CENSUS OF INDIA 19,61

VOLUME XX.- PART VI - 'NO. 14

HIMACHAL PRADESH

A Village Survey of CHAUNTRA

(Jogindar Nagar Tehsil. ,Mandi District)

Field Investigation and Draft by DHARAM PAL KAPUR

E"clitor RAM CHANDRA PAL SINGH of the Indian Administrative Service Superintendent of Oensus Operations ''I

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PAGES

Foreword (iii)-(iv)

Preface (v)-(vi)

Aknowledgements ... (vii)

1 The'Village Introduction-Physical Aspects-Configuration-Flora-Fauna-Climate­ The Earthquake-W rnter Sources-History-Population Figures-Residen- tiaL pattern . "! 1-9

2 The People I Caste Compositiqn-Dress-Ornamenlts-House Type-Household Goods­ Food and Drinks-Birth Customs-Mundan Sanskar-Janeu Ceremony­ Marriage Customs-Death Customs 10-23 '

3 Economy Economic Resources-Workers and Non-workers-Tea Pla1btation-Agri­ cu.!ture-Animal Husbandry-ViLlage CrC14Jlt and Industry-In come­ Expenditure-Indebtedness 24-42

4 Social and Cultural Life Leisure and Recrentions-Dance and Drama-Temples-Deod Sidh­ Gugga-Fairs and Festivals-Common Beliefs and, -Superstitions-Un­ wuchability-Succession and Rights 9f Inheritance-Community l:entre­ Welfare Centre-Education-Medical and Public Health-Panchayats­ Cooperative Societies-Community Development

5 Conclusion ... , 53-54

Appendices -

APPENDIX I-Extract from Punjab Gazetteers, Mandi State ~ .. 55-70 LIP(D)8CSOHP ...... 2(a) (i-il) o <; o 75 n 78 I I JAMMU AND KASHMIR.. I I ,_fIIII'II ,.1 . .". .... ', .,. L , , • PAR"'A!. , • • 'KUPHA .'\. o o ,,) KAROTI •• MAlET '." -)} 33 r-- .!'.A.:. ,...... 2 . iI\ HIMACHAL PRADESH .' ( ~...... , .' ·O£IIII(·OTHI , (". (; I \. . \. .-- ,.",. \~ I \ I " .' VJLLAGE SURVEYS ~ (... ._, ../" ...... \ \...... '. i ., j ...... -.,'.. )" \... I ~ ..,.. \ 3 i ...... \.... . '\ I\.... MAIN GAL / . . .,,) '... ." J ·'.LI"(KAii \~ANOI ~::" ."' '. .... ,. eH ITRA'Jl BRAHMAUR" \ ., 4 ".~. \. :; 5 ." ., ! '-.i. , . \. ' . i \· ..... H.ATll ....~...... I ow ,._.,..

p U o -32

.() I CHAURAH TEHSll 2 PANGI SU8-TEHSIL 3 C H AMII~ TEHSIL 4 BHATTIYAT TEHSIL '" o 5 allAHMAUR SU p, -TEHSII. 31 1-& JQGINOARNAGAR TEHSI!: 7 MANDl SAOAR TEHSll e SARKAGHAT TEHSll Q. 9 CHICHOT TEHSll 10 SUNOARNAGAR TEHSII. II KARSOG TEHSI I,. 12 GHAMARWIN T EHSIL 1381lASPUR SADAR T£H511. ~ ARKI 1'EHSll 15 SEONI . SUIl-fEHSI" 16 KUIliHAI! SAIN 5UII-TEHSfL. 17 RAMPUR TEHS,," 18 RONRU TENSII. 19 oWlII&AL TEtllIlL 2OKOT"HAI sua-TEHS!l 21 TN£OG T£"'$II. 22usUMPTI TENSII. 23$OLOIf TEHSIL 24cHAUPAL "'Hill , 2$PACHHAD TEMIII. , 0 )0 10 f--261U1NKA TlENIt&. - 27NAHAN T'H511. MILES ',0 10 0 20 'J0 28tAONTA TEHSll 40 KILOM[ TilES 29NACHU SUB-OIIiISION ' 20 '0 0 20 3OUL"" BUB-OIVI,SION

'-______I _ a_l_j~O~O $U_B~-_~_V_'S_'_O_N .._· '_~ ______j.;t-~ ------..______~~J __ ------~~I. -' 1; (An OF GltHNWICH' if 7a. 7 ~ Foreword

Apart from laying the foundations of more 'normai' typ,es of villages were chang- demography in this subcontinent, a hundred ing. They were to be prfmarily type studies years of the Indian Census has alsOi produced which, by virtue of their number and distri- 'elabor~te and sclholarly: accounts o£ the bution, would also give the reader a 'feel' of variegated phenomena of Indian life-some- what was going on and some kind of a map times with no statistics attached, but usually ofi the Count:ry. with just enough statistics to give empirical underpinning to their conclusions'. Tn a A brief account of the tests of selection country largely illitefate where sti:j,tistical or will help to explain. A minimum of thirty- numerical comprehension of evert such a five villages was to be chosen with great simple thing as age was liable to be inaccu- care to represent adequately geographical, rate, an understanding of the sOel,al structure occupational and, even ethnic diversity. Of was essential. It was more necessary to this'minimum of thirty-five the distribution attain a broad understanding of what was was to be as follows: ...... happening around oneself than :to wrap one- (a) ,At least eight viLlages were to be self up in 'statistical ingenuity' or 'Mathema- selected that each of them would contain one tical maniplUlation'. This expl~ns why :the dominant community with one predominat- Indian Census came to be interested in 'many l.ng occupation) e.g., fishermen, forest work- by-paths' and 'nearly every branch of scho~ ers, jhum cultivators, potters, weavers, sal~ lar'ship, from anthropblogy and soCiology to ma~ers; quarry workers etc. A village should geography and religion~. have a minimum population of 400, the opti- In the last few decades the Census has mum being between 500 and 700. increasingly turned its -efforts to the presen- (b)' At least seven vilJages were to be of tation of village statistics. Thi~ su,its the tem- numerically prominent Scheduled Tribes of per of the times as weH as oUr political and the State. Each village could represent a par- economic structure. For even as we h~ve' a ticular tribe. The minimum population should great deal of centralization o~ the one band be 400, the optimum being between 500 and and decentralisation on the other,. my' col- 700. leagues thought it would be a welcome con~ (c) The thitd group of villages should each tinuation of the Census tradition to try to be or fair 'size, of an old_and settled charac- invest the dry gones of village statistics with tel' and contain variegated occupations and flesh-and-iblood accouIits' of soCial structure' be, if possible, multi..:ethnic in composition. and social change. It waS accordingly'decid;;' By fair size was meant a population of 500- ed to select a few villages in every State for 700 persons or more._ The village should main- special study where personal observation ly depend on agriculture and be sufficiently would be brought to bear on the int~rpreta.. away frbm the major sourc_es of modern tion of statistics to find out how much of a communication such as the district adminis- village was static and yet changihg and how trative headquarters -and business centres. It fast the winds of change were blowing and sh,Ould be roughly a day's journey from the from where. aboye places. The villages were to be select- Randomness of selection was, therefore, ed with an eyf:! .to variation in -terms or size, eschewed. There was no intention to build proximity to city and pther means of modern up a picture for the whole State in quantit!i- communication, nearness :to hills. jungles tive terms on the basis of villages selec~ed and major rivers. Thus there was to be a statistically at random. The selection was regional distribution throughout the State of avowedly purposive, the object being as much this category of villages. IT; ho.vt_ever, a to find out what was happening and oarticular district contained significant ecolo~ how fast to those villages which had fewer gical variations within its area, more than reasons to choose change and more to remain one village in the district might be selected lodged in the past as to discover how the to study the speci~l adj~s'tments to them. (iii) (iv, FOREWARD

It is a unique feature of these village sur· census count itself was left behind hi March, veys that they rapidly outgrew their original 1961, a series of three regional seminars in terms of reference, as my colleagues warmed Ttivandrum (May, 1961), Darjee]ing and! up .to their work. This proved for them an Srinagar (June, 1961) restored their atten­ absorbing voyage of discovery and their infec· tion to this field and the importance of trac­ tious enthusiasm compelled me to enlarge the ing. social change through. a number of well­ inquiry's scope again and again. It was devised statistical tables was once again re­ just as weH cautiously to feel one's way cognised. This itself presupposed a 'fresh sur­ about at first and then venture further afield, vey of villages already done; but it was worth and although it accounts to some extent for the trouble in view of the possibilities a certain unevenness in the-quality ll-nd cover· that a close analysis of statistics offered, and age of the monographs, it served to com· also because the Iconsanguinity' schedule re­ pens ate the purely honorary and extra-mural mained to be canvassed. By November, 1961, rigours of the task. For; the Survey, along however, more was expected of these survey with its many ancillaries like the survey of than ever before. There was dissatisfaction fairs· and festivals, of small and rural industry on the one hand with too many general state­ and others, was an 'extra' over 'and above ments and a growing desire on the other to the crushing load of the 19611 Census. draw conclusions from statistics to regard social and economic data as interrelated pro­ It might be of interest to recount briefly cesses, and finally to examine the social and the stages by which the Survey enlarged its economic processes set in motion through scope. At the first Census Conference in Sep- land reforms and other laws, legislative and - tember 1959 the Survey set itself the task of admindstrative measur-es •. ~eQhnological' and what might be ca-l-Ied a record in situ of cultural change. Finally a study camp was material traits, like settlement patterns of organised in the last week of December, 1961 the village; house types; diet; dress, orna­ when the whole was carefully gone through ments and foot-wear; furniture and storing over ~gain and a programme worked out vessels; common means of transport of goods closely knitting the various aims of the Sur­ and passengers; domestication of animals and vey together. The social studies section of the bircls; markets attended; worship of deities, Census Commission rendered assistance to festivals and fairs. There :were to be recotd­ State Superintendents by way of scrutiny ings, of course, of cultural and social traits and technical comment on the frame of Sur­ and o.ccupational mobility. This was followed vey and presentation' of results. up in March 1960 by two specimen schedules, one for each household, the other for the vil­ This gradual unfolding of the aims of the lage as whole, which. apart from spel­ Survey prevented my colleagues fr.om adopt­ ling out the mode of inquiry s~ggested ing as many villages as they had originally in the September 1959 conference, introduced intended) to. But) r bel!ie~ th~~ what may groups of questions aimed at sensing changes have been lost in quantity has been more in attitude and behaviour in such fields as than made up for in quality. This is perhaps, marriageJ inheritance, moveable and im­ for' the first time that such a SurveY' has been moveable property, :tndustry, indebtedness, conducted in any country, and that pure­ education, community life and collective ly as a labour of love. It has su~ceeded in at­ activity, social disabilities forums of appeal taining . what it set out to achIeve; to con~­ over disputes, villa-ge leadership, and organi­ truct a map of village India's social structure. sation of cultural life. It was now plainly the One hopes that the volumes of this Sur­ intention to provide adequate statistical s4P­ vey will help to retain for the Indian Census port to empirical Ifeel', to approach quali­ 'its title to 'the most fruitful'single source of tative change through statistical quantities. information about the country'. Apart from It had been difficult to give thought to the other :ileatures, it will perhaps be con­ importance of 'just enough statistics to give ceded that the Survey has set up a new empirical underpinning to conclusion',. a~ a Census standard in pictorial and graphic time when my colleagues were strammg documentation. The schedules fi naIl y them!;lelves to the utmost for the success of aaopted for this monograph have been the main: ~ensus Operations, but OIlGe the :printed in a'll appendix.

AS OK MITRA NEW DELHI-July 30, 196~, R,egj-fitrar G~ner!ll, Indiq Pre/ace

Laying a few miles away from Jogindar­ Labour of love. These village surveys and nagar, there is a pictur:esque village of other varied studies 'we are carrying out as Chauntra. In trying to select a village from parts of Census of India 1961 Programmes. Jogindarnagar, I had two choices~ either to t~e a village in the rem?te area or to take a This gave me a life times opportunity to VIllage nearer the roadsIde and when I dis­ roam around Himachal Pradesh to my hearts cussed w1th the number of elders from Mandi content. I have seen what very few have _ District, a name that was often mentioned because this assignment has spread over a was Chauntra. The final choice fell on a period nearly of 6 years, and the studies village in which there is a tea plantation. Tea covered as many diverse and interes.ting 'is grown only iIi parts of Mandi District topics. It has been a greatest reward I could bordering Kangra District and this was one ~ave sought. Any study of villages have of the considerations. This is the roadside mnumerable pit-falls when one goes to give village in some of the prettiest -parts of the a picture of approximate incomes and I am District. I have been there a number of times sure many weuld be drawn at my audacity. and hav~ been on this wonderfully metalled But the hole idea is to give as clear a picture road that links Pathankot qnd Kulu at one as we could of our life in villages in our time!! end and Manali at the other. In Chauntra one anQ_ even an approximate guess after frequent hears of slow wandering railway train which questioning would throw some light on the is not a very common sight in Himachal Pra­ economies. Very often the changes are rapid desh. The train stops for a moment in and the correct picture cannot be given Chauntra and passes on to J ogindernagar or because either we did not observe them or to Pathankot. because the changes we had expected have not taken place rapidly or where we had ex> This is a. multi-community village about pected the change, it did not. take place. This which yre tried to give as authentic a picture monograph contains a good lot of photographs, as we possibly could. The survey has been line drawings added by O. C. Handa Artist­ spread over a few years in which the field Photographer from my office and Pran Nath inves~igations have been carried out by Mago from the Handicraft Board and notional Dharam Pal Kapur. He has his home in maps by Tl,lka Ram. These pi~tures were Mandi District and has roamed around the taken in these areas and by the time one District fairly extensively. I have roamed looks for these ornaments or goes to look for arouna Chauntra, Dhelu and attended a fair the things which we have given, the- re­ at Jogindarnagar. In these years we have 'searches have to be far deeper than we have tried to piece the Cross-section of social life had to do because it is Ilot always so easy to here. I have roamed around the Tea Estates get them. and the villages a number of times. Some steady changes have been observed by the I.have received goodwin from innumerable time my material was ready to the Press. sources and when; these publications are out, Chauntra is Ithe Headquarter of the N.E.S. readers would realise that it heeded years of and Block. There is a Higher Secondary dp.voted work of my colleagues to bring School. Signs of prosperity are seen all over. out these. Not knowing exactly how these Apart from these, modern buses and cars pass would be published and initially even not along the roa,d to Mandi. There are innumer· knowing what the project clearly was. able goats and sheep and their owners the Schedules were prepared by our devoted Gaddis roaming around all over Chauritra colleague Shri Durga Singh. Changes were during autumn and spring. made and after the readers-have carefully It was a versatility of interest of Shri Asok gone_ through _the Registrar General's fore­ Mitra, ICS, Registrar General, India who has word, they would realise more the value o~ foresight and that has inspired us in "this such studies, (v) (vi) PREFACE

In pIecmg my material together, I must I also convey my warm thanks to His High­ confess, English was not my mother tongue ness Shri Raja Joginder Sen of Mandi for and at times there have been grammatical kindly let me have information at different m:stakes and I would only seek forgiveness times that was of use to us. of my readers. Because by the time I have to bring out about 60 publications and it would I would like to convey my warm gratitude be very likely that I would have committed to Shri Rikhi Ram Sharma, Assistant Supdt. game mlstakes. It would be most unfair for of Census Operations, my colleague here, me to lay the burden on my colleagues who who often cheered me when I was depressed did their best. - or at other times gave criticism which was worthwhile. Others from my office who have been around Chc:untra are Khushal Chand Dr. Roy Burman, Officer 011. Special Duty, and L. C. Sharma. We have given some ap­ Office of the Registrar General, India, has pendices whi9h I thought would be of interest been brooding over such siudies from differ­ to the readers. ent parts of India and has been good enough to give his comments. At times it was possi­ Shri K. Janakiraman, Manager, Govern­ ble to incorporate them and at other times ment of India Press and his colleague ShTi jt was not. Some times I took long period N. K. Mudalior and their junior colleagues going through the proofs because certain have shown me a kindness and they have priorities have to be given to my other spent late hours, leisure and holidays and reports. Over all consideration was to pro­ gave innumerable suggestions to bring out duce a versatility of material worth the rea­ my report more attractively. But for them ders interest and I do not know to these pages would have remained scattered what extent I have been able to achieve that in oblivion. They cheerfully over looked my and shall always bow to the readers verdict. mistakes and any corrections or additions In Mandi District we have to bring out 6 vil­ they have done were with commendable lage surveys and it would be a variety of patience and devotion. I would like to convey interest from different parts of the District. them my most. warm thanks.

BOSWELL, SIMLA; RAM CHANDRA PAL SINGH 30th June, 1965. Acknowledgemen ts

I would convey my thanks to Sj'Shri who typed these reports by coming to office Khazan Singh, Manager, Raj Kumar's Tea on holidays and sitting late in office. To Factory, Tara Chand the then Headmaster of SjShri O. N. Bhutmi, Prem Nath Sharma, Govt. Middle School, Chauntra and Jiwa Karam Chand and Om Parkash, Proof Nand, Secretary Panchayat, Chauntra, I also Readers, I convey my thanks. P. C. Bali, my owe my gratitude to SjShri Jamit Singh, Stenographer was also of help to me. J agdish Chander and Krishan Chand typists

~OSWELLJ SIMLA; RAM CHANDRA PAL SINGH ~Oth June, 1965

(vii-viii)

1 The Village

Introduction The inhabitants are Brahmins, Rajputs, Suds Khatris TarkhalIl, Chamar, Koli, Banj­ hare,' Julah, Darji and Mann as. The main Chauntra is a gicturesque B?-d lively occupation .is agriculture and labour. Shop­ village near Jagindar Nagar. ThIs sprawls keeping, basket making, weaving, carpentry over gentle ana fertile hills. The surround­ and service are also there. ing_s are charming with snow-capped mo~n­ tains and pine fprests on the surroundmg Physical Aspects hills. Configuration-An extract from Working The Pathankot-J ogindarnagar railway Plan Mandi State Forests is given here. This'may be of interest to the readers. line-small gauge passes through. ~he nearest railway station is at Ahju, two mIles "The Beas enters Mandi from Kuhi Valley away. The train -stops at Chauntra for a by a spectacular gorge and flows west to minute or two. Mandi town, where it tUrns abruptly north, later twisting gradually west-ward again to The notional map indicates Chauntra enter Kangra district near Sandhol. Its main right bank tributaries are the Chuli, Uhl having a natutal d~ardatipn from three sides. These are Ba,)gar Khad and Makkar and Luni, rise in the high hills of the Kulu and Bhanghal border to the north, While on N al ne~by. 'Even in summer :the Badg~ its left bank the main side-streams are the Khad remains full of water. ThIS swells In the rainy season. This khad is the main Tirthan, Chori, Bakhli, Jiuni and Suket; source of the two kuhls which irrigate the which rise in the Sutlej-Beas water-shed in fielcis and $lppJ.;y donking water for the the south-east and the Soni which drains village. Chauntra is surrounded by MatI'Ohru the lower hills in the west. Dhar Sukhar Dhar covered with Ban trees, The State territory is roughly diamond­ Seori'Dhar and Bhahori Dhar. At the base shaped with its south-east and north-west of Sukhar Dhar there flows Sukhar Khad ·extremities in high hill tracts, which run which remains dry during summer. The upto 13,000 feet on the flanks of the great village is divided into three paJrts-Upper Dhaula Dhar range in the north, and to Chauntra, Raj Kumar's Teal Factory and nearly 11,000 f,eet ,at some points on the Lower Chauntra. Upper Chauntra is on one Sutlej-Beas water-shed west of the Jalori side of Mandi-Pathankot road. There are pass. The whole of the eastern half of the some shops. Also the school bUildings are State between these ranges is decidedly in Upper Chauntra. Lower Chauntra is the mountainous, the Beas ruIihing..in a deep rna-in inhabited area. There are three shops gorge in many places n,OOO feet below points and the railway line passes through. Ther-e which are less than 2 miles map distance 1s the main temple, Welfare Centre and from the river: South of Mandi town the patwarkhana. vall~v Qf Suk.eti fQ:t'm~ the Balh Plain. th~ 2 THE VILLAGE

only really ft.at piece of ground in the is used for planking, packing cases. The whole State and west of this is a series of cotton is used to stuff pillows and cushions. lower rolling hills rising to about 4,000 feet. The forests OCcur at all elevations from Cedrela Toona-Tooni-A large tree with 3,000 to 11,000 feet. a dense spreading crow:n and thin dark-grey bark which is smooth up to middle age. The water sheds between these Beas tri­ Leaves paripinnate" 1-2 ft. long. Flowers butaries all tend to form a series of ridges cream-coloured, scented like honey, in ample running N.N.W. to S.S.E. across the State, drooping panicles. Seeds reddish brown, but serves in the middle by the gorge of light, with a membranous wing at either end, Beas itself. Some of the more important about .5 inch long including the wirigs. It have not generally accepted name, for in­ is a fast-growing species, attaining a girth stance, the Sutlej-Beas water-shed is yari­ of 60 inches in little more than 30 years. ously known as Kamrunag Dhar, Kanjira The heart-wood is red, seasons well, t&kes a Dhar, Shikari Dhar, while the spur of the fine polish, and is easy to work. It is durable Dhaula Dhar on the Kull,l border has half and is not eaten by white ants. The leaves a dozen diff2rent names between Nargu Peak are used as fodder. The bark has astringent in the north and Tung Devi peak above the properties and is used in medicine. ~ Larji gorge. The only feature with the one. widely accept-cd name is the Ghogar Dhar Celtis Australis-Khirk-A middle-sized which separates the Uhl from the Beas bet­ deciduous tree; bark bluish-grey or brown, we2n Mandi Town and the Kangra border, often with whitish specks, larger trees ,'vith and which is itself an outlier of the main narrow horizontal wrinkles; branchlets Dhaula Dhar to the north. droopings. Leaves alternate, 3 to 5 inches long by 1 to 3.25 inches broad. Flowers poly­ Flora gnmous. Fruit an ellipsoid drupe, about .4 . inch long, purplish-black. Wood yellowish­ Flora of the area as obtained from the grey with irregular str·eaks of darker colour; Forest Range Officer is given below. The annual rings distinct. It is tough and strong definitions have been obtained from "Plants and is used for oars, whip-handles, churn­ Qf the Punjab" by Col. C. D. Bamber, M.V.O., sticks and other purposes. The leaves are LM.S.:- lopped for fodder .. Albiszia Stipulata-Ohi-A large flat tree Dalbergia Sissoo-Shisham-A fairly large of very rapid growth, grey bark with short tree; oark grey, somewhat reticulately longi­ wrinkles crossed by deeper horizontal fur­ tudinally furrowed, exfoliating in narrow rows. Leaves 7-12 inches long. Flowers are strips; young parts grey-downy. Leaflets 3 yellowish-white, slightly. tinged with red. to 5, distinctly alternate, 1 to 2.5 inches Stamens 1 to 1.3 inches long, very slender, diam. Flowers .2 to .3 inches long, pale­ red-tinged. Pod thin, of uniform light-brown white in racemes 1 to 1.5 inches long, which colour, 8 to 10 seeded, often rugose OVE:r the are arranged in short axillary panicles. The seeds. ' ' heart-wood is brown, mottled with darker longitudinal veins, hard and close-grained: Berberis Lycium-Kashmar-A shrub of annual rings not distinctly marke~l. It is smaller size with somewhat gregarious in very elastic, seasons Well, does not warp or habit; bark white. Leaves 1.5 to 2.5 inches split, and .takes a fine. The twigs and leaves long, narrow oblanceolate, subsessile, muc­ are lopped for fodder. ronate, coriaceous, glaucous beneath, with prominent reticulate veins. Flowers dull yel­ Dendrocalamus HamiItonii - Banjh - A low. Berries ovoid, bluish violet, with a dis­ bamboo tree with stems slanting on all sides tinct staple at the. apex. An extract from the or curved downwards. Culms up to 80 feet stem and roots used in medicine. in height and 4.7 inches diam. with long stout branches above, adpressedly densely Bombax Malabaricum-Simbal-A large white-pubescent when young, dull-green deciduous tree. Stem straight, more or less when old nodes marked' with root scars: buttressed at. the base when old, covered internodes 12 to 20 inches long; walls .5 with large conical prickles when young; inch thick. Leaves variable up to 15 by 2.5 branches )Vhorled, horizontally spreading. inches, broadly lanceolate, cuspidate, smooth Leaves 6 XO 12 inches long. Flowers 4 to 5 above, rough beneath, minutely serrulate. at inches across, fleshy. Petals crimson or the edges; main lateral nerves 6-~ 7 .palrs. orange, 3 to 6 inches long, oblong, white­ Being thin-walled and rather soft, I! IS not tomentose outside. The wood is very soft very good for building purposes, but IS much and perishable, but durable under water. It used for basket and mat work, THE VILLAGE 3

Simbal Tree - Ficus Palmata-Phegra-A .tree with vertically and spirally furrowed; branches smooth grey bark. Leaves alternate, 3 to 5 rough, soon corky; leaves in bundles of 3, 9 inches long, orbicular-ovate. Wood white, to 12 inches long, obscurely triquetrous, light­ close and .even-grained, moderately hard; green; sheath greyish-brown, persistent, fim­ Fruit eaten. briate. The heart-wood is soft, reddish; annual rings well marked. The wood is not Grewia Oppositifolia-Biul-It is a moder­ durable, especially when exposed to wet. The ate-sized tree with whitish bark. Leaves sap-wood yields large quantities of resin, 3 to 6 by 1.5 to 3 inches broadly ovate-Ian­ from which turpentine and rosin are manu­ c-eolate, acuminate, obtusely but clooely ser­ factured. rate scabrous above, pupescent beneath; base unequally rounded. Flowers in leaf-opposed Prinsepia Utilis-Bhekhara-A dark-green umbellate cymes. Wood white, weighing 45 spinous shrubs; bark green on branches, to 50 lbs. per eft. The inner bark yields a brownish while and peeling off in vertical fibre which is used for rope making and the strips on the main stem; spines often leaf­ leaves are much valued for fodder. bearing. Flowers white. An oil is expressed Juglans Regia-Walnut-Khor-A large from the seeds. aromatic deciduous tree with valvety shoots; Prunus Puddum-Paja-A moderate-sized bark grey, longitudinally fissured. Leaves tree; bark brownish-grey, smooth peeling off imparipinnate. 6-15 inches long, thickly to­ in thin shining horizontal strips. Leaves 3 to mentose while young. Heartwood greyish­ 5 by 1 to 1.5 inches. Flowers about 8 inch brown with darker streaks, often mottled, across, at first rose-coloured fading to nearly even-grained, mOQ_erately hard, seasons and white. Heart-wood reddish, moderately hard, polishes well. It :ffi in great demand for gun­ strong, durable, with pleasant smell. The stocks. The bark is used as a dye and in. \ branches with the shining bark, are used medicines and cleaning the teeth. for walking sticks. Lantana Camara-Panj Phulru-A strag­ Punica Granatum...... Daru-A shrub or gling aromatic shn.bs 4 to 8 feet high with small tree with dark grey bark; branchlets small recurved prickles on the branches. often spinescent. Flowers sessile,' terminal, Leaves opposite, simple, 1 to 3 inches long solitary or in short 3-flowered cymes. Fruit by .5 to 2 inches broad, ovate-oblong, acule, about 1.5 inches in diameter, with a reddish­ base sub-cordate, truncate or cuneate, cre­ brown coriaceous rind which ultimately nate-serrate rugose above, scabrid on both breaks up irregularly; seeds about .2 inch surfaces; petiole .2 to .8 inch long. Flower long, angled, with a pellucid reddish yellow in pedunculate, short, capitate spikes which or ruby-coloured aril filled with an acid or appear sub-umbellate when young. Fruit sweet juice. Wood light-yellow, compact and drupaceous, .2 inch diameter, greenish blu·e close-grained. The flowers give a light red or black, shining; pyrenes 2, I-seed. It is a dye. The fruit is eaten, the bark and rind native of Tropical America but has become of the fruit are very astringent, and are used completely naturalised and is troublesome in medicine as well as tanning. weed. The flowers are normally orange, but plants in cultivation show various colours Quercus Incana-Ban-A large tree; bark from cream to yellow, crimson and purple. dark-grey rough with cracks and fissures. Leaves 3' to 6 by 1 to 2 inches, oblong or Melia Azedarach-Drek-A moderate­ ovate-Ianceolate. Heart-wood reddish-brown, sized tree with smooth dark-grey bark. very hard, warps and splits in seasoning. Leaves bipinnate, sometimes tripinnate, 9 to Annual rings indistinct. The wood is used 18 inches long. Flowers lilac-blue. The tree locally for ploughs and is a ,good fuel. grows very fast and coppices extremely well. Heart-wood reddish-brown, takes a good Rubus eHiptious-Akhe-A large shrub; polish, and is used for f~rniture. The bark branches stout, shaggy with long reddi~h is extremely bitter, and IS employed as an bristles often also with glandular haIr; anthelintic. The leaves are also lopped for prickle~ sharp. Leaves, pinnately .3-foliolat~, the lower' one sometimes 1-follolate. FrUlt fodder. .4 to .6 inch in· diameter, yellow; druI;>es small, MOTUS Indica-Tut-A mulberry tree of crowded; receptacle cylindrical h~ury. T.he moderate size with fruit black when ripe. friut has an agreeable flavour, and IS greedIly eaten, wherever the plant grows. Pinus Longifolia-Chil-A large light­ loving tree with a clear straight bole: bark Sapindus Mukurossi-Dodni-A handsome 1 to 2 inches thick, outer corky and in thin . tree somewhat resembling Tun; bark. grey. crisp plates, reddish-brown inner brick red, Lea~es alternate, paripinnate, 12 to 29 Inches THE VILLAGE: 5

Parrot

Kachnar long. Flowers small, regular, polygamous. Fruit is fleshy globose I-seeded drupe, .7 to 1 inch diameter; seed smooth, black, loose inside when dry; the saponaceous pericarp wrinkled and somewhat translucent in the Leopard dry fruit. Wood light-yellow, moderately hard, compact and close-grained. It is not used. The tree is much valued for the fruit, which is a good substitute for washing soap, to which it is considered even superior in the case of woollen of silk fabrics, . Zanthoxylum Alatum-Tirmira-A shrub or small tree with corky bark, and strong prickles on the branches, petioles and mid­ rib of the leaflets. Leaves alternate. Flowers small, yellow, usually I-sexual. Wood close­ grained, heavy, hard, and of a yellow colour, used for walking sticks. Tooth brushes are rnade of the branchlets, which and also the aromatic fruit are good for toothache. Fauna Sparrows, crows, doves rock pigeons, cuckoos, wagtails, bulbuls and pheasants jungle fowl are found in the forest nearby. Then ther,e is the leopard, rabbit, jackal, snake, flymg fox, squirrel, barking deer in the vicinity. Pigeons 6 THE VILLAGE

Climate part of Bhanghal State. Some lineS of inter­ est are given here from the Punjab District The cool breeze and bracing climate make Gazetteers, Volume VII, Part A Kangra summer pleasant. The maximum tempera­ District--- ' ture does not exc-eed 95 degree F. Whenever the temperature go"es a bit higher, the clouds "The Bhangahal State included Bara appear. There is heavy down-pour of rains. Bhangahal in the Ravi Valley and all Winter is not so severe. The village has a the territory now lying between light snow-fall sometiples. The aspect of the Kangra and Kulu called Chhota Bhan­ village being sunny, the snow does not last gahal; also in all probability the area between Chhota Bhangahal and Bias long. river, now in Mandi, Paprola, Lanodh No record regarding rain fall and tempe­ and Rajehr, now in Kangra, also origi­ rature of the village is available. Data in nally belonged to Bhangahal State. respect of Joginder Nagar which is almost The capital of the State was at Bir at the same height, is: in Bir Bhangahal". The Earthquake Raja Prithvi Pal, son-in-law of Raja Sidh An account of th-e earthquake which grip­ Sen of Mandi ruled Bhangahal. Raja Sidh ped Kangra and Mandi districts appears in S-en cast covetous eyes on his son-in-law's principality. He sought to annex it by the Kangra Gazetteer. treachery and invited Prithvi Pal to MandL At six o'clock in the morning of 4th April, In Mandi, he was killed. The territory in 1905 Kangra District witnessed an earth­ Bhangahal was annexed to MandL This in­ quake which by the ruin it caused and the cluded Cahuntra. consequent loss orlife can scarcely be equal­ led by any other calamities recorded in the Chauntra was an un-inhabited area once. history of this part of -the Province. There The land served as pasture for the Hocks were two tremulous vibrations and two of sheep and goats belonging to the shep­ principal shocks with about 3 or 4. se.conds herds who migrated from high hills. During between the latter. The vast ma]onty of the reign of Raja Bijai Sen from 1851 to residents were abed at the tim-e. The morn­ 1902, the Britishers had their tea plantations ing was calm and beautiful and then in a in Kangra District. They were keen to ex­ moment with two fear:ful lurches e\'ery tend the plantations. They were conducting house in the affected area collapsed amid their surveys in the nearby areas. They the thunder of falling rocks; There was a found the soil of Chauntra suitable. Raja roar of the falling rafters and walls and the Bijai Sen was very far-sighted. He got wind thousand shrieks for mercy, confusion and of it somehow and thought that the area terror and death. Rescue and exhumation would be annexed into British territory. He went during the day while at night the scene managed to procure tea seeds within a very was weird in the extreme. The wretched short period and made use of the land turn­ and grief stricken survivors huddled. them­ ing it into his own tea plantation. When the selves together in the open, ma~e plIes of Britishers approached the Raja to lease out timber extracted from the debrIS and set the land to them he came out with his sound fire to them to keep away the cold. Every pretext that the land had already been made second or third hour there was a shock al­ use of by him. though not very severe and a roar like the bgom of cannon. Bridges and built-up roads The tea garden was established in collapsed in many pJaces involving an inter­ Chauntra. With the tea garden came some ruption of communications. labourers from nearby areas. They settled permanently. Then came the Brahmins and Water Sources other communities. They purchased land. This is how once an uninhabited land has The main source of the drinking water is turned into gardens, producing tea. kuhls from Bajgar Khad. These ·kuhls pass through the village. In the lower Chauntra Leqend behind the names of the 'I.li7.1age, the villagers residing near about the temple Khad and Nullah-Chauntra is a substitute bring water from the bowli s~tuated on the for a raised platform. There was a platform Bajgar Khad. at the site of the temple. The villagers be­ longing to the surrounding vi~lage while History going to sell the produce of thelr land had Before Raja Sidh Sen ruled Mandi Stat'e to pass this. They used to rest· there and from 1684 to 1727 A.D., Chauntra formed a call it Chauntra. THE VILLAGE 7

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. . 'l'HE VILLAGE 9

Villagers have their versions for the Population Figures names of nearby khads and nuJIahs. They . feel Bajgar Khad Ws.s 'the main source 0:11 According to 1951 Census the population supply of Bajri and stones used for construct- was 219. The Census count for 1961 shows "'ing motorable road. It was on this account that there were 269. By the time this survey' that the stream was given the name-Bc:dgar. was conducted, the population increased to Baj mean 'bajri' and Gar means stones. 272. The area of the village is 404 acres. Sukhar khad is called so because it remains dry most of the year. Makkar N al is mis­ According to the figur-es collected by the chievous when there is a heavy down-pour. Investigator, there are 53 households. The It is due to this mischief meaning 'Makkar' table shows the size and composition of the from which the nullah derives its name. households.

Table showing the size and composition of the households

Total Single member 2-3 Members 4-6 Members 7-9 Members 10 Members and No. of above House- ,-___J. v-- ,-_----A- ..A---_-v-__....A.. ______Holds House- Males Females House- Males Females Hcu&e- Males Females House- Males Females House Males Fe- Holds Holds holds holds holds males

53 4 3 1 12 13 20 25 60 64 8 32 28 4, 24 27

~esidential Pattern dar is in Upper Chauntra. In Lower Chauntra - there are two shops belonging to Suds. The In Upper Chwntra there are six shops. Brahmins have houses close to the temple. Three belong to Suds. One belongs to a The houses of other castes are scattered all tailor who lives in Lower Chauntra. Then over to the Southern direction of the railway there is a meat-sellet, Koli by caste and be­ line. The kacha track connecting lower longing to a nearby village. The wine-shop Chauntra with Ahju passes nearby. The is run by a Rajput. The house of Lamber- houses of Rajputs are grouped together.

LjPD8SCOHP-3(a) 2 The People

Cast Composition Out of the 7 Brahmin house-holds, four have Batish as their gotm and Ghagru as There are 11 castes. Rajputs, Brahmins, their sub-caste. Other two have Bhardwaj Suds, Tarkhans, Kolis and Chamars live gorta with Padha and Dutt as their sub­ there. The caste-wise break-up of the popu­ caste. The seventh is of Prasar gotra and of lation is:- Awasthi sub-caste. Marriages are contracted jn nearby villages or in Kangra. Religion Community Persons Males Females Rajputs-There are 20 Rajputs house-holds Hindu • Rajput 91 42 49 comprising of 42 men and 49 women. Like Brahamins 28 16 12 Brahmins, Rajputs have migrated from Lad­ Sood 43 24- 19 Bharol illaqa and other nearby villages. Khatri 15 8 -7 Most of them possess little land which they till. Apart from this they plough land be­ Chamar 27 15 12 longing to some persons living in MandL Koli • 15 8 7 Three of the Rajput house-holds were grant~ B:lnjhare 17 7 10 ed land in lieu of their service in the mili­ Tarkhan 19 9 10 tary. Julah 5 2 3 Darji "5 2 3 Sub-caste-wise and gotra-wise break-up of the Rajput house-holds is:- Manhas 7 2 5 Serial Sub.caste Gotra No. ef Brief notes on the castes are: '­ No house- holds Brahmins-There are 7 Brahmin house­ Bal$eru Kondel . holds, of which 16 are male and 12 females. 9 The patv,:ari lives ill one. The other house­ 2 Katuhya Shandil. 5 holds have migrated from Lad-Bharol illaqa 3 Thakur . Bhardwaj 2 and villages adjacent. They possessed land in the village and used to come there at the 4 Mamnyan . Bhardwaj time of sowing and harvesting only. With 5 Byangi Sonkhyan 1 the passing of time, they acquired more land Parmar Kandel. and co!}struct2d their houses. 6 1 7 Thakur Pra.~ar 1 The Brahmins of Chauntra- till their land. Some deal in tea and run small shops. One The 9 house-holds of Baserus, though cal­ is a cook. He is engaged in villages around ling themselves Rajputs are said to belong during plarriages and other functions. to scheduled ,caste. Originally they were 10 THE PEOPLE 11

Kolis. This was revealed while other Kolis would be styled a Rathi, and accepted as of the village. were contacted. Other Rajputs such by the brotherhood. The sects of the ~lso c~nfirm. It. They do not inter-marry or Rathis are innumerable; no one could render mter-dme wIth them .. This change took place a tru'2 and faithful catalogue of them. They after 1947. Baserus mter-marry within the are as n~m~rous as th.e v~llages they inhabit, sa~e gotra and the same sub-castes. The from whIch mdeed. thelr dIstinguishing names RaJ puts do not. are generally denved. A Rathi is congni­ sant only ?f the sects which immediately In I\ax:gra ~azetteer, the Rajputs have surround hIm. They form a society quite been dIVIded mto five categories. Katuhias 5_uffici~ft for his few wants, and he has have been placed in the 5th category which lIttle L.ea of the extent and ramifications of has been termed as 'Rathi' but inferior. In his tribe. The higher sects only are generally the gazetteer following note runs about styled Thakars. These are affronted at being Rathis. called Rathis, although they do not effect to "The Ra~his muster a large number. They be .pure Rajputs. The Rathis generally are essentIally an agricultural class and aSSUMe the thread of caste. They avoid wine prevail th:roughout the Palampur and Hamir­ an~ are ~xtremely 'temperate and fr'l:lgal ir{ pur Tehslls. The Rathis and Ghirths consti­ theIr habIts. They take money for their tute the two great cultivating tribes in daughters or exchange them' a practice re­ Kangra proper an~ the hills below it, where probat'~d by the Shastras and not counten­ they fill much the same position as do the anced by the highest castes. On the death of Kanets in the parts of the east. In all level an e~der brother, the widow lives with the and irrigated tracts, however the soil is fer- - next brother, or, if she leaves his house­ tile and produce exuberant the Ghirths hold, he is entitled to recover her value from abound; while in the proper ~plands, where the husband she selects. Altogether, the the crops are scanty and the soil demands Rathis are the best hill subjects of the Gov­ severe labour to compensate the husband­ ernment; their manners are simple, quiet man, the Rathis predominate. It is as rare and unaffected; they are devoted to agricul­ to find a Rathi in the valleys as to meet a ture, not unacquainted with the use of arms, Ghirth in the more secluded hills. Each honest, mainly, industrious and loyal". class holds possession of its peculiar domain The two households, one of Parmar with and the different habits and associations Kondel gotra and the other of Thakur with created by the different localities have im­ Prasar gotra are the employees of Tea pressed upon each caste a peculiar physiog­ factory. They belong to Sarkaghat Tehsil. nomy and character. The Rathis generally are a robust and handsome race; their fea­ Suds-There are five households of Suds. tures are regular and well defined; their Their population is 43 with 24 men and 19 women: Suds found Chauntra a suitable colour usually fair: and their limbs athletic place where they could estaglish their busi­ as if exercised and engigorated by the stub­ ness. They belonged to Kangra. -At -present born soil upon which their lot is thrown. Suds own agricultural-land as well as tea On the other-hand, the Ghirth is dark and gardens. They have their tenants to till their , coarse-featured; his body is stunted and land, but the tea gardens, they manage them­ sickly; goitre is fearfully prevalent among selves. Almost all the shops in the village this race; and the reflection occurs to the are run by them. One of them is running a mind that however, teeming and profile the oil crusher, husking machine and a tea soil, however, favourable'to vegetable life,' factory. They are considered the most the air and climate are not equally adapted moneyed persons. _PeoplE! call them Karar. to the development of the human frame. The An extract from Punjab Castes by Sir Den­ Rathis are attenti~e and careful agricul­ zil Ibbetson speaks of the Sud cbII].munity turists. Their women take little or no part in the labours of the field. In origin they be­ in Punjab:- long neither to the Rajput 'nor to the Sudra "The Suds are almost entirely confined to class; but are apparently an amalgamation the lower hills, and the districts that lie of both. Some Rathis wear the J aneo. Though immediately under them as far west as thev appear to be degenerate Rajputs yet AmritsAr. Their headquarters are at as S'udras. Their ranks are being constantly Ludhiana ang the neighbOll~I.:ing town of than to the Rajputs proper, they should, if Machiwara and they are, I belie";€;, unknown they are to be definitely classified, be classed outside· the Punjab. They are almost wholly .s Sudras. Their ranks are being constantly mercantile in their pursuits though occa­ increased by defections from the Rajputs, sionally taking serv!ce as clerks, and occupy and by ille~itimate connections. The off­ a social positiOn markedly inferior to that of spring of a Rajput father by a Sudra mother either the Baniya or the Khatri. They wear 12 THE PEOPLE

a jeneo or sacred thread made of three in~ Khatris-There are only 5 households with ;tead of six strands and many of them prac~ 11) persot:ls, 8 men and 7 women. These are ;is-e widow marriage. With the exception of temporary settlers in Chauntra. The heads of 1 few who are Sikhs they are almost all 3 households are employed in the Raj fIindus, but are, in comparison with other Kumar's Tea Fac.:!0ry. The fourth is Secre­ :nercantile castes, very lax in the observance tary of Panchayat and the 5th a Gram­ )f their religion. They indulg-e freely in Sewika. They belong to Mandi. ' meat and wine and in habits, customs, and Tarkhan-There are 5 households with a ,ocial position re,semble very closely the popUlation of 9 men and 10 women. Origi­ Kayaths. The tribe is apparently an ancient nally Tarkhans were Kalis. They are also one, but I can obtain no definite information called Thavin about whom Ibbetson has as to its origin. Various fanciful derivations written in his Punjab Castes. of the tribal name are current, for the most part of an opprobrious nature. I attempted "The Thavi ~s the Ca:qpe*er and stJone­ to make enquiries from some leading Suds, ma~on of th~ hills, _just as the Raj of the but the result was the assembling of a plams, who IS a bncklayer by occupation Panchayat, the ransacking of the Sanskrit 1S. said. to. be generally a Tarkhan by caste: classics for proof of their Kashtirya origin, .l:iIS prmcIpal occupation is building the vil­ and a heated discussion in the journal of lage houses, which are in those parts made Anjuman. of stone; and he al130 does what wood work They are divided into two main sections, required for them. He thus forms the con­ necting link between the workers in wood the Uchandia or Sud of the hills and Nawan­ or Tarkbans on the one hand, and the brick­ dia: or Sud of the pla1ns. I find. however, layers ~nd masons or Rajs on the other. - that some of the Suds of Hoshiarpur trace Most unfortunately my office have included their origin from Sarhind. They also dlstin­ the head Tarkhan so that they are only guish the Suds who do not have widow mar­ shown separately for Hill States; and in­ riages from those who are called Kharas and deed many of the Hill States have them­ the latter and their chil~ren Gala, Dogla or selves followed the same course, so that our Chich an. The llatter correspondS, with Sasa figures are very incomplete. In Gurdaspur and Gata Banyas and do not intermarry. 1,722 and in Sialkot 1,063 Thavis are thus in­ The Suds forbid marriage in all four gotras cluded under Tarkhan. The Thavi is a Hindu, and here again show how much less their and ranks in social standing far above Dagi tribal customs have been affected by their or outcaste menial, but somewhat below the religion than have those of the Banyas and Kanet or inferior cultivating caste of the . Khatris. They are of good physiqu-e, and are an intelJigent and enterprising caste with nills". great power of combination and self-rest­ The Tarkhans of Chauntra do not have raint; and they have lately made what much of a social status. Like Kalis they appears to be really successful effort to reduce form the untouchable class. They intermarry their marriage expenses by ge:neral-agree­ with Chamars. Sidhu a carpenter is married men-e. The extensive sugar trade of Ludhiana, to Shankaru daughter of a Chamar from .and generally the agricultural money­ Majharu village. Gojri the present wife of lending of the richest part of that district are Bhumi Singh married thrice. She is a almost entirely in their hands. They are pro­ daughter of a Chamar from Ner. His first verbially acute and prosperous men of busi­ two wives were Chamars' daughters. The ness and there is saying; "If a Sud is across Tarkhans of the village are of Bhardwaj the river, leave your bundle on this side". and Kandel gotras. They do not have restric­ The husblandmalIl of the vi]lage is a mere! tions about marrying in the same gotra. chitd in their hands". Dress The Suds of Chauntra are of Ale, Gagal There is no distinction in dress .among and Kashav gotras. They do not marry in the different castes. People economically the same gotra and marriages take place in better off wear better and superior clothes. close by villages or in Kangra. Widow mar­ Others have to do with coarse ones. In sum­ riage is not prevalent. The birth of a girl mer, which is n5>t so severe, the people put was once considered boon among them as on cotfon c1btnes. In winter, warm clothes the form of marriage known as batta satta are a must. was common. They used to receive cash while giving away their daughters in mar­ The summer: dress comprises of paijama, riages. Both. these customs have died and kachha, shirt and a cap of mill made cotton the Suds of the village claim that these cus­ cloth. While working in the fields, the men put o:c. only kachh(1, and a banyan. Khadi toms never existed. THE PEOPLE 13

clad farmers are not common. A few spin cotton and prepare their khadi. In winter woollen coat is used. There is no change in paijama except that ,some who can afford, put on tight woollen paijamas. JaiWahar jac­ kets and pull-overs are common. ' Among youngsters, clothes are changing. While, visiting a town or going outside Chauntra, they prefer to put on cotton trou­ sers instead of paijama. The' farmers pur­ chase shoes from Jogindernagar; Sukha Bagh or Baij Nath. The richer and non-agri­ culturist communities put on the same type, of clothes. Their woollen clothes are mill made. The school going children often use shorts and shirts. In \festivals )mdl marriage ,parhes, gaudy new clothes are worn. Elders use a pink Pagri on marriages. Women use salwar and kameez. They use a dopatta. Among Suds and Rajputs they put on a ghaghra, suttan, chari aFld kameez­ with a dopatta. Chak For day-to-day use the garments are of simplest colours, modest and becoming. On fairs and festivals the texture is adorned ORNAMENTS FOR THE EARS with patterns printed in silver and golden gIJta. Sometimes the whole garment is made Bali-Ear ring of gold or silver. This of silken cloth of streaked colours tastefully weighs about 1 to 2 tolas. associated. The chari is made of equally gay Kante-Another type of ear rings of gold material. There is a weaver who weaves weighing , to 2 tolas. woollen patti for the villagers. There may be ghagras also. T?ps-G?ld or silver ear rings which is unlIke bah or kante. A pair weighs 1 to 2 Ornaments tolas.

Love for ornaments is a common -among ORNAMENTS FOR THE ]{OSE, women, irrespective of their economical posi­ tion. Gold and silver ornaments are common. Balu or Nath-A large nose ring of gold The goldsmith -at Joginder nagar and Bad.j or silver, with a chain attached. The other end Nath prepare this jewellery. Traditional of the cl?-aiJ?- is fastened to the hair by a heavy je'wellery used to be preferred. Now hook. ThIS IS also a: must for bride at the women are coming to lighter ornaments of time of marriage. Weight from 2 to 5 tolas. flew design. Bal,,!-A nose ring of gold, smaller in size. ORNAMENTS FOR THE HEAD It weIghs 1 to 2 to las. Chakor Chundi-Commonly it is known as Tili-Of gold studded with a tiny stone at chak. A small bowl sort of ornament made the top. ... of gold or silver is fixed over the top of the Long-A. sort of tili with a bigger top head. For a newly wedded bride it is a must. studded WIth three or four tiny stones. Poorer people have chakor chundi of silver. The weight varies from 2 to 4 tolas. -ORNAMENTS- FOR THE NECK Shingar Patti-It is a gold ornament put HC!-r-A heavy necklace .o.f gold 'or silver round the fore-head. A sort of fiat chaih of of dIfferent patterns. Weighs 20 to-40 to las. small and fiat beads with a pendulum in the centre. The weight varies from 2 to 5 tolas. Locke~-A lighter necklace of gold or sil­ Mang Tika-It is an ornament of gold for yer. WeIghs 1 to 2 tolrz,s. fore-head. The average weight varies from , Kanthi--:-Ornament worn tight around the ! to 1 tala. neck of dIffetent designs. THE PEOPLE

ORNAMENTS FOR THE WRIST foundation the bed is watered and rammed ,thoroughly. This brings compactness and Snangan-Round bracelets of gold or sil­ evenness. Then upto 9 inches to one foot ver. A pair weighs five to ten talas. Cmed thickness the foundation is filled with boul­ tohe also. ders. These boulders are available from Baj­ gar Khad and other nullahs nearby. This Karahlu-Round below bracelets of gold layer of boulders is again rammed thorough­ or silver. A pair weighs 3 to 5 tolas. ly. The foundation is some-times dug before Banga-Glass bangles. rains and kept open to the weather for the entire seasan. This secures maximum firm ness to the foundation. On an auspicious day, ORNAMENTS' FOR THE FINGERS foundation stone is laid and then the shap­ Mundri-A fir:ger ring. ing of the structure starts. The thickness of the wall upto the ground level and some­ Arsi-A finger ring with a round or rec­ times upto plinth level is kept the same as tangular glass fixed on it. This may be in the width of foundation. But now, masonry gold or silver. work in the foundations in off-sets is being Chhalla-A silver ring. preferred. This system is economical and facilitates the structural work. Ordinarily ORNAMENTS FOR THE TOE AND ANKLE dry masonry is used. The plinth level varies from 9 inches to 18 inches. When the maso­ Phul-Rings of silver." nry work upt6 the plinth level is complete, the roOm poI'itil()n in-b;etween four walls! i:s ORNAMENTS FOR THE ANKLES filled up with flints, pieces of stones, and Pazeb-Heavy silver anklets. brickbats to bring the surface in level with the walls which have already been raised House Type upfo plinth level. Then door frames are plac-. ed wherever necessary. Placing of the frame ~he pattern of construction of the houses of main door is marked with minor rituals. is mainly influenced by the Kangra district. A red mauli is tied to the frames and gur is The houses are double storeyed with a front dis'tributed among the workers. The mason, verandah in both the floors. Being in the openl incharge of the construction gets a turban and spacious 'valley, there is no dirth of land and money depending upon the means of the for constructing houses. The main abadi of owner. The masonry work is continued after the village is in lower Chauntra. Houses are leaving gaps for the doors. When walls are scattered in groups of two to three. Every raised upto window level, the window fra­ house has a spacious courtward. Many of the mes are placed. One window suffices for each houses are surrounded by fields or by l}itchen room. At various stages of. the·wall construc­ gardens. The Suds are considered to be "bet­ tion, care is taken to provide lintels, small ter off. They have houses of chawki type openings and niches. The villagers find it with shops to one of the wings facing the vil­ difficult to get structural stone. This is found iage str~et. Other house§. have a 'L' or 'U' in a limited quantiy. They use extensively shaped ltty-out. Such houses belong to the sun-dried bricks. The stones are used for con­ villagers having average means. These are struc~ion of outer walls of the ground fioor. mostly Brahmans, Rajputs and a few of sche­ For the inner walls in both the floors and duled' castes. The peasantry many have the oute11 walls of the 1st floor, bricks are modest houses with barrack-like lay-out and used. The standard size of the brick is no verandah in first floor. For keeping the 10" x 5" X 2~". This can vary in certain cattle, the villagers build a separate cow­ cases. The villagers make these bricks. Clay shed to one side of the house. This cow shed is kneaded thoroughly with feet after add­ is a small hut with thatched roof. Except a ing dry pine-leaves. This is then put into few houses which have been built new, moulds and given shape of bricks. They are houses are semi-pucca. dried thoroughly in the sun. Thickness of the outer walls is Ii feet. The interior walls Site near the fields where water is avail­ are sometimes of single brick. able i~ preferred. The soil being sandy-loam and porous, the foundation has to be dug When the construction is complete \.lpto deeper. The depth varies from 4 to 5 feet. first floor level a shateer is placed across each The foundation is not dug 'further, if a room 9n the shorter span, so that half of the hard layer or rock is some-times struck at a thickness of the walls at centre serves, as lower depth. The width of the foundation bearing of the shateer. This is followed by varies from 2 to '2i feet. After digging the placing the wooden Qr bamboo karian over THE PEOPLE 15

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the shateer. Unlike other hill villages, the through verandah. They can be inter-connect­ height of the walls is not kept low in Chaun­ ed from inside. The verandah in the 1st floor tra. It vades from 7 to 8 feet in the ground has wooden railings. In such houses, there floor and fj to 7 feet in the first floor. Then are separate kitchens mostly in the upper starts the construction of four walls of the storey. The houses of 'L' shaped lay-out are first floor. After fixing the door and window of the same type with the difference that such frames, these walls are raised upto the roof houses have only two wings and entry to the ] evel. Postponing the construction operations house is direct through the verandah of the in the interior of the house roofing is taken ground flour. up first. The houses in the village have gabl­ ed roofing wi th four slopes. For roofing In a house with barrack-like layout, there trusses are not provided. Instead, two rafters are usually one to two rooms in the ground and a beam between them are fixed. In many floor and only one big hall sort of room in of the houses where thatched roofing is pro­ the 1st floor. There can be two rooms in the vided for rafters bamboo poles are used 1st floor. The breadth of. the rooms in ground instead of timber. One end of the rafter is floor varies between 12' and 15' and length fixed on the ridge pole with a notch. The between 15' and 20'. Entrance to the house is other end rests on the wall end with sufficient through a verandah in the ground floor. Each projection towards gable end. On the rafter room has a sepa'I'ate 5' x 3' door with a purlins are fixed. The spacing of the purlins 2' x 1r window. Sometimes these windows varies according to the length and breadth are substitt;.ted by small round holes. In one of the slates to be used. The slates are nailed of the corners of a room in ground floor, a on purlins from gable end to ridge. To avoid stair-case is provided. It connects ground­ leakage, lap of 2" to 3" is given at the joints. floor with the first floor. The portion of roof The slates used are-procured from Kanhyara with steeper slope of such a house is thatch­ Khan near Dharam Sala. Slates are also ed whereas saltes are used for the flatter avaitable at J ogindernagar where they are portion. The inmates occupy the lower floor, transported from slate quarries in Mandi dis­ the upper being used duri~g the greater part trict. Ceiling is not generally prOvided. of the year as lumber room or store room for grains. During the rains the upper room is The work in the interior of the house is used for cooking and in many cases as a then taken up. Ground floor is generally sleeping room also. Whole family occupies it. kacha. In the first floor both mud and wooden at night in order to escape the close and un­ floorings are found. In the _ground floo'r. the healthy air of the ground floor in rains. natural bed is watered and rammed with- dur­ mat thoroughly, so that it becomes firm and There is no separate kitchen and the living compact. Then the space is filled in with waste room serves the purpose. The rooms are kept material and earth upto the plinth level. A clean. The lower parts of inner walls are thick coating of qara or mud mixed with cow plastered with red or light coloured earth dung is then given which when dried is fol­ known as lclhti. The front space is kept tidy lowed by a fine cow-dung coating. Similarly and fresh and the whole is encircled by a walls are plasj;,ered with gam and cow-dung hedge of ti:ees and bramble maintaining and then white-washed with makoL Some­ somewhat privacy. times walls up to window height are colour­ ed with tosti. The local names for the different parts of the house are:- Chawki Type , 1. Angan-Courlyard or the portion of land facing the rront of the house. A chawki type house has a rectangular or square paved court-yard which is enclosed 2. Bala-Rafters. from three and in certain cases f.rom all the 3. Bharti-Boulder filling in the founda­ four sides. by double storeyed wings of a tion. house. All wings have verandahs facing the court-yard. Entry to the house is through a 4. Bheen-Ridge of the verandah in the room called praur in the ground floor. A stair­ ground floor. case at one corner leads ;to rthe fin:;t floo!". 5. Bhit-Door. Arrangements of the rooms in both the floors 6. Birang-Jlooden railing in the verano is the same. If the ground flour has 4 rooms, the 1st floor will have the same number of the da,h of the first floor. rooms of same length and breadth. In case 7. Chhananr-Thatch of the roof. there is no room in one of the wing of a house 8. Chhaprur-Gable end. that wing, is called naswar. All the rooms of a chawki t have separate doors to enter 9. Choka-thha--Window fr~mes, • THE PEOPLE 17

10. Dharwan chhat-Gabled roof: The better off and well-to-do Suds have latest furniture. They have sofa sets, tables, 11. Dwari-Window. almirahs and carpets. Table lamps, radios, 12. Dwar sakha-Door frames. heaters and electric irons are found in their 13. Gara-Mud mortar. houses. The furniture is bought from Pathan­ ·kot or Kartarpur. 13A. Karyan-Joists. 14. Lada-Ridge pole. For winter bedding, :the mattresses used are padded with rice straw and cotton. Khin­ 15. Lakore-Niches. das form quilts. Bedsheets are used seldom. 16. Maidgi-Mud plastering. For storing grains long bamboo containers 17. Nwewn---'Foundation. known as perus are used. A peru is 5 to 6 17.A. Oata-}/erandah in the ground floor: feet high with a diameter of 2 to 3 feet. It is plastered with cowdung and clay. Big wooden 18. Ohra-Rooms in the ground floor. boxes-kothar are also used for storing. 19. Paura-Verandah in the 1st floor. households by wall calendars and other 20. Phare-Wooden planks. coloured pictures to decorate their walls. Often coloured pictures of film stars are stuck 21. Praur-A room in the ground floor, up. through which one can enter the house. Food and Drinks 22. Sangha-Stair case. The staple food of the villagers is maize 23. Tarah-Shieling. wheat, rice, pulses and kodtra. Maize is a 24. Thamb-Posts, supporting the first great favourite. This is served alongwith floor. kodra from September till May. Aft~r that wheat harvest rpatures. For the remaining 25. Trusses-'-Kainchi. period wheat atta forms the common diet. 26. Wan-A big room in ground or first Rice is served with pulses once a day floor with no front wall. throughout the year. The agriculturists have three meals a day. Household Goods Before going to their morning work the men eat roti kept from the lasfevening. This meal No. of house·holds possessing is called nohari. At noon, the peasant takes ,.- Community Cots Chair Table Mirror Bench Stool Wall· his meals. Members of the household join. shelf This meal consists of rice a;nd daal. In the 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 evening tea is served alongwith roti. The din­ ner also consists of roti and v.egetables fried Brahmin 7 4 3 7 3 7 in mU,stard oil. Vegetables ,rnay be cabbage, Rajput 17 7 3 20 2 20 cauliflower, brinjal, tomatoes, pumpkin, lady­ 5 4 4' 5 1 3 finger, turnip, radish, karela, potatoes and Khatri long gourd. In the village, there are_ a few Sud 5 5 3 5 2 1 5 3 5 2 3 5 who grow vegetables. The daIs used are Tarkhan masur, gram, urad, moong, kulath and rorn-g. Julah 1 1 The popular cooking medium is mustard oil. Darji 1 1 1 The spices used are dhania, ~ira, hing, tur­ Bhanjare 1 meric and chillie~. Manhas 1 1 Chamar 4 4 4 On festive occasions and in winter, the vil­ Koli 3 3 3 lagers slaughter a goat. This meat is very much relished. Meat is also purchased from the local meat seller at Upper Chauntra. The This gives an idea! of the household goods. milk does not f.orm a part of thei:t1 daily diet. The houses are furnished in the simplest style. People squat on gunny bags or home Th,ough most of the households possess made pands of leaves or manj'l1i of date cows they generally turn the milk into curd leaves. and extract ghee. Fresh milk is -pm in an ear­ then vessel and heated. It is then left un­ The chairs are of old style. Similarly, the touched till evening when more milk is ad­ cots with bamboo frames are common. Ev,ery_' ded to it. After boiling, the entire lot is kept house possesses a cot. Many houses use to form curd after adding a little chhachh. wooden packing cases as tables. Early in the morning the curd is poured into 18 THE PEOPLE

another earthen vessel and churned. The but­ After adding a little quantity of water the ter that floats on the surface is separated by mixture is left to simmer on slow fire. 'This hand and put into a bowl containing cold is quite tasty combination with rice. In mar­ water. The butter collected for a number of riages it is popularly served. To have real days is then heated on direct fire in metallic madrah, it is said that curd, grams or beans vessel and allowed to rest. The impurities and ghee should be of the same quantity and which float on the boiling butter are remov­ water should not be added. ' ed and the ghee is then poured into some earthen pots. The lassi or chhachh so obtain­ Askadoo-This is prepared out of riGe soak­ ed is consumed with meals after boiling it ed in water and dried in the sun. The dried and adding chillies and salt according to rice is ground into flour and kneaded in taste. Sometimes besan is added to ,lassi water. To prepare askadoo, a type of stone whil,e boiling. mould is used. This is flat and round with thick disc of stone having small round ho~low Every household keeps either mango or_ holes. The mould is put on fire and when some other pickle. 8hatni with green chillies this is hot, ghee is applied. The flour is filled is relished. Raw onions and radish forms a in the hollow mould and left to be cooked. salad. When this is ready, the mould is removed and- askadoos are served with ghee and Apart ~rom the farmers, villagers have their food twice daily. They too consume rice sroakkar. generally at about 10.00 A. M. Then there are Muhani-A sour dish prepared ;;:' adding pulses-saltish or sour. The sour pulses are tamarind and pichh. prepared by adding tamarind and pitchh. 'rea is served twice a day- during mornings and Halwa-Sweet dish made by frying suji or evenings. Bhaturus are preferred to chapatis. wheat flour and adding water and sugar. To relish them, kacha desi ghee is added. As regards drinks the villagers drink The villagers take sattu boiled or roasted dharubri or sur. This is made by fermentat­ barley or maize. The boiled grains are dried ing rice flour and herbs. This drink is served and then ground. The sattus are served in on festivals and ceremonies celebrated by the the afternoon with Lassi or cold water dur­ scheduled castes. Permits are granted by ing summer monsoons. Once a while, the vil­ the Excise Department to villagers who are lagers eat buns or bread in the Halwai's interested. shop. Other items on the menu may be- The villagers have great liking for sweets Kachori of Kodra-Popularly, known as, which contain sugar in maximum quantity. kodre rei kachori is prepared like bhatv-rus. Sweets like jalebi, besan ki barfi and khurma These contain spiced and salted urd ground are cherished very much. There is a local con­ to paste af.ter soaking well in water for 10 fectioner. to 18 hours. These are flattened into thick cakes and left to ferment for:. hours. They -are Birth Customs baked. A pregnant mother is considered to fall an BhaUa-Popularly known as basa, the' easier prey to evil eyes of a bhoot, a pashach, bhallas are prepared from wrd ki daI. This is a mashan, a paret and other evil spirits. It well soaked in water -for hours and then is a must for her not ,to go to a burning ground to paste. This paste is well meshed ground, a stream, a forest or any lonely place. with hands as spices are added. Rings are As the days pass on and woman begins to made and fried in ghee or mustard oil. attain the advanced stage, she has to be care­ ful not to have a miscarriage or abortion. Babroos-Wheat flour or maida is turned She does not carry heavy loads and water into thin paste by mixing it in water. Sugar from kuhl. During the 8th month of preg­ or jaggery is added to the taste and the paste nancy the Sirimant Sanskar is celebrated. A is fried in ghee or mustard oil, in bits. The Bnihmin or a puroh.it is called for. He per­ paste when put, in boiling ghee or oil, attains forms havan and chants mantras while a yel­ round and :flat shape. low cord is tied round the waist of the expect­ potandas-Potcmda is a thin and smooth ant mother. type of chapati made from fine' kneaded It is common in all the communities to seg­ wheat flour with a tinge of ghee on both the regate the woman into a separate room. This sides. This is taken with ghee and shakkar. is mo'stly in the ground floor. When she com­ Madrah-Dry beans or white grams are plains of labour pains, experienced women of soaked in water for 8 to 12 hours. These are the household or of the neighoourhood at­ fried in ghee and curd. Spices are added. tend. In many cases the dai CQrnes from the TH~ PEOpLE 19

Welfare Centre. To scare off the evil spirits, are tall trees. This is observed for about 6 an iron weapon-a sickle, a sword or mostly a months. knife is placed under the bedding-this -bed­ ding may consist of paral-ki-manjri and one Anaj Chatana-This c~remony is popUlarly or two old blankets which could be washed known as lugru in Mar+di and khirpu in later on. Kangra. When the child is 8 or 10 months old, it is given food prepared out of grains. On an After birth, the child is given a 'hot bath. auspicious day fixed by the purohit, lugru On the birth of a son, among Brahmins, a is prepared. Khir, bread; fruit and alike are havan is performed. Gods are worshipped placed before the child. The things which he and vedic texts are chanted. The time of birth touches first is supposed to be his favourite is noted. The child is made to taste garsut­ food . .similarly articles like books, pens, ink­ jaiphal, harar, ajwain and sonf mixed in pots, swords, coins, scales are placed and the milk. It is after this that the child is given thing which he catches hold of first is sup­ breast feeding. For three or four days roti posed to suggest the profession which the is not given to the mother. She is served suffi,. child may follow one day. cient quantity of pure deshi ghee. Her diet Nam Sanskar-No uniformity is observed consists of light foods, milk and kohani--dry for keeping the name of the child. The puro­ fruits like almond, chauhara, dakh and coco­ hit suggests the 1st letter of. the name. In nut are crumbled ami fried in ghee. Sugar is many cases the entire name is suggested by added. To keep the bowls of the child in him. Some keep the name or the Guntar day. order, ghutti consisting of an extract of saunf, others on the lugru day and yet others after dakh, violets, rose leaves made up with water 6 months. is given. The labour room is kept warm. At the entrance cowdung fire is kept in some Mundan Saiiskar-For a son Mundan Sans­ vessel. Anyone who enters the room puts a kar is celebrated before he is 2! years of age. pinch of mustard oil in it. An auspicious day is fixed by the purohit. Relatives from the mother side are invited. The time of the birth noted is communi­ The maternal uncle places a piece of red cloth cated to the purohit or jyoiisM who visits on the head of the child, and the purohit goes the house on the 4th or 5th day of the birth on chanting mantras, while the barber cuts with the horoscope. From the horoscope the hair. The hair are offered to the Kul he- predicts the child's future. In case there Devta with a sacrifice of a lamb. Well-to-do is anything insecure, the purohit suggests families celebrate at a place where the tem.. shudhi. This is invariably performed by pIe of Kul Devta is located. A feast is given parents. From the horoscope the first letter to the relatives and friends on th.s occasion. of the child's birth name is declared. Sweets accompan)11 the party to the temple where ceremonies take place. Guntar-Till purification the mother is not supposed to touch anyone. As long as she Janeu Ceremqny-This is pne of the impor­ remains confined, all those who touch her tant ceremonies. The boy is/invested with the must be pr~pared for a bath and to wash their sacred thread. This ceremony takes place be­ clothes. The days of impurity are known as tween the age of seven and ten. If circum­ sutak. The purification of the mother and. stances are not suitable, it is postponed till child takes place on the 11th day in case of the age of sixteen. A good number of relati­ Brahmans, the 13th day in case of Rajputs and ves are invited -on this occasion and feasts are 16th in the case of other' castes. The house is given to them. The\ day for the ceremony purified by sprinkling mixture of ghee, dahi, must be an auspicious. The havan is perform­ milk or honey, Ganges water and cow's ed and boy attires as a J ogi. He begs for alms urine. The _men folk have a first look at the from his relatives who give him puries and child. In token of good wishes they give the money. Thes~ alms go to the purohit. Then child and the mother, money and gifts. The the purohit gives him a mantra and places parents of the mother give her new clothes the janeo on his left shoulder. This ceremony and a piece of jewellery. A feast is held and is not celebrated by the scheduled castes. relatives are invited. The utensils, clothes and floor of the house are cleaned. Marriage Customs On Guntar day the mother and the child Daarm Pun-In this type~of_ marriage the come out from the house for the first time. parents of the girl give away their daughter. For the child it is a first view of the sun :.'.lld Money transactions are not made and rites outside world. Mter this the mother moves of marriage are observed according to vedas. about. She can go out but avoids taking the This type is prevalent among Hindus of child to dis'tant places or places where there higher castes like Brahmans and Khatri~. 20 THE PEOpLE

Bata Sata~Exchange of boys and girls take to' him, he submits a proposal for the money place between two families. Sometimes there to be charged. In caSe the boy's father can­ are four to five links in the chain and a not afford the payment of cash he has tQ breach of promise creates confusion especial­ ar~an?e a girl in exchange. Thi~ may be re~ ly if some promises have already been fulfil­ latlve s daughter in case he does not have his led. This prevails among most of the castes 0:vn. After settling ,terms, the boy's father but is not common in Brahmins, Khatris and g~ves a few rupees as a token present to the Rajputs. Among Suds it was common in the gIrl. When he reaches home, clothes jewel­ past, it is disappearing now rapidly. lery and some sweet are sent for th~ girl. Barina-Cash payment is made for the Biah Mahurat-An auspicious day is fixed bride. The amount varies according to the Men from the boy's house go to the girl's terms settled. This is common among sche­ parents to fix a date. If they approve, mes­ duled castes. Suds also used to contract mar­ sengers from both sides consult the astro~ riages by making cash payment to the parents loger: Then the purohit writes the detailed of the bride. The system has disappeared marnage programme. This is the Lakhnotri. now. Relatives are intimated qbout the marriage. Reet or Lag-If a couple do not pull on, the A few days earlier, invitations are extended woman leaves her husband and goes back personally in the village..... _to her parent's house. She may select a new The ceremonies start a month before the husband, or go back to her parents. They re­ a~tual r_narriage. Women get together and turn the amount charged for the bride. If smg dally. They get ghee and gur or fried she remarries, her new husband has to pay grams. c_Qmpensation to the previous husband. This marriage is common_ among the scheduled . Samhurat-:-On the first day of the mar­ castes and Baseru Rajputs. rIa~e, the ntes start with worshipping Gan­ patt, l;calash or kumba, navgrah. Batna is rub­ Jhanjrara-A younger brother can marry bed on the boy's body. Three maulis are tied the widow of the elder brother. He has to around his right wrist. He is taken out into wait for a year or so after his brother's led the courtyard by his mother for a bath death. This form is allowed among schedll While bathing maulis are untied. After it the' castes and Baseru Rajputs. mother again leads him to inside where Among Brahmins marriages are not per­ decea~ed ancestors are worshipped and formed in the same gotra. This is true in case Shantt havan performed. These rites are per­ of Karars, Khatris and Rajputs. Among sche­ formed in the girl's house also. On this day, duled castes and Baseru Rajputs marriages all the women apply batna and take bath. in the same gotra, are allowed. Consent of Te.l Ceremony-On the second day or ac­ the boy and the girl is not taken and the mar­ cordmg to the mahurat, figures denoting a riage is decided by elders. The average age bride and bridegroom are drawn on the wall for a boy's marriage is 18 and for _,gitls 14. by the women. A pihri is placed on the floor The negotiations for a marriage are started below the wall where figures have bee~ by the boy's side. A girl is selecte9.. The • drawn. On the pihri a murti of Ganesh is parents are approached through some inter­ placed. The murti alongwith nav-grah are mediatory persons known to each side. If worshipped. The purohit gets the boy to wear the girl's parents show an inclination, the a munjh-mala over his head. Then the boy's boy's father is informed. The ceremony con­ n~are~t kin followed by others pour drops of sists of sending to boy's house the purohit by o~l WIth drub grass .in his 'head and give a the girl's side with some sweets and tikka. pIce or two to purohtt who goes ~:m chanting There the purohit gets the boy to wotship mantras. Torans are fixed on the main gate Ganesha. Then he goes back with presents of the house and the: door of the room where for the girl. These consists of clothes, a piece murti of Ganesh is installed. In the house of/ of jewellery and some times cash. The boy's the girl,bedi is fixed in the courtyard. The side send their purohit to the girl's house bedi and torans are presents from the mater­ with tikka and sweets. He comes back with nal uncle. In addition to this the maternal presents cohsisting of clothes and sweets for uncle incurs expenditure over sehra and the boy. In the boy's house, the women clothes for the bridegroom and clothes and gather to sing. a piece of jewellery for the mother. On the girl's side, the maternal uncle incurs expendi­ _Among scheduled castes, the boy's father tu~e over the clothes and jewellery for the alongwith one or two relatives goes to the bnde and her mother. He gives some pre­ girl's parents with his proposal. If acceptable sents which form the items of dowry. THE PEOP~ 21

Parsahin-After tel ceremony, the boy has and rice. The boy now lays his hands over a bath. He puts on the clothes and sehra hers while the purohit goes on chanting man­ presented by the maternal unCle. His bhabi tras. Then the girl's father performs Kanyan­ applies kajal in his eyes and the sister rubs dan. At the conclusion of this rite the artic­ a bit of tika on the fore-head. Then arti i!~ les in girl's hand are given to the Purohit. waved over !fis head. The father and other relatives offer him presents. Accompanied by . Sargundhi-The boy and the girl then re­ his mother aqd purohit, he goes to the en­ tIre to the room where the deity of Ganesh is trance of the house and stands below the kept. They :worship the deity and the planets. !hen the gIrl is dressed in clothes contained torans. Here mantras are recited and arti is m the. suhag-patari. This is followed by sar­ again waved over his head by his aunts. A gundht. The hair of the bride is combed while little girl stands at the entrance with a Iota ~he other wom.en gathered there go on sing­ of water. The bridegroom drop5 a coin in the mg sargundht songs. Then some coins Iota and gets into the palanquin. or a .ring are put in pot containing fIlixture Marriage procession-Then starts the pro­ of mIlk and water. The bride and the bride­ cession composed of relatives of the groom groom try to take it out. This is called dudh­ and :friends. They are dressed in their best mundri. With her dopatta/ tied with the and led by the musicians, who go on playing shawl of the bridegroom, the bride is escort­ on the shehnai, dholak, nigara and band. The ed to the bedi by her maternal uncle. Of relatives use pinkish pagri. The family puro­ course, the bridegroom also follows her. In hit accompanies the barat. He carries oil to the bedi they a~ain worship Ganpati, N av­ be poured on bride at the time of the Tilsand grah, Brahma, Vtshnu, Kumbh, Saptrishi and ceremony. On arrival the party is received - the four Veds. Now the couple stands and heartily and led to the house arranged for have rounds of the sacred fire. The boy keeps their stay.. his right hand on the brides back all the time. After each round the couple worship Swhag patari-Suhag patari is for the bride. by throwing til, drub, milk and kungu. This This consists of clothes, chandan, chura, constitutes the binding rites in the wedding. kesar, sindoor, mehandi, supari and other toir lets like cream, and powder. These are con­ Gotra-char-This is follqwed by gotra-char. tained in.a box or in a bamboo changer. The The relatives and :friends give their presents. _ purohit proceeds to the bride's house to pre­ These are eitl'ler in cash or clothes utensils sent the suhag patari. After. his return, the and jewellery. The value of the pres~nts vary bridegroom and his baratis are led to the according to the relationship and the means. bride's house. The musicians also accompany Then gotra-char are recited. This consists of them. naming of the boy's and girl's ancestors upto the 3 to 5 degree to show that the¥ are of The father's sister or often elderly woman purestock. Then the girl belongs to the same of bride's side receives the bridegroom. gotra as of the boy. They. perform the arti. The bridegroom is given a bath and made to wear tlhoti, a sacr­ After these ceremonies - are over and the ed thread and a ring of gold or silver. 'i'he baratis have a· feast in which many others scheduled caste bridgroom does not wear from the village are invited, the bride takes sacred thread. The maternal uncle leads him leave of her relatives. This scene is touching to the ·bedi. The bride is brought to the bedi as the parents and oilier friends of the bride by her mama. She :is attired ia red robe and feel pangs of departur~ and sing tunes, be the [ace covered with red dopatta. Thereafter fitting the occasion. The bride also leaves her tl'le purohit performs certain minor rites such parents and other associates, with a heavy as chhari or twigs. heart. The bride is carried in a palki present­ ed by her parents. The palki is covered from Lagan and Kanyadan--The couple sits all the sides with red blinders. The bride is down in the bedi. The girl's father offers san­ followed by the bridegroom who may either kalap in which he gives away his daughter to be in a palki or on a horse. The baratis, his son-in-law and washes the couple's feet as brother or uncle of the bride and tne musi­ they sit before him. ChiChar is performed by cians accdmpany. The procession is followed the brideg_room. Ganapati, Brahma, Vishniu by persons carrying presents. Kumbh, Dta and the nine planets are wor­ -_ shipped. Then the girl's dopatta is held out In the boy's village, the couple is received and the boy aubs it with little red v~rmillion. by the maternal aunt -of the bridegroom who Similarly, the girl dubs the boy's turban. waves arti over the_couple. The couple enters The girl is tMen made to stretch her hands the home at the auspicious hour. Inside the and pwrohit ~uts in it a coin, drub, flowers house, Ganesh is worship~~d. 22 tItE PEopLE

Then the bridegroom leaves the room. All gives away in charity. The amount depends the women belonging to the household and on one's economical condition and relation­ those of the neighbour-hood and relatives ship. In case of Brahmins,~ Rajputs, Khatris gather to see the bride. They give her some and Suds, a cow is given in charity. It is cash. On the second day of the arrival the believed that this cow helps the soul of the couple worship a pomegranate tree. After dead person to cross a stream, known as feasting and rejoicing is over, the bride ac­ 'Batarni Nadi' which comes on his way to companied by her uncle or hrother leaves for Yamlok where all the dead persons are sum­ her parent's house. moned to the past account of their doing. Muklawa-The last of the ceremonies is When the patient begins to breathe hard makLawa. After the marriage-sometime and is about to die, small pieces of gold, sUver makLawa takes place years later, when a lit­ copper, pearl or munga and tulsi commonly tle girl has beel). married. Otherwise, in or­ known as "Panchratna" is put in his mouth. dinary cases maklawa takes place after a Those who cannot afford these five articles few days or ra few months. On an auspicious of Panch ratna, place some silver coin and day, the bridegroom goes to his father-in­ tulsi leaves. Ganga-jal is also put. Shalokas law's house and brings back the bride to his from the Gita and 'Ram Ram', 'Sita Ram' and house. 'Radhe Shyam' are recited in the ears of the dying man. After the death of the person, a Dowry-Dowry giyen may consist of gold lamp of flour is lit and kept burning for ten and silver ornaments, utensils, furniture, days. A pari with a little hole in its bottom is beddings, and such articles as parents can filled with water and tied. The water drops afford. Relatives also give some presents. con:sta:ntly. Whi~e the dead body is lying - These are includeq. in the dowry. inside the hQuse the women related to the deceased collect around the dead body and Age Groups Total population Nevtr Married Wldoo weep loudly. A carpenter prepares a bier of married wed bamboo or timber. As far as possible, the use .------"-----, r-A---, r--"---, r-oA..--, of iron nails in the bier is avoided. Wooden nails and 8uttar are used. The body is bathed p M F M F M F M F and wrapped in new c~othes. Some relatives bring the winding sheets which are placed All ages . 272 132 140 66 67 59 60 7 13 over the pyre. These are generally silken. 0-14 • 103 49 54 49 52 .. 2 .. After placing the dead body on the bier, pind 81 33 48 16 15 17 33 is offered . Four of the nearest relatives lift 15-34 the bier on their shoulders. They wear white 35-59 68 40 28 .. 35 22 4 6 dhoties and bare foot. When dead body is 60 & over 20 10 10 .. '.. 7 3 _3 7 carried out, some coins and dry fruits are thrown over it. While carrying the body, its feet should face to the front. Out of 49 men and 54 womenAh age..group 0-14 only 2 are married; This shows that The male relatives of the deceased and at­ early marriages are not popular in the vil­ least one member from each household ac­ lage any longer and when the boy and girls company the bier with their heads tlllCOver­ are above 14 years, marriages are solemnis­ ed. The procession is headed by the Acharaj ed. who goes, on blowing counch from time to time. Someone among the mourners chants Death Customs 'Ram Nam Sat Hai, Hari ka Nam Sat Hai'. The mourners also carry logs of wood with When one is on death bed members of the them. When the procession has covered the household are informed. The villagers consi:.. half distance to the Cremation ground second der it inauspicious if 'one dies lying on a cot p~nd is offered, a pitcher is broken and the or inside the room. A portion of the floor of Acharaj chants some verses. In Chauntra the verandah is painted with cow dung, dead bodies are burnt on the bank of Bajgar where til, kungu and dr.ub are then spread. Khad. The place is washed and then the pyre The bedding consists of blankets and old is laid on. The body is placed on the pyre and matresses stuffed with hay. This is laid over before it is set on fire, the more valuab1e this sanctified portion. The patient is remov­ clothings are taken off and given to the ed to this bed. Care is, takell- so that Acharaj and rest are burnt along with the patient face!> the north. The relatives and body. The pyre is laid from north to south. A)thers of the family gather around. The near.., Before Ugh ting the pyre third pind is offered est of the kith and.kin give rice; wheat, p,ulses, and the eldest son or in his absence the near­ gold . and even cash which the dying man est relative goes round and set on fire first 1'HE PEOPLE 23

to that portion of the pyre which contains the other communities. On this day, havan is per­ head. Small pieces of sandal wood are distri­ formed and Acharaj is given a charpoy with buted among the mourners. The mourners bedding, utensils, clothings and sometimes throw pieces of sandal wood into the pyre ornaments also. Ganga-ja! mixed with Gun­ and pay their last homage to the deceased. tar is sprinkled all over :the house. The uten­ Then all except one or two persons go to sils and other,\ household goods are their homes or to the bowli where they wash again cleaned. The women take bath and their clothes and also bath. wash their hair. There is a feast. Relatives are invited. Among Baseru Rajputs and On the third day, the kinsmen accompani­ scheduled castes, a goat is killed, and meat ed by the Acharaj go to the Shams han-ghat is served. On this day pinds for the full year to collect the 'phul' or 'ashtu'. These are are also offered. This day -marks the end of washed with Ganga-jal and put into red silk the mourning, and the household returns nor· bag. It is considered auspicious if the ashtus mal. are immersed in river Ganges at Hardwar within ten drYS. But, in case one cannot afford to go to Hardwar, the ashtus are given For the first year, meals are sent to Acharaj to someone going to Hardwar whenever, daily by only those who can afford it. Those such person is available. who cannot afford send meals only once a month at the time Mahki. Barkhi is celebrat­ For nine days pind dan is done and the re­ ed one year after the death. On this day pinds latives of the deceased sleep on the floor, eat are offered and a general food is offered to once a day. They do not change their Brahmin Acharaj and near relatives. Bar- clothes. On the Tuesday or on the Saturday _ khis are celebrated on the 2nd and 3rd anni­ which falls within the 9 days of the death, versary also. The fourth anniversary is the nearest relatives get their head cleaned Chaubarkha. On this day, 360 pinds are o~er­ shaved. On the 10th day, the house is swept. ed. Purohit gets .utensils, bedding, a cot and Men and women of the household and all ornaments. The Acharaj and his wife get those who observe mourning wash their clothes. The articles given in charity depends clothes and utensils. After tllis, comes Kriya on one's means. On this day a feast is held ceremony performed on the 11th day in case and relatives are invited. The Chauba'rkha is of_ Brahmins and on the 16th day among followed by Sharadh every year.

L/P(D)8SCOHP-o.4 3 Economy

Economic Resources Workers and Non-workers

Agriculture is the mainstay of the villagers. Age groups Total popu]at,ion Workers Non-workers - The land under cultivation there is limited. ,---A-_--, ,--A.._--, ,------., The village comprises of four hundred and PMJ!'PMFPMF four acres. Out of this two hundred and eighty three acres are under cultivation. Tea All ages . 272 132 140 126 86 47 ]46 53 93 gardens occupy an area of one hundred and .0-14 . . 103 ninety seven acres; leaving aside only eighty 49 54 21 7 14 82 42 40 six acres of land for other agricultural 15-34 81 33 48 47 24 23 34 9 25 operations. These tea gardens are mainly the 35-59 68 40 28 49 40 Il III 19 property of Rajkumar of Mandi and one of 60 and Over 20 10 the Suds residing in ~he village. Other Suds 10 9 8 1 11 2 9 and Brah!l1ins also own the tea gradens but their holdings are quite small. Apart from the tea estate, the Rajkumar of Mandi is the Out of total population of 272 persons 126 owner of a good portion of land under other are workers and 146 non-workers. Out of agricultural operations. these non-workers 82 persons are from age­ group 0-14. The sex-wise break-up of non­ It is evident that the produc~... of this land workers from this group is 42 men a.nd 40 cannot meet the need of an average house­ women. Similarly in the age group of 15-34 hold. It becomes necessary for them to sup­ among men 24 are workers and 9 non­ plement their income and go in for other workers whereas among women 23 are work­ subsidiary occupations. Apart from the vill­ ers and 25 non-workers. The women folk age artisans like weaver, carpenters and assist their men in the agricultural opera­ Bhanjharas who add,. to the economy of the tions. They also work as labourers in the village, the villagers alongwith their wemen tea estate; where their main function is pluck­ folk work as labourers in the tea estate. ing of the tea leo. ve. Suds who are essedjiaVy a business commu­ nity have their ftlcoI'he" from shop-keeping The 9 non-workers men are all students. and business. One of the Brahmins buys the The women non-workers are engaged in tea leaves from his fellow villagers, who household duties. In the age-group of 60 and own petty tea estates, and sell them in above only two men have been retutned as Amritsar market after getting the leaves pro­ non-workers, and this indicates that even cessed. The other Brahmin is a good cook. the old men lend a helping hand to add to He is engaged by the villagers and even at the economy .of the household. J ogindernagar on the festive....,pccasions. Be­ sides these professions the vmag~rs -.are em­ Two of them are retired military person­ ployed in Government and Private services. nel. One, though, a dumb and deaf, is still The table gives details of workers and non­ a good farmer. Being an experienced and workers in the village. old man he has been found most interesting 24 ECONOMY 25

man in the village. He narrates so many Again the table giv'cs details regarding the stories of his life when he was on active ser­ workers classified by sex, age-groups and vice. occupations :-

Age groups Govb. Service Private ServIce Agriculture Rusine"" Tailoring ~--~-~ ~--~~-~ ~--~~--~ ~--~~--~ ~-A-_~ P M F P M F P M F P M F P M F 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 All ages 4 3 1 15 15 53 26 27 9 9 2 2 0-14 14 7 7 .. 15-34 9 8 1 1 1 19 7 12 1 1 2 2 35-59 5 5 12 12 17 10 7 7 7 CO and Over 2 2 3 2 1 1 1 e.;

Carpentry 'Yeaving Bamboo Labour Tea Contractor Meat selling Basketry Ago groups ,_.----A.__..___, r--..A....-",""" r--"""--....-., ~--"""'-----. r---...... --..A..---~ ~--..A.. __.... P M F P M F P M F P M F P M F P M F 1 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34

All Ages 3 3 3 3 24 5 19 1 1 1 1 0-14 7 7 15-34 1 1 1 1 13 3 10 35-59 2 2 1 1 1 1" 4 2 2 60 and Over 1 1 1 1 1

In a1114 persons, 13 men and 1 woman, are Tailoring is prac.tised by two households. Government employees. The only woman One is of a Tarkhan and the other oil Government employee is the Gram Sewika a Chamar. (Shemphi who has returned himsel~ and the posts held by the men are those of as Darji by caste earns his livelihood by teachers, Patwari, Secretary Panchayat, wo"rking .as labourer. Three men are engaged peons in various offices at Joginder Nagar, in carpentry. All the three households are oil Drivers in the Gover,;nment Transport, and Tarkhans. The only Julah in village is em- Forest guards. The fifteen persons in private . ployed in weaving, whereas one household service are empJ.oyed in the Tea factory of Banjhara practises basketry. The 9 persons owned by the Rajkumar of Mandi and the engaged in business includes both Suds and local Sud. Brahmins. Twenty-four persons, 5 men and 19 women are engaged as labourers. It would Coming to Agriculture there are 53 wor­ be seen that except for the age group of 60 kers which include 26 men and 27 women. and over, women of all the age groups in­ These figures indicate that the women out­ cluding age-group 0-14 are engaged as number the men. The women folk work side manual labourers. The Tea Industry gives by side with their men. The,)' assist them in the employment to the women folk. The all the agricultural operatIOns except the work which they have to execute there is ploughing. The women are, ther~fore, equally lighter than ordinary labour. responsible if not mor~. Agnc.ulture also forms subsidiary occupatIon of vlll~gers ~m­ The. table gives the details regarding non­ ployed in other primary professIOns llke workers by sex, brQad age groups and nature tailoring, carpentry, weavmg and basketry. of activity:- Dependents, Persons see· Full time Persons infants and king employ. students or engaged in children ment Total ehildren attend- household not attend- for thl ing school 1st time Age groups non-workers ing school duties ,..---j.____"" r---~---' r----"----, r--~'---.-, ~ p M F P M F P M F P M F P M JJ' 49 44 19 --25 -~ All ages 146 53 93 53 34 19 49 2 40 17 23 ..,. 0-14 82 42 40 40 25 15 2 -20 1 15-34 34 9 25 13 9 4 20 19 35-59 19 19 19 .. '. .g 3 2 1 60 and above 11 2 9 :;:... 8 M/P(D)8SCOHP-4(a) 26 ECONOMY

In all there are 146 non-workers and their and its success led in 1859 an~ 1860 to th_e percentage comes to 53.68. In age-group introduction of private enterprIse and capI­ 0-14 out of 82 non-workers (42 boys and tal. In Hl60 the Holta plantation produce.d 40 gi~ls) 40 persons (25 b?ys and 15 girls) 29,312 lbs. of -tea which realised at pubhc are full-time students and mage-group .15- auction and by private sale average prIces of 34 the number of full-time students IS 17 Re. 1 per lb. 'and Re. 1-11-0 per lb. respec­ persons, 13 boys and 4 girls. tively. This will show that only a few students In 1852 before the Holta garden was made, have gone in for education above middle a demand for land risen and the Commis­ standard. sioner enquired whether any, besides that at This is because there was no high school Holta, was available. No other land had been - in the village, but the viUagers are very keen reserved, but it was argued by the Deputy to get their. lots educate~ and they hav~ start­ Commissioner that Government was not de­ ed a private school to Impart edu~atlOn up barred by Mr. Barnes' Settlement ~rom ap­ to high standard. Persons eng!lged lU house­ propriating surplus waste. The C:h1ef Com­ hold duties are 49-all women. Forty .fol_lr missioner held that to approprIate waste persons, 19 men and 25 w?men fall wlt!Un within village boundaries would be an un­ the category of dependents, mfants and chIld­ popular measure and one of questi<;mable ren not attending school: Out o~ them 40 legality, and recommended that the zam~ndars persons, 17 boys and 23 gIrl~ a~e In th~ age­ should be encouraged to take tea plantmg on group of 0-14 years. It IS mterestmg. to a small scale. The demand for land by out­ note ·that out of them 15 boys and 17 gIrls siders continued; the plan of inducing the are within the age-group of 0-14 years. At zamindars to plant failed almost completely; the time when the investigator. filled .and in 1856 and again in 1858-59, long cor­ in the household schedules, no one m the respondenc~s arose, in which the ~ights of village was seeking employ.~ent any~here, the zamindars in the waste were dIscussed, but when the investigator VISIted the VIllage .GovernmerVt adhered to its first decision that for the second time, af~er about a year, the waste could not be appropriated except there were two men who had got their names with the consent of the zamindars and the registered in the employment exchat;tge, result was that in 1860 Lieutenant Paske was Mandi. Both these men were fresh MatrIcu­ deputed to assist intending tea planters to lates. buy or lease waste lands, and during the six Tea Plantation months he was employed on this duty effect­ Past History-The past history o~ t.ea ed the transfer of about ~,596 acres. The plantations, as given in the Kangra DIStrICt negotiations proved difficult: the little land Gazetteer is:- obtained was put up to auction as the appli­ cations were numerous. In 1862 the question "In 1849 Dr. Jameson, Superintendent .of was re-opened, but again decided as before; the Botanical Gardens, North-West Provm­ but Mr. Egertion, the Deputy Commissioner, ces visited the District to asc_ertain its fitness was authorized tOi make trial of his own sug­ to !srow tea. His opinign being ver;! favour­ gestion that the zamindars might be induced able three Government NurserIes were to give up a larger proportion of the forest started without delay with young plants from land if the forest rules were relaxed in: the Almora and Dehra Dun at Kangra elevation remainder and a free right to cut trees 2,500 feet, Nagrota, 2,900 feet and Bhawarna in parts were offered instead of money. By 3,200 feet. From... a variety of causes the the:;e mducements Mr. Eg-ertion succeeded Kangra nursery did not succeed, but in the in geUmg the zamindars to surrender 2.547 other two the plants flourished beyond even acres, which were sold by auction in 1863. Dr. Jameson's anticipations. Writing now in Half or three-fourth of the price realized was 1925 and using the aocumulated experience gh en WI of grace to the zamindars; and with of seventy years as a guide it may be safely the high prices bid and the desirability of en­ stated that tea in the Kangra district does couraging tea-cultivation. It was decided that best on the foot-hill and lower slopes of the all these sales should confer title to hold free Dhaula Dhar or outer range of the Himalaya of land-tax. A large proportion of lands sold between 3,000 feet and 4,500 feet altitude. At in 186;', and a smaller part of those sold in 5,000 feet the yield of leaf decreases for want l8bO were, from the great elevation, steep­ of warmth and below 3,000 feet the rainfall ness, slope, or want of soil, of no use to the is· insufficient to give good results:- purchasers except as grass or fuel-reserves. -The next step was the establishment in But tht_!' planters did not rely entirely on help 1852 of a Government plantation at Holta from Uovernment. In 1861-62 some of the near Palamput at an elevation of 4,200 feet, pioneers, for example Mr. Duff, Captain ECONOMY

Fitzgerald, Messrs. Shaw and Lennex, had however, that, on the whole, planters might gained ,the confidence of the people and be­ make greater efforts to increase their supplies gun to acquire by private sale. a good deal of of manure". waste or cultivated land for tea-cultivation. Tea requires warmer climate with heavy The following remarks as to the climate, rains. The soil must be porous and land slopy. soil and other conditions considered essen­ There should be no dampness and soil must tial'in the success of tea culture as found in absorb the water right up to the root of the the Kangra Valley ,are taken from Major plant. A separate portion of land is selected Paske's report of 1872:- for nursery where seeds are sown. The best season for sowing is early winter-end of De­ "As regards climate, a hot, damp climate, cember or beginning of January. Before \\ ith a rainfall of not less than 100 inches sowing, th.e land is ploughed thoroughly and per annum, is shown to be required for teas, the orgamc manure added to it. Ridges as and this climate the Kangra Valley possesses required for sowing potatoes, are formed. The for at least seven months in the year, at top of these ridges are flattened a bit and the elevation from 2,500 feet to 4,500 or 5,000 feet seed sown there at a distance of 3 to 4 inches above the sea, nor within these elevations apart from each other. Watering has to be is the cold so severe during the remaining done weekly or so depending on the weather months Qf the year as in any way to injure It takes abo~t 21 days for the seed to germi~ or retard the growth of the tea-plants. The nate. Watermg has to be continued regularly lowest elevation at which an estate is situat­ even after germination of seed. When the ed is 2.437 feet. and the highest elevation of _ plant is of about eight months' old and about any estate 5,500 feet. There, is however only 12" to 14" in length, it is transplanted in the one ..estate at so high an elevation, the next garden by digging pitsl 4 to 5 feet apart from highest is at 4,500 feet and the generality of e~ch . oth~r. The best season for transplanta­ the estates are at elevations between 3,000 tIOn IS ramy season. Before transplanting the and 4,000 feet. Hot winds are not known in soil is ploughed thoroughly and made porous Kangra Valley, and between the months of and enriched with super-phosphate manures. March and October there is considerable moist heat, accompanied by a rainfall of, an In the first winter after transplantation average, 110 inches in the year at Palampur. the young plants of tea have to be protected The great Dhaula Dhar or snowy range on from frost etc. by sowing the seeds of shade the slopes of which, or in the valley below, plants such as pulses perferably mash (Pha­ the tea estates are situated, besides apparent­ seolus radiatus), jute and a plant known as ly arresting the passage of clouds and causing Baga Madhelwa in the space left vacant bet­ them to exhaust their rain more copiously ween the tea plants at the time of trans­ in the ve.lley below, provides great facilities plantation. The plant of Baga Madhelwa is for irrigation in the numerous mountain considered most suitable for the purpose. It streams and torrents fed from perennial grows to its full height within eight months snows. In the matter of soil while no artificial and served as protecti6n plant in winter arrangements can alter the conditions of the where-a~ter its leaves begin to fall and plant~ climate, soil can be in a measure create9-, and, start dymg. The dead plahts and leaves serve at any rate, considerable improved. With the green nitrogen manure to the tea pl.ants. In summer the shad~ or protection plants are little superficial knowledge I P9ssess on the lopped so that the tea plant is fully exposed subject tea culture, I do not profess to know to the sun which is so essential for its which is the best soil for teas .. While some growth. say that a rich greasy loam, and others a light sandy loam, is the best soil, I observe The soil is then manured and hoed regu~ that there are considerable varieties of soil larly for two years after the transplantation. on which tea has been planted in this District When the plant becomes three years' old and and in all of these it has succeeded more 0; about four feet in height', its stem is scratch­ less,-the measure ot success of course de­ ed with a ~ife about half an inch deep pending much upon the extent of labour and around the CIrcumference at about six inches pains and skill in cultivation. Connected with from the soil, This process_ is called ring. the question of soil comes the subject of pruning. The plant, above the h-eight where manure. All the planters are well aware of ring-pruned begins to shoot at the point of t~e advantages of manure in increasing the ring pruning. The new branches of the plant YIeld or plants, and all avail themselves to look like a thick shrub. The appropriate some extent of the facilities they may pos­ time for ring pruning is winter-the end of sess for manuring. I am disposed to think, December or early January. Up to the next 28 ECONOMY

wintt'f when plant becomes four years' old season. The heaps are covered with thick jute and attains the height of 24 to 30 inches, it cloth. is pruned from its top and height reduced to 18 inr,:-hes only. In the next winter the plant Drying-The fermented leaves are dried in is of five years' age and 30 to 36 inches in the sun by spreading them in spacious court­ height, the process of pruning the top is again yards. Drying process is done by a drying ma­ repeated and the height kept at 24 inches. chine. Heat is produced by lighting fire. The temperature goes up to 150 degrees F. The At !his age th~ plant becomes fully ma­ heat produced rai~es the temperature of the tured. and fit. The plucking of leaves com­ air which is blown on leaves by fans. Two mence in the month of April and May. Only seers of leaves get dry in twelve minutes in two or at the maximum three upper-most this machine. peh.ls should be plucked from a bud which contains about five to six petals. Deeper the Cutting-The dried leaves are cut by a ma­ plucking, poorer the quality of the tea. The chine. The machine cut 20 maunds of tea in deeper plucking of leavet> is termed as 'Shav­ one hour. ing' and this shaving checks the growth of S01·ting-This is the final process in which the plants. The tea plant does not require the unwanted particles in the tea are remov­ artificial watering after transplantation. Tea ~d by hand. is a tropical plant and it flourishes in company of another. In other words, the outer circum­ The manufacturing of Green Tea consti­ ference of branches of one plant should be tutes of the following processes- in t;!ontact with those of the other. Roasting-.There is a machine for this pur­ Tea plant js believed to be ever-green. Its pose. It conSIsts of a big drum in which stir­ average life is 120 years. It is also disease­ rers work on power. The drum is filled in less, but requires manuring and hoeing with tea leaves and fire is lit under the drum. throughout. At the age of sixty to seventy, The temperature goes up to 180 degrees F. the plant is cut off totally from three to four The stirrers inside the drum are set to work inches of its stem. This process is called and the process is continued for 3 to 5 minu­ 'Collar Pruning'. Collar pruning is done in tes. winter season, where-after the plant regains its full growth within one year. The the top Rolling-Is done in the same way as in is again pruned and it is ready for plucking manufacturing 'Black Teas'. alongwith the other plants. Drying-This is the same in 'Black tea'. The above details regarding tea plantation When the green tea is boiled it gives a were supplied to the Investigator by Shri greenish tinge. It is very strong tea and is Khazan Singh, Manager of the Tea Estate consumed by persons who have a taste for it. owned by Shri Rajkumar of Mandi. According to the information supplied by , Tea Manufacturing the Manager Tea Estate, one maund of tea seeds has about sixteen to eighteen thousands In Chauntra, two varieties of tea, Black tea of seeds. The annual yield of tea leaves from and Green tea, ar~ manufactured. To manu­ the mature plant grown in one acre of land facture Black tea, the tea leaves go through is from 1,500 to 1,600 pounds which reduces the follo~ing processes:- to 380 to 400 pounds when manufactured. For o.btaining seeds from a plant, it is not pruned Whithering-The green leaves plucked lIke other plants after ring pruning. A plant from the plants are spread in the courtyard bE;gins to produce the seeds at the age of 5 mean:t fo'11 'the purpose and kept therfe for years. about twelve to eighteen hours. This re­ moves moisture from the leaves. In Chauntra two varieties of plants, China plant ~nd Assam plant, are grown. The leaves Rolling-When the leaves are whithered, of Chllla plant are smaller in size and better are rolled by hand or by a machine available in quality than the other. The markets where in Raj Kumar's tea factory._The leaves get the manufacturers in Chauntra sell their tea cylindrical shape. This process is-known as are in Amritsar, Cochin and Calcutta from Marai. where it is exported to Afghanistan, Tibet Fermentation-,-;:The rolled leaves are dump­ and Kashmir. This tea is also consumed in Lahul ~rea o~ Kulu. It is surprising to note ed in heaps insiae the factory for 90 minutes . that thIS tea IS not So much popUlar in the in summer and for 150 minu,tes in the rainy village itself, . ECONOMY 29

The tea plant is diseasefree. Tea leaves are deft hands. Average output a day of a la­ bitter in taste and cattle do not like it. Kai, bourer who works for eight hours a day kusha and bhang are the weeds which grow comes to 25 to 30 seers of leaves. The daily in Tea gardens at Chauntra. These weeds wages which have been fixed by the Tea have to be removed from time to time other­ Board of India, are- wise growth of the plants is told upon. Men Re.1

SHRI RAJKUMAR SAHIB CHAUNTRA AND DHELU Women 0.69 n.P. ESTATE Boys and girls 0.44 to 50 n.P. The largest tea garden at Chauntra belongs to Raj Kumar of Mandi. The name of the Es­ The data of tea produced and manufactur­ tate is 'Shri Raj Kumar Sahib Chauntra and ed during the last three years in the entire Dhelu Tea Estate. It has its branch at Dhelu Estate is- also. The estate possesses its own tea manu­ facturing factory at Chauntra. The entire es­ Year Produce of green leaveil Tee. manufactured tate including Dhelu comprises of 180.39 acres and has about 400,000 tea plants. The de­ 1958 2229 Mds. 20 Seers 51500 Lbs. tails of labour employed by the Estate dur­ 1959 2611 Mds. 10 Seers 28053 K.G. ing the past three years are~ 1960 3217 Mds. 29 Seers 34736 K.G. No. of Average Average Average Average Total Year mandays men women boys girls Average during employed empJoyed employ. employ- The Estate has -one Manager, one account­ the year ad ed ant, one mechanic and a few labourers as its 1 2 345 6 7 permanent employees. It also employs an auditor when the accounts are to be got audit­ 1960 17893 30·50 16·50 5·51 5·02 57·53 ed. At the time of the visit of the Investiga­ tor, one such auditor who is a pensioner was 1959 171132 33·54 14·28 3·44 4·53 55·80 auditing the account. 1958 21293 29·01 20·70 12·58 6·39 68·68 There is one more tea factory owned by a Maximum number of labourers are em­ local Sud. When asked about the' income and ployed in plucking season and it is women other details about it, the Sud did not come folk who do most of the plucking with their out with the information.

Agriculture Milan Raquba (Naksha No 1 from village note book)

Year Geogra- Forest,s Barren Land Culti- Per- Land Current Fallow Net Total Area phi cal and put vable manent under fallow land area cropped sown a,rea Hnoul- to non- waste pastures misc. other sown area more tivable agricul- and trees than than land tural grazinb and current once uses land groves fallow in net area

191)1-52 337 33 28 It> III 246 468 222 1952-53 336 34 28 10 19 245 472 227 1953-54 336 34 28 10 19 245 ' 480 235 1954-55 336 34 28' 10 19 . .. 245 469 ~24 1055·56 336 34 2S 8 19 3- 244 479 285 1956-57 33S 34 28' 8 19 "2 2 245-- 483 238 1957-58 33S 34 28 8 ]9 1 2 246 - 4-87 241 1958-59 339 34 28· 10 19 .3 !l45 476 231 1959·60 339 34 28· 10 ]9 -3 3 242 474 232 1960·(.ll 404 .,- 35 :}5 10 41 ., 283 594 261 '- 30 ECONOMY

The total area of the village has been total area. There has been an increase of 22 shown as 404 acres in the year 1960-61 where- acres il_l permanent pastures and grazing land. as it varied from 336 acres to 339 acres during The land under non-agricultural use also the years 1951-52 to 1959-60. The area shows an increase of 7 acres. The figures under cultivation is 283 acres in the year under the area sown more than once varies 1960-61. It varies between 242 and 246 acres from 222 to 241 acres. during 1951-52 and 1959-60. The increase in the area for 1960-61 is due to re-measurement of the boundary of the village. The increase in Jinswar statements for the last ten years the net area under cultivation is 41 acres give details about the crops harvested in the against the over-all increase of 65 acres in the village-

Rabi

Year Total Area Total Description crops of area of land Wheat Barley Flax Rape Tea Onions Vege- harves_ crops sown seed tables ted failed

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

1952 Kohli Awnl • 46 6 2 ~ 1 13 68 68 Kohli Doyam 4 1 1 2 8 8 Barani Awal_ 2 2 2 Tea plantation 151 151 151 Total 52 7 3 1 166' 229 229 1953 Kohli Awal 47 4 1 15 67 67 Kohli Doyam 3 1 5 5 Barani Awal . 2 2 4 4 Tea plantation 153 153 153 Total 52 4 2 171 229 229 1954 Kohli Awal 51 4 4 14 73 73 Kohli Doyam 3 2 1 2 8 8 Barani Awal . 2 1 3 3 Tea plantation 153 153 153 Total 50 7 5 169 237 237 / ~ 195tl Kohli Awal 40 5 2 12 1 60 60 Kohli Doyam • 5 1 6 6 BaraniAwal 1 3 6 6 Tea plantation. 155 155 ]55 - Total 46 6 4 170 1 227 227 1956 Irrigated 58 2 4 16 80 80 Non-irrigated • 2 1 2 5 5 Tea plantation. 155 155 155 Total 60 3 4 173 140 240 1957 Irrigated 47 8 4 4 1 64 64 Non-irrigated 3 1 4 4 Tea plantation. 172 172 172 Total 50 8 5 176 1 240 240 1958 Irrigated 55 3 2 1 4 1 66 66 Non-irrigated ._ 3- 3 3 Tea plantation 170 170 170 Total 5S 3 2 1 174 1 239 239 ECONOMY 31

Rabi-contd.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 R 9 10 11 12

1959 Irrigated 43 5 4 1 4 57 57 Non-irrigated 2 1 3 3 Tca plantation 170 170 170 Total 45 5 5 1 ]74 230 230

1960 Irrig'l.ted 43 3 5 3 3 57 57 Non-irrigated 2 3 3 Tea pl!l,ntation . 170 170 170 Total 45 4 5 3 173 230 230

1961 Dhani Awal 2 2 2 Kalahu Awal 33 2 3 i, 1 40 40 Kalahu Doyam 18 2 1 21 21 Tea plantation 197 197 197 Total 53 4 3 1 197 1 1 260 260

Kharif

Year Description of Paddy Maize Kodra Mash Kulath Chillies Vegetables Tea Total Area of Total land crops crops area harvested f!tiled sown 1956 Irrigated 8 52 5 2 2 69 69 Non-irrigated 1 3 4 4 Tea plantation 170 170 170 Total 9 55 5 2 172 243 243 1957 Irrigatt;d . 7 54 6 1 69 69 1 Non-irrigated 1 3 5 5 Tea plantation 170 170/ 170 Total 8 57 7 17L ]71 171 5 52 4 1958 Irrigated 1 5 67 67 1 4 Non-irrigated 5 5 Tea plantation 170 170 ]70 6 56 4 Total 1 175 242 242 6 48 6 1 195!) Irrigated 5 66 66 1 2 1 Non-irrigated 1 5 5 Tea plantation 170 170 170 7 50 7 1 Total 176 241 241 1960 DhaniAwal 2 3 a Kalahu Awal 5 38 3 1 1 48 ~~ 48 1 26 3 Kalahu Doyam .. , 30 30 Barani Awal 1 - 1 1 Tea plantation 197 197 197 Total 8 65 6 1 1 197 279 279 32 ECONOMY

Kharif-contd.

Name of crops Year De8oription , Total Area of Total ofland crops crops area Paddy Maize ., harves· failed sown Kodra Mash Kulath Chillies Vegeta. Tea t<.-d bles 1951 Kohli Awal 4 46 6 3 2 2 15 78 78 Kohli Doyam 3 4 4 Barani Awal 1 1 2 6 6 Tea plantation 151 151 151 Total 6 50 7 4 2 2 168 239 239 1952 Kohli Awal 8 49 n 1 14 79 79 Kohli Doyam . 3 1 5 5 Tea plantation 153 153 153 Barani Awal 1 2 i 6 6 Total 10 53 9 2 1 167 243 243 1953 Kohli,Awal 6 51 5 14 76 76 Kohli Boyam 4 1 _ 6 6 Barani Awal 2 3 6 6 Tea plantation ]53 153 153 Total 9 58 7 167 243 243 1!)54 Kohli Awal !:J 41 7 3 1 16 77 77 Kohli Doyam . 4 1 1 6 6 Barani Awal 2 2 2 2 2 Tea plantation 153 153 153 Total 11 47 8 4 1 171 242 242 I !:J55 Irrigated 8 46 8 3 1 16 82 82 Non.irrigated 2 2 4 4 Tea plantation 153 153 153 Totu'! 10 48 8 3 169 239 239

The land being double-cropped-Dofasli-:­ Agricultural Practices both kharif and rabi crops are harvested m Chauntra. PaddY-,-The area under paddy cultivation . lin Chauntra is small. Maize forms the chief KHAR[F CROPS crop. For sowing paddy in the end of May, the Local name English name land is ploughed and clods broken. The stones and pebbles are removed. Then manure is Ohan Paddy added. Chhali Maize Kodra Millet The soil is again ploughed lightly and the seed is sown by broadcasting. The soil is lMah Pulses ploughed again and sohaga applied. Three Kulath -Pulses days after the sowing donalti is dragged by RAB! CROPS bulls. The proc~ss is termed chhub dena. Kanal Wheat - The plants are cut from the bottom and ;fau Barley spread in the fields. When completely dried -- they are removed to khalyan where they are Saronh Rape seed stored in shape of kundris. Threshing is done Alsi Flax in December. The dried plants are spread in ECONOMY 33

the khaZyan and bulls made to tread them. VEGETABLES After this, straw is removed from the grain by means of winnowing fans. This work is The vegetables sown in the village are executed by the women. Average produce of paddy per acre is 9 maunds. Local name EngUsh name Maize-After cutting the wheat in Jeth, the Matar Peas land is ploughed, weeds are removed and the Kachalu Kachalu land cleaned of pebbles, stones and dead roots Dhania Coriander of wheat plants. Then the clods are broken Karela Fanugreek and the soil levelled with the help of sohaga. Petha After a shower of rains, manure is added. The land is again ploughed by one of the peasants Kadu Pumpkin and the other goes on sowing seeds in a line Baingun Brinjal keeping a distance of about 2 feet in between Alu Potato the two seeds. Sohaga is again applied and the Muli Radish soil levelled. First hoeing and· weeding is Piaz Onion done in the month of Har•. and the second in Sawan. At the time of second weeding, pulses Bhindi Lady-finger llke kulcith and mash are also sown in the Tamatar Tomatoes same fields. The crop ripens towa:r;ds the end The villagers sow vegetables in the fields of Bhadon but harvested in Asoj. The plants surrounding their houses, and consume the are cut.from the middle of the stem and heap­ produ~e themselves. Similarly-there is-hardly ed in the field. Cobs are removed and then ~ny .vlllager who sells foodgrains produced the grains extracted. The average 'produce of . III ·hls land. However, sometimes at the time maize is 9 maunds per acre. of harvesting a villager may go to a local Kodra-After harvesting wheat in Baisakh, shopkeeper with a seer or two of wheat or the soil is ploughed and cleaned of unwanted maize and barter it for jaggery or something material like pebbles, stones, weeds and dead else, he is jn need of. roots. Levelling is done with sohaga and the seed is sown by broadcasting method. In the Horticulture end of J eth, the soil is scratched with dana­ dalti. This process is again repeated a month Villagers do not grow orchards though we later. Weeding and hOeing is done in Sawa'll find some trees of walnuts, banana galgal and the crop reaps in Kartik. Only sitas are jhamiri. A Sud has also planted 'oranges' cut from the plants. Threshing is done by malta, sweet lemons, and citrus fruits. ' beating the sitas with sticks. Kodra is said to Chauntra SericuJture Nursery-Near be everlasting grain, and 'the people keep it Chauntra, the Sericulture Department has stored for ,many years. The average produce planted nursery of mulberry plants. This nur­ of kodra per acre is 10 maunds. sery was established in the year 1955 and is RABI CROPS known as Chauntra Sericulture Nursery. The following varieti~s of mulberry have The major rabi crops are wheat and barley. been planted in the nursery. Wheat-Five to seven days after harvesting 1. Local Sapling. , maize in Asoi, the land is ploughed deep. 2. China Cutting. Clods are broken, and soiL cleaned of pebbles', stones and dead stems of maize plants. Then 3. Philippine Cutting. sohaga is applied and manure is added. Then 4. Local Cutting seed is sown by broadcasting method. In case 5. China Sapling. of wheat no hoeing is done, but weeds are 6. Goshorama or Japanese Cuttings. removed by hands. However, after sowing, the land is again ploughed and levelled with A plant becomes fit for transplantation sohaga. The crop ripens towards the end of when it attains the age of one to one and a Baisakh but it is harvested in J eth. Plants are half years. The leaves of these trees are distri­ cut fro{n the middle of the stem, tied in buted free of cost to the persons who wish to bundles and heaped in the khalyan. Winnow­ rear silk worms. Village Chauntra has how­ ing is done .with the help of winnowi!lg fans. ever, not drawn any benefit from thi~ nur­ This work IS mostly done by the ladles. The sery.' average yield per acre is 8 maunds. Extent of Holding Barley-The cultivation of Barley is also done in the same manner as in wheat. The The table indicates the ex~ent of land hold­ average yield per acre is 9 maunds per acre. ings community-wise- 34 ECONOMY

Number of households and extent of ~aJ1d

Community No land 5 cents 10 to 21to 50 cents 1 to 2·5 to 5 to 10 acres and 20 50 to 2·4 4·5 10 and below Cents cents 1 acre acres acres acres above

Rajputs 3 2 9 5 1 Brahmans 1 4 1

Suds 3 1 1

Kh~is Chamars 2 2

Koli 1 1 1

Banjhar.. 1 ...: Tarkhan 1 3 1 Julah .- Darji .~ 1 .- iVIanjas . 1 Total .- 11 2 6 3 21 7 2 1

Out of 53 total households in the village, 11 lagers is not sufficient to meet their day to do not possess any land. These include 5 day need of foodgrains and thus they have to Khatris who do not belong ~o the village. supplement their income from other profes· Only one household of a Sud owns more than sions. 10 acres of land. The majority of 4 house· holds possess 1 to 2.4 acres !?f land. There are Now let us come to the average cost of two households possessing 5 to 10 acres.-This land. This is available from the Panchsala indkates that the land possessed by the vil· Statement of the sale of the land.

Panchsala Statement

No. of Area of the land sold Serial ..A-__--, No. Mutation r- Land revenue Sale price Average Bigha Biswa Biswansi price

Rs. nP Rs. nP.

1 193 1 14 8 1·06 225·00 6·12 2200·00 2 195 10 16 14 0·50 :I 197 0 19 2 2941'00

4, 201 3 15 S 2·19 650.00

5 202 0 6 9 0·15 675·00 l} 0·12 2500.00 6 207 - 5 5 0·90 250·00 7 1 0 17 11 Total is 14 17 10·92 6794·00 357·00 ECONOMY 35

The average sale price of land in the vil­ Sal~ of nautors-~he statement showing lage comes to Rs. 357.00 per bigha. the grant of nautors m the village for the last ten years is:-

Grant of Nautors

Serial No. of Date of Name of person to whom the Nautor was granted Area granted Nazrana No. MutaLion order ,-___.A. -, paid Bigha Biswa Biswansi

Rs.nP. 1 177 17·12·55 Dhungal S/o Chamaru, caste Rajput, resident of Tramat 2 8 ll'19 2 179 26·5·56 Mast Ram S/o Vansi Ram, caste Sud, resident ofChauntra 0 3 4 8·00 3 183 16·10·56 Kahan S/o Sant, caste Julah, resident of Batehr 2 15 7 28·00 4 185 16·10·56 Sidhu, S/o Sant, caste Julah, resident of Batehr 2 19 16 3D·uO 5 187 16·10·56 Prabha and Gangu Sons of Chamaru, caste Koli, residents of Chauntra 2 13 !J 26·12 6 188 16·10·56 Khajana Ram S/o Sidhu, caste DarJi, resident of Chauntra D 10 14 8·75 7 192 30·12·56 Govind S/o Chamaru, caste KoIi, resident of Chauntra . 12 4 16·12 8 ~03 15·2·59 Shankar S/o Katku, caste Dumna, resident of Chauntra 0 18 16 15·00 9 204 15·2·59 Sant S/o Sardaru, caste Julah, resident of Chauntra 0 9 0 9·47 10 206 20·4·59 Nand Lal S/o Panjku, resident of Kohra 2 11 6 25,65 11 209 22·12·59 H. P. Government, Education Deptt. 9 18 5 12 221 8·8·60 Jeeta S/o Hachhu, resident of Chauntra 0 19 2 9·55 13 222 12·1·61 Khazana Ram, S/o Sidhu, caste Darji, resident of Chauntra . 2 0 0 20·00 14 2 24·5·61 Amar Chand S/o Jog Raj, caste Sud, resident of Chauntra 0 3 0 7·50

Land setaemeJl.t-The settlement of the vil- The classification of land according to the lage was in progress when the investigator recent settlement is- visited the village in December, 1961. The classification of the land according to the Area Serial Classification ofland r------.J"-_-..., previous settlement was- No. ....Bigha Biswa Bis. wansi Classification of land Area Serial 1 DhaniAwal No. ,----"- 10 5 14 Bigha BiBwa BiB: 2 wanSl Kalahu Awal 246 5 5 3 Kalahu Doyam 155 4 9 1 Kohli Awal. 309 0 4 4 Barani Awal 2 11 13 2 Kohli Doyam 32 8 18 5 Bagicha Chai Barani 984 17 0 3 Barani Awal 19 13 3 6 Bagicha Phaldar . 15 14 8 4 Bagicha Chai 852 7 12 7 Banjar Kadeem 49 0 6 5 Bagicha Phaldar . 10 1 12 8 Karethar 177 15 16 6 Beer. 63 19 10 9 Charagah Natha Drakhtan 204 2 15 7 Kharethar 139 9 7 10 GerMumkin 172 11 17 8 Charand 95 5 13 Total 2,018 9 1 9 Banj ar J adeed 15 1 11 10 Banjar Kadeem 42 17 8 The classification statements sh""'ow that GerMumkin 103 19 0 there has been increase of 334 bighas 14 11 biswas and 3 biswansis in the area of the ;'il­ T9tal 1,683 14 18 lage accondipg to the recent settlement. 36 ECONOMY

Twenty biswansis make one biswa and Villagers get their agricultural implements twenty bjswas make one bigha. Approximate­ made by Lohars at Satehar and Passaro They ly five big has make one acre. supply iron. The wages are paid in kind. Irrigation Lohara-l patha paddy. Kilni-l patha. Out of 86 acres under cultivation for crops other than tea, 82 acres is irrigated land in the Kodal-l patha. village. Two kuhls, one belonging to the Raj­ Axe-4 pathas. kumar of Mandi and the other belonging to Darat-2 pathas.• villagers and called Bisht ~i lou.hl, are the source of supply of water far irrigation pur­ For repairing and sharpening the old im­ poses. The source of these kuhls is Bajgar plements Lohar gets 12 pathas of paddy or 6 Khad. In summer, the water in these kuhls pathas of maize and 6 pathas of wheat or 12 dries up and villagers face a good deal of pathas of Kodra at harvest. To collect grains, paucity of water. This forms their major Lohar goes from house to house. problem and leads to disputes. The villagers submitted many representations to the Ad­ Similar to Lohar, the only Majhara house­ ministration on this behalf and they inform­ hold in the village make bamboo baskets, ed that the Public Works Department con­ changers and perus for the villagers. ducted their surveys to no results. All of Tokru-2 pathas of paddy. ,the~ are willing to contribute the maximum they can afford for water supply work or the Changer-4 path as of paddy. construction of kuhls and tanks. Peru-2 pathas for a p-eru of capacity of every 20 seers. Agricultural Implements One patha contains 18 chhataks of paddy These implements have been used since and 24 chhataks of maize. . long. Animal Husbandry Serial NaITJe of the App. Dura- Use No. implement Cost Hon A cattle fair is a must for an agriculturist. To buy cattle and bullocks villagers visit Rs. Years Sundernagar duning NaJIwari in March. In 1 Desi Ha.l 3 3 to 4 For pluu'ghihg addition to bullocks, the villagers keep cows, 2 Jungra 3 3 For yoking the bulls sheep and goats. The livestock statistics of the village are- 3 Mai 4 4/5 For smooth'ng the surface of a field Milch cattle Draught Goals/Sheep 4 Mach 2 2/3 Puddler used to level- bullocks ing muddy land, fOr Caste ~"__--,r---"--~ paddy House- Total House- Total House- Tol al 5 Bhutan 1 5/6-Clod-breaker holds No. holds No. holds No. own- o~n- own- 6 Dandalti 4 3/4 A harrow with eight ing ing ing or ten bamboo tee1h dragged by bulls, Rajpuis 17 38 17 37 6 19 used for opening the soil around the Rrahmans 6 15 4 4 3 7 young plants Suds 4 15 2 7 2 11 Similar to 7 Trengra Or 3 3/4 Dandalti Koli 2 10 2 4 1 1 Panchangra Tarkhan 3 4 1 2 8 Kudal . 3·50 3 Tilling the.Iand Chamar 3 3 2 3 1 1 9 Daranti 1 3/4 A sickle for cutting ,,;ras& I Khatri 3 1 2 10 Khurpi 1 2/3 A hoc> Julah Majhara 3 11 Kahi 1 2/3 A matt ok Darji 12 Kilni 1 2/3 For digging Manhas 1 1 1 1 1 2 13 Jhubbal 25 15/20 Crow-bar -- _ Total 38 92 30 60 14 41 14 Chakku 2/3 Plucking tea.Ieaves to 2 Out of 53 households 38 possess 92 milch 15 Soop . 1·50' 2-3 Winnowing fan cattle. Thirty households possess 60 draught 115 Beloha 5 5/6 For digging bullocks, fourteen households possess 41 ECONOMY 37 goats and sheep, 4 households have a few stalks. The fibre is dyed in different shades birds. for designs and beauty. Colouring is simple. A thick solution of dye is made. The fibre is The cattle are kept in sheds during the soaked in this. Then a few tufts of niru ghass night. These cattle sheds are hut sort of cons­ are held together and the fibre twisted around truction with thatched roofs. Every household to form a string. After this it is coiled to form possessiNg cattle has a shed adjacent to the a big disc of about 18" diameter. main house. Asan maki11g-Brahmin and Sud women The construction of tl1e shed is such that also weave carpets or mats from left-over they are dingy and dark, though villag.ers knitting wool. The articles produced are for would like to keep the sheds clean. Durmg household use. The tools are a wooden frame the day cattle are let loose for grazing. The and a fork. trees of Beuhl provide fodder. A cotton: warp is arranged on the frame The common cattle diseases in the area vertically. Through this warp, cotton or wool­ are- len yarns are interwoven horizontally. At each crossing of the warp and the wool three Serial English Name Local Name or four small pieces of knitting wool are No. fastened. Then the short ends are spread out 1 Foot and mouth disease Mukhu or Khur to make it a closely woven piece. Rharera 2 Haemorrhagic Septicamia Gar Ghutti After completing each layer, it is pressed 3 Rinder pest Manwan - down with a comb. The process is laborious. A few such pieces were seen in an exhibition 4 Diarrhoea J'lllab at Jogindarnagar with slips quoting Rs. 45 to 5 Mange Charad Rs. 50 as the cost. 6 Stomachache Pet ki dard Nomonia Stone utensils-At Dehlu, four miles away, 7 Pneumonia a community of artisans known as Batadas or Sang_tarash supplement their income to a tune Death of cattle on account of eating poison­ of Rs. 75 to Rs. 100 per month by making ous plants lantana and jungli muttar .occurs stone utensils, stone deities and stone designs. sometimes. These plants are found lU the They: do this work throughout the year, village. # except the monsoons. The approximate cost of cattle are:- The material used is a good quality of stone which they collect from the khuds and 1 Cow . Rs. 30 to Rs. 60 nullahs. Stone of slightly bluish colour is pre­ 2 Calf . Rs. 15 to Rs. 20 ferred, since it contains less of sand. Tools 3 Bullocks Rs. 150 to Rs. 300 per are locally made hammevs, chisels and divi­ pair ders. 4 Sheep • Ra. 20 to Rs. 25 .. Ra. 150 to Rs. 300 The process of working is very simple. A 5 Buffalo stone of suitable size is obtained and chiselled 6 Goat . Rs. 20 to Rs. 25 of into the rough shape of the required uten­ siL Then with the help of dividers they mark Village craft and industry out the circular designs after which the arti­ . The village craft and industry are impor­ cle is given finishing_ touch with the help of tant. Carpentry, weaving and basketry fetch chisels of various sizes. The utensils thus pre­ pared are then smoothened by griI?-ding the some income. There are 0~her crafts like embroidery, knitting, bina making and chatai surface with hard and rough stone pIeces. The making from which there is no income. These articles prepared are- are made for beauty and comfort. Serial Name of the article App. cost Bina making-Thel'e are a few Rajput and No. Brahman women who utilize their leisure in making binas or asans. The raw material is 1 Angithis Re. I to Ra. 2 niru ghass fO'hlnd in. tea gardens. The fibre is 2 Kundis Re. 1 to Rs. {'50 of Beulil. TRese binas are used i1). tlie house. 3 Sil Bata Re. 1 to Rs. 2 The process of making binas from Beuhl is 4 Chakkies for Gharat Rs. 5 to Re. 7 stmple. Beuhl fibre is extracted by softening 5 Askries Re. 1 to Ra. 1·50 in water and beating out the BarK trom the . 6 Deod-sidh Re. 1 to Ra. 1·50 38 ECONOMY

Carpentry-The Tarkhan community are rains. There was a time when the modern engaged in this. Apart from wooden parts of umbrellas were not in vogue. The obnus had agricultural implements, the Tarkhans are a very good market. Even in towns these engaged in construction of houses. In Chaun­ were popular. One of the artisans had receiv­ tra, Tarkhans are paid in cash. In the village ed a special recognition from the ruler of their daily wages vary from Rs. 3 to Rs. 4 Mandi for his craftsmanship. Once he pre­ while in Jogindarnagar they get Rs. 5 per sented the ruler a waist-coat made of bamboo day. The tools used by them are a saw, tesa, splints. His name was Daglu. As a mark of files, randa, barma, nihan, hammers, zamoor, recognition, the artisan was honoured with sanni, pendulum, a spirit level and a foot­ a free gift of land and remission of taxes. rule. Three types of. umbrellas are made. These Basket-making-There is only one house­ are- hold in the village which is employed in bas­ 1. Birch bark umbrella. ket-making. Bamboo baskets, obnus, perus, kiltas and other items made from bamboo 2. Dhak leaf umbrella. are fairly used by the villagers. Even for the 3. Dhak leaf obnu. tea-plantation, bamboo baskets are a must. Bamboo is available in the village itself. The The raw material. used for these articles is articles prepared by the artisans are- 1. Bamboo. 2. Dhak leaf umbrella. 3. Goat hair or hemp. 4. Birch bark. Except for the brich bark other material is locally available. While migrating from higher hills the Gaddies sell this bark at Rs. 1.50 per seer. The only tool employed is the ordinary s:ckle, though the sickles are many in number and of different sizes and curves. The bamboo is cut into fine splints. The splints are very intricately woven into a net work in the inner side of the shield and kept in position by five or six tiers of Kilta and Obnu thin bamboo splints circling the shield on the inner side. On the outer side is spread out the birch bark, which is stitched into the shield by strong threads made either of goat Name App. Cost hair or hemp fibre. Tokre Re. 0 ·50 to Rs. 2 ·00 Income Kilta Rs. 2 to Rs. 2·50 The villagers are reluctant to come out with their income and the figures quoted in Peru Rs. 3 ·00 to Rs. 6·00 the table may be takep. to give a very rough Chhikka Re.0·25 idea. There is no family which could fall within the very lean. income group of Rs. 25 Changer Re.l·OO t.o Rs.l·50 or below per month. Six out of 53 households Re. 1·00 to Rs. 1·50 engaged in agriculture, service, carpentry Chhaj and tailoring come within the income group Obnu Rs. 2·00 to Rs. 2·50 of Rs. 26 to Rs. 50. Fourteen fall within the income group of Rs. 51 to Rs. 75. They are engaged in agriculture and labour, agricul­ . Except for the obn'Ur, the raw material for ture and Government service, private service, all the articles consists of ba~boo .. The tech­ carpentry and agriculture and meat selling. nique of making all these artIcle,? IS sam~ as Again 14 households fall within the income else-where. However obnu reqUIres a lIttle group of Rs. 76 to ~s. 100. These househol~s description. are engaged in agrIculture and labour, bUSI­ ness, Government service, Government ser­ Obnus are umbrellas made of bamboo vice and agriculture, private service, carpen­ splints and the fine outer bark of silver birch. try and agriculture, labour and agriculture, These are used on large ~cale by. the far­ tailoring' and agriculture and weaving and mers while working in theIr fields III heavy ECONOMY 39

agriculture. Nineteen households are in culture, one each in private service, labour income group of Rs. 100 and over. Six of them and agriculture, basket making and agricul­ are employed in agriculture a:nd labour, three ture and tea contracts. All these figures show only in business" two in only Government that the economical condition of the humble service, one in Government service and agri- villagers is neither ba'd -nor too good.

Monthly Income

Oooupation of a household Monthly income per household ___",__ Souroe of Income --. Main Subsidiary Rs.26 Rs.51 Ra.76 Rs.IOI to 50 to 75 to 100 and Over

Agriculture . Labour. Agriculture & Labour 1 8 4 6 Business Servioe. Business, Service and Land .. S Buainess . Land . Business and Land • 1 S Government Service Government service Government Service 2 2

Government Service Agrioulture . Government Service 1 1 2 1 Private Service Private Service :J?rivate Service 1 3 1 1

Oarpenter Agrioulture Carpentry and Agrioulture 1 1. I

Lohar Agriculture Labour and Agrioulture 1 1 1 Tailor . Agriculture Tailoring and Agriculture 1 1 Baeket making Agriculture . Basket making and Agriculture 1 Weaving . Agriculture Weaving and Agriculture 1 ., Meat selling . Meat selling Meat selling 1 Tea Contraot • Tea selling and land 1 Total 6 14. 14 19

Expenditure which spend Rs. 83.33 per month on education The average monthly expenditure per is gettIng overseer's training, whereas a household represents amounts spent by it on ?-aughter of the head of the household spend­ main items, food, clothing, education and Ing Rs. 51.80 per month on education is others. 'Others' include expenditure incurred studying in a college. on religious ceremonies, marriages, amuse­ The ~ill.agers .try: to adjust their expendi. ments, medical aid, tobacco and the like. The ture withm theIr Income, but still the bor­ statement would show that the main item of rOwings cannot be dispensed with in society expenditure is the food which shows a steady and so is the case here. Except for a few the increase with the economical position of the ~ay to day expenditure of all the households household. The expenditure on education is IS met from their income, but at times they little, because so far as the education up to have to indulge in indebtedness on account. the Matric standard is cQncerned, it costs of marriage, repairs and construction of very little and whatever expenditure is re­ houses and treatment of patients suffering turned in the statement depicts nominal from prolonged disease: If the present times school fees, books and stationery. Two house­ are able to influence them to cut short their holds, in income group of Rs. 100 and over marriage and death expenditure it would have shown Rs. 83.33 and Rs. 51.80 per month help in establishing their economy 'on a better on Education. A son of the head of the house, footing. . L/1'(D)8SCORl'-5 40 ECONOMY

Oocupa.tion Inoome House· Food Clothing Smoking Housing Refresh· Edu. Dhobi Barber Group holds ment oation Ra.uP. Ra.nP. Rs. nP. Rs. nP. Rs. nP. Rs. nP. Rs. nP. Rs. nP.

Sel'Tioe Prlva.te 26-50 1 29'17 8'33 3'33 2·00 0·83 0·25 1 37·25 8·33 1'67 0·17 Agriculture " 1·25 Oarpenter 1 66·38 8·33 3·33 1·67 0·08 1 41·67 4·17 1·25 Service • " 0·08 Tailor . 1 4.0·25 8·33 4·17 0·83 1·25 0·17 45·67 8·33 2·08 La.bourer " 1 0.1'1 Tota.l " 6 Service 51-75 1 50·00 12·50 4.·17 1·25 0'~2 0'17 58·17 8·33 Carpenter " 1·~5 O·S~ 0·17 Meat Beller " 1 50·00 5·83 2·50 1·25 0'17 Servioe Private .. 3 53·56 6·25 2·50 2·08 0·12 Agriculture 4- 56·18 5·21 1'87 0·36 0·10

Agriculture.Cum.Labour 4- 52·67 5·21 1·35 0·31 0·23 '()·21

Total 14

Weaver 76-100 1 63·00 8·33 4·17 1·67 1·25 0'4.2

Tailor I 00·33 8·33 1·67 Q·25

Carpenter 1 61·67 8·33 4.·17 1·25 0·7~ 1 345·50 ·25·00 8·33 2·08 2·50 1·25 Business and Agriculture " 0'33 Labourer 1 66·67 12·50 4·16 0,l'7

1 75·00 12·50 3'33 4.·16 8·33 1· (i7 Service Private " 0·25 Agrioulture Labour 2 66·28 8·83 1·33 0·42 0'17

Agriculture 2 77·62 10·42 1·87 0·25 0'12 45·37 11·46 3·33 Service. 4 2·19 0·10 0·10 14 Total "

Service Private 100 &; Over 1 58·33 12·50 1·67 83·33 0·,) Tea Contraotor 1 71·1'1' 8·33 4'17 3'33 0'25 1 85·25 12·50 4·17 1·25 Labourer " 0'(2 Bamboo work 1 100·00 16·67 4·17 1'25 0'50 2 84·92 10·42 1·67 0·83 Agriculture.Cum.Labour " 0'29 3 78·00 22·22 5·55 3'89 0·83 4·58 Service. " 0'33 -_ 14·58 Agrioulture .. 4 124·23 8'44 4·17 0·94 0'35 6 118·06 30·56 12·60 13'19 51'80 2·78 BusineslI " 0'. 0''18 19 Total " ,. ECONOMY 41

Oooupation Income House. TraveIl· Medical Religious Debt Remit· Culti· Industry BuainesB Live· Land Group holds ing Repay tllncea to vation stook Revenue dependents Bs.nP. B3.nP. Bs.nP. B3.nP. Ra. nP. Rs. nP. Bs. nP. Bs. nP. Rs. nP. BB.nP. Servioe Private 26-60 1 0·42 0·42 Agriculture • 1 0'42 0·42 8·33 1·25 0·4:2 1·25 0·83 Carpenter " 1 Bafvioe • 1 0·25 0·67 5·83 Tailor .. 1 1'25 4·17 0'25 0·01 La.bourer .. 1 1·25 0·42 8·83 2'50 Total .. 6 Servioe IIl-711 1 2·08 0·83 0·42 8·33 • Carpenter 1 0·58 0·17 4·17 11·83 Meat 8eller .. 1 0·83 3·75 Service Private 8 0·83 0·71 0·95 Agrioultvre 4 0·63 0'33 2·60 1'77 0'24 Agriculture.Cum· 4- 0·16 0·19 0·23 1·88 0·42 0·73 0·21 Labour. Total .. 14 Weaver . 76--100 1 1·25 0'42 1'67 O'HI Taiior .. 1 2·08 0'42 1·08 4·16 0'58 0·06 Carpenter -1 1·25 2'58 " 0'83 Business & Agriculture 1 1·67 2·50 3'33 16·67 " 3'33 Labourer 1 1·67 0·42 4·1(1 Service priva.te 1 1·25 2·08 " 1·26 Agrioulture·Cum· .. 2 0'83 0'75 4·58 3'33 Labour Agriculture • 2 0'83 1'29 4·17 2'21 Service .. 4 1'14 0·94, 1'25 16·67 0·52 Tota.l .. 14 Service Private 100 & Over 1 1'67 2·50 Tea Contraotor 1 1·25 " 4'17 1·211 0·83 8'33 16·67 0·42 Labourer 1 1·25 " 1'25 0·42 Ba.mboowork 1 1·67 1)'00 Agriculture-Cum- 2 1'87 1·4,6 2·08 10·04 1·67 La.bour " Servioe .. 8 2·50 7'22 5'14 16·67 0·69 0·12 Agrioulture . .. Ii 0·10 3'85 4:'12 7-liO 0·S7 Business 6 4'17 U'04 6·94, 62·50 " 12·00 9'27 1S'07 Total 19 . LjP(D)8SCOHP--5(a) " 42 )!:CONOMY

Indebtedness All the households have been divided into No. of No. of five income categories. In the second cate­ Income Group households households gory 83.33 per cent. in the third category in debt 64.43 per cent. in the fourth category only Re. 25 and below 21.43 per cent. and in the fifth 31.60 per cent. Re. 26 to 50 . 6 5 households are under debt. Out of 53 house­ Rs. 51 to 75 . 14 9 holds as many as 23 households are under Rs. 76 to 100 14 3 debt. The principal causes' of debt' are mar­ Re. 101 & Over 19 6 riages and household needs .. Thl;ee of the Indebtedness by causes households had to go under debt on account No. of Average of ordinary wants, whereas three more Causes families amount of households had to incur debts because of in debt debt per treatment of patients suffering 'from prolong· household ed diseases. Similarly two house-holds con­ 1. House construotion or repairs 2 850 structed new houses.· The loans are mostly to existing building. 2. Marriages 5 660 raised from the private money lenders who 3. Sickness 3 41111 charge interest at the rate of 15 per cent. 4. Ordinary wants II 500 These amounts are not prohibitive and could 5. Household cultivation 8 .275 be returned quickly. I would like to give a 6. Sickness, education and marri- 2 950 word.of warning that these to l:l? s~em at the age higher side and are casually gIven. 4 Social and Cultural Life

Leisure and Recreation Dance and Drama

The social and cultural life of the villagers Villagers who beTong to scheduled castes is reflecteq. by their way of life and the cycle dance and sing loudly on the marriages and of the fairs and festivals which they cele­ festivals like Bi8SU, Sair and Diwali. It is ~rate throughout the year. How, the villagers only men's affair. Two type of dances are behave towards each other, towards an out­ pOp'ular. One is Ludy and the other is Nati. sider and other fellow-villagers whether they The musical instruments played on: such oc~ are. inclined towards the education of their cas!ons are harmonium, tabla, chimta, dho­ children and other social reforms, are matters Iak, damru, shehnai and jhanjar. of interest. The villagers ~ have a few means of amusements and recreations since three Ludy-This dance is performed by -two years a cinema house has been opened at men holding big staffs. The musicians sit to Jogindarnagar. Whenever some religious or one side. While dancing they make gestures good film is exhibited, the villagers, do not as if they were fighting against each other. miss the chance to enjoy it. At tvues, they by striking the staff and trying to save them­ enjoy a circus show at Jogindarnagar. Jug­ selves. glers with their black bear and a monkey are seen in summer. Then, folk-songs which Nati-The men make a - circle and the reflect their aspirations, hODes and sorrows musicians who sit in the centre play melo­ are sung on various occasions. T.he children: dious tunes. The men forming the circle enjoy their local games like guli-danda, dance on these tunes by stepping forward khinoo, gite, pithoo, lukh-khilani, chhun­ and backward, bending and moving in a ch'U!ani, kabbadi, stappu and phul ka phul. In: circle. The songs of this occasion are given the evening the women gather in the temple in the Appendix. and sing bhajans which are mostly compos­ ed on film tunes. Folk songs-.Folk songs popular in the village are given in the appendix. Inspite of these things, the majority of. the villagers are first agriculturists. The topics Temples of gossip are generally the weather, prices and day to day news. In the fields, the villa­ There is one small temple in Chauntra. gers were reluctant to answer the queries This has idols of goodess Durga and Radha made by the investigator. But, then the work Krishana, installed by late Kanshi Ram, a is more important and the villagers ha;ve Khatri from Mandi. Kanshi Ram had his little time for leisure, and whenever they house and land in village Batehr. He was a get any off-hour once in a blue moon, they great devotee of goddess Durga. One night in pass it in gossiping, and playing cards or dream he had a vision of the goddess who chopar. instructed him to install her image in the 43 SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE tl,rea. Early in the morning Kanshi Ram called Deod Sidh-Ope of the typical custom in for masons and asked them to make an image Chauntra and the surrounding villages is that of stone of the goddess. Four miles away every household has a plaMorm sort of struc­ there was a temple of goddess Vijeshwari. ture in front of the homestead. On this The masons were asked to go there and shape platform an idol is kept showing a man with the image of Goddess like Goddess Vijesh­ moustaches, sitting. He is 'Deod Sidh'. Vil­ wari. When the masons reached the spot, lage_rs are of the 'view that it is an incarna­ they found a stone which was fit for making tion of God Shiva and saves them from evil an image. The new image was given the name spirits, keeps away the epidemic and brings of Vijeshwari. Kanshi Ram accompanied by ha$lony ,and prosperity ~o the household. sixteen persons were able to get the image The idol of Deod Sidh is worshipped daily installed on the present site after performing in the morning and evening by one of the the religious ceremonies. Then a small members of the household. The villagers also mandap was constructed. Previously it was offer a seer of grains newly harvested before a very small temple but about four years ago consuming the same .themselves. In Punjab a local Sud took in hand the task of extension District Gazetteers Volume VII Part A of this temple. He added new idol of Radha Kangra District 1924-25 following lines run Krishna. An inn was la,ddedl. A portipn! about Deod Sidh. houses the Welfare Centre run by the Himachal Pradesh Social Wel~are Board. "Further' very marked features of the hill religion is the deot-sidh stones to be,seen by every wayside and before thousands of At present there is no pujari of the temple. cottages. These stones are in the form of the The widow of the Sud who expired after impress of two feet. Tradition says that a extending the tCI!lple building, performs the chela of Surukhnath used while pasturing puja. There is no organised kirtan or bhajan cattle to drink their milk and the villagers mandIi. Villagers gather in the temple to in the evening always found their cattle dry. offer prayers, bhajans are sung. While doing They went in their distress to a great so music is played on dholki, chimta and miracle'-worker who watched the lad and khartals. Such functions are held on Tuesday found out the truth. To get rid of him lie and Saturday. There are other occas~ons l~ke threw his stick and ordered him not to re­ Bissu, navratras and Janamr-ashtmt wnen turn till he had found it. But the boy's power worship is held on a bigger scale. J agrras are' of finding it was greater than the master's performed. The devotees keep fast. They power of making it disappear and he found break the fast by eating fruits and milk pro­ it at once. The miracle-worker finding that ducts at night. They keep awake and go on a greater than he had appeared sought to singing bhajan till the morning. On these kill the lad, but he ran away and the hillside occasions people from the surrounding vil­ opened and admitted him. There is the head­ lages visit the temple and pray. It is a custom quarter of his worship in Hamirpur Tehsil to offer a few seers of grains qf every new near Chakmoh village. From there the wor­ harvest to :the temple. ship spreads over the neighbourhood. A light used to appear over the cleft and the Stories are prevalent about stopping word dot is used for dewa. A common offer­ the trains for a minute or two at Chauntra. ing before the stones is a tiny rough wooden They link the GoddeSs with it. In 1928 when sandal". Jogindarnagar was linked with Nagrota by the railway line, the villagers of Chauntra Gugga-The Gugga festival is celebrat­ relluested the Railway authorities that there ed on Nawin after Krishna Janam Ashtmi. A should he a station at Chauntra. The request party of five or seven men is formed. One of was turned down. A few days later a serious them carries a Gugga ki Chhatri and others accident occurred just nearby in which two play on musical instruments. They go from or three persons died. The authorities fixed a house to house. Along with villagers then board with 'Dead Stop' written on it. Thus they go to Gugga ke sthan on Daswin day. the Train used to -stop at Chauntra for a According to the villagers legend behind minute or two. This railway line was remov­ Gugga is that he was Kashatri Raja. His ed during the war. In 1954 when this line was mother's name was Wachhal. His rela­ again laid, the villagers approached the tives were aspiring for the throne, very much authorities again, but this time ft1o;-the autho­ distressed when he was born:. They tried to tlties did not agree. Again a serious accident kill him by fair and foul means. First of all r~-occurred on the same spot and the Rail­ his aunt, mother's sister, took the initiative. way authoritie:; restored the previous conces­ She applied a potent poison to her breasts and s;ion to the villagers, by fixing a· board, 'Dead let Gugga suck them. But the poison had no SIop' written on it. effect on Gugga. Then she sought the help of SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE

Vishi-har the king of N agas. Vishi-har alsO' ~ aT wit tlf~ ~ m:, ~ ~ miT \iI1TTlIT I tried his best but could do Gugga no harm. While he was stinging, Gugga caught hold of GfTtTlIt aT ~ ~ ~ ifTITT, ~ ~ ~ him and began to twist the snake's head with great force. When Vishi-har was about to die, ~ wr ~ ~r ~ ~nt ~ ~it f.I;fulft~~ he begged pardon of Gugga and promised u'RT aT ~ ~ mwr ~ 0'flI'T ~ ~ ~~crr that he shall get his daughter, Suli-har mar­ ried to him. Gugga forgave and married his ~ ~~ ;flrr ~ '1~ ~~ ~ ftmT I daughter. But this did not put an end of his l!f~lfT ~ ~lIT ~ wr ~ ~ ~ lIT mr ~lfT ~ enemies. His aunt then sent her own sons to fight Gugga and to kill him. When Gugga crrU mi ~ ~ ;;ftGrr ~ ~ ~, ~ ~ came back after fighting with his cousins, his Cfi«lT ~~ ftRr &IlW ~ ~ ~;:rT ~ mother asked him to leave the country. ~wr ~~ ~ m<1T ~~ II Gugga complied with the orders of his mother. When Gugga did not show his face to his mother, for a pretty long time, she ;fur ( 'f[ 'I\T m) thought that Gugga might have been killed by some one. il' ~ ~ mm~, ~ ifTffi~! Suli~har, Gugga's wife was very much qr;fr fu;rr ~ I devoted to him and dressed herself like a swhagan. Observing this, her mother-in-law qr;fr ~ ~ ~ ~u f'1~T ~

TIT ~ I!fT 1tu m ~ ~ if lln: ,,!C!iTlfI' gur a; son Gugga, and the mare likewise had a foal. Gugga and this foal were brought up to­ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~---~ 'U'>IT iffiJT t: gether. When he came to man's estate Gugga m ~~ ~:------heard the fame of a beautiful maiden and taking the horse (his foster brother) he 'went TT -keepers who instal their matches are a feature. temporary stalls are from Joginder Nagar and surrounding' Villages. A few come from . Apart from these fairs, the villagers also Baij Nalh, Palampur and even from attend Shivratri fairs which are held in Baij Amritsar. Besides other articles of general Nath about 8 mil~ from Chauntra. 48 MetAL AND CULTURAL LIFE

FESTIVALS Shivratri-This feStival comes in the m6nth of Phalgun and is held in the Krishan: A good many festivals are celebrated by Paksha in memory of Lord Shiva. The people the villagers in Chauntra. The most impor­ keep fast on this day. It is said that on this tant of these are: day Lord Shiva married the daughter of Baisakhi-Baisakhi or Bissu is celebrated Raja Himachal. On this marriage the on the 1st of Baisakh-13th April. On this bhagats of Lord Shiva rejoiced and kept occasion charity consisting of pitcher are fast. Among the villagers Shivratri is consi­ given to the purohit. Fast is observed by the dered the best day for marriage ceremony. higher castes, but scheduled castes observe Usual dishes are enjoyed. this_ by feastipg and drinking sur. The spe­ Holi-This festival falls in Phagun and cial dishes as babroo, kheer and bhaLLas are marks the end of wintel'. The villagers enjoy prepared. by play of colours. This festival is 'celebrat­ Janam Ashtmi-It falls in the month of ed in the memory of Holi, a sister of father Sawan or Bhadon. Lord Krishna was born of Prahlad Bhag81t. Prahllad Bhagat was a on this date at mid-night. The oocasion is great devotee of Lord Vishnu. He saved marked for celebrating his birthday. Many some· kittens which had entered into the kiln who keep fast take only phalhar consisting of a potter, by praying to Lord Vishnu. This of milk, fruits and ogla, potatoes and arbi. had a great effect on the people and contrary At night the villagers gather in the temple to the wishes of their king they also started and worship the image of Radha and worshipping Vishnu. The king father of Krishna. Some women keep jagra. Shlokas Prahlad become very furious while he learn­ -from Geeta are recited and story of Lord ed it, and tried to kill his son by torturing Krishna is narrated: him in many ways. But Prahlad did not die. A t last he summoned his sister Holi who had Gahesh Chaturthi-Falls iIi the month of a boon that the fire would have no effect on Bhadon. Ganesh was born on this day. The her. She was made to sit in a huge fire with main feature of the festival is making clay Prahlad in her lap. By the virtue of Lord toys and images of Ganesh. This is not cele­ Vishnu, Prahlad did no1J die and on the con­ brated by the scheduled castes. trary, Holy was burnt into ashes. Thus on this festival, Holi is burnt by lighting fire by Sair-This is the chief festival of the far­ every household. mars and is celebrated on the first day of Asuj. This day marks the end of rainy On all . these festive occasions, villagers season. Bartwatas are sent to the sisters, clean t~elr houses, and some diagrams are daughters or they are called to their parents' drawn In the courtyard. The main gates of house where tb..ey are served food. Villagers the houses are also decorated with flowers also wear new clothes on this day and maize and leaves. cobs, kimb and a silver coin are wprshipped. Kheer, babroo, puris and halwa are the spe­ A song on this festival is sung by the vil- cial dishes. The scheduled' castes drink sur lagers. It runs: - . and dance a great deal. The women sing Sair !Song which runs:- ifRT ~rm \rAT m: mffi' i1m ~ ~ C!fiTVft ~ mvr ~, f~ :qlf~ I irU ~ I ;mIT i1m ~ ~~W~OR"~, f~ ~ ~ ;IT ~'

Common Beliefs and Superstitions Succession and Right of Inheritance If a man marries a woman of lower caste A good many superstitions prevail here. he is sometimes discarded by his parents and Though many of these superstitions are is debarred from inheritance rights. common but it will be worthwhile to men­ (a) Property is inherited in equal terms by ~ion them. the sons of the deceased if he had only one wife. The widow does not get any share but An auspicious day and time is chose:n for it is obligatory 0):1 the sons to meet her aU ploughing the land for the first time during expenditure. a particular harvest. A Sunday or Tuesday is preferred. Before ploughing the land, a (b) If the deceased had-more than one wife handful of grains out of seed are given in and all of them bore sons, the property is charity to Brahman. While ploughing, if a di~tributed equally among the sons and snake is killed or it raps to the blade of the WIdows does not get any share. In case any plough, some praschit suggested by the puro.. of the widows has no son, she gets a share hit has to be performed. To start on a equal to that of each son. This custom of journey or to start some new enterprise on inheritance is called mundi system. Nawin day is considered inauspicious. A few (c) If the deceased has more than one seers of grains are presented to the purohit, wives, the property is distributed equally in temple, Deod Sidh and daughter before the accordance to the number of wives and fur­ household consume the new harvested crop. ther it. is distributed equally among the sons Sneezing at the time when some ceremony is ac_cordmg to number of sons a particular in progress is discarded. A journey is avoid­ WIdow has. This system is called chaundi. ed on Sunday, Tuesday and Friday. Oppos­ ing wind is considered inauspicious. A howl­ Community Centre ing of an owl or kite sitting on a tree nearby are evil omens. A sudden tremor on any part Some of the litera'te boys and men make of ones body mark various good or bad use of the Community Centre in the village. omens. Itching of palm of a left hand indi­ This Community Centre is being run by the cates expenditure. If the sole of the foot Education Department. This centre has 2,000 itches, it indicates rains. Two persons yawn­ books in its library. In addition there are ing simultaneously indicates that the per­ periodicals and journals to which the Centre contribute regularly. Daily news papers sons shall hear news of death of some body. maintained by the Centre are The Tribune, Similarly there are various types of beliefs Nav Bharat Times and Milap. Apart from and superstitions regarqing ~he spirits and the literary section, the Centre also provides witch craft. The villagers belIeve that there other recreation facilities. People make use exists a person in _ the village, who has of the musical instruments there such as mastery over certain evil spirits, whom he dholak, tabla, jhanjar, chimtas, khartals and sumnions to do evils to a desired person. a radio. Music programme is held weekly on There is ,a house 'on the main gate of which every Tuesday. a mo)1key skull is hung. The owner of the house believes that this skull keeps away the Welfare Centre evil spirits. In: addition to the Community Centre, there is also a Welfare Centre in Lower Untouchability Chauntra. This centre was es'tablished on the 18th November, 1958 by the Social Welfare Board, Himachal Pradesh. It started with a Even here caste has deep roots. Kolis and kindergarten school with 22 students. In the other scheduled castes are considered as a vear 1959 the number of students varied diseased part of the society. They are looked from 28 to 67. down upon. They have suffered so much depression that they still ~esitate to. en~oy. Lessons of some basic education are im­ :the liberty which :the IndIan ConstltutlOn parted to the children. They are also 'taught has now provided to them. The temples have some day-to-day manners. Free milk is been made open to them, but the poor and distributed to them daily. depressed Harijans do not dare to enter. In December, 1958, crafts like stitching, Harijans are kept segregated when they spinning, embroidery, tailoring, straw fan making and rug making were also intro­ arp present in functions celebrat~d ~~ the duced. These crafts are taught to women swarn Hindus. There are no bowhes In the village and it is a booJi for the villagers. only. To start withl there were only 7 50 soctAL AND . CULTURAL LIFE students whereas the number has' now swel­ The strength of the school for the years led to 18. The Centre has also employed a 1959 to 1961 was: dai trained to conduct delivery cases in the Total No. village. Tota.l No. of Ha.rijan Total No. No. of Total Education Yea.r of boys boys of girls Harijan strength girls Villagers in Chauntr.a deserve apprecia­ tion for the consciousness which they have 1959 515 152 92 5 607 developed towards education. Even the 1960 517 III 126 10 643 elders who were not SO much interested in 1961 571 136 149 14 720 getting their children educated, are now convinced that it is the education only which The school has separate buildings. .Three shall glorify and brighten the future of their of them are in Upper Chauntra and one in little tiny tots. Every effort is now being the premises of Raj Kumar T~ea Estate. All made by them to give their children the the three buildings in upper Chauntra maximum education. The total population of belong to the Government. The fourth is a the village of persons in age group 0-14 is rented one. Inspite of these buildings, school 103. This includes 49 boys and 54 girls. is short of accommodation. Some of the classes are held in open air. The matter re­ After subtracting 32 persons of age group garding extension of the building is under 0-4 years who are too young to join the active consideration of Government. school, the number reduces to 81. Out of these 81 persons 40 persons including 25 boys A play ground is attached to the school. and 15 girls are full time students. Similarly Boys play hockey, volley ball and foot ball. in age group 15-34 years, out of 34 non­ The teaching establishment of the school workers, 9 men and-25 women, 13'persons, 9 consists of 17 teachers which also include men and 4 women are students. ~wo lady teachers. During the State period, there were limit­ The villagers have managed to open a ed schools, but, Chauntra had a Government private High School consisting of 9th and Lower Middle School. Even before the mer­ 10th classes. ger of Mandi State into Himachal Pradesh. The present strength of the school is 40 After merger, it was in April, 1951 that this students in the 9th class against 26 when it school was raised to the middle standard. No was started in the year 1959. In 10th class, record regarding strength of the students at the number of the students is 25. In 1961, 23 the time when it was raised to the middle students appeared in Matriculation Exami­ standard is available. nation out of which 22 got through. The At present the name of the school is Senior school started with Rs. 5,000 raised by the Basic School, Chauntra. This name was public contribution. The grant-in-aid receiv­ given to it in the year 1958 when basic, train­ ed from the Government amounts to Rs. 1,400 ing in certain crafts like spinning, .fan mak­ during the year 1959 and Rs. 2,554 during the ing, basketry, toy making, chalk making-and year 1960. . carpentry were introduced. The school The villagers wish that the Government caters to many other villages' like Ahjoo, should raise the Middle Schoo~ to Higher Matroo, Sainthal, Galoo and Tramat where Secondary. there are primary or lower middle schools. Both girls and boys study there and number The table gives the literacy position of the of the girl students is very ~ncouraging. village:- Literate Primary Matric Age group To~~l Illiterate without or or Intermediate Gradua.t& popula.tion educational Basic Higher standard Secondary

r---'--~ ,.---;-~ r--~ ~ ..----"--~ r--"-"",

p- M F M F M F M F M F M F M F AlllIges 272 132 140 77 108 25 19 23 13 6 1 14 10 1 0-14 103 49 ~ 22 39 17 15-34 . 81 33 48 - 23-- 35 1 5 6 8 2 1 a5-59 . 68 40 28 22 24 7 7 4 4 60 8.nd over 10 10 10 10 SOCIAL ANI> CUL'l'URAL LIFE: 51

Out of the total population of 272 persons, who are stronger than those causing ail-. consisting ofl 132 men an 142 women,. 77 men ments and who call give relief. This treat­ and 108 women are illiterate. 25 men and 19 ment is dying out. women have though ;no educational qualifi­ cation, they can read anq write Hindi. Sanitation Medical and Public Health The villagers keep their houses quite clean. The manure is dumped in pits and the The villagers have faith in all types of cow-sheds are cleaned. There is no proper treatments including Allopathic, Ayurvedic drainage system, yet water flows due to the and treatment by Jantar mantar. They feel land being slopy. On festivals, houses are the lasf treatment is most effective for hys­ white-washed, and the floor given coating of teria, snake bites and mental diseases. There thin layer of cow dung; and floors are clean­ is a dispensary closeby. About fifty to sixty ed with a washipg of c1ay. patients from the villages visit this dispen­ sary daily. A general complaint is that Panchayats medicines are hardly ever aViai1able. Com­ In 1954 the Chauntra Gram Panchayat was mon medicines like Sulphadiazine, Sulpha­ established. There is a Judicial Panchayat guanadin, A.P.C. powder and Soda-bicarb also. . are rare. In addition to this there is a well equipped Civil Hospital at Jogindarnagar Gram Panchayat Chauntra covers 36 vil­ where all modern Allopathic treatment faci­ lages and has its headquarters at village lities are available. The hospital has an in­ Kohra. This Panchayat has 27 members door ward as well as well equipped opera­ elected by casting votes by a show of hands. tion: theatre and a X-ray pla;nt. The hospitai The new members are elected every three has a separate dental department and mater­ years. From Chauntra, there are three mem­ nity centre. The people of Chauntra prefer to bers. Besides these members, there is a paid travel longer distance to J ogindarnagar to get Secretary who belongs to Mandi but resides treatment there instead of visiting the dis­ in Chauntra. The Secretary performs the clerical jobs and maintain records. He and pensary. the Chaukidar are paid employees. Meetings The common diseases are fever, cold, of Gram Panchayat are held on the 5th and cough, influenza. Due to impure water sup­ the 20th of every month. The Prap,han pre­ ply the stomach dise-ases like dysentery, sides. A meeting can be held with prior diarrhoea are common: in summer and rainy notice of 7 days. The quorum of the house is season. There were two cases of T.B. in the 9 members. From the Gram Panchayat a village though no one disclosed it during the member is nominated as a member of enquiry. The National Mararia Eradication Tehsil Panchayat. The function of 'Pan­ Programme Unit is functioning well. Every chayat consists of repairing of bowlies, house in the village is sprayed twice a year. cleaning and lighting of pub1ic streets, sanitation, maintaining oj birth and death A few minor ailments and indigenous register, organising fairs and festivals and treatments are as follows:- maintaining of primary schools. The acti­ Common Cold-Jushanda which contains vities of the Panchayat in Chauntra village manakka, muhIathi, banafsha, ambIa and particularly are not encouraging. Villagers mag han is boiled in water. When the water are not satisfied as nothing according to reduces to one fourth some sugar is add~d. them has been done to solve the major pro­ This mixture is given to the patient. blem of the villagers which is the water supply. The Panchayat has constructed two Fever-Chhoti illaichi and mitha saunph bowlies one at two miles from Chauntra and with some ajwain is boiled i~ water. An ex­ the other -at village Sainthal. The Panchayat tract is given to the patient. maintains a library, sports goods and a few Cough-:-l. Anar ka chhilka for chewing. minor implements required for the repair of 2. Magh and honey. 3. Extract of ajwain. paths and bowlies. Jamar mantar treatment is practised by a The aid received from the Administration Brahman and two scheduled castes. This upto Rs. 2,400 was spent on a .tank for Hari- treatment constitutes of chanting various jans at Sainthal. - types of mantras and summoning different Devtas to relieve the patient is said to be The activities of Nyaya Panchayat are tha't. ce:t1tairi devils en:~err 'the bod;y of! the mainly to deal with Diwani, Revenue and patient and cause ailment. The treatment minor criminal cases. The Nyaya Panchayat, 1ies in summoning Devtas of good spirits Chauntra was established oij the 8th J anu- 52 SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE;

. ary, 1958. It has 15 members. These fifteen -of ~hese articles are fixed by the Civil Sup­ members include Sarpanch, N aib Sarpanch ply Deptt. and a Harijan Panch. Panches are elected by voting. The Pradhan and Up-pradhan of The Society had share capital of Rs. 1,280 Gram Panchayat are elected by direct elec­ with total membership of 117 persons. To~ tion whereas the Sarpa;nch and N aib Sar­ assets and liabilities of the society is panch are elected by indirect elections. Rs. 2,282. Rupees 2,076 have beeJ;l advanced There is no member from Chauntra in as loans to the members from whom the Nyaya Panchayat. interest is charged at the rate of 9.38 per cent a year. The loan; advanced is recovered The Nyaya Pa;nchayat conducts trials in! six monthly instalments in case the whenever eases come before it. A small com­ amoun~ exceeds Rs. 100. These are collected mit_t;ee consisting of 3 or 5 members is consti­ in two years. In case of Rs. 100 or less, the tuted. In case Sarpanch or Naib Sarpanch loan is recovered in six monthly instalments. happens to be a member of such a committee, The maximum loan advanced is Rs. 300. he is the ex-officio Chairman. Otherwise Community Development members of the committee elect a Chairman out of them. No crimes are committed. The Initially there was one Community Dev€'• main cases which come before the Panchayat lopment Block with its headquarters ail are like encroachment on other's land, dis­ Joginder Nagar. It covered the entire tehsil pute over cattle or minor thefts. Uptil now Joginder Nagar. It was to be opened on the 109 cases were referred to the Panchayat. 2nd Oct. 1957, but due to certain administra­ Out of these 108 ended in compromise and in tive reasons, it opened in Feb. 1958 as a one case the accused was fined only Re. 1 N.E.S. Block. In April in .the same year, it which the accused duly paid. was raised to a Stage I Block. Chauntra was also covered under this Block, but the vil­ Co-operative Societies lagers and the public in general were very critical of the Block authorities. They com­ Co-op_rative Societies have been organised plained that the Development Department on a circle basis. Such societies have a num­ were practically doing nothing in the vil­ ber of '"'villages. Chauntra is covered by lage. This was true to a great extent, as no 'Chauntra Sewa Sehkari Sabha'. This Sabha activity of the Block Department was visible covers 36 villages and has its headquarters in the village when: this survey was carried at Kohra a mile away. The society was out. established on 2nd March, 1955. Originally the scope of the society was limited to ad­ The area under J oginder Nagar Block be­ vance loans for the purchase of cattle, seeds ing more, it was bifurcated into two in April and repairing of the houses. It had 51 mem­ 1961. A ;n,ew Block on pre-extension stage bers including two who belonged to Chaun­ was opened which was to have its head­ tra. It started with a paid up.-/capital of quarter at Joginder Nagar. The headquarter Rs. 810. Rs. 10 contributed by each member is likely to shift to Chauntra when a build­ as membership and Rs. 300 received as sub­ ing becomes available there. Due to non­ sidy from Government. availability of a building the headquarter was ~e~ at J oginder Nagar :fior the time being. On 12th Februa).·y, 1960 the society Efforts were being made to hire a building i;ncreased its activities and adopted its pre­ at Chauntra as soon as possible. This Block sent ;name. Now the society has been allotted which has been named after the village was quota of salt, sugar, wheat and rice. They raised to Stage I in April, 1962. With the have appointed an agent who invests his opening of the new Block, the villagers are capital. The society charges from him 25 nP. hopeful that the Block authorities 'would pt::r maund as commission. The rates for sale now be able to guide them. " 5 'e onclusion

Chauntra was, at one time, a pasture land growers are thinking of organising them­ where Gaddis gra:zedj' theiI1 flocks of sheep selves into cooperatives. With all these and goats in winter. After carrying out sur- - measures taken, the results are expected to vey there, some British firms found the land be better. Ip. Bir, a village a few miles away suitable . for the cultivation. The ruler of in Kangra district, similar conditions were Mandi took advantage of it and planted his prevailing. The growers there took ~o the own: tea garden there. This opened new similar measures and the industry is oP; good avenues for the people in the surrounding footing there now. villages to work as labourers. In the course of time a few more took to tea plantation With the merger of the States to form and with the establishment of a tea factory, Himachal Pradesh, changes are taking place Chauntra became a nucleus village. in every sphere of life.> The railway line which was removed by the Britishers during Experts on the subject a~e of the view that the 2nd Great War has now been restored, the condition of tea plantation in thi$ area is and the village may have railway station not satisfactory. The reasons are attributed shortly. The primary school of the State to lack of sufficient knowledge, absence of times has been raised to a high school. A expert advice and guidance to the growers dispensary is located in the vill:jge. The vil­ and to small land holdings. A few years ago, lage was covered by the N,E.S. Block at Sunil Guha, a tea plantation expert of Tea Joginder Nagar. But the villagers had a Board inspected the area to review the condi­ grouse that the block authorities had totally tion of the plantations. He is of the opinion neglected the village. Now this grouse has that the working\ in these plantations has not been removed and a new Block has been been methodical at any stage. The planters opened with its headquarter at Joginder Na­ try to extract every thing possible from the gar for the present. The Sericu~ture Depart­ plant and thus damage it. According to him, ment have their nursery in the village. The the average production of tea here is about villagers can make use of it and take anyad­ 200 Ibs. per acre as compared to 1,500 lbs. per vice regarding culturing of silk-worms. acre in some blocks in the adjoining Kangra There have been reforms in the tenancy act. valley. iJIe poinlts out! that te9- is \a highly A few have acquired their own land. organised industry which is conducted on scientific lines at every stage. He hopes The villagers have a general complaint that things can be improved here to an ap­ re.!!arding irrigation facilities. But, then the preciable expectations if proper lines of P.W.D. c~nducted survey and are planning cultivation and manufacturing are followed to tap BaJgar. Khad fl!_rther to dig one more up. Keeping all these things in view, the kuhl to the VIllage. The village is-electrified Himachal Pradesh Government have opened now and connected by telephone. A sub post an experimental farm a1: Ahju where expert ()ffice has recently been opened and there is advice is imparted ahd the growers are a plan to open a telegraph office. Adult educa­ induced ~o work: on modern lines. The small tion camps are organised from ,time to time 53 CONCLUSION

and the response from the villagers is en­ permitted to enter the local temple. The vil­ couragIng. Villagers have started making use lagers have developed habits of cleanliness. of the Community Centre. A few read news­ They': sweep their houses and the premises papers and magazines regularly there. Some daily:. women are receiving training in embroidery and mat making in the Welfare Centre. Ser­ They are a peace-loving people. If any vices of the qualified dai in the Centre are quarre~ arises, the matter is either settled also obtained. mutually or referred to the Panchayat. They have attained political awareness and take With the spread of education, the villagers keen interest in panchayat and general elec­ are becoming conscious of bringing about tions. Villagers are well informed about the social reforms. They realize the importance day to day developments in the country. of having a small family. Polygamy is on Most of them know about the provisions of the decline. Marriages are now contracted Hindu Succession Act and Untouchability when the boy and'the gir1 are mu~h older Act. With all these developments only the than before. Scheduled castes are not so time will show how Chauntra leaps forward much looked down by the Swarns. They are towards progress. C H A U N T A part of the vilIage R A IN P I C A tea garden T U R 'E S Another par~ of. the village Gossiping while working

Plucking tea leaves

Thrashing gmins Pack mules

•

Pathankot-J ogindarnagar train passes by the village

The viHage high school bui!ding A vilLage tea shop serves 1'efreshing hot cup of tea

•

Tea grading

A vilLage shop A village temple

Foodgrains to be given in charity

Chauntra At work A s:..uing in the children park

An embroidered asan Pe?'io7'ming tUla-dan-Weighing agatnst corn A village belle

A n embroidered pilla'!).) cover- -- A Gaddan proud of her jewellery She is not weighed with he't balu, blak, champakali, dodwala and murkis Brace1ets

Clay toys Finger-r:ings a.nd bracelets

Dodrnala with a pendaJJ,t Ornaments for the neck. The central one is called chauki necklace Neck.lace Another type of Light necklace

Balu and the nose stud Earthen pitchers and lamp with a h ~mdle

Earthen receptacles for curds and jhol Brace leceptade for pens and inkpot and lota

Decorative earthen-wares A brass gagar for storing wa.ter A game of chess is keenly enjoyed

PiZaying cards ,. ,f

~ ·S 0 " ..",.

~ ~ OJ. ~ ~ ~ ~ 'I:l ~ .." <:::rt .....,0

S ~ . ." ~

~ ~ . N ~ ,.0 "'l:!

~ -T~'" ;; ~ ~~,../+ . /~ £/

A stone dresser Appendices

APPENDIX I

(i) Extract from PJ.lnJab Gazetteers, Mandi state, 1920. . . The Raja as owner of the soil-Miscellane­ staff consisting usually of a storekeeper, ous Taxation-The Raja as sale owner of treasurer, accountant, weighman and menial. the soil and the ruler and master of his sub­ After their· needs had been satisfied, the jects was clearly entitled to share in every balance was consigned to the capital, and in source of profit enjoyed by his people, and early .times provided the chief source from the development of secular institutiun~ is which the Raja, his relatives, retainers, offi­ mainly a record of the means adopted to en­ cials and servants were maintained. Later, force his claims. The interest of the cultiva­ the expenses of almost continuous warfare tor in the soil was derived by grant from the and the imposition Qf tribute by victorious Raja, and unless he had been conceded spe­ enemies necessitated tbe partial substitution cIal privileges, it was confined to his right to of a cash for a grain collection; but even then enjoy the produce after payment of the share collections of kind were maintained in some of the chief. Whether his possession had in of the most fertile tracts in order to provide practice originated or not from the issue of for the needs of the palace and several State a royal title deed did not signify, the theory Departments. The existence side by: side of of his tenure was the same. What the Raja's two distinct systems of assessment inevitab­ share was__, depended on circumstances. In ly led to inequalities and these were accen­ regard to -land, it appears to have been rare tuated by other defects and abuses which will in the Hill States for the State to -take a be described in a later chapter. specific share of either the gross or net pro­ duce. An early form of assessment was a The begar system-By means of the system rateable levy in grain varying _very roughly of begar., or unpaid labour, the .theory of, a with the amount of land held and the means partnership in all assets was logically ex­ of the cultivator. An advance on this was the tended to the physical powers of the people. use of the seed measure which purported to The obligation of begar was pa'rt an'd' parcel grade the productivity of the soil according of the revenue system. Originally it was a to the amount of the seed sown. personal obligation, but later. was definitely associated with the possession of. land. It re­ The merit of this reform in Mandi is as­ presented the ruler's claim to personal servi­ cribed to Mian Juppu who lived in the 17th .ces and was of three kinds:- century, and he is also credited with the in­ (1) Phutkar' begar-consisting of trifling troduction of begar and cesses, But it is cer­ services rendered to the State such tain that begar existed long before' Mian . as the carriage.of dak. Juopu's day, and what he did was probably 10 transform the obligation from a personal one (2) Phant begar-consisting of services to one dependent on and varying with the rendered to the State, such as the possession of land. Tradition says that Mian mending of village roads, which did J uppu made his grain assessment after ela­ not ordinarily occupy more than ten borate crop experiments; but he appears also days. In this may be iricluded what to have relied largely on popular estimates is popularly called badi jadi begar and hence retained the. various seed measu­ viz., services given on special occa­ res in local use. These varied from village to sions of rejoiCing or mourning in the village and in later times resulted in great ruling family, and On tlre tours of confusion, but the grain assessment per: unit high Government officials. imposed by Mian JuP!!U was, on the :vho1e,. a (3) Pala begarr-which involved services fair one. State grananes were establIshed III in some department for a fixed period suitable centres and the collections of grain varying in different parts of the concentrated there. Each granary had its own State from one to three months. L/P(D)8SCGRP-6 56 56 APPENDICES

The last was by far the most important vice"; and "a chamar even at the point of and bll:rdensome form of begar. For many death dreams of begar." years, It had been regarded as a burden at­ taching to the possession of land, and in Th.e severity ~f begar was tempered by theory' its i'l1.ddenee var,ied with the 'area makmg the famIly and not the individual the held. Upto recent times, certain classes, how­ unit of conscription. Exemptions, absolute or ever, were exempt from giving pala begar. temporary, were also given in the case of the These were the superior clans of Rajputs, aged, infirm and minors; but the burden was non-agricultural Brahmans, Khatris and ver'! heavy and one consequence was the shop-keepers. mamtenance of large joint families. The State indeed had to discourage partition in The Rajputs were expected to give mili­ its own interests, in order to prevent the tary services instead, but, in return for this, corvee unduly encroaching on production they held assignments of land revenue known and so curtailing the resources of the land as rozards; Brahmans were expected to as­ on which the revenue mainly depended. Ir{ sist at State festivals, to work in the Raja's Saraj, the result was to encourage polyandry; kitchen on special occasions and always to for s~ve.r~l brothers naturally preferred to pray for the long life and prosperity of their remam ]omt rather than to split up and so Chief; Khatris and other traders had to help increase the aggregate assessment of begar, with the distribution of supplies and prepara­ and, having decided on a joint establishment tion of accounts on accasions of State enter­ there was strong inducement to have a wif~ tainment. But none of these obligations can in common, .sinc,: the hill women will rarely be classed as pala begar and were rather of tolerate a rIval m her home and is apt to the nature of phant ,begar. make her menfolk rue the introduction of one. State servants and their families were also exempt, this group containing a large num­ The begar system, in short, although well ber of village officers who escaped the bur­ suited to the conditions of the State when den by the performances of, nominal services. the requiremel1ts of the Raja and his court Individuals were exempted either by favour were moderate, the currency of money limit­ or on payment of nazrana. In addition, mal­ ed and the resources of the people slender guzars were sometimes allowed to commute became economically and socially unsound a~ the obligation into an, annual cash payment soon as other means of assessment were pos­ known as bethangna, and some 16 years ago sible and the opportunities of the people to this principle was extended to the case of earn cash wages from outside labour were non-agriculturists who were themselves un­ adequate. able to give manual labour. Their old hold­ lrJisceHaneous Taxation-The principle of ings, which had always been free from begarr, clalming.a share i~ all activities of the people were not assessed to bethangna, but all new resulted m a formIdable roll of miscellaneous acquisitations were made liabl7 to the tax. demands, partly of the nature of begar and partly in the form of a tax on profits. The Such was briefly the -theory of pala begar, menial classes had to supply articles of their the practice was far different. Under the sys­ handiwork. The iron-smelters gave ore the tem as it obtained immediately before its abo,. Chamars leather, the Dumnas baskets' and lition, the rich and the strong escaped, the ropes, and the Chanals oil. Cultivators of poor and the weak had to bear a double bur­ special crops, sll:ch as tobacco and sugarcane, den. Between different classes and between had to pay speCIal cesses. Taxes were impos­ members of the same class, gross inequalities ed on watermills and shops. Owner of herds existed which entirely robbed .the system of a_nd flocks ~ad to give ghi and goats, respec­ its original merits. To some extent the lack tIvely. ArbItrary demands were imposed as of uniformity was deliberate, for it was the necessity required or opportunity offered. policy of the ·State to take light begar and a The people of Chuhar for instance had to heavy cash or grain revenue where the soil pay palo-ra-ghi, an exaction which ~riginat­ was fertile, and the converse where the sur­ ed in the presentation of a nazar' while in plus produce was small, ,but, even when al­ the hill tracts many persons had to"give both lowanc~ is ma_4e for this, the distribution ~npaid servi~e and the monetary value of was extremely unfair. The popular estimate Its commutatIOn, the result of a promise of the system is well summe€l. ull in the two made by wazir Gosaon, but never performed following proverbs: "~?e sky losesits bright­ a -abolish begar. ' ness when overcast WIth clouds, water its purity when covered with slime, a pretty Miscellaneous Taxalf;ion-Thus the system wife her charm -at her parents' home and a of a division of all assets lost the merits man his manliness in the Raja's begar ser- which it undoubtedly possessed under a APPENDICES 57

strong, if primitive, government. supervised ter of the assignment. The name of the royal by the chief in person. Its weakness was its granter was entered in the body of the deed liability to abuse. It was incapable of easy by the scribe, and in many instances the revision and the Rajas generally preferred names of the chief Qofficials present when the to_leave matters as they were than to review grant was conferred were also recorded. A an assessment -nhich had become obsolete. COpy of the deed was maintained amongst This inaction favoured the rich and powerful the State archives and the original preserved as against the poor and weak. The former ex­ with the greatest care by the grantee and his tended their land without paying more rep descendants. Many deeds were undoubtedly venue; they were often able to evade begar destroyed in the earthquake of 1905; but md, where they could not evade it, they were there are several thousands in existence, generally successful in commuting it into a' some of great age but still in excellent pre­ cash payment. The cultivation of the poor, servation. Rough translations of a few typi­ on the other hand, remained much as it was, cal grants are given below. while a steady decline in the number who gave ,begar made the obligations more op­ Sasan basi grant. (Religious grant on condi­ pressive for the remainder. Additions to the tion of residence)-"From the court of Sri roll of taxes involved more hands through Maharaja Shamsher Sen, King of Kings, of which they had to pass, and the checks on eternal ancestry- exaction and peCUlation were generallJ quite inadequate. Much was lost on the way, the Abha Ram Pharu has come before us and people being subject to the petty exactions ~as ~etitioned _us as that since many genera­ of a number of subordinate officials. "For a tions he and hIS ancestors have lived in the dozen cucumbers," says one Mandi proverb village of, Manbhali of the Tungal waziri that "there are eighteen tax-collectors. The Raja the said village was conferred Qon 'them is blind and does not understand his in~ revenue free, as a residence therein that ac­ terests"; while another proverb describes the cordingly from the date of the grant' until the natural consequences-'''fhe Raja's treasury present day they have lived in the village and I is emptied as quickly as it is filled." that they now occupy th~ land, that in the reign of Sri Raja Sidh Sen of noble memory, Extract from Punjab Gazetteers, Mandi the grant was broken and the revenue there-­ State, 1920. of conferred on a servant of the palace. Fall­ ing at Our feet he prayed that, as our royal R'evenue Assignments-=--Religious Assign­ ancestors from the immemorial have looked ments-A study of, the various forms of re­ with favour on him and his forefathers and venue assignment recognised by former have been pleased to regard them as serfs of Rajas affords information of_ some interest the soil, so shall we now cherish him and his regarding the early organisation of govern­ dependents and placing round their -ne-cks ment. Some of the santhas, or title deeds, the sacred thread of our benevolence shall are inscribed on copper plates, but the great continue to them the grant made by our royal majority are written on Sialkoti paper. They ancestors. When we had heard the p'rayer of are in the Tankr:i script and the caligraphy Abha Ram, our noble son and heir, Surma is usually excellent, :the art of executing title Sen, made representation to 11S on their be­ deeds having apparently been regarded as a half declaring that from the days of his high accomplishment by the kaiths or scribes. childhOod they had spent their time in doing The language is stately and dignified, and him service and he begged that, having re­ although there is often much tautology, gard to our love for him and the services there is never any obscurity as to the terms they had given, we should bestow our favour of the grant. Archaic words are of frequent on them. occurrence, and these, with the peculiar form of composition employed, make the detection "Let it be known therefore that we have of forgeries a comparatively easy matter. conferred on Abha Ram the village of Man­ Each santha was attested by the Raia from bhali and the land therein without limit or whom It issued; but he did not sign his-name, boundary. As his forefathers enjoyed it in the the attestation cqnsisting of the words, sahih, past, so shall he enjoy it from the next spring sahih likhia, or sahih perman. In very rare havest. Abha Ram shall dwell therein and cases, where the santha relates to a religious shall render us faithfull and)oYltl service. If grant, the title deed contains the impress of anyone shall trespass on the rights1)f-Abha the Raja's open hand in saffron and the grant Ram he shall be deemed false. We have given is then always regarded as irrevocable. Simi­ ~he grant of our royal benevolence. Our larly, on some of the copper plates the figure children shall maintain it and the children of a cow is..carved to show the sacred charaG~ of Abha Ram shall enjoy it. L/P(D)8SCOHP-6a 58 APPENDICES

"Given in the presence of our heir-ap­ har Dhani Ram, words having arisen about. parent the noble Surma Sen; of Prohit Deb the service they. should render to us the land Ditta, Bisht; and of Dharm Nath, Kotwal. 'was taken back. So they killed themselves. Liet Bairagi Ram, Bisht, take from Abha Ram J ogi died and his wife died also, and the the cesses which all pay, but let Abha Ram others fled .for refuge to Suket. And aft~r enjoy the revenue. this their enmity fell upon us. So having called before us the grand-sons of Nanda and Written by the scribe Manku on the 16th Jogi we have given in perpetuity the village Har Sambat 39." of Sarwahan as religious gift. They shall en­ joy it without boundary or limit and shall A Copper Plate Grant-"On the 3rd day of pray for our long life and prosperity. If any Magh of the Sambat year 1884, Ram Chandra man harm them, he shall be a traitor to us, and the Hindu faith being our witnesses, we f.or the bones of the dead lie in the village, have written this holy and auspicious title &nd so we have given the land. Given in the deed. presence of Mian Dhur J atia, 18th day of "From the court of Sri Maharaja Zalim Asuj, Sambat 37." Sen, King of Kings, of eternal lineage- Re~igious grant to a physician for services rendered-"By order of the noble Mian Ishri "We have adopted as our son by the rites Sen, heir-apparent. 'Let it he known that we of the Hindu religion, the worthy Sahai, by have conferred one khar of land, revenue free caste a Brahman and by family a Lagwal. as an act of charity on Nand Bharti, Gosaon. Of our bounty we have given him a title There was sore sickness amongst the' ladies deed inscribed on a copper plate. With Shiva of the palace, but Nand Bharti effected a -and Parvati as our witnesses we have grant­ ,speedy cure and for this service we have ed to Sahai in perpetuity and as an act of granted him the sasan. Nand Bparti shall merit, one house and 2 khars, 4 lakhs of land. enjoy the produce thereof and shall ever Sahai shall possess and enjoy the land, the pray for our health and welfare. Of the nine revenue in cash and grain, the trees and khars of land contained the village, Nand bushes standing thereon and the houses and Bharti shall receive eight lakhs cultivated by the site thereof. All these shall he enjc;>y Kansa Brahman; 2 lakhs cultivated by without limit or boundary, and he shall ever Nantu Koli; and 10 lakhs cultivated by Dilu pray for our long life and welfare. We have Koli and of such land he shall have rights of. given to Sahai all cesseS of whatsoever kind, user over the trees, the roads and the drink- our right to free service, the tax on water­ - ing places for men and beast." mills, grazing fees 'on goats and the levy in kind on buffaloes. We have given also to An Inam for Services rendered-"By the Sahai our rights to service and cesses· from command of Maharaja Suraj Sen, King of .all who dwell on the land, whether they be Kings, of eternal ancestry- ~Hlers of the soil or landless laboyrers. "Jalpu, Palsra, has made petition to us that "Our children shall faithfully O'bserve this as the' noble Hari Sen conferred on him the grant and the children of 'Sahai shall enjoy village of Didnun, so many we also ~the land. We have done this benevolence. We renew the grant. As our noble father gave have given a deed on copper which shall re­ him a title-deed, so do we now bestow on main for ever. We have relinquished our hirp. a perpetual lease. We have given this rights. If a Hindu intrude on the land, then village' of Didnun to J alpu, his family and 'he shall be accursed with the curSe of the dep.endents, sons and grand-sons. So long as cow; iD a Musalman trespass then shall he be the sun and the moon, the sea and the Ganges accursed with the curse of the pig. Let none remain, so long shall they enjoy the village. intrude or trespass. We have gifted the land We remit also all begar service and cesses. as our noble brother gifted it before us: Let 'Should a man commit a sirt, may even though the god Bhut Nath and the goddess Rajeshri he be guilty of murder, and take refuge in devour the trE!spasser and intruder. We have the village, he shall be pardoned. For Jalpu Written the deed as! a supreme act of religion of· his own accord has rendered us service of ci~arm' dharmyan." _ - his merit, and has conquered for us part of. the territory round-KamIah Fort. Should any A Sasan Grant-"From the court of Sri man .tre'Spass in this village then if. he be a Raja Shamsher Sen, King of Kings,m.-eterrial Hindu lei him be regarded as a Musalman an

Service Grant-"From the court of Sri condition of residence on the grant was Maharaja Balbir Sen, King of Kings, of eter­ imposed it was rareiy enforced, nal ancestry- Pal- -Pal or maintenance grants were of a "Be it known that we have conferred on private character and were given to deserv­ Sher Singh, son of Sodha, Guleria Rajput, a ing persons ot straitened means for life, or grant of land rent free in service tenure. The for a fixed term. . area thereof is 4 khars, 4 lakhs and the re­ venue assessed thereon is Rs. 80. The said J agirs--J agirs were confined to assign­ Sher Singh shall enjoy the grant. Let him ments in favour of members of the l'uling render true and loyal service and we, the family, being so regulated as toO allow the Maharaja, will cherish and protect him. Let Mians to maintain their dignity 'Nithout per­ him commit treachery and he will reap the mitting them to obtain an undesirable fruits of his deeds. He shall keep good and amount of power. The _continuance of the proper clothes and his five weapons* in readi­ jagir was dependent on the will of the Raja ness. On whatsoever service, we the Maha­ and in theory it was liable to reduction on raja, shall send him there will he go and the death of each holder. It has also been the serve us faithfully and well. So shall he enjoy custom of the Mandi Rajas to make provision the land, the fruits and the 'revenue thereof, for their Ranis and other female dependents and the begar service appurtenant thereto." by the grant of jagirs consisting mainly o~ Various Kinds of Grants-Assignments of land. These are administered by the ladies land revenue were of various kinds and given themselves through theIr own establishments, with different motives. The grant of small and are expected to cover all expenses o:ll free-holds to menials and artisans on condi­ their households. tion of unpaid labour, when called upon to Under the Rajas' however, the jagirs of give it, was a slight mitigation of the begar the ladies in favour have always been sup­ system. Grant for military service were held plemented by private gifts and allowances. almost entirely by Rajputs, who, too proud to cultivate the land themselves, were con­ Inams and muafis-Inams and muaiis were conferred for special services, either military tent to engage hired s~rvants, enjoy the produce without payment of revenue, and or civil. They were given sometimes in per.. spend a large portion of their time in the ' petuity and sometimes without any specifica­ congenial pursuit of fighting the Raja's tion of time; but past Rajas have generally neighbours. They were liable to be called up maintamed the grants of their predecesso!s at any time, and had to appear armed and where the services were of unusual merit. equipped at their own expense. They receiv­ Religious assignments-The religious as.­ ed a mintenance allowance but no pay, and it signments are in several respects the most may be doubted whether the feudal level interesting, both because of their variety and was ever well disciplined. The establishment the light they throw on the influence of, the of law and order, on the assumption of suze­ Brahmans. The endowments of the village rainty by the Bt~tish Governm~nt, deprived gods present the features commonly found in the levy of its prImary occupatIOn; but f~w the hills. The deity is the malguzar as well of the service grants were resumed, the aSSIg­ as the assignee, and his tenants either pay nees being required either to serve for a few rent into his treasury or cultivate the land months at intervals of several years in the on condition of service. The great majori~y army and other departments, or to attend the of the gods are land-holders and several of Raja's court when summoned. The existence them hold assignments of consider~ble value of a considerable body of Rajputs living on granted either in recognition of their impor­ their rent-free tenures and with much time tance, or as a reward for a supposed miracle. on their hands was neither in the interest of The grant in favour of orthodox temples, the State nor of the grantees. Many of the most of which are situated in Mandi town, service grants were therefore resumed at the are in the hands of pujaries, and in the past recent Settlement. sufficient care has not been taken to ensure Basi-The basi or homestead grants were their proper use. The management of the originally intended as an encouragement to State temples is incharge of the Department settlement in portions of the State where of Dharmarth-religion and charity-which the population was scanty, 'but the areas administers the endowments. The Depart­ granted were usually small. Later they were ment is associated with the national god, given to favourites and sometimes in reward Madho Rao, who has himself a large assign­ for distinguished service; but although the ment. *The fire weapons were sword, shield, dagger, lance and Dlusket. 60 APPENDICES

Religious assignments or sasans are some­ priests at the famous places of Hindu pil­ times held by persons not of a priestly caste. grimage hold land obtained in this way. The They then owe their naine either. to ,the celebration of the marriage of a Brahman nature of the gift or the purpose It was girl was a common act of charity, accompani­ designed to achieve. In the first class are in­ ed by the allotment of land for her husband's cluded acts of. charity performed. on the support. The performance of domestic cere­ Raja's birthday or some other auspicious oc­ monies was often accompanied by a grant to casion, such as the marri~g~ of a Rajput's the officiating priest, and on the important daughter at the Raja's expense and bestowal public festivals the bestowal of sasans was of a dowry in land for the support of her hus­ sometimes made. In one case, as the santha band and their children. Of the second class, reproduced on page 72 shows, the Raja actual­ are gifts made to avert an evil influence, a ly adopted a Brahman as his dharmputr, or characteristic example of which may be cited. son according to professors of white magic One of the Rajas had several members of a were given revenue-free assignments either Rajput family murdered and was hunted by in perpetuity or on condition of service. Many the spirits of his victims. In order to placate obtained land simply because they were them he set up their images endowing them Brahmans. with a grant of land, which is still held by the descendants of the Rajputs on condition Nor have the Brahmans of Mandi depended of &ervice at the shrine. solely on the piety and superstition of the Rajas. Many of their santhas are derived from The majority of sasans, however, are held Mians and other members of the ruling fami­ by Brahmans, most of whom perform priest­ ly who conferred grants out of, their own ly functions, only, but ~me of whom also jagirs, the ladies of the harmsarai, in particu­ engage in agriculture. The grants are alI?ost lar, being open to Brahmanic influence. invariably in perpetuity and some are Stum­ parman without limit or boundary. There are Unfortunately, the sasans were not always several villages in which the Rajas would not used for the purpose for which they were take even a drink of water lest they should given. No bar on their alienation was impos­ ~ incur' guilt by enjpying what they had gifted ed, and hence the more powerful grantees irrevocably. There is for example a tale told added to their own grants by purchases and of one Raja who, when on tour in one of these mortgages from their poorer caste-fellows. villages, inadvertently ate the fruit ~f the Thus, although there are very few Brahman wild peach. He was soon attacked by Violent families which do not hold some land rent­ pain, and relief was affordeq only when the free, the large grants have tended to gravi­ forbidden fruit was evacuated and his teeth tate into a few hands. This tendency was en­ cleansed 01 the morsels which had clund to couraged by the influence wielded by those them. The tree from which he had plucked Brahmans who for one cause or another were the fruit withered from that day b,ut the in close touch with palace affairs. They sup­ Brahmans obtained an addition to their grant. plied the instructors of the Rajas and their Again a gift to a Brahman is a efficacious heirs, acted as spiritual advisers and" were means of removing an impending or actual selected as confidential servants. When occa­ evil. A cow was killed by accident near the sion offered they pandered to and encouraged palace and a Brahman got a gift of rentpfree the failings of their masters. They often had land. A priest and his wife: offended because great power though they did not make an they were asked to do some unusual service, open display of it in preferring to exercise it cominitted suicide out of spite their shades by palace trigues rather than by the assump­ hunted the Raja, who had to beg their rela­ tion of political office. The Brahmans of tives t'o settle in the State and accept, at his Mandi who have served as Wazir have, inde­ hands, the gift of a whole village free of re-' ed been few; but the smallness of their num­ venue. The preparation of a mantra, if it ber is no index to the authority which the proved successful, was often followed by the priestly community has always possessed. conferment of a sasan, and, since the Brah­ Nor, with a few honourable exceptions, can man was the chief diagnoser of ailments, his it be said that they have Jlsed it for the bene­ opportunities for acquiring grants were many fit of the State. Where the Khatris as a class and were rarely wasted. obtained a strong position by their superior -_ education, undoubted ability and unprincipl­ More numerous were grants of a genuine­ ed estuteness the Brahmans won their by ly religious origin, bestowed with the object personal influence, palace in trigue and reli­ of acquiring merit. No pilgrimage was com­ gious pressure. But, in both communities, plete without the conferment of land on a there have been men who served the Raja's Brahman, and both residents of the State and faithfully and honestly. APPENDICES 61

Extract from Punjab Gazetteers, Mandi though in many cases these payments repre­ state, 1920. sent the old revenue, demand; and on re­ sumption of their assignment the settlement (The old Mandi and Suket States comprise is made with them and nO.t with their tenants. the .present District Mandi of Himachal They wer.e therefore recorded as malguzars, Pradesh). the term m regard to them meaning the per­ son who would be responsible for the pay­ Land Revenue-The first Regular Settile­ ment of the revenue were it not assigned. ment-A regular settlement of the State having been desired by the late Raja Bhlwani Th~. conVnued possession of malguzars is Sen, it was sanctioned by the Punjab Gov­ condItIOnal on loyalty and obedience to the ernment. Mr. Garbett, I.e.s., joined as Set­ chief, the punctual pc:yment of land revenues tlement Officer in February 1911, but owing and cesses and the rendering of authorised to illness was obliged to leave in the follow­ dues and services. They may not, without the ing June. Mr. Gordon Walker, I.e.s., succeed­ sanction of the Raja, make any permanent or ed him at the end of October 1911, and soon temporary alienation of their holdings by af.ter he assumed charge the work of mea­ way of sale, gift, or mortgage; nor may they surement commenced. He unfortunately had create a tenan~y by way of lease for a period taken leave on medical certificate in Febr­ of more than five years. uary 1915, and was succeeded in the follow­ ing March by Mr. Emerson, I.e.s., Mr. Gordon The only private rnalguzari right recogniz­ Walker, before he gave over charge, Had ed in grass lands relates to the small areas practically completed measurement work, for which the occupiers were p~ing the re­ the system adopted being the triangulation venue at the commencement of the regular method prescribed for hill districts in the Settlement. For the rest, the Raja has been_ Punjab, field books and khataunis being pre­ entered as proprietor and the malguzars of pared in the usual way as measurement pro­ the cultivated land attached as his tenants-at­ ceeded. The unit of length adopted was the will. The tenant of the malguzar, if there be karm of 56 inches and the unit of area the one, enjoys the same status in the grass lands bigah of one-fifth of an acre. Survey was as in the cultivated land to which they ap­ generally confined to the cultivated and grass pertain. lands, but the relative positions of scattered Two classes of tenants have now been re~ patches of cultivation were_plotted on the cognised, tenants-at-will and occupancy mapping sheet with approximate accuracy 1;0 that there will be little difficulty in incorpo­ tenants. rating nautor. The usual scale was 40 karms to Occupa_ncy rights were granted:- inch, but owing to the minute sub-division of (1) if the cultivator, or his ancestor, had the holdings a scale of 20 karms had to be ad­ been in undisturbed possession for opt~d in many Villages, and in a few one of 10 karms was necessary. The total number of more than twelve years. _,/ fields measured was about 1,200,000 the aver­ (2) if the cultivator, or his ancestor, had age size of a khasra number of cultivatea hroken up the land to cultivation. land being one-ninth of an acre. The smallr (3) if the 'cultivator, or his ancestor, had ness of the fields is due to the fact that on bull t a house on the land 'or other­ partition the land is not divided out in blocks, wise made permanent improve­ the share-holders splitting up most of the ments. fields in order to secure for each his fair share of every kind of land. But although These terms were liberal, with the result differences of quality are undoubtedly con­ that 68 per cent. of the fatal area under siderable even within a small area, there is tenancy is now held in occupancy right. Their no doubt that fragmentation is carried to rights have been defined in a Tenancy Regu­ excess. lation, which, while following generally the lines of the Punjab Tenancy Act, had been Tenures-The Raja is sale proprietor of framed to meet local conditions. No occu­ the soil and no other proprietary rights exist. pancy tenant can be ejected without the pre­ Under him the superior right-holders are as­ vious sanction of. the Raja, but, subject to signees of land revenue, and malguzars, viz., this condition, he is liable to evictment_if he persons responsible for the payment of the wilfully neglects the cultivation of his hOltl­ land revenue. The former are in the vast ing, or if he fails within a period of two years majority of cases of the same status as pro­ to satisfy a decree for an arrear of rent pass­ prietary assignees in the Punjab. They: receive ed against him. Security of tenure has thus from the cultivators payments in cash or been assured, .and this is in accordance with kind which are now regarded as rent, al- popular sentiment; but, on the other hand 62 APPENDICES

the rents payable by the occupancy tenants side in her late husband's house. Chastity are not privileged ones. Succession is govern­ amongst the Kanets and lower tribes is not ed by customary rules of inheritance, which then a condition of enjoyment. The rights of inter alia give to a widow a life interest in tenants-at-will correspond generally to those the holding provided that she continues to re- enjoyed by the same class in the Punjab.

MANDI DISTRICT-Flora Belt No. I

Altitudinal range Serial Scient[iic or botanicai. name English nllme Vernacular or local r---.A------, No. name Lower Upper Remarks Limit Limit 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 Acacia Arabica Kikar 3,000 Timber and fuel. 2 Acacia Catechu Khair 4,000 Do. 3 Adhatoda Vasica Baikar, Bangha 4,000 4 Albizzia lebbek Siris 5,000 Timber and fuel. 5 Albi'L'Lia stipulata Chi 4,000 Do. 6 Arundinaria Falcata 5,000 7 Bauhinia pllrpurea Karlli 5,000 Leaves for fodder, fuel. 8 Bauhinia Variegata Kachnar 4,000 Leaves for fodder, fuel. 9 Bauhinia Vahlii Taur 2,000 5,000 Rope is made of the stem, the leaves are used as plates and made into umbrellas, wood burnt in temples. - 10 Bombax malabarioum Silk cotton tree Simbal) Simal 3,000 4,000 Valuable timber in the lower hills. 11 Butea frondosa Plash, Plah 4,000 The leaves are used for fodder I1S plates and for making umbrellas. A yellow dye is made from the flowers, a red astringent fum is obtained from the bark. 12 Cassia fistula Indian laburnum Alih, Ambal T(ls . 4,000 Seed used as a purgative. 13 Casearia tomentosa Bheri 5,000 The fruit is used as a diureiic. 14 Cedrela Toona Tun Tuni 3,000 Timber used for building, furni. ture etc. 15 Colebrookia oppositifolia. Panin'a 1,657 4,000 16 Dalbergia sissoo. Shisham Sihan, Tali 4,000 Timber tree. 17 Dendro·calamusstriotur Bamboo _!3ahanj 1,000 3,500 Used for building poles, stioks). mats. 18 Dodonaea Viscosa Sanatb 4,500 19 Ehretia leavis • Sakar 3,000 20 Erythrina suberosa . Dhauldhak 4,000 21 Eugenia Jambolana . Jamman, Jumni . 5,000 Timber and fuel, fruits are eaten. 22 Ficus bengalensis Banyan Barkat 4,000 Usually planted as shadegiver. 23 Ficus religiosa . Peepul .. ,/ Pipal 5,000 Do. 24 Ficus roschurghii -Triambal 5,000 Fodder leaves, fruit eaten. 25 Flacourtia ramontchi Kangu 4,000 26 Flemingia congesta • 3,000 5,000 27 Indigofera cordifolia 5,000 28 Kydia calicina . Dhauldhak 4,000 29 Machilus odoratissima Chan 5,000 30 Mallatus Philippinensis Kambal 4,500 The crimson powder wnich covers the capsules is used for dyeing silk. :n Mangifera I!ldica Mango Am,Amb 4,000 Timber used for building, fruit oaten. 32 Melia azedarach The persian lilak • Drek. 3,000 5;000 Oil as extracted from the fruit. 33 Murraya Koenigii • Gandheli 5,000 3

MANDl DISTRICT-Belt No. II

Altitudinal rango r-______.J...... ,---.., Serial Scientific or botanical name English name Vernacular or Lower Upper Remarlul No. local name limit limit 2,000 9,000

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1 AceI' obl<>ngum 2,000 6,000 2 Ainsliaea a pteI'll. 6,000 8,000 3 Alnus nepalensis Alder KQsh 3,000 9,000 Timber, fuel, bark for tanni ng.

4, Anaphalis cinnamomea 5,000 9,000

5 Arnndinaria Faioata Hill Bamboo Nirgal 4,000 7,500 Stems are used for pipes, baske~ work etc. 1'1 Berberia lyeioum Barbary Kashmal 3,000 7,000 The frui~ is eaten, Besailt, an extraot prepared from thll root is used as a febrifuge. Brush­ w60d used for fuel hedges etc.

"I Boannighausania Albiflora Pissumar 4,000 B,OOO 8 Buddloia Panioulata Chiti boi 2,500 8,000--

9 Bunus Sampervirens Box Su=a, Shamshad 5,000 9,000 W60d used for oombs etc. 10 Ca.riBBa spinarum Karunda 6,000 11 Carpinus viminea Hernbeam ChiI' . 5,000 9,000 Fuel and fodder. 12 Cedrela serrata. Hill Tun DarB. 4,00~ 8,000 Timber used for furniture. 13 Cor1!u_s Capitata The stmw berry Thramal 3,500 7,000 Fruit edihle. 14 Cornus maorophylla . Kandar 4,000 8,000 15 Desmedium fioribunda. 5,000 7,000 16 Engel hardtia colebrookia.na Samma 6,000 17 Fious Palmata Phagra 9,000 Fuol, fruit e&to~ 18 Fr:1garia Indioa Paljor 3,000 8,000

19 Fra.xin~ floribunda . Ash Angu 5,000 9,000 Timber, Manna exudes from the bark by incision.

20 Grewia oppositifolia . Biyuhal, biul 6,000 Wood used for pole (tangri) or the field roller (mol) leaves for fodder. The fibres of the inner bark are made into role!­ Dry branohes are used for torch wood and fruit is eaten.

!l Hedara.-Helix . Bankakari 6,000 8,000 22 Inula. Cuspida.ta 4,000 7,000 23 Litsea Umbrosa ChirimU 3,000 9,000 23.A Lizyphus Jujuba Ber, Bllre 6,000 Fruit edible. 24 M~ru8 Indioa Mulberry Tut 7,000 Fruit eaten, timber '-_and fuel. 24-A Morus Serrata Do. Chumu 4,000 9,000 Domestio utensils, fodder tree. 25 Myrsine Africana Bebrang, Sh,llmshad 2,000 9,000 26 Myrioa Nagi Kiaiphal, Kafal 3,000 6,000 27 Olea ouspidata Olive Ifahu 2,000 6,000 Walking stioks, fuel and fodder, APPENl>ICES

MANDl DISTRICT-Belt No. II-'-contd.

Altitudinal range r-_____)'--~ Serial Scientific or botanical name English name Vernacular or local Lower Upper Remarks No. name limit limit 2,000 9,~00

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

28 Pleotranthus Rugosus Chhichhri 3,000 8,000 29 Potentilla nephlansis Rattanjot 5,000 9,000 30 Prinsepia utilis Bekhal 2,000 9,000 Oil obtained from the seeds is used for food, illumination and external application. 31 Prunnus Puddum Paja 2,000 6,000 Fodder \eaves and fuel. 32 Punioa Granatam Pomegrannte Anar, Daru 3,000 6,000 Fruit eaten, bark as a dye and for ehuerey.

33 Pyrus p:tshia Kainth, Segal :l,500 8,000 Wood used for Agricultural implements. 34 Quercus dilatata Hoilyoak Mehru 4,.500 9,000 Agricultural implements, leaves for {odder bark for tanning. 35 Quercus Glauca Green oak Banni 2,000 6,000 Fuel and fodder.

36 Quercus Inc~na, White oak Ban 3,000 8,000 Fuel charcoal, fodder, bark for tanning, for building and agri. cultural implement. / . 37 Rhus ootinus Venetian sumach Tung Titri 3,000 6,000 The wood is used for dying wool, Orange or scarlet the bark and leaves for tanning. 38 Rhus Punjabensi Titri . 4,000 8,000 The juice is highly sorosive and raises blisters on the skin. The heart wood is used for building furniture etc. Galls which form on the leaveH known as Kakri singhi arJ used for medicine.

39 RhuB Wallichi • '//RikhaI 5,000 8,000 Do.

40 Rosa Moschata Tarni 4,000 8,000

41 Rubus ellipticus Aneha,Xkha 2,000 7,000

42 Rubus Paniculatus -Radp berry Kalakha, Lisri 3,000 7,000 Fruit eaten.

43 Salix Babylonica _ Weaping Willon Maxnun 9,000 Planted as shade giver.

44 Saliva glutinosa 6,000 9,000

45 Sarcococea Pruniformis 5,000 9,000

46 Spiraea Canescens 5,000 9,000

4~ Staphylea emodi Nagdaun 6,000 9,000 Walking sticks made of this wood, orange or scarlet the bark and leaves for tanning.

48 Symplocos cretaegoides 2,000 8,000 A yellow dye. is obtained from ,the leaves and bark.

49 Viola sarpens • 5,000 7,000

50 Wiks·troemia.canescens 5,000 9,000 APPENDIcres 65

MANDl DISTRICT-Belt No. III

Altitudinal range ,-_____!\..------, Serial Scientific or botanical name English name Vernacular or local Lower Gpper Remarks No. name limit limit 2,000 9,000 1 2 3 456 7

Ables Pindrow Silver fir Tos 7,000 12,000 Timber trees. 2 Acer cassium Indian horse KhanOl: 4,000 12,000 Walking Hticks mHl" treo. 24 Populus ciliata Himalayan Poplar Pahari Pipal 4,000 10,01l0 Plantod a8 shade giver, fuel and fodder. 25 Prunus Padua . Herb bennet Jamun 4,000 10,000 l!'uel. 26 Prunus Arnienieca Apricot. Aru 12,000 Fruit eaten. 27 Pyrus Lanata . Palo. 8,000 IV,OOO 28 Quercus semecarpifolia Red Oak Kharsu 6,000 1:],000 Fuel, charcoal, fodder, bark for tanning, agricultural imple­ ments, and in places for build­ ing. 29 Rhododendron arboreum Apricot Brah. 4,001) 10,000 Fuel. The flowers are made into chutney and the wood into agricultur

MANDl DISTRICT~Be1.t No. IV-4,OOO to 13,249

Altitudinal range r-----l'----. Serial Scientific or botanical name English name Vernacular or Lower Upper Remarke No. local name limit- limit 2,000 9,000 1 2 3 456 7 1 Anemone obtusiloba Rattanjog 8,000 13,24.9 2 Betula Utilia Birch Bhojpatta 4,000 13,249 The bark is used as paper for writing and packing and alao for umbrella covers. 3 Primula dentioulata 7,000 13,000 4 Pyrus Aucuparia Rowan Rattal, rung, grek 9,000 13,000 l5 Thymus serphylum Marho 5,000 13,000 6 Viburnum nervosum. Amrola 10,000 13,000

Belt No. V-(Miscellaneous)

Altitudinal range "---, Serial Scientific or botanical name -English name Vernacular or Lower Upper Remarks No. local name limit limit 2,000 9,000 1 :I 3 4 5 6 7 1 Micromeria biflorus 1,657 7,000 2 Pinue longifolia Chirpil'e Chll 1;657 8,000 The resin is used as a drelllling fOr sOres. 3 Rhus pistacia intergerrimo. Kakre, Kakar 1,657 8,000

MANDl DISTRICT-Bert Fauna

Altitudinal range .--- L-._____ .., Heri",l English name Scientific name Lo('al name Below Mid land High Passen· No. 4,000 ft. 4,000 to land ger Remarke 8,000 ft. about 8,000 ft. 1 2 3 4 567 8 9

Birds-

1 Alline swift Micropus melba 2 Black partridge Francolinus francolinus .. Upto 5,000 Ft. 3 Blue bearded bee eater Upto 5,000 Ft. 4 Blue rock pigeon Columba-livia. .. is Bulbul (spp) 6- Cheer pheasant. Catreus waUichii - Chir 5,000 to 8,500 Ft.

7" Chukor, ~ Alectoris graeca Chikor .• .. 4,000 to 6,000 Ft. 8 Cinnamon tree sparrow Passer rutilans ., .• 4,000 to 9,000 Ft. 9 Common swallow Hirundo rustica 10 Cuckoos (spp) . - .. ·11 Dark grey bush chat Rhodophila ferrea 7--_ 4,000 to 10,OOOlft. 12 Duck (spp) - 13 Falcon (spp)

14 Fly c~tcher (spp) ,/ 15 Forest elLgle (spp) •• MANDl DISTRICT-Belt Fauna-coritd.

Altitud.i.n.o.l ra.nge Remarks Serial English name Scientific name Local name Below Mid land High Passen­ No. 4,000ft. 4,000 to land ger 8,000 ft. about. 8,000 ft. 1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9

16 Gold finch. Upto 7,000 Ft. 17 Golden eagle Aquila chrysaetus Found in high altitude. 18 Goshawk. Aslur Gentilis 19 Green finch Hypacanthis.spinoides 4,000 to 9,000 Fl. 20 Grey partridge Francolinus pondiceria- nUB. Upto 15,000 ft. 21 H~wk (~pp) 22 Himalayan nut creacker Niicifraga caryoca£.~te8 Found in oonifer forest. 23 Himalayan tree pie . Dendrocitta vagabunda Found in eTar­ green fOl est. 24 Himalayan wood pigeon Palumbus casiotis Kail forests. 25 Horned pheasant Tragupan m-elanoceph- Jujurana or Found in high ara Phulga. elevation. 26 Jungle fowl (spp) 27 Kalij pheasant . Genndeus leucon~lanus Kalij Or Kalesar From foot of hills to 9,000 Yt. 28 Kite (spp) .. ' 29 Koklas pheasant Pucrasia macrolopha Koklas or Kwaksa 7,000 to 10,000 Ft. 30 Lammergeir Gypaetus barbatus 3~ Laughing thrush Tr:Qchalopteron erythro- 6,000 to 9,000 Ft. cephalu!ll. In summer and upto 4,000 Ft. in winter. 32 Laughing thrush (White Monticola solotaria Upto 7,000 Ft. throa.ted). - 33 Monal Lophophorus impejanus Monal .• "From 9,000 to 11)}00Ft. 34 Orange mining Wilt Pericrocopus Hammeus Upto 6,000- Ft. 35 Owl (spp) . ., 36 Peacock Pavo cristatus Mor 2,000 to 6,000 Ft. 37 Pipit Anthu8 rufulus . Upto 6,000 Ft. 38 Plubeons red-start Myacronis fuliginosa . 4,000 to 13,000 Ft. 39 Quail Coturnix coromandelicus Bater .. Upto 7,000 Ft. 40 Red headed trogon Harpa.ctes erythroce- .. ..' phalus. 41 Ruby throat Calliope pecporalis 42 Rufous babbler. Dnnetia h~erythra "'"' From the foot of - the hill to 5,500 Ft. 43 Show pigeon Columba. leuconota. .. ' • 44 Shrikes (spp) 45 Simla bliwk tit Pams nuchalis ..., 6,000 to 10,000 ":'or -_mOre. 46 Spotted babbler. Pellorneum ruficeps 'A' .. From thefoot of the hill to 5,500 Ft. • 47 Spotted f~rktail E!licuruB Il!aculatus .., .,. 3,000 to 12,000 Ft. 48 Tickellis willow Warbler .. ' .... ' Upto 8,000 Ft. 68 APPENDICES

MANDl DISTRICT-Belt Fauna-coneld. Altitudinal range

~ Serial English name Scientific name Local name Below Mid land High Passen- No. 4,000 ft. 4,000 to land, ger Remarks 8,000 ft. about 8,000 ft. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 49 Vulture (spp) Found in higher altitude. 50 Wag tails.(spp) . 51 Warblers (spp) . 52 Whistling thrush . Myothonu~ temminckii .j Upto 15,000 Ft. 53 White capped, redstart Chaimarrhornis laueoee- 6,000 to 16,000 phala. Ft. 54 Wood cock Scolopax rustieola 4,000 to 8,000 Ft. 55 Wood partridge Arboricola torqueolq , 6,000 to 8,000 Ft. Fishes 56 Mahsir Barbus tor Khakiaru Mahsir Seer (Big) Serra (Small) Sirdu (Small) 57 Mountain barbel Amblyceps mangois Joghi y. Babus stigma Bharta Barilills bendilisis Pata Barillls wagra Patli Cerrhina lotia. . Topra Glyptosternllm Pectino- Nai pterum LlIheo diplo~tomus Geor Memachilus rupicola . Dundai Ophiocephalus gachlla Wanka Karot Orienus sinuatus Ohith (small) Gugal Guntal . Sal ( ig) • Saloti Swali Mammels- 58 Barking deer Mtlhtiacus muntjak . Kakkar • Himalayas from hill foot to 9,000 Ft. 59 Black hear Selenarctos thibetanus Bhalu Common upto 11,000 Ft. 60 Flying fox . Pteropns Edwarclsil ... /. 61 Flying sqliirrel (Spp) 62 Goral Comas gorm Ghoral From 1,000 to 9,000 Ft. 63 Gothus 64 ,Taclral Capis aureus Gidder- 65 Langur (spp) 66 Leopard • Ba:nthera padua Chitta, Brag Common in jungles. 67 Monl,eys ~spp) _." Macacus 68 Musk deer' Moschus moschiferrous 69 Pig. •. . Sus ~ritatus, sus indicus Soor Upto 7,000 Ft. 70 Pine marten (spp) 71 Porcupine' (spp) -' 72 Rhesus monkey Macacus R,hesus • 73 Seroo/Fo: (spp) Cal'rieornis sumatrraen- Sarao 8,000 to 12,000 sis. Ft./6,000 to 12,000 Ft. 74.- Wild cat' • . Felis chaus Ban bili • RaptiZes 75 Cobra . Naia tripudians 76 Grass snakes Dryophis mycterizans_ 77 Karait Bunsrarus Candidus • --- 78 Leeches 79 Rock lizarl]s 80 Vipers (spp) 81 White snakes .. .'. APPENDICES 69

VILLAGE SURVEY MONOGRAPHS District Chamba District Mahasu Chitrari, Chamba Tehsil (Price: Rs. 3.60). Shakrori, Seoni Sub-Tehsil (Price: Rs. 3.00) Batal, Arki Tehsil. Devi Kothi, Chaurah Tehsil (Price: Rs. 3.10), Shathala, Kumharsain Sub-Tehsil (Price: Maingal, Chamba Tehsil. Rs.5). Lakkar Mandi, Bhattiyat Tehsil. Delath, Rampur Tehsil. Hatli, Bhattiyat Tehsil (P.rice: Rs. 3.40). Dodra and K war, Rohru Tehsil. Brahmaur, Brahmaur Sub-'l'ehsil (Price: Chergaon, Rohru Tehsil. Rs.4.2"O). Purag, Kotkhai Sub-Tehsil. Kuphw, Parmars, Malet and Karoti (Thamph) Gijari, Theog Tehsil (Price: Rs. 2.45). Pangi Sub-Tehsil (Price: Rs. 4.40). Chaunri, Kasumpti Tehsil. Basal, Solon Tehsil. District Mandi Chaupal, Chaupal Tehsil. Chauntra, Jogindarnagar Tehsil [Present Jubbal, Jubbal Tehsil. Issue]. ., Bir, Mandi Sadar Tehsil. District Sirmur Rawalsar, Mand:i Sadar Tehsil. Mangarh, Pachhad Tehsil. Kot, Sarkaghat Tehsil. Raj ana, Raink~ Tehsil. Panjain, Chichot Tehsil. Moginand, Nahan Tehsil (Price: Rs. 3.75). Nalag, Sundarnagar Tehsil. Kolar, Paonta Tehsil (Price: Rs. 3.45). Pangna, Karsog Tehsil. Kamrao, Paonta Tehsil. District Kinnaur District Bilaspur Kothi, Kalpa Sub-Division (Price: Rs. 3.55). Debli, Bilaspur Sada'r TehsiL Nacharr, Nachar Sub~Division. Dari and Dabhla, Ghamarwin Tehsil, Kanum, Poo Sub-Division.

CENTRAL GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS 1961 Census Report, Volue XX, Himachal Pradesh, 'will be in the following parts- General Report. V-B(I) Ethnographic Notes on Scheduled Report ~n Vital Statistics and ,Fer- Castes and Scheduled Tribes. tility Survey V-B(II) A stuciy- of Ga:ddi Scheduled Tribes Subsidiary Tables and affiliated castes by Prof. I-e William H. Newell. II-A General Population Tables and Pri- mary Census Abstracts (Price: VI Village Survey M.onographs (35 Rs. 1.75). villages).· U-B Economic Tables. VII-A Survey of Handicrafts. II-C Cultural and Migration Tables VII-B Fairs and Festivals. . III Household: Ecdnomic Tables IV Report on Housing and Establish- VIII-A Ad.ministration Report-Enumera_ ments (Price: Rs. 15.50. De Luxe: bon (for official-:u.s.e_ ~o~y). Rs. 26.50). VIII-B AdmtintstratiO!n Report-Ta bulaiion V-A Special Tables on Scheduled Castes (for official use only). and Scheduled Tribes (including reprints). IX Maps (Atlas). 70

1961 CENSUS HIMACHAL PRADESH GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS

District Handbook, Chamba

District Handbook, Mandi

District Hand:book Bilaspur

District Handbook, Mahasu

District Handbook, Sirmur

District Handbook, Kinnaur

M/P(D)8SCOHP-lOOO-1~-7 -BCi--GIPS