also quite a common occurrence for relatives and friends to avoid meeting the bereaved, or to discourage the bereaved from talking about the deceased, for fear that matters will become embarrassing or 5 distres~ng for both the condoler and the bereaved. This is not to say that the Victorian conventions of mourning and of offering condolences meant that a condoler could perform his duty without fear, or would know exactly what to say to the bereaved. Such forms, however, would at least make the condoler aware that a bereavement needed to be marked ei ther by saying, or not saying, something. Compared wi th those of the Victorian period, today's funeral customs have also suffered a loss.
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