21st Conference on Language for Specific Purposes2017

21st Conference on Language for Specific Purposes 2017

NORGESNORGES HANDELSHØYSKOLE HANDELSHØYSKOLE Interdisciplinary knowledge-making: NorwegianNorwegian School School of Economics of Economics HelleveienHelleveien 30 30 5045 5045Bergen Bergen CHALLENGES FOR T (+47)T 55(+47) 95 5590 95 00 90 00 W nhh.noW nhh.no LSP RESEARCH

28-30 June 2017

UniversitetetUniversitetet i Bergen i Bergen PostboksPostboks 7800 7800 50205020 Bergen Bergen T (+47)T 55(+47) 58 5500 58 00 00 00 BOOK OF ABSTRACTS W uib.noW uib.no

Dear participants

On behalf of the Norwegian School of Economics (NHH), and more specifically the Department of Professional and Intercultural Communication, we are pleased to welcome you to Bergen (which also hosted the LSP conference in 1993), and to the 21st Conference on Language for Specific Purposes. The theme of the conference this time is “Interdisciplinary Knowledge-making: Challenges for LSP Research”.

Based on the submitted abstracts, the programme this time comprises six thematic tracks and eight workshops. The tracks deal with the following themes: Terminology, Legal discourse, LSP teaching, Specialized translation, Specialized discourse & Knowledge communication, Multilingualism & Language planning.

We would like to thank the convenors of the workshops for their efforts to enable more focused discussions of key topics. One of the workshops, the ‘Fachsprache Forum for Early-Stage Researchers in LSP’, provides junior members of the LSP community with an excellent opportunity to introduce their research plans, address their methodology or discuss other relevant issues of their research with senior researchers in the field.

We thank our institution, NHH, as well as the Department of Linguistic, Literary and Aesthetic Studies at the University of Bergen, for financial support. We are grateful to Tomoe Sakamoto at the Department of Finance, NHH, for helping us with producing this book of abstracts. We also wish to thank the Municipality of Bergen for hosting a reception for the conference participants in Håkonshallen.

LSP research and teaching are currently facing challenging conditions in academic environments in several countries. It is our hope that the 21st Conference on Language for Specific Purposes – with a theme encouraging collaboration across disciplines – will provide an opportunity for fruitful academic exchanges as well as enjoyable social interaction. We are convinced that this will contribute to keeping up and further developing research within this important field.

Regards

The Organizing Committee:

Gisle Andersen, Trine Dahl, Marita Kristiansen and Maja Dame (NHH)

Øivin Andersen (University of Bergen)

Contents

1. Keynote Speakers

2. Session Papers

3. Posters

4. Workshops

1. KEYNOTE SPEAKERS

The role of language in the climate change issue – a cross-disciplinary initiative

Kjersti Fløttum University of Bergen

Tackling climate change and transitioning towards a low carbon and sustainable society constitute one of the most pressing issues facing humanity today. Opinions and attitudes on important questions in this context are represented in multiple contemporary discourses. These discourses take many forms and are characterised by intricate multivoicedness. Divergent and convergent voices (scholars from different fields, politicians, NGOs, media, citizens) are variously represented, explicitly or implicitly. Accounting for such discourses, their role in societal and individual interactions and their influence on opinions and actions presents a major challenge for linguistic and discursive analysis. Current research shows that the meaning people ascribe to climate change (e.g. their understanding of the phenomenon, their perception of risks involved, the corresponding value judgments and emotional reactions) is closely related to how climate change is portrayed in the communication. One reason for the crucial role of language in this context is that climate change has in recent years moved from being predominantly a physical and scientific phenomenon to being simultaneously a political, social, ethical, cultural and communicational phenomenon. Thus, there is a need to know more about to what extent and in what way language matters. This was the point of departure for establishing the cross- disciplinary project LINGCLIM, short for Linguistic representations of climate change discourse and their individual and collective interpretation. LINGCLIM’s overarching research question was formulated as follows: to what extent and in what way does language matter? In order to investigate some of the many issues related to this question, we established a cross-disciplinary collaboration including researchers from climate science, political science, psychology and expertise from computational science for analysing large volumes of text. In the first part of this talk I will present some of the main components of the LINGCLIM project, discuss reasons for developing the cross- disciplinary collaboration and introduce some general thoughts about challenges and opportunities in this kind of collaboration. In the second part I will present some results from the project, with a focus on two areas: first, an introduction to what we have called “climate change narratives”, mostly limited to the textual level of analysis; and second, a discussion of the notion “survey discourse”, corresponding to citizens’ freely formulated answers to open-ended survey questions related to the issue of climate change.

Banking on text: Interdisciplinary perspectives on communication in economics and finance

Maria Teresa Musacchio University of Padova

Since the 1980s investigations into communication in economics and finance have generated considerable interest as economists and financiers have increasingly recognized the importance of an awareness of their use of language (McCloskey 1985). In the early 1990s the concern still existed that raising awareness had been achieved at the cost of concealing the features that distinguish economics and finance from other disciplines (Henderson et al. 1993). The call for a methodology in a dialogic relationship with other theories and methods in an interdisciplinary way was grounded on the idea that language is central to any science since knowledge claims are largely dependent on language. Still, studies focusing on language had an influence on many of the humanities and social sciences, while economics and finance were largely unaffected because of developments that have taken them away from other social sciences. Indeed, they have become increasingly formal and mathematical, while their need for sophistication and rigour outweighed concerns with meaning and interpretation. These trends have been bolstered by changes in the essence of government, calling for wide deployment of normative economics, regulatory finance and large-scale economic and financial statistics to support policy measures. Focusing on economics and finance in research settings on the one hand and on business communication on the other, applied linguistic investigations have provided information about economics and finance as part of a broader academic culture, and about business as part of professional and organizational culture (cf. Dahl 2008; Crawford Camiciottoli 2010; Garzone 2012). In my talk, I will build on these lines of research to sketch an integrated, interdisciplinary methodology for the analysis of communication in economics and finance. Following a discussion of contributions from other disciplines, I will focus on major changes in the recent history of economics and finance to highlight shifting articulations between genres, discourses and styles. The range of variation will be considered to capture the multiple dimensions of dynamic patterns between stability and change, using qualitative and quantitative analysis of texts about the latest economic and financial crisis and the international banking system. At observational level , economic and financial genres will be regarded as dynamic patterns or “sites of contention between stability and change” (Berkenkotter and Huckin 1995: 6). At descriptive level, text grammar will be combined with lexico-grammar to outline crucial points in the discourse of economics and finance. At explanatory level, economic and financial theory (Geraats 2014, Appadurai 2015), the history of economics (Cendron and Tusset 2014), the rhetoric and sociology of science will be considered to account for emerging patterns. Discourse by experts addressing multiple stakeholders in society will be analysed and implications for multilingual, multicultural communication and translation will be drawn.

References Appadurai A. (2015) Banking on Words: The Failure of Language in the Age of Derivative Finance, Chicago, University of Chicago Press. Berkenkotter C. and Huckin T. N. (1995) Genre Knowledge in Disciplinary Communication: Cognition/Culture/Power, Mahwah, NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Cendron F. and Tusset G. (2014) “Central banks’ transparency: words as signals”, History of Economic Thought and Policy, 3(2) 2014, 49-76

Viewing interdisciplinary research discourses about environmental change through corpus analysis

Paul Thompson University of Birmingham, UK

While the notion of ‘discipline’ itself is increasingly under threat as problem-focused research activity pushes towards greater crossing of what were once considered boundaries (Trowler , Saunders and Bamber 2012), we still hold on to this fundamental concept in the description of how knowledge and knowledge construction activities are structured. With ESP/EAP, discipline continues to be a powerful category and in the last decade and a half studies of disciplinary variation have taken centre stage. Hyland’s (2000) monograph on disciplinary discourses and subsequent work on metadiscourse (e.g., Hyland 2005) have pioneered a raft of studies of how, on aggregate, the linguistic features and rhetorical organisations of texts differ from discipline to discipline.

However, EAP researchers have now begun to challenge the idea that disciplinary variation is everything. As Bethany Gray’s (2015) book puts it, discipline tells only part of the story - other important factors are the research paradigms followed, the blend of approaches adopted, and the audiences that are addressed. In this talk, I will report on a two year project conducted at the University of Birmingham, funded by the Economic and Social Research Council, and in collaboration with Elsevier, that explored interdisciplinary research discourse (and monodisciplinary research discourse too) through corpus analysis of eleven journals in the period 2001-2010. This project has taken a primarily datadriven approach to text clustering. Using multidimensional analysis (Biber 1988 and later) and topic modelling (Blei and Lafferty 2007) we explored possible groupings of texts on linguistic features alone. The proximity of world view and of research paradigm is seen to be a key factor, while, conversely, the recognition of distance is observed to be a feature of healthy interdisciplinary research communication.

2. SESSION PAPERS

A Nursing and Medical Special Meanings Vocabulary List: An ESP Teaching Material Development

Aletha Alfarania (National Taiwan Normal University) and Shioumai Su (Chang Gung University of Science and Technology)

National Council Licensure Examination of Registered Nurse (NCLEX RN exam) is a test of nursing knowledge intended for nursing professionals who aim to work in English speaking countries. The current study introduces an NCLEX RN exam-specific vocabulary teaching material for non-English speaking nursing professionals who plan to take the particular test. The RN word list (Alfarania, Huang, & Su, 2015), which contains 1,946 words from 35 complete RN exams, was used as a database to extract words having both general and nursing/medical-specific meanings. After a consultation with a professional nursing teacher followed by a meticulous meaning analysis of the words using Oxford online dictionary, Macmillan dictionary, and Merriam-Webster medical dictionary, 213 out of 1,946 words in the RN word list were found to bear special meanings other than in general English. Those words and their special nursing/medical meanings were later collected to compile a new list − The Nursing and Medical Special Meanings Word List. Finally, pedagogical and future research implications of this newly developed ESP vocabulary teaching material are also discussed.

A parallel corpus-based study of metaphoric terminology in English and Serbian

Jelena Anđelković and Gordana Jakić (both University of Belgrade)

One of the most common mechanisms of term formation in English today is the extension of meaning based on metaphoric meaning transfer, which results in the creation of metaphoric terms for newly emerging concepts. In this paper we investigate the extent to which knowledge transfer from English into Serbian is followed by metaphoric meaning transfer through the process of secondary term formation (Sager 1990: 80).

The study is based on an extensive specialized English − Serbian parallel corpus that consists of research articles from the domain of management. The domain itself has been chosen due to its extreme dependence on English in term formation processes, and a growing number of unadapted and partly adapted anglicisms, out of which many are metaphoric terms.

By comparing the frequency and other characteristics of metaphorically modelled terms in English and Serbian, this paper attempts to answer the following questions: (1) in what ways are English metaphoric terms transferred into Serbian, (2) what factors influence their translatability, (3) to what extent do metaphoric terms cause terminology variation in Serbian, (4) whether or not metaphoric terms represent an obstacle to knowledge transfer and understanding, and (3) whether or not terms created by means of metaphoric meaning extension represent a challenge to Serbian terminology standardization.

Exploring the preparation of engineering students towards EMI through ESP courses

Elisabet Arnó-Macià (Polytechnic University of Catalonia), Marta Aguilar-Pérez (Polytechnic University of Catalonia) and Dietmar Tatzl (FH JOANNEUM University of Applied Sciences)

Recently there has been a trend towards EMI [English Medium Instruction] with increasing numbers of programmes taught in English (Wächter & Maiworm, 2014). On the other hand, there has been a long tradition of ESP courses aiming at preparing students for effective academic and professional communication. In relation to ESP/EMI interplay, an apparent need that emerges in university ESP courses is to prepare students to participate in EMI classes. With this need in mind, this study looks at the impact of ESP courses on university students of engineering in two European universities (Spain and Austria). We investigated four ESP classes from a polytechnic university in Spain (n = 78) and one from a university of applied sciences in Austria (n = 17) to track participants’ perceptions of how ESP courses prepared them for academic communication in general and EMI in particular (N = 95). The data come mainly from surveys administered both at the start and at the end of an ESP course. Students were asked about their perceived initial level of proficiency, their expectations and learning objectives (first survey, T1) as well as their perceived development in the different skills, degree of fulfilment of their initial learning objectives and their evaluation of the ESP course as preparation for EMI (second survey, T2). These data were complemented with qualitative diary entries from students (n = 7) who reflected on their learning at different stages of their ESP course. A preliminary analysis of data points to overall satisfaction with ESP courses, and the results are expected to shed light on students’ strategies and on areas where ESP can contribute to better EMI preparation.

Reference Wächter, B., & Maiworm, F. (Eds.). (2014). English-taught programmes in European higher education: The state of play in 2014. Bonn, Germany: Lemmens.

Cultural values of corporate websites around the globe

Tunde Bajzat (University of Miskolc)

The existence of a company essentially relies on communication, because communication establishes the relationship among the company’s employees in order to cooperate in achieving the proposed goal. Corporate communication can be internal or external. External communication takes place between the company and its external environment such as other companies, the society itself, other economic performers, the company’s contract partners, etc. One of the aims of external communication is to collect, analyze, process and utilize company information, and the other aim is to give information about the company itself (Borgulya, 2007). Corporate websites are means to provide information to the public about the company.

Recently globalization, historical and political changes, technological innovations, workforce mobility, and the growing number of subsidiary companies around the world have influenced corporate communication as well. Therefore, the aim of the paper is to show how cultural values are reflected on corporate websites.

The first part of the paper presents the theoretical background of the research, that is, Geert Hofstede’s cultural dimensions theory. Hofstede described six dimensions to describe the effects of a society’s culture on the values of its members and how these values relate to behaviour. The dimensions are the following: Individualism versus Collectivism, Uncertainty avoidance, Power distance, Masculinity versus Femininity, Long versus Short Term Orientation and Indulgence versus Restraint (Hofstede, 1984; 2010).

The second part analyzes local and international companies’ websites around the globe and presents to what extent cultural values – described in Hofstede’s theory – are reflected in the written information and the graphical features of the corporate websites. The paper also compares the cultural values of local and international companies’ websites.

References Borgulya, Á. (2007): A vállalati és az üzleti kommunikáció. In: Borgulya, Á. – Somogyvári, M.: Kommunikáció az üzleti világban. Budapest, Akadémiai Kiadó. Hofstede, G. (1984): Culture’s consequences: International differences in work-related values. Sage Publications, Beverly Hills. Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J., Minkov, M. (2010): Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind. McGraw-Hill, USA.

Debating ‘migration’: a corpus-assisted discourse analysis approach to interdisciplinary research

Cinzia Bevitori (University of Bologna)

The paper is a by-product of a recent, interdisciplinary research project, bringing together various disciplines and methodologies, aiming at critically assessing the European Union’s impact on global justice by looking at different areas. One such area is 'migration', broadly including asylum and refugees, an issue which has been raising a number of dilemmas with regard to justice for the EU and its member states, as it hints at fundamental (and possibly) conflicting principles within the Union.

Moving from the assumption that justice is a ‘human construction’ (Waltzer 1986), and that different theoretical conceptions of justice are at stake (Eriksen 2016), the paper will draw on corpus-assisted discourse analysis methodologies (inter alia, Partington, Morley and Haarman eds 2004; Baker 2006; Morley and Bayley eds 2009) to critically analyse what and how perspectives on ‘justice’ are negotiated at national level by looking at a specialised corpus of British parliamentary debates on ‘migration’. Although a number of corpus-based studies, from critical discursive analytical perspectives, have focussed on representations of migrants and asylum seekers, they have mostly concentrated on newspaper discourse (e.g. Baker et al. 2008; Taylor 2014), as well as on discourse of discrimination in different institutional contexts (e.g. Wodak and van Dijk eds. 2000; Kryzanowski and Wodak 2008). The present research assumes dimensions of (global) justice as a core concern with the aim to discuss what and how understandings of justice emerge in this distinctive type of institutional and political domain, regulated by long-standing conventions (Bayley ed 2004), which may be considered as a privileged site of the ‘struggle over meanings’ (Miller 1997; see also Bevitori 2005, 2006). It will also reflect on the methodological challenge of analysing complex discursive issues through the lens of corpora and how this can contribute to an interdisciplinary agenda.

References Baker, P. 2006. Using Corpora in Discourse Analysis. London: Continuum. Baker, P., Gabrielatos, C., KhosraviNik, M., Krzyzanowski, M., McEnery, T and Wodak, R. 2008. ‘A useful synergy? Combining critical discourse analysis and corpus linguistics to examine discourses of refugees and asylum seekers in the UK press’, Discourse and Society, 19(3): 273–306. Bayley, P. (ed). Cross-cultural Perspectives on Parliamentary Discourse. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Bevitori, C. 2005. ‘Attribution as evaluation: a corpus-based investigation of quotations in parliamentary discourse’, ESP ACROSS CULTURES, 2: 7–20. Bevitori C. 2006. ‘Speech Representation in Parliamentary Discourse. Rhetorical Strategies in a Heteroglossic Perspective: A Corpus-based Study’, in Studies in Specialized Discourse, Bern: Peter Lang, Linguistics insights, 41, pp. 155–180. Eriksen, E.O. 2016. ‘Three Conceptions of Global Political Justice’, ARENA Centre for European Studies, University of Oslo. GLOBUS Research Paper 1/2016. Krzyżanowski, M. and Wodak, R. 2009. The Politics of Exclusion: Debating Migration in Austria. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers. Miller D.R. 1999. ‘Meaning up for grabs: Value-orientation patterns in British parliamentary debates on Europe’. In J. Verschueren (ed.) Language and Ideology: Selected Papers from the 6th International Pragmatic Conference. Vol. 1, 386–404. IPrA: Antwerp, Belgium. Morley, J. and Bayley, P. (eds). 2009. Corpus-assisted discourse studies on the Iraq conflict: Wording the war. New York: Routledge. Partington, A., Morley, J. and Haarrman, L. (eds) 2004. Corpora and Discourse. Bern: Peter Lang. Taylor, C. 2014. ‘Investigating the representation of migrants in the UK and Italian press: A cross-linguistic corpus-assisted discourse analysis’, International Journal of Corpus Linguistics, 19(3): 368–400. Walzer, M. 1983. Spheres of justice: A defence of pluralism and equality. Oxford: Robertson. Wodak, R. and van Dijk T. eds. 2000. Racism at the Top: Parliamentary Discourses on Ethnic Issues in Six European States. Drava Verlag, Klagenfurt.

Analysing professional discourse in a changing workplace: The case of academia

Stephen Bremner (City University of Hong Kong)

The gradual transformation of universities into institutions that increasingly resemble corporate enterprise means that the activities of academics, traditionally seen as confined to teaching, research and administration (Lea and Stierer, 2009), have expanded into other areas. With these activities come new discursive demands, particularly in terms of writing, and the genres conventionally associated with academia are being joined by texts that reflect the new realities of corporate accountability. This makes it difficult to set the boundaries of what can be considered ‘academic discourse’, and raises the question of whether discourses more generally can be seen as ‘belonging’ to particular communities, as is implied, for example, by Bhatia’s (2008) notion of interdiscursivity.

In the light of the changing nature of the workplace and the increasingly porous nature of professional communities (Kwan, 2014), how can we usefully characterise the discourses used by members of such communities in their day-to-day writing? This study considers this question in the context of a Hong Kong university, seeking to describe the discursive demands made on academics in their writing, and thereby to illustrate the ways in which the expanding role of the writer in the contemporary workplace might challenge traditional notions of discourses as being associated with particular professional communities.

Taking a genre analytic approach, the study looks at a variety of texts, including everyday workplace documents, marketing literature, proposals, requests and reports, and considers how “discourse modes” (Bax, 2011) deployed by the writers combine to achieve their rhetorical goals. The paper argues that the increasingly diverse roles taken on by writers in professional communities, evidenced in the range of discursive activity seen in this study, have undermined the explanatory power of community-specific labels such as ‘PR discourse’ or ‘accountancy discourse’, and that approaches to describing professional discourse with broader application have greater analytical value.

References Bax, S. (2011). Discourse and genre: Analysing language in context. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Bhatia, V. (2008). Genre analysis, ESP and professional practice. English for Specific Purposes, 27(2), 161-174. Kwan, B. (2014). Communities in studies of discursive practices and discursive practices in communities. In V. Bhatia & S.Bremner (Eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Language and Professional Communication (pp. 443-460). Abingdon, UK: Routledge. Lea, M., & Stierer, B. (2009). Lecturers' everyday writing as professional practice in the university as workplace: New insights into academic identities. Studies in Higher Education, 34(4), 417-428.

Think and Talk like an Expert. Specialized Knowledge Acquisition for LSP Learners

Tamara Cabrera (Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis)

This presentation introduces a methodology of specialized knowledge acquisition with the objective of helping LSP learners in specialized text production. Like translators and interpreters, in order to understand and produce specialized discourses, LSP learners need to become familiar with the semantic, syntactic and linguistic structures of domains of specialization. However, while several proposals of terminology preparation methods have been put forward for translators and interpreters (i.e. Fantinuoli 2006,;Rütten 2007; Will 2007, etc.), few of them list specific applications for LSP learners. To address this research gap, this presentation will introduce a methodology of knowledge acquisition designed for translators and interpreters, also applicable to LSP learners. The methodology includes specific mehanisms for (i) enhancing the recognition and naming of terms at the basic and subordinate level, (ii) encoding and describing verb and noun phrase constructions, (iii) identifying and describing metaphorical inferences and (iv) maximizing communication through the application of the communicative strategies of generalization and paraphrasing. The theoretical premises for this methodology are taken from Frame-based Terminology (Faber 2009, 2012, 2015), from studies conducted under the expert-novice paradigm (Tanaka and Taylor 1991; Tanaka and Curran 2001; Tanaka et al. 2005, etc.) and from a review of models of terminology management for translators and interpreters (i.e. Bilgen 2009; Fantinuoli 2006; Montero-Martínez and García de Quesada 2003ª; Rütten 2007; Will 2007, etc.). Examples are taken from a Spanish-English corpus of Architecture texts and speeches. In addition, evidence will be provided that this methodology is also applicable to different languages and domains of specialization.

References Bilgen, Baris. 2009. Investigating Terminology Management for Conference Interpreters. Ph.D. Thesis. Ottawa Univesity. Faber, Pamela (ed.) 2012. A Cognitive Linguistics View of Terminology and Specialized Language. Berlin/Boston: Mouton de Gruyter. Faber, Pamela. 2009a “The Pragmatics of Specialized Communication”. En Entreculturas, 1, pp. 61-84. Faber, Pamela. 2015. Frames as a Framework for Terminology. In Kockaert, H.J., Steurs, F. (eds.) Handbook of Terminology 1. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 14-33. Fantinuoli, Claudio. 2006. “Specialized Corpora from the Web for Simultaneous Interpreters”. En Baroni, M. y Bernardini, S. (eds.) Wacky! Working Papers on the Web as a Corpus. Bolonia: Gedit, pp. 173-190. Montero Martínez, Silvia and María Mercedes García de Quesada. 2003a. Terminological Analysis for Translation. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 11(4), 293-314. Rütten, Anja. 2007. Web 2.0 for Interpreters and other Facets of Knowledge Management. Communicate! http://aiic.net/page/2842/web-2-0-for-interpreters-and-other-facets-of-knowledge- management/lang/2 (last accessed 14/12/2016) Tanaka, James W. and M. Taylor. 1991. Object Categories and Expertise: the Basic Level in the Eye of the Beholder? Cognitive Psychology 23, 457-82. Tanaka, James W. and Tim Curran. 2001. A Neural Basis for Expert Object Recognition. Psychological Science, 12(1), 43-47. Tanaka, James W., Tim Curran and David L. Sheinberg. 2005. The Training and Transfer of Real-World Perceptual Expertise. Psychological Science 16, 145-51. Will, Martin. 2007. Knowledge Management for Simultaneous Interpreters in LSP Conferences. Mutra Journal, 2, 65-99.

Languages and cultures in contact: on the status of French borrowings in British legal English

Silvia Cacchiani and Chiara Preite (both Università di Modena e Reggio Emilia)

Working on the assumption that legal terms are highly culture-dependent and that French borrowings represent a conspicuous part of legal English, this paper concentrates on the status of French borrowings in British legal English, starting from the hybrid dialect (Baker 1998) called law French to the contemporary situation. Integrating etymological information from the Manual of Law French and the Oxford English Dictionary with the propositional, procedural, and episodic information gathered from the microstructure of comparable English and French law dictionaries (Oxford Dictionary of Law, The Longman Law Dictionary; Vocabulaire Juridique), we shall identify and categorize, according to the level of adaptation to English morphological features, a vast number of (mostly integrated) borrowings mainly from Anglo-Norman, Middle and Old French, and a scarcely represented set of recent, non-integrated French borrowings from international and EU law. We shall then discuss if it is appropriate to use Deroy’s (1956) definition of borrowing, and address the slow dynamics of legal innovation (cf. Lemmens 2011) and culture-bound specialization and (re)conceptualisation of terms across national and supranational systems, norms, and different legal traditions.

References Baker, John H. (1998): “The three languages of the Common Law”, McGill Law Journal, 43: 5-24. Deroy, Louis (1956): L’emprunt linguistique, Paris: Les Belles Lettres. Lemmens, Koen (2011): “The slow dynamics of legal language. Festina lente? ”, Terminology, 17, 1: 74-91.

Translator skills for expert-to-layman communication: experiences with e-learning modules on health and safety at work

Elena Chiocchetti and Flavia De Camillis (both Eurac Research)

Health and safety at work includes all the principles, risks, duties and rights related to workers’ wellbeing and security. Texts on this topic normally contain terminology from several specialised domains (law, administration, medicine, engineering, building, chemistry, etc.). E-learning is an instance of expert-to-layman communication, meaning that complex information must be explained gradually, clearly, and consistently.

The paper illustrates the challenges of a German<->Italian translation project of 28 e-learning modules (~1,500,000 characters) on all aspects of workplace health and safety produced for workers, clerks and vocational students in the officially bilingual province of South Tyrol, Italy (~26% Italian speakers, ~70% German speakers). Due to the background situation, specific text typology, diversified content and terminology, purpose and wide target audience of the project, translators had to deploy an exceptional set of skills. In addition to source and target language processing skills, the project proves the paramount importance of analytical skills (e.g. understand complex topics, master new subjects quickly, grasp the meaning of obscure texts, detect inconsistencies), cultural skills (e.g. translating jokes in comics, select terminology on the basis of language register and geographical usage – especially for German), research skills (e.g. find sources for fact-checking, mine reference material for accepted phrasing and terminology), and team-working skills (to master exceptional workloads while keeping quality high). Source and target content understanding was a key skill particularly concerning the legal aspects. Finally, the ability to cope with low-quality source texts to produce idiomatic, clear, and consistent target texts (in our case, even to amend and enhance the quality of the source text) became a strategic factor for the success of the translation project, as it ensured that both language versions of the e-learning modules fulfil their aims, fully correspond to the needs of their target audience, and − most importantly − comply with the Italian legal framework.

References Gouadec, Daniel (2007): Translation as a Profession. John Benjamins, Amsterdam/Philadelphia. ISO 17100 (2015) Translation services − Requirements for translation services. Geneva: International Standardization Organization. Kastberg, Peter (2007). “Cultural Issues Facing the Technical translator”. JoSTrans, 8, 104-109. Lafeber, Anne (2012): “Translation Skills and Knowledge – Primary Findings of a Survey of Translators and Revisers Working at Inter-governmental Organizations”. Meta: journal des traducteurs, 57, 2012(1), p.108-131. Orozco, Mariana & Hurtado Albir, Amparo (2002). Measuring Translation Competence Acquisition. Meta: journal des traducteurs, 47(3), 375-402. PACTE (2008): First results of a Translation Competence Experiment: ‘Knowledge of translation’ and ‘Efficacy of the Translation Process’. In Kearns, John (ed.) Translator and Interpreter Training. Issues, Methods and Debates. London: Bloomsbury, 104-126. Van Dam, Helle & Korning Zethsen, Karen (2016). “‘I think it is a wonderful job’. On the solidity of the translation profession”. JoSTrans 25. http://www.jostrans.org/issue25/art_dam.php (accessed 15.12.2016).

Balancing Promise and Reality via Media Strategy and Language in Science Press Conferences

Alan Chong (University of Toronto)

Although a relatively recent phenomenon in science communication, the press conference is quickly becoming an important strategy for publicizing important scientific findings. Science “pressers” occur in industrial, governmental, and academic research contexts. In industrial contexts, the compromise between self- or company promotion is laid bare. Typically, the purpose of the press conference is precisely to promote the company’s efforts to commercialize scientific developments into marketable products, as with Biogen’s or Genentech’s efforts that led to the term “Science by Press Conference” [1] or, in more contemporary examples, the keynote speeches given by Google or Apple executives as they announce new features integrated into new products.

In governmental or academic research contexts, however, this relationship is much more fraught and difficult to negotiate. While these press conferences are primarily informative, they certainly still “market”: the agencies involved, such as universities or NASA, the scientists involved, as well as their chosen fields. This paper examines the language and delivery of scientific press conferences in these non-commercial contexts, using several prominent press conferences from recent history to chart the development of strategies for negotiating this balance. In doing so, however, we reach beyond the press conference proper, starting with a critical reading of the language of the initial announcements as well as the policies – embargoes, for example – in place around the event. We also examine the preambles that frame the audience’s understanding of the event, before moving on to examine the language and dynamic between the various speakers in the conference itself. Our discussion focuses on NASA’s 2010 astrobiology event, the Higgs Boson announcement in 2012, and several more recent NASA pressers from 2015-16, involving potential for water on Mars and Europa, in order to identify the major challenges and develop heuristics for effectively using press conferences in science communication.

Reference [1] S. Hall, Merchants of Immortality: Chasing the Dream of Human Life Extension. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2003.

Framework for Summarizing Evolving News

Rocio Chongtay (University of Southern Denmark Kolding), Mark Last (Ben Gurion University of the Negev) and Bettina Berendt (Leuven University)

Most of the news applications provide news on different topics, which is a useful approach if the user wants to stay informed about top or latest stories. However if the interest is to follow a specific topic over time, this requires more effort and browsing around different sources. This paper proposes a framework to monitor evolving news on a single topic. The framework combines linked data from news sources (such as New York Times search article API) with automated summarization techniques to provide a thread of summarized news articles where the user can find out how a specific news story has evolved over time in a format suitable for ubiquitous consumption. The added value of the Linked Data (LD) approach (over update summarization techniques that draw only on timestamps) arises from the flexibility of querying for specific aspects of interest. Furthermore, the framework can optionally enrich the user experience with relevant media from multiple data sources.

Research questions How access strategies for news (via Linked Data) can be combined with natural language processing (specifically summarization) in order create a framework that can offer newsreaders an overview of large amount of news articles related to a specific topic of interest.

Approach A framework design that employs common Web communication protocols such as a popular browser to access Linked Data as well as the MUSE (Multilingual Sentence Extractor) summarization algorithm.

Method Implementation of a prototype to test the framework with a case study of news on “Brexit” as an example of a specific topic with a huge multitude of facets and dimensions that are hard to overview by experts, let alone by newsreaders.

Data Examples of news metadata contained in the response from querying news sources (such as New York Times search article API) as well as the analysis and summarization techniques applied to these examples.

Expected results To show if the proposed framework could produce summaries of news articles on a specific topic that can be used by newsreaders to follow that specific topic over time. To evaluate if the generated summaries can be used to enhance the controlled vocabulary of Linked- Data search keywords (e.g. named entities).

Establishing Concept Systems in Terminology Work by means of the User-driven Design Method Card Sorting

Lise Lotte Weilgaard Christensen (University of Southern Denmark Kolding)

The aim of this contribution is to explore the application of the user-driven design method card sorting in terminology work: how it may support knowledge structuring when establishing concept systems, and whether, by making the process less abstract than a traditional, systematic approach, it may give students a better understanding of how to establish concept systems. In the contribution, the purpose and basic techniques of card sorting will be explained. In short, groups of representative persons are given a set of cards with terms and asked to organize them into logical groups, and subsequently the results of the different groups are compared in order to identify common patterns. According to Spencer (2004), “Card sorting generates an overall structure for your information, as well as suggestions for navigation, menus, and possible taxonomies”. Also, previous experience showed that even term candidate lists used as input for concept systems turned out to be less comprehensible for some students than expected. Thus, the card sorting method has been adapted for terminological purposes and tested in courses of two separate study programs. Spencer (2004) describes card sorting as a quick, inexpensive and reliable method, and in fact, based on preliminary tests, we find that it makes the whole process of establishing concept systems fast and comprehensible and thus easy to implement for students in practical terminology work. Add to this the fact that companies have often complained to us that they find the building of concept systems too time-consuming. This is a very unfortunate circumstance, seeing that concept systems may be considered the backbone of terminology work; and thus our aim is to adapt the card sorting method for use in companies as well.

References Bjerre, M. F. (2013). Kortsortering (master's thesis). Denmark. Eling, P., Derckx, K., & Maes, R. (2008). On the historical and conceptual background of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. Brain and Cognition (67), 247-253. ISO 704 - Terminology Work - Principles and methods. (2009). Geneva: International Organization for Standardization. Morville, P., & Rosenfeld, L. (2007). Information Architecture for the World Wide Web. Sebastopol: O'Reilly. Rugg, G., & McGeorge, P. (2005). The sorting technique: a tutorial on card sorts, picture sorts and item sorts. Expert Systems, 22 (3), 94-107. Schmitz, K.-D., & Straub, D. (2010). Successful Terminology Management in Companies. Stuttgart: TC and more GmbH. Sounuuti, H. (2001). Guide to Terminology (Nordterm 8). Helsinki, Finland: The Finnish Centre for Technical Terminology. Spencer, D. (2004). Card sorting: a definitive guide. Boxesandarrows. http://boxesandarrows.com/card-sorting-a-definitive-guide/ Accessed December 28, 2016 Spencer, D. (2009). Card Sorting: Designing Usable Categories. New York: Rosenfeld Media. Wood, J., & Wood, L. (2008). Card Sorting: Current Practices and Beyond. Journal of Usability Studies, 4 (1), 1-6.

Textual genres presenting writing difficulties in the field of tourism: a semiautomatic corpus-based linguistic analysis

Iria da Cunha (Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia), Amor M. Montané (Universitat Pompeu Fabra), Beatriz Fisas (Universitat Pompeu Fabra) and Ángeles M. Escobar (Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia)

The writing of tourism texts is a common practice for professionals in the field. However, the writing of these specialized texts entails several difficulties. These difficulties are related to the characteristics that should be taken into account when writing specific textual genres (Cabré, 1999). Recently, a list of textual genres in the field of tourism has been discussed by Calvi & Mapelli (2011). Following this list, da Cunha, Montané & Coll (in press) show that Spanish professionals and students have different perceptions concerning writing complexity and frequency in the elaboration of textual genres. They conclude that there are five genres that entail more difficulties for both groups: informative articles, travel blog posts, reports, tourist accommodation rules and regulations, and business plans. Therefore, it seems necessary to make a fine-grained linguistic analysis of these tourism textual genres to help both professionals and students with the writing of texts for specific purposes as accurately as possible.

Our research goal is to analyse these textual genres in order to obtain their main characteristics related to three linguistics levels: text, lexicon and discourse. In order to do so, first of all, we compiled a corpus including texts of the genres mentioned above. Second, we designed a database to carry out a description of each genre. This database contains different characteristics regarding the three mentioned levels, such as frequent sections, titles and contents (text level); acronyms, phraseology and terms definitions (lexicon level), and discourse segments and connectors (discourse level). Third, the corpus was analysed semiautomatically and the results were included in the database. Finally, results were quantified and conclusions about prototypic characteristics of each genre were obtained. As future work, our results will be used to develop an automatic system to enhance writing specialized texts in the field of tourism, useful both for professionals and students.

References Cabré, M.T. (1999). La Terminología. Representación y comunicación. Barcelona: IULA-UPF. Calvi, M.V. & Mapelli, G. (Eds.) (2011). La lengua del turismo. Géneros discursivos y terminología. Bern: Peter Lang. da Cunha, I., Montané, A. & Coll, A. (in press). “Detección de géneros textuales que presentan dificultades de redacción: un estudio en los ámbitos de la administración, la medicina y el turismo”. Revista E-Aesla.

Machbarkeit eines Übersetzungsprojektes mit gesellschaftlichen Auswirkungen im heutigen Übersetzungsmarkt

Flavia De Camillis and Elena Chiocchetti (both Eurac Research)

Ziel dieses Beitrags besteht darin, die Machbarkeit eines Übersetzungsprojektes mit gesellschaftlichen Auswirkungen im aktuellen Arbeitsmarkt zu beurteilen. Ausgangspunkt ist der Übersetzungsauftrag eines E-Learning-Kurses zum Thema Arbeitssicherheit, der für Schulen und öffentlichen und privaten Betriebe der italienischen Provinz Bozen (Südtirol/Alto Adige) von einem öffentlichen Amt entwickelt und kostenlos bereitgestellt wurde. In Südtirol ist nämlich Italienisch Staatssprache und Deutsch gleichgestellte Zweitsprache (nach gesetzvertretendem Dekret 670/1972, Art. 99). Inhaltlich umfassen die 28 Lernmodule des Kurses etliche Wissensbereiche, u. a. Arbeitsrecht, Bautechnik, Biologie, Chemie, Maschinenbau, Medizin. Neben den typisch übersetzungsbezogenen Tätigkeiten (Terminologierecherche, Aufbau von Übersetzungsspeichern, Übersetzung) erwies sich außerdem erst im Zuge des Projektablaufs die linguistische, formale und stilistische Revision sowie die inhaltliche Überprüfung aller Ausgangstexte als notwendig. Diese zusätzliche Aufgabe wurde von den Sprach- und Rechtsexpertinnen auf eigener Initiative aufgrund der mangelnden Qualität der Ausgangstexte vorgenommen. Obwohl dies zunehmend Teil des Angebotes von Übersetzungsdienstleistern ist und bereits zu den übersetzungsbezogenen Tätigkeiten zählt, nahmen dadurch der Zeitaufwand und die benötigten Personalressourcen stark zu, mit entsprechender Abnahme des Gewinnes

Wenn man diesen Fall in Hinblick auf die gegenwärtigen Dynamiken des Übersetzungsmarktes betrachtet, wobei der Zeitdruck-Faktor und die Termineinhaltung wesentliche Rollen spielen, wäre ein solcher Übersetzungsauftrag auf dem freien Markt wirtschaftlich kaum leistbar, da in der vereinbarten Zeitspanne Doppelarbeit erledigt werden musste. Welche wären aber die Folgen von fehlerhaften und veralteten Informationen, wenn die Gesundheit und Sicherheit der SchülerInnen und Berufstätigen auf dem Spiel stehen? Was fällt mehr also ins Gewicht: nicht in Verlust zu geraten oder einen korrekten Informationsfluss zu gewährleisten?

Der Südtiroler Kurs über Arbeitssicherheit brachte potenziell gravierende gesellschaftliche Auswirkungen mit sich. Da Übersetzungsprojekte mit ähnlichen Auswirkungen sowohl interdisziplinäre Kompetenzen als auch eine höhere soziale und ethische Verantwortung des Übersetzers mit einbeziehen, sollten sie von der Marktlogik des Konkurrenz- und Gewinndenkens absehen, sonst riskiert man, sie ohne die erforderliche Aufmerksamkeit und Hingabe auszuführen.

Bibliographie Davico, Gianni (2005): L’industria della traduzione. Realtà e prospettive del mercato italiano. Torino: Edizioni SEB 276. Drugan, Joanna (2013): Quality in Professional Translation. Assessment and Improvement. London/ Oxford/ New York/ New Delhi/ Sydney: Bloomsbury Academic. Horn-Helf, Brigitte (1999): Technisches Übersetzen in Theorie und Praxis. Tübingen/Basel: Francke. ISO 17100 (2015): Translation services - Requirements for translation services. Geneva: International Standardization Organization. Ørsted, Jeannette (2001): “Quality and Efficiency: Incompatible Elements in Translation Practice?” Meta: Translators' Journal. Magris, Marella (2005): L’errore in traduzione. Dalla teoria alla pratica. Trieste: Edizioni Goliardiche. Scarpa, Federica (2008): La traduzione specializzata. Un approccio didattico professionale. Milano: Hoepli. Schrijver, Iris & Van Vaerenbergh, Leona (2008): „Die Redaktionskompetenz des Übersetzers: eine Mehrwertleistung oder ein Muss?“ trans-kom - Zeitschrift für Translationswissenschaft und Fachkommunikation, 1, 209-228.

Terminology Policy in Serbia: Actors and Decision Makers in Serbian Language Policy and Planning

Andrijana Đordan and Jelena Filipović (both University of Belgrade)

Terminology policy represents a segment of language policy and planning, especially important for language for specific purposes. Terminology provides specialized knowledge at the level of concepts (which are the basic units of subject-fields), and terms are recognized as key “content carriers“ of specialized information and expert knowledge. More often than not, specialists in specific fields are creators and users of terminologies of their respective subject-fields. That implies that terminologies are frequently created by domain experts of subject-fields in an “evolutionary“ rather than coordinated way, which results in a highly fragmented and sectorized situation with respect to most terminological activities and applications (Galinski, 1999).

This paper is based on a case study of terminology policy and planning in modern Serbian. Our research identifies subject-field terminology creators and official terminology policy creators as to separate groups, and examines whether they work in unison (or at least recognize each other), what the relationship between them is and how it affects the state of modern Serbian terminology.

The results indicate that Serbian terminology creators are, in fact, terminology users (i.e., experts with no linguistic background) who perform this activity in a highly uncoordinated way, which may be labeled bottom-up terminology policy and planning, and which does not correlate with the top-down terminology policy (conducted by terminology policy makers, chosen by academic institutions and institutions of the state, with a high degree of mainly linguistic competence). A proposal is made herein which may help all relevant actors to establish closer cooperation and, consequently, open new space for a more systematic and coherent engagement in this important transdisciplinary field of research.

Reference Galinski, C. (1999). Terminology Infrastructure and Terminology Market in Europe. In Szabó, K. (ed.), Knowledge Transfer in the Information Age. Budapest: National Committee for Technological Development (OMFB), 78-85.

Promoting academic writing through abstracts in Sports Science: An ESP task-based approach

Fatima Faya Cerqueiro (University of Castilla-La Mancha)

University students of non-linguistic degrees are usually requested to read academic articles in English, and many of them need to write academic abstracts for their final projects. A group of 26 Sports Science students in their last academic year took part in a specific 90-minute training session on academic writing strategies.

First, they had to identify the key elements in a set of abstracts pertaining to several areas that might fall into the discipline of Sports Science, such as Health, Education, or Sports Management, among others. This initial activity enabled them to notice specific features within academic writing, such as the abundance of passive voice or the absence of first person pronouns and to individualise common specific vocabulary within their area of knowledge.

For the second and main activity of the task, students were asked to write an abstract in pairs, following the patterns they identified in other abstracts. They should make use of the lexicon and other linguistic strategies that might be useful to express their ideas in an orderly, objective manner. The teacher provided immediate feedback during writing, mainly on linguistic strategies and structure.

Several scholars have focused on collaborative feedback in writing (Rollinson 2004; Hyland and Hyland 2006; Barnawi 2010, Álvarez et al. 2012), although collaborative tasks are not very frequently used to promote writing skills. As noted by different authors (cf. Storch and Wigglesworth 2006; Fernández Dobao 2012; Wigglesworth and Storch 2012), collaborative writing can increase accuracy after pair and small group work and enhance learning mechanisms. In addition, these activities can trigger students’ reflection on their writing process.

Participants were asked to fill in a questionnaire comparing the usefulness of different text types and to state their opinion about the task. Recorded conversations during the task and final abstracts are analysed in order to shed light on peer collaboration during text production and the effectiveness of this kind of specific training on academic writing.

References Alvarez, Ibis, Anna Espasa, and Teresa Guasch (2012). The value of feedback in improving collaborative writing assignments in an online learning environment. Studies in Higher Education 37.4: 387-400. Barnawi, Osman Z. (2010). Promoting Noticing through Collaborative Feedback Tasks in EFL College Writing Classrooms. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education 22.2: 209-217. Fernández Dobao, Ana (2012). Collaborative writing tasks in the L2 classroom: Comparing group, pair, and individual work. Journal of Second Language Writing 21.1: 40-58. Hyland, Ken, and Fiona Hyland (2006). Feedback on second language students' writing. Language teaching 39.02: 83-101. Rollinson, Paul (2005). Using peer feedback in the ESL writing class. ELT journal 59.1: 23-30. Storch, Neomy, and Gillian Wigglesworth (2007). "Writing tasks: The effects of collaboration." In García-Mayo, Mª Pilar (ed.), Investigating tasks in formal language learning: 157-177. Wigglesworth, Gillian, and Neomy Storch (2012). "What role for collaboration in writing and writing feedback." Journal of Second Language Writing 21.4: 364-374.

Exploring English needs in healthcare workplace in Japan

Miho Fujieda and Yukie Koyama (both Osaka Medical College)

Needs analysis is the most crucial phase in the development of an English for specific purposes (ESP) program. It is the systematic analysis of all relevant information necessary to satisfy the language learning requirements within the context of the particular institutions involved in the learning situation (Brown, 1995). The scope of needs analysis can include the target situation analysis (TSA), the learning situation analysis (LSA), and the present situation analysis (PSA) (Dudley-Evans & St John, 1998; Long, 2005; West, 1994).

As part of TSA, an alumni survey was conducted at a technical college for future radiological technologists (i.e. radiographers) in Japan. The present study reports the survey results focusing on the perceived English needs of in-service radiological technologists and the actual use of English in their workplace. A total of 270 alumni members across the country in different age groups, education levels, and types and sizes of the institutions they are working at responded to the questionnaire. The main part of the questionnaire consisted of two originally developed scales: the Perceived English Needs (PEN) and the English Use in Workplace (EUW). An exploratory factor analysis revealed three subscales in PEN (Usefulness, International Posture, and Orientation to Language Skills), and four subscales in EUW (Academic Activities, Routine Work, Non-Routine Work, and International Liaison). Using these as dependent variables, one-way ANOVA by age group, education level, institutional type and size revealed the dynamic nature of English needs within the profession. Along with other needs assessment study results, a complex picture of medical English needs in Japan will be described and pedagogical implications will be discussed.

References Brown, J. D. (1995). The elements of language curriculum: A systematic approach to program development. Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle. Dudley-Evans, T., & St John, M. J. (1998). Developments in English for specific purposes: A multi- disciplinary approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Long, M. H. (2005). Methodological issues in learner needs analysis. In M. H. Long (ed.), Second language needs analysis (pp. 19-76). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. West, R. (1994). Needs analysis in language teaching. Language Teaching, 27, 1-19. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0261444800007527

Terminal terminology: The lexicon of medically assisted death across domains of specialisation

Kim Grego (University of Milan) and Alessandra Vicentini (University of Insubria at Varese)

This paper proposes an initial investigation into the terminological aspects of doing research on an inter- and multi-disciplinary discourse such as that which surrounds and informs the communication of medically assisted death (Plonk & Arnold 2005; Ngo-Metzger 2008; Sleeman 2013). This issue brings together professional and public actors and non-professional audiences, in a plethora of settings and channels from healthcare facilities to online media, all of which require a good knowledge and use of various languages for specific purposes (e.g. those of medicine, healthcare, law, philosophy/religion), as well as the skill to combine and move across them smoothly. The research aims to produce a terminological and lexicographic analysis of the discourse of medically assisted death in Western culture(s), to answer the questions: a) how does its linguistic representation in the media compare with that offered at the institutional and professional levels? and b) how is that achieved terminologically across domains of specialisation?

This will be done by collecting a corpus of texts on medically assisted death as represented in the English speaking media, isolating the relevant inter- and multi-disciplinary terminology regarding the issue, and comparing it against existing lexicographic sources on bioethics (Vicentini et al. 2012; Vicentini, Grego, Russo 2013). The collection is expected to come from both online and offline newspapers and magazines, whereas the terminology will be selected both manually and employing corpus analysis tools (e.g. WordSmith Tools, Sketch Engine). Both quantitative and qualitative methods for analysis will be employed, and the perspective adopted will be that of Critical Discourse Analysis (Fairclough 2003) for the socially relevant issues that the topic addresses. Specific insights will be gathered from Medical Discourse Analysis (Gotti & Salager-Meyer 2006) and Medical Terminology (Hui et al. 2014). The study is expected to provide a terminological review of the lexicon used by the media to deal with current bioethical issues, as well as a reflection on how a controversial practice increasingly being discussed and implemented legally in various countries is communicated linguistically to the public.

References Fairclough, N. 2003. Analysing Discourse: Textual Analysis for Social Research. London: Routledge. Hui, D. et al. 2014. Concepts and definitions for "actively dying," "end of life," "terminally ill," "terminal care," and "transition of care": a systematic review. Journal of pain and Symptom Management, 47, 1, 77-89. Lewis, P. 2015. Assisted dying: What does the law in different countries say? BBC.com, 6 October. Ngo-Metzger, Q. et al. 2008. End-of-Life Care: Guidelines for Patient-Centered Communication. American Family Physician, 77, 2, 167-174. Plonk, M., & R. Arnold 2005. Terminal Care: the last weeks of life. J Palliat Med, 5, 8, 1042-1054. Sleeman, K.E. 2013. End-of-life communication: let’s talk about death. J R Coll Physicians Edinb, 43: 197-9. van der Heide, A. et al. 2003. End-of-life decision-making in six European countries: descriptive study. The Lancet, 362: 345-350. Vicentini, A., K. Grego, B. Berti, P. Bellini, G. Orizio 2012. Intercultural and ideological issues in lexicography: a prototype of a bioethics dictionary. In (ed.) R. Facchinetti: English dictionaries as cultural mines. p. 247-266, Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Vicentini, A., K. Grego, D. Russo 2013. The Pro.Bio.Dic. (Prototype of a Bioethics Dictionary) project: building a corpus of popular and specialized bioethics texts. JAHR – Annual of the Department of Social Sciences and Medical Humanities, special issue on The Language of Medicine – from Its Genesis to the Culture and Ethics of Communication, ed. by A. Gjuran-Coha, A. Krišković, vol. 4, p. 339-354, Rijeka: Department of Social Sciences and Medical Humanities, University of Rijeka, School of Medicine, Croatia.

Learner heterogeneity in the LSP classroom: Expectations and strategies

Katherine Guertler (Ostbayerische Technische Hochschule Regensburg) and Eric Koenig (Technische Hochschule Nürnberg)

Students and teachers of technical English share a common goal: training technical and professional language skills. Yet students of LSP frequently exhibit wide disparity in their overall proficiency in the target language, in contrast to SLA in sequential, level‐oriented classes. Additionally, students have varying degrees of exposure to the target LSP domain, with experienced learners seeking to refine their language skills, while learners without professional experience view the course as basic preparation for a future career. Proficiency in the target language and previous exposure to the LSP domain are therefore predicted to strongly influence learner expectations and progress.

The effects of learner heterogeneity in the LSP classroom are investigated empirically in the context of students of technical English at universities of applied sciences (UAS) in Germany, where the elaborate education system and the practical and vocational focus of UAS in particular lead to wide gaps in proficiency and experience among learners. 550 engineering students at two German UAS were surveyed at the beginning of the semester with respect to language proficiency, biography and expectations regarding course topics and anticipated improvement in language proficiency and technical expression. Upon course completion, the students completed a second survey identifying the most constructive course elements and evaluating which aspects of their language they considered to have improved.

Initial results confirm the disparity in students’ English language abilities and professional experience. Additional analysis reveals that student expectations regarding key factors such as workload and course content can be aligned with overall language proficiency and previous work experience. Drawing on interdisciplinary perspectives from education, technical communication and sociodemographic aspects of learner biography, the results of the before/after survey indicate modifications LSP instructors can make to accommodate targeted support for learners and so help bridge gaps in proficiency and domain exposure in a heterogeneous LSP classroom.

Theories of learning in LSP: Bringing educational psychology into the interdisciplinary mix

Alissa Hartig (Portland State University) and Lindsey Kurtz (Pennsylvania State University)

Interdisciplinary research in LSP has traditionally drawn on insights from linguistics as well as various professional discourse communities to better understand language use in specialized texts. Although this has generated sophisticated knowledge about language use in these fields, it has provided less insight into processes of teaching and learning in LSP (Cheng, 2006). Despite increased interest in pedagogically oriented research (see, e.g., Cheng, 2011; Flowerdew, 2015; Johns, 2013; Tardy, 2009), few studies draw on established theories of learning. Drawing on Vygotskian sociocultural theory, we offer two perspectives on applying principles of educational psychology to pedagogical research in English for Legal Purposes. The first comes from the application of a pedagogical intervention designed to connect key legal concepts to the linguistic features of target genres, and a microgenetic analysis of participants’ development in response to this intervention. The second examines the development demonstrated by students in case reading and analogical reasoning for common law purposes in response to a pedagogical intervention using Vygotskian principles. Together, the two studies offer an argument for the effectiveness of theoretically rich approaches to teaching and learning in LSP and demonstrate that interdisciplinary research in LSP can and should include important insights from educational psychology in combination with insights drawn from linguistics and professional discourse communities so that teachers and learners in LSP classrooms might more fully benefit from LSP’s substantial body of work. The presentation will explore how interdisciplinary research in LSP can utilize important insights from educational psychology to promote, understand, and document the process of teaching and learning discipline-specific language.

References Cheng, A. (2006). Understanding learners and learning in ESP genre-based writing instruction. English for Specific Purposes, 25, 76-89. doi: 10.1016/j.esp.2005.07.002 Cheng, A. (2011). ESP classroom research: Basic considerations and future research questions. In D. Belcher, A. M. Johns & B. Paltridge (Eds.), New directions in English for specific purposes (pp. 44-72). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Flowerdew, J. (2015). John Swales's approach to pedagogy in Genre Analysis: A perspective from 25 years on. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 19, 102-112. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2015.02.003 Johns, A. M. (2013). The history of English for specific purposes research. In B. Paltridge & S. Starfield (Eds.), The handbook of English for specific purposes (pp. 5-30). Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell. Tardy, C. M. (2009). Building genre knowledge. West Lafayette, IN: Parlor Press.

The various roles of translation in Mexico’s medical field: the Revista Médica del IMSS

Tania Hernández (El Colegio de México)

Drawing on Bourdieusian analyses of the social space and practices, particularly on Pierre Bourdieu’s concepts of field, capital, and doxa, my paper focuses on the journal Revista Médica del IMSS, a Spanish Medical bimonthly published in Spanish by the Direction of Medical Benefits of the Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social (IMSS, Spanish acronym) in Mexico City. Since its foundation in 1962, the Revista Médica del IMSS has been devoted to disseminate epidemic and clinical research on “the most relevant public health issues both at a national and at a global level”. For a few years now, all the texts of the periodical have systematically included the English version of the paper’s title, the abstract, and the key words. Moreover, a significant proportion of the papers’ references are either translations or texts originally written in English. Against this backdrop, it seems reasonable to posit that translation plays, at least, a twofold role: on the one hand, it is essential to the production of the knowledge introduced and disseminated by the journal; on the other hand, it also serves to showcase and position the Mexican periodical both within the international medical field and the medical periodicals.

This paper focuses on how translation has been positioned and what role it has played in the production and circulation of Revista Médica del IMSS with specific reference to Mexican medical field. To do so, I will explore and identify the nature of the forces, agents, practices and values that might influence such position and role. The analysed data consists of semi-structured interviews conducted with the chief editor and translators involved in the journal as well as documentary data.

References Bourdieu, P. (1969). Intellectual Field and Creative Project. Social Science Information, 8(2), 89-119. Bourdieu, P. (1986). The Forms of Capital. In J. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education (pp. 241-258). Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood. Bourdieu, P. (1990). The Logic of Practice. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. González Núñez, G. (2016). Translating in Linguistically Diverse Societies: translation policy in the United Kingdom. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Marchetti, D. (2005). Sub-fields of specialized journalism. In R. Benson & E. Neveu (Eds), Bourdieu and the journalistic field, (pp. 64-82). Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. Robinson, B. J. (2016). Flying in the face of illusion: a comparative study of the variables that interact in English language scientific journals that publish translators. In M. Platonova & L. Ilynska (Eds), Meaning in Translation: illusion of precision (pp. 335-351). Newcastle: Cambridge Publishing Scholars. Wolf, M., & Fukari, A. (Eds). (2007). Constructing a Sociology of Translation. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Exercising Translators’ Creative Potential: Allusions in LSP Texts

Larisa Ilinska, Marina Platonova and Tatjana Smirnova (all Riga Technical University)

In the contemporary globalized world, the volume of technical and specialized translation is constantly growing, facilitated by both harmonization of national LSPs and development of CAT tools. At the same time, growing complexity of information structure of LSP texts, increasing intra- and interdisciplinary polysemy of professional vocabulary and hybridization of LSP genres have conditioned the growing role of a technical translator as the editor (pre- and post-editor) and mediator in specialized communication.

Modern LSP texts are characterized by application of different rhetorical devices as elements of foregrounding, which can occur at different levels, fulfilling different functions and activating different layers of knowledge. These elements cannot always be translated with the help of CAT tools and therefore remain the responsibility of human translators, who should be able to interpret information cognitively, comprehending the results of application of the foregrounding devices and tracing their effects in the perception of the text.

Allusions present in modern LSP texts are among the most challenging foregrounding devices that should be personally addressed by translators based on their field expertise, erudition, and culture awareness. Allusive references may appear in LSP texts as terms and professionalisms coined following the principle of allusion as well as intertextual references to either people, places or events used for illustrative purposes to communicate complicated ideas. Translation of allusions requires translators to demonstrate a certain level of creativity, especially if the translation task implies causing a similar response in the target audience.

The present article aims at investigating the challenges associated with the translation of allusions in LSP texts, exercising translators’ creative potential in dealing with these elements of foregrounding, translating texts from English into Latvian in a range of specialized fields.

References Hermans T. 1999. Translation in systems: Descriptive and systemic approaches explained. Manchester, England: St. Jerome. Leech G.N. 2008. Language in Literature: Style and Foregrounding. Great Britain: Pearson Education. Leppihalme, R. (1997). Culture Bumps: An Empirical Approach to the Translation of Allusions. UK: Multilingual Matters. Nord C. 1991. Scopos, loyalty, and translational conventions. Target, 3(1), 91–110. Ruokonen, M. (2010). Cultural and Textual Properties in the Translation and Interpretation of Allusions. Finland: University of Turku. Schäffner C. (Ed.). (1997). Translation and norms. Special issue of Current Issues in Language and Society, 5. Temmerman, R. (2000). Towards New Ways of Terminological Description. The Sociocognitive Approach. Amsterdam, Philadelphia: John Benjamins.

Mosaic of LSP Teaching: Communicative Competence

Larisa Ilinska and Oksana Ivanova (both Riga Technical University)

Communicative competence is a central concept of the communicative approach to LSP teaching. At present, growing degree of information density typical of contemporary scientific and technical texts, constant changes in language use as well as the influence of ICT require reconsidering the existing and proposing new methods relevant to language teaching, in general, and new approaches to text analysis, in particular. The new paradigm of teaching is aimed at adopting the combination of student-centered, problem-based instruction and digitally-enriched learning environment. The shift towards this paradigm has been motivated by the development of information technology and the increasing use of multimedia. These factors consequently determine the changes in contemporary text structure and content promoting its expressivity and multimodality. Information encoded in professional texts may be processed at multiple levels simultaneously.

Communication may take different forms, which depend on its purpose and context. Nowadays teaching of communicative competence within professional discourse is based on the development of such skills as professional competence, competence in second language acquisition, relevant methods of special text analysis, etc. A significant amount of relevant information might be implicit, and a considerable background knowledge is needed to infer the meaning conveyed by a message. Constant search for novel approaches to textual analysis (intertextuality, foregrounding, rhetorical strategies) is necessary to develop students’ ability to effectively decode and convey meaning within a required context.

To investigate how new methods of encoding, transferring and decoding of meaning at different levels affect contemporary professional communication, different types of analyses (including rhetorical, semantic, pragmatic, cognitive and semiotic) and rich empirical material have been introduced within the framework of the research. The main aim of the paper is to investigate the most successful methods and techniques required to develop students’ ability to efficiently communicate in the changing professional environment.

References Allen, G. (2011). Intertextuality (New Critical Idiom). USA and Canada: Routledge. Bar-Hillel, Y., and Carnap, R. (1953). An Outline of a Theory of Semantic Information, pp. 221-274. Herrington, J. (2006). Authentic Learning Environments in Higher Education. Jan Herrington and Anthony Herrington (Eds.) USA: Idea Group Inc. Jones, R. (1985). Second Language Performance Testing: An Overview. In H.P. Hauptman, R. LeBlanc, & M. Wesche (Eds.), Second Language Performance Testing. Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press. Kress, G. (2010). Multimodality: A Social Semiotic Approach to Contemporary Communication. New York: Routledge. Litosseliti, L. (ed) (2010). Research Methods in Linguistics. London: Continuum International Publishing. MacKay, D. M. (1969). Information, Mechanism and Meaning. Cambridge: MIT Press. Mackey, A., and Gass, S. (2005) Second Language Research: Methodology and Design. Lawrence Erlbaum. Munzenmaier, C. & Rubin, N. (2013). Bloom’s Taxonomy: What’s Old Is New Again. The eLearning Guild. Retrieved from http://educationalelearningresources.yolasite.com/resources/guildresearch_blooms2013%20%281 %29.pdf

Unusual lexical collocations in medical translations: a comparable corpus study

Miguel A. Jiménez-Crespo (Rutgers University)

Patient-centered care paradigms indicate that medical texts addressed at laymen should be as easy to understand as possible (Putnam and Lipkin 1995), facilitating the comprehension of these texts and thus helping to improve patients’ access to healthcare. In this context, the specific features of translated medical texts have been the object of increasing research in Translation Studies in different language combinations (i.e. Nisbeth Jensen and Zethsen 2012; Nisbeth Jensen 2013; Tercedor 2016; Jiménez-Crespo forthcoming). This paper focuses on a feature of translated language (Baker 1993; Chesterman 2004) that can have an impact on comprehension and usability of translated medical texts for lay audiences: unconventional lexical collocations. According to Heltai (2001), translating unconventional collocations in source texts (ST) by unconventional collocations in translated texts implies that “the processing effort will increase” (2001: 60). Similarly, the use of unconventional collocations in TTs in lay-friendly texts, such as the case of general medical texts, increases the cognitive efforts and can make translated texts harder to understand.

The question that this paper attempts to elucidate is the extent and frequency to which unconventional collocations are present in these type of texts. The focus here are cases in which “instead of a ready- made unit anticipated by the reader of a specialized domain” (Heltai 2001: 60) the translator uses an unconventional word combination, in part because the translator might not know that a “registers- specific ready-made unit in the target language” (ibid) exists. In order to study this issue, this paper uses the 40 million-word Translational Web Corpus of Medical Spanish (TWCoMS), a comparable corpus with a section of translated medical websites into Spanish in the USA, alongside a section of non-translated corpus of similar medical information. The methodology employed to identify unconventional collocations was to obtain and analyze the word sketches in Sketch Engine of the 100 most frequent nominal terms related to “pain” and “symptoms” in a prior study (Prieto and Tercedor 2014). The word sketches are analyzed contrastively in the translated and non-translated corpus in order to identify word sketch collocates in the “verb” and “and-or” categories that can be indicative of recurrent collocations. The identification of unconventional collocations is operationalized in terms of those collocations that appear within the twenty most frequent hits in the word sketch of translated texts that do not appear in non-translated similar ones and vice-versa. This will help shed light into the pervasiveness of unconventional collocations in translated medical texts that can potentially hinder comprehension and usability.

SocServ: a corpus for investigating the world of social work for ESP students

Jane Johnson (University of Bologna)

Students of ESP need to be helped to discover the world in which they aspire to practise in another language in order to operate successfully and achieve their goals (Dubois 2016: 26). This is particularly important for successful social services work which depends largely on proper communication (Thompson 2010). While social work literature itself is rather vague in describing such language (e.g. Clark 2000: 181), the importance of mastering appropriate language in order to be successful is clearly recognised (Pierson and Thomas 2000: 95). One way to do this might be through, firstly, awareness-raising about the world in question, and secondly, stimulation in practising the appropriate language and discourse for their particular field.

Using a ‘context-oriented’ approach (Gledhill and Kübler 2016: 72), in which language is analysed in its social or cultural context, with a focus on language forms found in actual text, this paper makes reference to the Social Services Corpus (SocServ, Johnson 2016), a specially compiled repository of material of relevance to undergraduate trainee social workers currently consisting of 500,000 tokens. Consisting of both spoken and written material, the corpus includes service user interviews, case studies and other training materials, academic papers from the field of social work, newspaper articles on relevant issues, and government guidelines. The corpus thus has high ‘face-validity’, containing “actual examples of use which are drawn from the content area and which the learner is likely to have come across” (Flowerdew 1993: 239).

Closer examination of the individual sub-corpora in SocServ enables a more specifically linguistic focus on the world of social work, identifying:

 language patterns inherent to and typical of the different genres  instantiation of meaning-making  keywords, phraseology and collocations

This paper will present, contextualize, and attempt to categorise the features which emerge as typical of the sub-corpora in relation to the social work profession, thus allowing us to investigate the “specific configuration” (Gledhill and Kübler 2016: 66) of social work language.

References Clark, C. 2000. ‘The use of language’, in M. Davies, Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Social Work, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Dubois, M. 2016. ‘Science as vocation? Discipline, profession and impressionistic sociology’, ASp 69, 21-39. Flowerdew, J. 1993. ‘Concordancing as a tool in course design’, System, 21, 231-244. Gledhill, C. and Kübler, N. 2016. ‘What can linguistic approaches bring to English for specific purposes?’ ASp 69, 65-96. Johnson, J. H. 2016. ‘Constructing an ESP course for Social Services undergraduates: corpus tools to the rescue’. Paper presented within Teaching Practises in ESP today. Seminar 14, ESSE conference (English Society for the Study of English), Galway, Ireland. Pierson, J. and Thomas, M. 2000. Collins Dictionary of Social Work, London: Collins. Thompson, N. 2010. Theorizing Social Work Practice, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

Plurilingualism as a potential for enhanced language competence in a business course at university level

Nicole Keng and Nina Pilke (both University of Vaasa)

Plurilingualism can be defined as the ability to use and switch between several languages for the purposes of communication (cf. Council of Europe 2007). As an inclusive system, additive plurilingualism allows the use of several relevant languages in learning and teaching situations (Dagenais, 2008: 202). When cross-fertilisation is encouraged, a language can be added to the repertoire without suppressing e.g. L1 in active communication (González 2008).

The pilot study is about plurilingual learning and teaching on a Marketing course (Challenges in Retailing Management 8 ECTS) with English as the medium of instruction in the curriculum and assessment but also allowing Swedish, Finnish and English as communicative choices in the classroom. The course design features real-life business tasks, including a company field trip and group presentations to company managers conducted in mixed-L1 groups.

This study aims to demonstrate the course’s potential for enhanced language competence in an LSP context. The research questions are:

1. What patterns of language use and choice can be identified? 2. How is the participants’ experience in the mixed-L1 plurilingual course? 3. How can the multilingual potential be developed?

Firstly, we investigated the multiple language use in the course by categorizing and describing the participants’ language choices from the classroom observations in 2015 and 2016. Secondly, a questionnaire survey and semi-structured interviews were conducted with 2 teachers and 14 students from two universities who have either Finnish or Swedish as L1.

The preliminary results show that there is a need for extra training in business terminology in Swedish and Finnish, as well as English. The survey and interviews further show that language choices should be discussed and supported during the course. There is also a need for and extra support in academic skills, therefore, a model will be suggested to provide language scaffolding to students.

References Council of Europe (2007). Education and Languages, Language policy: From linguistic diversity to plurilingual education: Guide for the Development of Language Education Policies in Europe. Executive version. http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Guide_niveau3_en.asp. Dagenais Dane (2008). Developing a Critical Awareness of Language Diversity in Immersion. In: T. W. Fortune & Tedick, D.J. (eds.). Pathways to bilingualism and multilingualism: Evolving perspectives on immersion education, 201–220. Multilingual Matters. González Josué M. (2008). Encyclopedia of bilingual education. Online. SAGE Publications. http://knowledge.sagepub.com/view/bilingual/n6.xml.

Global business, but national communication practices? Investor Relations policies in the service of transparency-creation in Denmark, Finland, and Italy

Merja Koskela (University of Vaasa)

The present paper focuses on a potential genre within Investor Relations (IR) communication, the so- called IR policy. IR policy is a communication strategy text, i.e. a document that outlines how companies intend to communicate with their stakeholders in order to achieve their goals (Koskela 2013). Unlike other communication strategy texts, IR policies are public documents located on the IR websites of listed companies. This is a way for companies to demonstrate transparency to the financial markets, and convince their stakeholders that they can be trusted as investment objects. The aim of this paper is to analyze how the IR policies used by listed companies in Denmark, Finland and Italy are rhetorically structured and to discuss how the structural patterning supports the transparency claims. Comparing three countries, with national guidelines of their own, may reveal potential differences in the status of the policies, as well as their intended audience and purpose.

The data of the study was derived from web-based texts relating to IR communications of companies listed on OMX Helsinki 25, OMX Copenhagen 20 and FTSE MIB 40 (the Finnish, Danish, and Italian benchmark stock indices). The analysis applies the procedure of corpus-based move analysis described by Biber et al. (2007) and Upton and Cohen (2009). It concentrates on the rhetorical moves constitutive of the IR policy genre and illustrates how they serve the construction of transparency. The results of the analysis indicate that there are differences both in the structural patterning of IR policy documents and in the interpretations of transparency in different countries, probably because the IR policy as a genre is a response to societal transparency requirements (see Garzone, 2012), which differ somewhat from one country to the next.

References Biber, D., Connor, U., & Upton, T. A. (2007). Discourse on the move: Using corpus analysis to describe discourse structure (Vol. 28). John Benjamins Publishing. Garzone, G. (2012). Why Do Genres Change? In G. Garzone, P. Catenaccio, & C. Degano (Eds.), Genre Change in the Contemporary World. Short-term Diachronic Perspectives (217–242). Bern etc.: Peter Lang. Koskela, M. (2013). Same, same, but different – intertextual and interdiscursive features of communication strategy texts. Discourse & Communication, 7(4), 1–19. Upton T.A., & Cohen M.A. (2009). An approach to corpus-based discourse analysis: The move analysis as example. Discourse Studies, 11(5), 585–605.

Aerospace Russian for Beginners: an Experiment in Early Specialization in Language Instruction

Raissa Krivitsky (Cornell University)

The common practice in the language teaching community is that study of the language with regard of the scientifically, scholarly or professionally charged discourse, begins at the advanced or at least the intermediate stage of students’ language proficiency.

At the same time, with Globalization as a defining factor, the growing number of people has become interested in learning the basics of the foreign language with focus on certain lexical domains, and for highly utilitarian purposes, such as being able to read manuals and instructions, or follow on‐line publications in their respective field. For this category of learners engaging in a regular beginner foreign language course, may not be a justifiable option.

My paper will describe an experimental introductory language course “Russian for Space Enthusiasts” that had been created ad hoc in the summer 2012 as a response to the initiative of graduate students of *** School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering at *** University, a prominent center of space research and education.

The content of the course greatly relied on the input and the feedback from participating students. The exit test results indicated that the developed portion of the material (approximately 20%), covered in 8 hours of classroom instruction and varied amounts of independent study for each student, enabled students to read and partially interpret the content of specialized charts and simple texts selected from the Russian Space Agency website.

Complete with brief description of the course curriculum and classroom activities, as well as the review of its outcomes based on the results of the course exit tests and students’ responses to the blind survey, my presentation will argue that early focus on a field specific content in the otherwise regularly structured language course can be a useful and productive model of language instruction.

Subject Experts and Linguists discussing Terminological Issues in Sweden 1941–1983: Suggestions, Conclusions and Recommendations

Hans Landqvist (University of Gothenburg), Niina Nissilä (University of Vaasa) and Nina Pilke (University of Vaasa)

Our presentation deals with professional experts’ opinions in connection with terminological harmonization within different fields of technology in the Nordic context. In this presentation, we focus on the national terminology work in Sweden. The national terminology work has developed a global approach from the beginning, which contributes to interdisciplinary and transnational knowledge-making.

Since 1941, The Swedish Centre for Terminology, (Sw. Terminologicentrum TNC), has taken a responsibility for various terminological activities carried out in Sweden. TNC collaborated with experts in various technical fields through written letters. In addition to the experts on technical fields, also linguists acted as experts. Based on the letters the parties discussed different kinds of terminological issues, suggested solutions, drew conclusions of the discussions and formulated recommendations for the use of the terms. Over 350 formal consultations were processed through an exchange of letters between 1941 and 1983.

The aim of our study is to describe this process and categorize the several thousands of experts’ letters which were sent and treated in accordance with a specific procedure (c.f. Bucher 2016; Nissilä & Pilke in print). The research questions are:

1. How was the process of correspondence organized and who took part? 2. What issues were discussed? 3. Which textual and linguistic features characterized the formal letters?

We categorize the letters based on their topics and orientation (e.g. national/international, concepts/terms) and argumentation (e.g. acceptance/rejection). The results show that the process was well organized and included hundreds of active experts whose contribution to the development of LSP, as well as the development of general language, is indisputable. Our diachronic and comparative study provides insights into the collaborative processes which still serve as the starting point for both current and future terminology oriented discussions, suggestions, conclusions and recommendations.

References Bucher, Anna-Lena (2016). Nationella terminologicentraler – i allmännyttans intresse. In: Nissilä, N. & N. Pilke (eds), Tänkta termer, 72–99. Vakki Publications 5. Vaasa. Nissilä, Niina & Pilke, Nina (In print). “Råttsvans är ej så lyckligt”. Terminologisk förankring genom TNCs rundfrågor till sakkunniga. Svenskans beskrivning 35. Göteborg. TNC Terminologicentrum (2016). .

Multi-word sequences in German legislation and court decisions

Christian Langerfeld (Norwegian School of Economics)

Legal language is often said to have a greater tendency to use formulaic expressions compared to other language varieties (e.g. Breeze, 2013). This talk deals with a corpus study that was conducted on lexical bundles within two legal genres, namely legislation and court decisions, on the one hand, and general language on the other. Lexical bundles are defined as sequences of three or more words that frequently occur in a certain language variety (Biber et al., 1999).

The study is based on two corpora: (1) a corpus of German legislation and court decisions with a total number of ca. 20,000,000 tokens and (2) a German reference corpus of contemporary written language (ca. 7,000.000.000 tokens). The aim of the study is to identify the most frequent lexical bundles in German legislation and court decisions and to determine their distributional pattern across the two legal genres and general language. The lexical bundles taken into account are of the form ART/PREP – NN – ART/PREP (e.g. im Sinne des or mit Beschluss vom).

The data is analyzed using Correspondence Analysis (Greenacre, 2007), a statistical technique that provides a graphical representation of complex frequency tables. Lexical bundles with similar distributional patterns are grouped closer together in the plot than those which differ to a larger extent.

The resulting plot shows that some of the lexical bundles under investigation are more typical in legislation, while others are more typical in court decisions, and others again are equally likely to occur in both legal genres. All of the most frequent lexical bundles of the form ART/PREP – NN – ART/PREP from the legal corpus were significantly less frequent in the general language reference corpus. The present study confirms the findings in Hyland (2008) that certain lexical bundles can be a means of differentiating genres.

References Biber, D., Leech, G., Conrad, S. & Finegan, E. (1999): Longman grammar of spoken and written English. Breeze, R. (2013): Lexical bundles across four legal genres. International Journal of Corpus Linguistics 18(2), pp. 229–253. Greenacre, M. (2007): Correspondence analysis in practice. Hyland, K. (2008): As can be seen: Lexical bundles and disciplinary variation. English for specific purposes 27(1), pp. 4–21.

Investigating the language of accounting: An LSP approach to specialized translation

Miriam Leibbrand (Vienna University of Economics and Business)

The internationalization of the economy and the advent of English as the lingua franca of business deeply affect business practices. As an example, listed companies are legally required to publish financial statements in accordance not only with the relevant national but also with the international accounting standards.

This paper focuses on a highly specialized genre and deals with language variation in the terminology of consolidated financial statements in French. Conceptually, it draws on a business communication and specialized discourse approach with a focus on financial communication. Furthermore, it draws on translation studies with a focus on a) product-related research investigating the quality of translation and b) practice- and profession-related research based on knowledge management within specialized translation. In the field of specialized practices of translation, business and economic translation in general and financial translation in particular have been neglected by academic research so far, regardless of their economic weight.

The paper analyzes the terminology used by listed companies in different French-speaking countries. It investigates how the International Financial Reporting Standards developed by the International Accounting Standards Board have been applied. For this purpose, a small, specialized corpus of consolidated statements of profit or loss from companies in Belgium, Canada, France, Morocco and Switzerland has been built.

The analysis addresses a variety of aspects relevant to language professionals: terminology, language variation, business, in particular financial, communication, and translation. The results reveal terminological practices by delivering language data from authentic contexts of usage in accounting. As such, they help bridge the gap between the language professions and academia. The results show that the level of variation in the language of accounting is higher than might be expected.

References Herles, M. (forthcoming). The language of accounting. In G. Mautner & F. Rainer (Eds.), Handbook of Business Communication. Linguistic approaches. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter. Leibbrand, M. P. (2015). The language of executive financial discourse. Studies in Communication Sciences, 15(1), 45–52. doi:10.1016/j.scoms.2015.03.006 Olohan, M. (2010). Commercial translation. In Y. Gambier & L. van Doorslaer (Eds.), Handbook of Translation Studies. Volume 1 (pp. 41–44). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.

Slovene academic writing: a corpus approach to lexical analysis

Nataša Logar (University of Ljubljana) and Tomaž Erjavec (Jožef Stefan Institute)

Corpus studies of academic discourse are well established (Biber 2006; Hayland 2006, 2009) but have so far not been used to study typical lexical (and other) characteristics of Slovene academic writing. We present a preliminary study towards bridging the gap in the area of comprehensive descriptions of academic Slovene. The study is based on the recently compiled Corpus of Academic Slovene, KAS, which was harvested from the Slovenian Open Science portal and currently contains one billion tokens (Erjavec, Fišer, Ljubešić, Logar, Ojsteršek 2016). The contained texts are, for the most part BSc and BA theses (about three quarters), followed by MSc, MA and PhD theses.

In the paper we focus on the lexis of Slovene academic language, i.e. the vocabulary which can be classified as part of the expert discourse in general, for example: to define, to determine, to analyse; picture, study, method, sample, procedure. These words are not a part of just one or few specific domains and are therefore irrelevant for terminologists, but are nevertheless an essential part of academic writing, in fact they are – together with their typical context – a tell-tale sign of a skilled (or bad) writer. To identify these lexical items we use the method of frequency profiling (Rayson, Garside 2000), which allows us to find relevant elements that differ between two corpora: in our case we will compare the KAS corpus with the reference corpus of Slovene ccGigafida (Logar et al. 2012) and with similar studies on English academic writing.

In our previous use of this method (Erjavec, Ljubešić, Logar 2015), we investigated the content of the Slovene web corpus slWaC2 and by comparing its lemma and part-of-speech annotations with three other corpora we successfully established what types of lemmas are specific for the corpus in question. Results in terms of content and grammatical key words that separate general language vocabulary from the academic one, are also expected in the proposed study. Together with the results we will present our plans for their presentation in a publicly available dictionary portal as well.

References Biber, Douglas (2006). University Language. A corpus-based study of spoken and written registers. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Erjavec, Tomaž, Darja Fišer, Nikola Ljubešić, Nataša Logar, and Milan Ojsteršek (2016). Slovenska znanstvena besedila: prototipni korpus in načrt analiz. Zbornik konference Jezikovne tehnologije in digitalna humanistika = Proceedings of the Conference on Language Technologies & Digital Humanities. Tomaž Erjavec, and Darja Fišer (eds.). Ljubljana: Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete. 58–64. Erjavec, Tomaž, Nikola Ljubešić, and Nataša Logar (2015). The slWaC corpus of the Slovene Web. Informatica 39 (1). 35-42. Hyland, Ken (2006). English for Academic Purposes. An advanced resource book. London and New York: Routledge. Hyland, Ken (2009a). Academic Discourse. London: Continuum International Publishing Group. Logar, Nataša, Miha Grčar, Marko Brakus, Tomaž Erjavec, Špela Arhar Holdt, and Simon Krek (2012). Korpusi slovenskega jezika Gigafida, KRES, ccGigafida in ccKRES: gradnja, vsebina, uporaba. Ljubljana: Trojina, zavod za uporabno slovenistiko; Fakulteta za družbene vede. Rayson, Paul and Roger Garside (2000). Comparing Corpora Using Frequency Profiling. In Proceedings of theWorkshop on Comparing Corpora. Association for Computational Linguistics. 1–6.

Language resources in repositories and catalogues: Pilot study on the potential for LSP teaching and training

Vesna Lusicky (University of Vienna) and Tanja Wissik (Austrian Academy of Sciences)

Language resources are sets of written or spoken data and their descriptions in digital form. They are used in natural language processing, in language and translation studies, for international transactions, in language industry, etc. Examples of language resources are (mono-, bi- and multilingual) written and spoken corpora, computational lexica, terminology databases, etc. Since creating language resources from scratch is often time-consuming and expensive, sharing and re-using existing language resources is recommended. In order to re-use the existing language resources, researchers have to be aware of the existence of suitable language resources, which can be found through repositories and catalogues.

At least some branches of LSP research (for example corpus-based LSP, computational translation studies, etc.) rely on various language resources, e.g. corpora, translation memories, terminology resources, etc. (Budin 2015). In addition, they also generate both mono- and multilingual language resources. Language resources are also integrated in LSP teaching and training, but they are neither explored nor exploited to their full extent, especially in light of modern e-research methods and research infrastructures. In order to apply these language resources in LSP research and training, certain competences need to be acquired, for example on metadata and formats, how to efficiently navigate to relevant language resources, etc. (Odijk 2014).

In this paper, we present a pilot study of integrating language resources found in repositories and catalogues into teaching and training of specialized translation at two Austrian universities, based on qualitative and quantitative data collected in open and closed assignments. We report on the potential of language resources in repositories and catalogues, in particular CLARIN VLO1, META SHARE2, ELRA catalogue3, LT-Observe catalogue4, for LSP research and training. Furthermore, we propose strategies how to integrate language resources obtained through repositories and catalogues into course design.

References Budin, Gerhard. 2015. Digital Humanities, Language Industry, and Multilingualism – Global Networking and Innovation in Collaborative Methods. In Forstner, Martin and Lee-Jahnke Hannelore, editors, CIUTI-Forum- 2014. Boston, USA: Peter Lang. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3726/978-3-0352-0290-8 Odijk, Jan. 2014. Discovering Resources in CLARIN: Problems and Suggestions for Solutions. Utrecht University Repository, Netherlands.

1 https://vlo.clarin.eu 2 www.meta-share.org 3 http://catalog.elra.info/ 4 http://www.lt-innovate.org/lt-observe/resources-list

English terminology in Croatian computer science university educational materials

Daniela Matić (University of Split)

This paper deals with the treatment of the standard Croatian language vs. English in the scientific register of university coursebooks and other educational materials recommended for students majoring in computer science at a Croatian university. Generally, scientific register, characterized by its utmost adherence to the norm, is supposed to bring objectivity, terminological uniformity, grammatical correctness and syntactic well-formedness. In accordance with the norms of the standard Croatian language and prevalent purist tradition in Croatian linguistic policy, it is advisable that scientific register be free of unadapted foreign language elements whereas adapted and integrated forms are acceptable if no domestic equivalent has been invented. Unadapted foreign language expressions may be used in Croatian texts to explain a Croatian equivalent which has not been widely accepted yet. The educational materials, authored by Croatian ICT scientists and engineers, were scrutinized in order to establish whether Croatian and English ICT terms had been dealt with according to the norms of the standard Croatian. The examples singled out from the materials were supposed to demonstrate whether Croatian, as the mother tongue of the authors, prospective readers and students and also the official language of Croatia, is perceived by them as a language which can fulfil its LSP function independently or it has to be propped by English.

This research showed that the scientific register of the university materials we studied is not always up to norms and recommendations. The authors of the materials used Croatian equivalents and neologisms, but oftentimes they used calques that were translated English computer metaphors. However, they had often resorted to English expressions at hand, combined them with Croatian ones and the final result of their style is hybridization and code-switching sometimes close to jargon, which supports the view that limits of various registers tend to be blurred.

Audiences of the Law: An Interdisciplinary Approach to a Culturally Adequate Understanding of Legal Texts

Almut Meyer (University of Turku)

Today’s legal environment is characterized by its multiculturality, from legislation to case law and all legal activities between. The significance of diverse cultural impacts on the law is emphasized in intercultural contexts, but allegedly mono-cultural settings also increasingly involve cultural diversity. As a consequence, legal communication is challenged if the parties involved lack the cultural knowledge required to understand the legal system in question. Thus, successful communication within and about the law, as well as across different jurisdictions, not only has to recognize and understand the cultural nature of legal matters but also substantially employ it in legal reasoning. In addition to a culturally adequate understanding of the law, this requires an interdisciplinary theoretical frame that comprises cultural and legal studies. A culturally adequate understanding of the law can be achieved via the method of cultural exploration of legal texts, thus providing lawyers with the relevant cultural knowledge. This method derives from cultural studies and is developed for the context of legal language teaching. However, since a cultural understanding may neither contradict the normative character of legal norms nor the validity claim of the law, this approach is to be legitimized from the perspective of legal theory. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to discuss the concept of ‘reaching understanding’ from the perspective of argumentation theory as influenced by the new rhetoric. Thereafter, the compatibility of the approach of cultural exploration with legal theory will be examined. The focus lies on the audience, which functions as a key concept in both legal reasoning and cultural explorations. It will be argued that the concept of the audience can be operationalized to construct cultural knowledge and legal validity and that on the basis of legal theory it constitutes a sustainable approach that contributes to both cultural and social justice.

References Alexy, R (1983). Theorie der juristischen Argumentation. Die Theorie des rationalen Diskurses als Theorie der juristischen Begründung. Frankfurt: Suhrkamp Verlag. Beck, S. (2011). Strafrecht im interkulturellen Dialog. Zur Methode der kulturbezogenen Strafrechtsvergleichung. In: S. Beck (Ed.), Strafrechtsvergleichung als Problem und Lösung (pp. 65–86). Baden-Baden: Nomos. Blumenberg, H. (1981). Wirklichkeiten in denen wir leben. Stuttgart: Reclam. Van Eemeren, F.H. (2014). The New Rhetoric. In H. van Eemeren, F. H. Garssen, B., Krabbe, E.C.W., Snoeck Henkemans, F.A., Verheij & B., Wagemans, J.H.M. (Eds.), Handbook of Argumentation Theory (pp. 257–299). Dordrecht: Springer Science+Business Media. Habermas, Jürgen (1984 I). The Theory of Communicative Action. Vol. 1. Boston: Beacon Press. Häberle, P (1982). Verfassungslehre als Kulturwissenschaft. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot. Husa, J. (2008). Emancipation or Deprivation for the European Legal Mind? The Contribution of the Legal Traditions Approach. Tilburg Institute of Comparative and Transnational Law, Working Paper No. 2008/3. Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1140683. Husa, J. (2012). Understanding Legal Languages: Linguistic Concerns of the Comparative Lawyer«. In Baaij, C. J. W. (Ed.), The Role of Legal Translation in Legal Harmonization (pp. 161–181). Alphen aan den Rijn: Kluwer Law International. Kopperschmidt, J. 2006. Die neue Rhetorik. Studien zu Chaim Perelman. München: Fink Verlag. Kjaer, A. L. (2004). A Common Legal Language in Europe? In Van Hoecke, M. (Ed.), Epistemology and Methodology of Comparative Law (pp. 377–398). Oxford: Hart Publishing. XXXX (2011). Legal German Courses. Towards a Culture-Oriented Teaching Concept. Lapland Law Review, 1, 165 - 177. XXXX (2012). Intercultural Competence in Legal German Teaching. A Didactical Implementation. Hermes. Journal of Language and Communication in Business, 48. 35-53. Retrieved from http://download2.hermes.asb.dk/archive/2012/Hermes48.html. Perelman, C. (1965). Über die Gerechtigkeit: Fünf Vorlesungen. Archiv für Rechts- und Sozialphilosophie, 51. 167–231. Perelman, C. / Olbrecht-Tyteca, L. (1969). The New Rhetoric. A Treatise on Argumentation. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame. Perelman, C. (1979). The New Rhetoric and the Humanities. Essays on Rhetoric and its Application. Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publishing Company. Perelman, Chaim (1980): Das Reich der Rhetorik. Rhetorik und Argumentation. München: Beck. Perelman, C. / Olbrecht-Tyteca, L. (2004). Die neue Rhetorik. Eine Abhandlung über das Argumentieren. Stuttgart: F. Frommann Verlag. Titon, J. T. (1992). Worlds of Music. (2. ed.). New York: Schirmer Books.

Explicit Characteristics and Features of ‘Term’ in Academic Lithuanian

Asta Mitkevičienė (Institute of the Lithuanian Language)

The presentation deals with the usage of the main Lithuanian terminology term terminas ‘term’ at the level of word phrases. Syntagmatic relations of terminas are investigated, semantic types of phrases with terminas and the main usage models of terminas are identified. The aim of the research is to clarify what characteristics and features of the concept ‘term’ are explicit in written academic discourse (source – Corpus of Academic Lithuanian).

Terminas in attributive phrases with particular terms is either a name possessor or a secondary name. The attributives of terminas show that term belongs to a particular space (domain etc.), object, language, author, etc. Term in attributive phrases is modified by a language it originates from, action whose object or subject it is, time and place. Term’s attributes express its evaluation, features regarding meaning, etc. as well.

Term as a possessor has definitions, synonyms, equivalents etc. and its components are content, meaning, sense, semantics. Terms are components themselves (of dictionary, system).

The analysis of objective phrases shows that term is the object of usage and the instrument (of nomination, speaking, expression, marking etc.), it is being sought, found, taken, given, brought into some space and eliminated from it, and in space something is being done or happens with it.

Term is an object of linguistic activities and perception, also a receiver, a result, base for comparison, content of quantity and part of a whole.

Term as a subject exists or not, means and marks, also performs processes related to linguistic activities, moves in some direction, takes particular place in space. It has something (or not), covers, fits, as well as undergoes various other states, is something or of some sort

LSP text type conventions: a view from the user perspective

Maria Mushchinina (Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz)

Texts in professional communication have as a rule a high degree of conventionality. The conventions can exist on different levels of language, and it is to be assumed that the more intensively the professionals use specific LSP text types, the more precise idea of their linguistic features they have.

Traditionally, in the LSP research conventional linguistic features of LSP text types, which ensure the functionality of these texts, are described by evaluating text corpora. Even more interesting would be, however, to change the contemplation perspective and to examine how these conventions are actually weighted by professionals and how they would react to an eventual break of conventions.

The paper presents a study of perception of LSP text type features. The study uses a corpus of 34 Russian economic contracts with a total volume of approx. 78,400 words. As a comparative corpus, scientific articles on economic area with a total volume of approx. 71,000 words were used.

The study consisted in interviews carried out among professional (contract managers) and non- professional text users. Before questioning, some conventional linguistic features have been systematically replaced by non-conventional ones. The nominalizations were the main structure selected for the study, for this morphosyntactic structure has a particularly high usage frequency in Russian economic texts and can be considered as a very characteristic structure in these texts. Many nominalization structures have been replaced by verbs. Hereby could be observed how the test participants react to the break of syntactical convention:

a. passively, by general evaluating the texts, and actively, by making concrete proposals to optimize them; b. depending on the text type – the reaction was different by evaluating contracts and articles, and c. even depending on visual features of texts – the reaction was more restrictive by texts with a conventional visual text structure.

References Aitken, Martin (2002): Language in specialised contexts: Towards a pragmatics of LSP. In: Fachsprache 24 (2002) H. 3-4, 90 – 106. Baumann, Klaus-Dieter (2005): Das komplexe Normensystem der Fachkommunikation. In: Fachsprache 27 (2005) H. 1-2, 32 – 47. Bergien, Angelika (2007): Iconicity and Economy as Creative Forces in Noun-Name Constructions. In: Todenhagen, Christian & Wolfgang Thiele (Hgg.). Nominalization, Nomination and Naming. Tü bingen: Stauffenburg, 129 – 143. Engberg, Jan; Janich, Nina (2007): Über die Komplexität fachkommunikativer Sprachkompetenz und ihrer Beschreibung. In: Ehlich, Konrad & Dorothee Heller (Hgg.). Studien zur Rechtskommunikation. Frankfurt / Main, Berlin, Bern u. a.: Lang, 209 – 234. Forner, Werner (2006): Zum Sprachbedarf in Handel und Industrie. In: Forner, Werner & Stephan Habscheid (Hgg.). Sprachliche und fachliche Kompetenzen: Zwei Seiten eines Blattes? Frankfurt / Main, Berlin, Bern u. a.: Lang, 25 – 47. Krause, Wolf-Dieter (2007): Text, Textsorte, Textvergleich. In: Adamzik, Kirsten (Hg.). Textsorten: Reflexionen und Analysen. Tübingen: Stauffenburg, 45 – 76. Mushchinina, Maria (2016): Sprachverwendung und Normvorstellung in der Fachkommunikation. Berlin: Frank & Timme.

The discursive formation of key terms in International Relations

Marcus Müller (Technische Universität Darmstadt)

This paper will report on an explorative longitudinal study of the emergence, proliferation and transformation of key terminology in the academic field of International Relations (IR – Dunne/Kurki/Smith 2013). The main research questions are: 1) What dynamics and changes of terminologies can be observed? 2) How are key terms in IR contextualised, how does their textual context (argumentation patterns, linkings between topics) change over time? The research will be conducted through a Digital Discourse Analysis (Baker 2006, Müller/Freitag/Köder 2010) that measures language patterns in order to identify key concepts and their change through time. Therefore, DDA combines corpus linguistics and qualitative textual analysis (Stegmeier 2012). DDA considers text to be the result of rule-governed processes in which linguistic building blocks of various complexity – like morphemes (the smallest linguistic unit that carries meaning), words, clauses, sentences to name a few – are put together to build a greater whole. To make it possible to find patterns of language use that transcend mere word forms, the texts need to be enriched with linguistic information (“preprocessing”). The corpus is compared with a corpus of thematically unspecific scientific articles in order to measure the statistically significant vocabulary (“keyword analysis”). After categorizing the keywords, we analyse how the terminological inventory changes over time. The corpus data are obtained from one very important academic journal of the discipline of IR – the US- based journal International Organization – from 1976 to 1985. This sample provides ca. 240 papers over the constant time of ten years. We expect to show how the conceptual evolution in the field of IR (Weber 2010) is processed by the proliferation of key terminology. Furthermore, these results will give an indication about the formation and transformation of the schools of thought within the academic field of IR.

References Baker, Paul (2006): Using corpora in discourse analysis. London / New York: continuum. Dunne, Tim, Milja Kurki & Steve Smith 2013 (Eds.): International Relations Theories, Discipline and Diversity, Oxford University Press. Müller, Marcus, Birgit Freitag & Franziska Köder (2010): Plant biotechnology in German media. A linguistic analysis of the public image of genetically modified organisms. In: Biotechnology Journal 5, 541–544. Stegmeier, Jörn (2012): „Toward A Computer Aided Methodology For Discourse Analysis.“ In: Stellenbosch Papers in Linguistics (SPIL) 41, 2012. S. 91-114. Weber, Cynthia (2010): International Relations Theories - A Critical Introduction, Routledge.

How are scientific terms that are also common words in text-books explained: Text-books as an LSP Background

Kerstin Norén (University of Gothenburg)

In 2004, a colleague of mine, who is a science teacher, and me started a project on the use of words and terms in science text-books (Physics and Chemistry) for secondary level students. The aim was to figure out if the failing understanding among many of the students of the two subjects could have anything to do with the way the scientific terms were introduced in the text-books. My colleague also had a suspison that understanding was even more difficult to achive if the terms stemmed from common words, because the possibility of mixing up different senses seemed to be more evident in such cases. From a linguistic persepctive, it is also interesting to study the confrontation between scientific terms, with their strict definitions, and common words, with their flexible and context- sensitve usage. The latter might often the case when text-book authors give introductory examples from everyday life. So the research question is simply: how do the authors go about the task of explaining the energy field and the terms used in it? Empirical basis We collected nine of the then most popular text-books (according to sales figures), five on Physics and four on Chemistry. We concentrated on the handling of terms in the energy field. In this paper I will focus on three of them: energi (energy), arbete (work) and värme (heat). Examples will be presented. We also used dictionaries and term lists to make sure that we correctly understood what the authors might refer to. Furthermore, students use them also. Method To be able to understand what was happening in the texts, we used a concept analysis model (Allwood 1989). For each common word/term used, we analyzed if the main concept referred to an Object (or Substance), a Process, a Property or a State. More specific concepts, like Amount or Measure was used to help in the analysis. Results The results were more confusing than we had expected or even imagined. Text-book authors try their best, but - Some terms, like energy, they refrain from defining. Probably, the definition is thougt to be too abstract for the students to understand. - Some other terms, like heat, are defined differently in Physics than in Chemistry books.

Overall all the authors do not clearly address the specific LSP challenges of the text-book genre, which leads to eg (unnecessary) vaguenesses, polysemy and synonymy. Furthermore, term lists are not as consistent as one would want. For example, the definitions of work and heat have their own, very specific definitions, based on their scientific history. But to help the students to better understand these components of the energy field, the types of energy could be better defined in the same way as energy (as potential state for specific processes), where the difference between them is just the specificity. Of course, this is not an easy thing to achive, since the terms have the same kinds of definitions globally, but it is worth trying, not least in the energy field, since the problems that the lack of understanding creates are also global. Some smaller studies on students’ understanding science are taking place in different countries, also on tertiary level students. More recent ones in Sweden seem to be conducted by students (see some examples below). There is need for more!

References Allwood, J 1989. Om begrepp – deras bestämning, analys och konstruktion. (Manus på hemsida). Göteborgs universitet. Institutionen för lingvistik. Lang, A & Zela, V 2012. Värme och temperatur i några av de svenska fysikläroböckerna. Malmö högskola/Lärarutbildningen. (Examensarbete). Moberg, M & Johansson, G 2011. Förnybar energi i läroböcker. Linköpings universitet. (Examensarbete.) Norén, K & Häggquist, M-L 2006. Ord och termer i naturvetenskapliga läromedel. En begreppsanalys av ett urval termer, definitioner och beskrivningar inom energiområdet i gymnasieläroböcker, ordböcker och termordlistor.

Key factors influencing LSP learning in HE large mixed-ability classes

Marija Novakovic (University of Belgrade)

High level of language proficiency is one of the prerequisites for participating in a globalized business world. Since the majority of university graduates will be required to use at least one second language in their everyday communication to at least some extent, effective language learning is of crucial importance. However, the majority of these students are reluctant to participate in university LSP classes and show lack of motivation for learning. A number of authors underline several factors, including motivation, language learning strategies and styles, among other, as key factors in acquiring a second language. Since language courses at the majority universities in Serbia occur in large, mixed- ability classes, students are usually reluctant to participate. As a consequence, both teaching and learning processes are impeded resulting in numerous challenges for the instructor, and difficulty for students in following the curriculum and successfully passing exams.

To determine the factors influencing this reluctance to participate in class and the reason for the lack of motivation in language learning, a questionnaire was administered to a group of first year undergraduate students attending an obligatory course in English for Specific Purposes. The results of the questionnaire are given, along with an analysis of the issue, including an overview of the literature on the topic.

Spanish for Community Service in the Heritage Language Classroom: Towards Ethnolinguistic Validation

Chin-Sook Pak (Ball State University)

Although 62% of U.S. universities offer courses in languages for specific purposes, these courses principally cater to the needs of traditional second/foreign language students, as witnessed in many LSP studies in U.S. contexts (Grosse & Voght, 1991, 2012; Lafford, 2012; Long & Uscinski, 2012; Sanchez-Lopez, 2014; Trace, Hudson, & Brown, 2015). In the case of Spanish in the U.S., with over 38 million speakers of the language, a growing number of U.S. Latino students enroll in Spanish language courses. In order to better meet the needs of heritage speakers whose linguistic and affective needs differ from those of traditional students, many programs offer Spanish courses for heritage speakers. Nevertheless, heritage language (HL) courses offer limited access to LSP curricula. This paper focuses on Spanish for community engagement for U.S. Latino students. An important concern for HL instruction has been validating students’ ethno-linguistic identity; many experience linguistic insecurities in the classroom that values the “standard” Spanish (Beaudrie, Ducar & Potowski, 2014). As such, Spanish for community service with local Hispanic communities can capitalize on students’ linguistic and cultural assets and create collaborative power relationships. A total of 30 students who enrolled in a Spanish course for heritage speakers, worked on community projects (tutoring Hispanic immigrant adults and mentoring high school Latino youths for college). The community service course aimed to address two important issues for HL students: 1) validating their ethno-linguistic identity and supporting their particular linguistic and affective needs, and 2) addressing the Latino educational attainment gap and increasing their access to higher education. Based on data gathered from student reflection writings, responses to questionnaires, and post- semester interviews, this study reports how a Spanish for heritage speakers course that focuses on meeting the needs of the local Hispanic community can validate students’ cultural identities, and increase their empowerment at postsecondary institutions.

References Beaudrie, S. M., Ducar, C., & Potowski, K. (2014). Heritage language teaching: Research and practice. Columbus, OH: McGraw-Hill. Grosse, C., & Voght, G. (1991). The evolution of languages for specific purposes in the United States. Modern Language Journal, 75, 181–195. Grosse, C., & Voght, G. (2012). The continuing evolution of languages for specific purposes. Modern Language Journal, 96, 190–202. Long, M. K., & Uscinski, I. (2012). Evolution of languages for specific purposes programs in the United States: 1990–2011. The Modern Language Journal, 96 , 173–189. Sanchez-Lopez, L. (2014). An analysis of the integration of service learning in undergraduate Spanish for specific purposes programs in higher education in the United States. Cuadernos de ALDEEU, 28, 155–170. Trace, J., Hudson, T., & Brown, J. (2015). An overview of language for specific purposes. In J. Trace, T. Hudson, & J. D. Brown (Eds.), Developing courses in languages for specific purposes (pp. 1– 22). Honolulu: University of Hawai’i.

Nativeness vs non-nativeness in written academic English: A corpus-based study

Giuseppe Palumbo (University of Trieste)

Corpus-based studies aimed at profiling and clustering texts according to their authors or mode of production have mainly looked at literary texts and translations. In the case of literary texts, the aim is often to develop methods of author attribution (see, e.g. Labbé and Labbé 2006). For translations, several studies have aimed at identifying the features that distinguish them from comparable, non- translated texts (see the whole body of literature on “translation universals” and “translationese”). Corpus-based methods of authorship attribution have also been used on academic research articles in order to distinguish between “genuine” and “fake” (i.e. automatically-generated) texts (see, e.g., Fahrenberg et al. 2014). The present study is based on the assumption that, even though they undergo an editorial process, texts written in English by non-native speakers may still conserve traces of non- nativeness. In particular, the study investigates a corpus comprising research articles from different academic disciplines and authored by native speakers of English on one side and non-native speakers on the other. The study complements more traditional methods of corpus analysis with methods normally used in authorship attribution. The more traditional methods are aimed at elucidating possible differences in the morpho-syntactic and lexical profiles of texts; they are based on a comparative analysis of: word and n-gram frequencies; POS distribution; lexical bundle distribution. Authorship attribution methods are used with the aim of identifying possible ways of clustering texts. More specifically, by using both Labbé’s (2007) and other measures of “intertextual distance” to assess the similarity (and dissimilarity) between texts, an attempt is made at classifying the articles contained in the corpus and at mapping this classification onto the “nativeness vs non-nativeness” distinction.

References Fahrenberg U., Biondi F., Corre K., Jégourel C., Kongsh S., Legay. A., 2014, “Measuring Global Similarity between Texts. SLSP 2014: Second International Conference on Statistical Language and Speech Processing. Wien: Springer, 220-232. Labbé D., 2007, “Experiments on authorship attribution by intertextual distance in English”. Journal of Quantitative Linguistics 14(1), 33-80. Labbé, C., Labbé, D. 2006, “A Tool for Literary Studies: Intertextual Distance and Tree Classification”. Literary & Linguistic Computing 21(3), 311-326.

Legislation? What else matters in minority language planning and policies? The case of Slovakian as a Minority Language in the Republic of Croatia

Dubravka Papa (Faculty of Law Osijek)

The paper deals with Slovakian as a minority language in the Republic of Croatia in reference to language policies and language planning. The research questions are how the applicable legislation guarantees the exercise of language minority rights, what is the level and scope of linguistic practices of the members of Slovakian language minority in Croatia, how visible is the Slovakian language minority in Croatia, and what is the „practical value“ of Slovakian language as a minority language in the Republic of Croatia. In this context, the method applied in the paper is the qualitative analysis of legal sources and legislation providing for the protection and enforcement of language minority rights in Croatia. The research has been conducted among the members of the Slovakian minority in Croatia by means of a questionnaire focusing on the usage domains of the Slovakian language as a minority language in the Republic of Croatia. The paper includes the qualitative and quantitative analysis of the research data. The conclusion of the paper made on the basis of the legal framework survey and research data suggests language policies to be applied with the purpose of active protection and promotion of minority languages.

Understanding the terminological needs of future legal practitioners: a critical step for developing targeted legal terminology resources

Katia Peruzzo (University of Trieste)

A team of lawyers and linguists within the Department of Legal, Language, Interpreting and Translation Studies of the University of Trieste is currently conducting a research project with the aim of developing a publicly available terminological database dealing with both traditional and cutting- edge legal issues (e.g. contract law and immigration). This new tool is based on TERMit (Magris 2001), i.e. the first terminology database of the University of Trieste, whose target end users have always been mainly translators and interpreters. A fundamental part of the project consists in the revision of TERMit’s terminological record template according to the specific needs of a new group of target end users, namely (prospective) lawyers who (will) work in a multilingual professional environment where mastering more than one foreign language is of utmost importance. To identify these needs, a survey was carried out on two groups of 5th-year Law students, i.e. students taking Legal English (English for Specific Purposes) as an elective module, during which an introduction to both traditional and online lexicographical and terminological resources and their use was provided, and students with no formal education on these resources. The survey revealed that the students have a scarce knowledge of such resources, especially among the second group, and therefore either do not use them efficiently or do not use them at all. This paper has a twofold aim: firstly, to provide an insight into the future legal practitioners’ needs to better illustrate how the structure of a terminology database can be tailored according to them, and secondly, to provide some tentative data (to be integrated with the results of the same survey which will be carried out in March-April 2017) concerning information retrieval skills which could be added to an LSP module in general and a Legal English module in particular.

Reference Magris, Marella. 2001. “TERMit, La Banque de Données Terminologique de La SSLMIT.” Terminometro 5: 50–55.

Diatopy, diastraty and diachrony: Inputs from a «dynamic» analysis of term variation in a comparable specialized corpus

Aurélie Picton (TIM-FTI, University of Geneva)

In this paper, we propose a corpus-based cross-analysis of three types of term variation, that is, diachronic, diastratic and diatopic variations. Our objective is twofold: first, we aim at contributing to the description of more rarely discussed terminological phenomena of variation; second, we intend to feed into the theoretical discussions about the necessity and the ways of working on variation in terminology.

Our work relies on a tool-based analysis of a comparable specialized corpus in the domain of university teaching. This 3.5 million-word corpus is composed of texts in French (scientific journals and websites):

- from 2004 to 2014 - from two communities of experts: researchers in the domain of university teaching and academic advisors - from Quebec, Switzerland and Belgium.

Our analysis is based on the systematic observation of different types of linguistic clues (such as frequencies, markers of knowledge-rich contexts, markers of metalinguistic discourses from experts) and on discussions with two domain-field experts. We thus trace and analyse the variants of 10 concepts in the different comparable sub-corpora (diachronic, diastratic, diatopic sub‑corpora). This exploration allows us to draw what we name (at least temporarily) a «dynamic» picture of variation in the domain of university teaching and to shed light on possible, although not exhaustive, paths for reflection on term variation. We will more specifically discuss the complementarity of the three types of variation under study and how these three variations, together, can contribute to a finer description of the terminology of a domain. We will sharpen our focus on the diastratic dimension, which offers a new angle of analysis that includes different communities of experts in the same domain. Finally, we will question methodological issues regarding corpus- and tool-based approaches when analysing comparable corpora.

References Auger, Pierre. 2001. "Essai d’élaboration d’un modèle terminologique/terminographique variationniste." TradTerm 7: 183-224. Condamines, Anne, «Linguistique de corpus et terminologie», Langages, 1/2005 (n° 157), p. 36-47. Condamines, Anne & Rebeyrolle, Josette. 1997. « Point de vue en langue spécialisée ». Meta, Presses de l'ʹUniversité de Montréal, XLII(1), pp.174-184. Drouin, Patrick, Francoeur, Aline, Humbley, John. & Aurélie Picton (to appear) Broadening our Horizons: Multiple Perspectives on Terminological Variation, Amsterdam/New York: John Benjamins. Freixa, Judit. 2002. Anàlisi de la variació denomitiva en textos de different grau d’especialització de l’àrea de medi ambient. PhD Thesis. Universitat Pompeu Fabra: Barcelona. Gadet, Françoise. 2003a. La variation sociale en français. Paris: Ophrys, collection "ʺL’essentiel"ʺ. Gaudin, François. 2005. "ʺLa socioterminologie."ʺ In Langages, 157: 80-92. Humbley, John. 1996. "ʺLa légitimation en terminologie."ʺ Sémiotiques 11: 119-136. Ledegen, Gudrun and Isabelle Léglise. 2013. "ʺVariations et changements linguistiques."ʺ In Wharton S. Simonin J. Sociolinguistique des langues en contact. ENS Editions. 315-329. Picton, Aurélie & Dury, Pascaline. 2015. "ʺLes discours d'ʹexpertise en langues de spécialité: le point de vue du terminologue."ʺ In Beaudet, Céline and Rey, Véronique (eds.). Écritures experts en questions, Presses universitaires de Provence. 265-278.

Translanguaging practices in English as a lingua franca: Context as a factor Kaisa Pietikäinen (University of Helsinki)

Lingua franca interactions are inherently multilingual, but the extent to which speakers can resort to their multilingual competences – and be understood –depends on the degree to which the speakers' linguistic repertoires are shared. This paper examines the influence of context on the use and framing of multilingual resources in spoken English as a lingua franca (ELF) by comparing findings from two settings: institutional and social. First, the extent and types of flagging around items identified as code- switching in the corpus of English as a Lingua Franca in Academic Settings (ELFA 2008) are explored by combining corpus analysis with micro-analytic methods. These findings are then contrasted with conversation analytic discoveries from social interactions between spouses in long-term lingua franca relationships.

The results suggest that in academic lingua franca contexts, speakers tend to flag or hedge their code- switches. They use contextualisation, explication, and pragmatic markers, or request for interlocutors' help in order to "match speaker perspectives" (Mauranen 2012). In the most traditional academic discourse types, such as in doctoral defences, translanguaging is scarce and typically limited to context-specific, local terminology. In social ELF, on the other hand, translanguaging ranges from single items to entire sequences, and these are rarely explicitly flagged, except when spouses are learning each other's languages. In addition, consistent switching of particular items seems to develop locally. ELF partners are also more prone to attempt translanguaging and be asked to repair it than speakers in academic contexts, who, in turn, are more likely to pre-empt such potential problems. I argue that lingua franca speakers anticipate how acceptable translanguaging is based on the expected range of sharedness, but also depending on the context of the interaction, the locality of the switched item, and the familiarity of the speakers to one another.

References ELFA 2008. The Corpus of English as a Lingua Franca in Academic Settings. Director: Anna Mauranen. http://www.helsinki.fi/elfa/elfacorpus. (30 May 2016). Mauranen, Anna. 2012. Exploring ELF. Academic English shaped by non-native speakers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

bistro: eine terminologische Datenbank mit rechtvergleichendem Ansatz

Natascia Ralli (Eurac Research)

Wo liegt der Unterschied zwischen „Vorrang“, Vortritt“, und „Vorfahrt“ im Straßenverkehrsrecht? Enstpricht der italienische Führerschein dem bundesdeutschen Führerschein? Im Unterschied zu vegleichbaren europäischen rechtsterminologischen Datenbanken bietet bistro (http://bistro.eurac.edu) nicht nur Äquivalente in den Sprachen Italienisch, Deutsch und Ladinisch, sondern vermerkt bei deutschen Termini, ob diese aus Südtirol, Österreich, Deutschland oder aus der Schweiz stammen. Dabei werden auch das Europarecht und Völkerrecht mitberücksichtigt. Auch für ladinische Termini gibt bistro an, ob sie im Gadertalerischen oder im Grödnerischen verwendet werden.

Die von EURAC Research entwickelte dreisprachige Terminologiedatenbank gibt es seit über zehn Jahren. Im Laufe der Zeit wurde ihre Wartung immer aufwändiger. 2013 wurde daher mit den Arbeiten an einer neuen, verbesserten Version – in Zusammenarbeit mit dem Amt für Sprachangelegenheiten der Autonomen Provinz Bozen – begonnen. Die Neugestaltung hat sich auf Vorschläge und Anliegen der Benutzer, die man im Laufe der Jahre gesammelt hat, gestützt, um den aktuellen Anforderungen der verschiedenen Nutzergruppen gerecht zu werden, die nicht nur Rechtsexperten und Übersetzer umfassen, sondern auch Studierende der entsprechenden Fachbereiche und allgemein all jene Personen, die nach Informationen zu bestimmten Rechtstermini suchen. Angesichts dessen gibt es nun neben der einfachen Suche auch eine erweiterte Suche mit verschiedenen Einstellungen, die es u.a. ermöglichen, nach Synonymen sowie nach Äquivalenten innerhalb zweier oder mehrer gleisprachiger Rechtsordnungen zu suchen. Kollokationen, die für die Übersetzung eines Textes sehr wichtig sind, werden nun auch angezeigt. Der terminologische Datenbestand wird natürlich kontinuierlich erweitert und aktualisiert. bistro verfolgt das Ziel, einen Beitrag zur korrekten Verwendung der Rechts- und Verwaltungsterminologie zu leisten. In diesem Sinne ist eine korrekte, einheitliche Terminologie grundlegend für die Rechtssicherheit, v.a. in mehrsprachigen Umgebungen wie Südtirol. Dieses Ziel sowie die Heterogenität der Benutzergruppe erfordete grundlegende Entscheidungen in der Darstellung der terminologischen Daten, die im Laufe des Vortrags aufgezeigt werden sollen.

Bibliographie Arntz R., Picht, H. & F. Mayer (2004): Einführung in die Terminologiearbeit. 4. Aufl. Hildesheim: OLMS Bassey, E. A. (“015): “Language policy and terminology in South Africa”. In Kockaert, H.J. & F. Steurs (2015). Handbook of Terminology. Vol. 1. Amsterdam; Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 467-488. bistro, Informationssystem für Rechtsterminologie, http://bistro.eurac.edu/ Chan, N. (2015): “Language policy and terminology policy in Canada”. In Kockaert, H.J. & F. Steurs (2015). Handbook of Terminology. Vol. 1. Amsterdam; Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 489-504. Colin, Robertson (2014): „EU Legislative Texts and Translation“. In Chen, L., King, K. S. & A. Wagner (eds.) (2014): The Ashgate Handbook of Legal Translation“. Ashgate Publishing Limited: Farnham, 155-175. Steuers, F., De Wachter, K. & E. De Malsche (2015): „Terminology tools“. In Kockaert, H.J. & F. Steurs (2015). Handbook of Terminology. Vol. 1. Amsterdam; Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 222-249. De Groot, G.R. (1999): „Das Übersetzen juristischer Terminologie“. In de Groot, G.R. and Schulze, R. (1999): Recht und Übersetzen. Baden Baden: Nomos, 11-46. Drewer, P., Pulitano, D. & K-D. Schmitz (2014). Terminologiearbeit. Best Practices 2.0. 2. Aufl. Deutscher Terminologie-Tag e.V. (Hrsg.). Köln. Gotti, M. (2014): „Translating International Arbitration Norms into the Italian Language and Culture“. In Chen, L., King, K. S. & A. Wagner (eds.) (2014): The Ashgate Handbook of Legal Translation“. Ashgate Publishing Limited: Farnham, 193-207. RaDT (2015): Terminologie – Grundlage für Fachkommunikation, Fachinformation, Fachwissen. 3. Aufl. RaDT für Deutschsprachige Terminologie (RaDT). Staatskanzlei des Kantons Bern: Bern. (http://radt.org/images/veroeffentlichungen/Terminologiebroschuere_NEU2015.pdf, consulted on 15.12.2016) Sacco, R. (1992): Introduzione al diritto comparato. V edizione. Torino: UTET. Sandrini, P. (1996): Terminologiearbeit im Recht. Deskriptiver begriffsorientierter Ansatz vom Standpunkt des Übersetzers. Termnet: Wien. Šarčević, S. (1997): New approach to legal translation. The Hague: Kluwer Law International.

Ansätze zur Vereinheitlichung der Rechts- und Verwaltungsterminologie: Ein Beispiel aus Südtirol Natascia Ralli and Isabella Stanizzi (both Eurac Research) Spricht man von einem „Bereich, in dem die Zufahrt und der Verkehr von Fahrzeugen auf bestimmte Zeiten oder auf bestimmte Klassen von Verkehrsteilnehmern und Fahrzeugen beschränkt ist“, wird man sich im Südtiroler Deutschen nicht einig, welche Benennung vorzuziehen ist: Fußgängerzone, Zone mit Verkehrsbeschränkung(en), verkehrsberuhigte Zone, VBZ, verkehrsbeschränkte Zone, Zone mit Verkehrsbeschränkungen (Zona a traffico limitato / ZTL). Viele konkurrierende Benennungen können natürlich Verwirrung stiften, ebenso können Unklarheiten und Missverständnisse entstehen. In einem Gebiet wie Südtirol mit mehreren offiziellen Rechtssprachen (Italienisch, Deutsch, in zwei Tälern auch Ladinisch) trifft die Anforderung einer korrekten und kohärenten Terminologie auf die Notwendigkeit, Rechtsbegriffe der italienischen Rechtsordnung in den mit der Amtssprache gleichgestellten Rechtssprachen korrekt, verständlich und einwandfrei wiederzugeben. Das gilt insbesondere im Hinblick auf die Beziehung zwischen der öffentlichen Verwaltung und den Bürgerinnen und Bürgern aller Sprachgruppen. In diesem Zusammenhang spielt die langjährige Zusammenarbeit zwischen dem Institut für Fachkommunikation und Mehrsprachigkeit von Eurac Research und dem Amt für Sprachangelegenheiten der Autonomen Provinz Bozen eine wichtige Rolle. Diese Zusammenarbeit zielt v. a. darauf ab, qualitativ hochwertige Terminologie zu erarbeiten sowie eine korrekte, klare und kohärente Rechts- und Verwaltungsterminologie zu verbreiten. Darüber hinaus soll auch das Bewusstsein in der Bevölkerung für die Wichtigkeit der Verwendung einer korrekten Terminologie im Bereich Recht und Verwaltung gestärkt werden. In diesem Rahmen wird die Terminologiearbeit gemäß den terminologischen Grundsätzen und der rechtsvergleichenden Methode erarbeitet mit besonderem Augenmerk auf Rechtsterminologie, die für Südtirol von der Paritätischen Terminologiekommission genormt wurde (DPR 574/1988). Da die Terminologie grundlegend für die Übersetzungstätigkeit ist, soll auch ein weiterer Aspekt berücksichtigt werden, der in der traditionellen Terminologie kaum Anwendung findet, d.h. die Aufbereitung fester Formeln und Formulierungen. In diesem Beitrag werden vor dem Hintergrund der linguistischen Situation in Südtirol terminologische Aspekte und Kriterien anhand von Beispielen vorgestellt, auf deren Grundlage die Vereinheitlichung der Rechts- und Verwaltungsterminologie gefördert wird.

Bibliographie Bauer, S. C. (2015): “Managing terminology projects”. In Kockaert, H.J. & F. Steurs (2015). Handbook of Terminology. Vol. 1. Amsterdam; Philadelphia: John Benjamins. 324-340. Bowker, L. (2015): “Terminology and translation”. In Kockaert, H.J. & F. Steurs (2015). Handbook of Terminology. Vol. 1. Amsterdam; Philadelphia: John Benjamins. 304-323. Chan, N. (2015): “Language policy and terminology policy in Canada”. In Kockaert, H.J. & F. Steurs (2015). Handbook of Terminology. Vol. 1. Amsterdam; Philadelphia: John Benjamins. 489-504. Chiocchetti, E., Heinisch-Obermoser, B., Löckinger, G., Lušicky, V./, Ralli, N., Stanizzi, I.& T. Wissik (2013): Guidelines for collaborative legal/administrative terminology work. Bolzano/Bozen: EURAC. De Groot, G.R. (1999): „Das Übersetzen juristischer Terminologie“. In de Groot, G.R. and Schulze, R. (1999): Recht und Übersetzen. Baden Baden: Nomos. 11-46. Drewer, P., Pulitano, D. & K-D. Schmitz (2014).: Terminologiearbeit. Best Practices 2.0. 2. Aufl. Deutscher Terminologie-Tag e.V. (Hrsg.). Köln. Fioritto, Alfredo (2007): “Il linguaggio delle amministrazioni pubbliche”. Scrittura e società, Storia, Cultura e Professioni, a cura di G. Fiorentino, 403-422. Palermo, F. (1997): Normazione linguistica e tutela minoritaria, Bolzano, Accademia Europea. RaDT (2002): Terminologia – La base della comunicazione, dell’informazione, delle conoscenze specialistiche nella società dell’informazione plurilingue. Commissione tedesca per l’UNESCO (http://radt.org/images/veroeffentlichungen/RaDT_Broschuere_italienisch.pdf, consulted on 15.12.2016) RaDT (2015): Terminologie – Grundlage für Fachkommunikation, Fachinformation, Fachwissen. 3. Aufl. RaDT für Deutschsprachige Terminologie (RaDT). Staatskanzlei des Kantons Bern: Bern. (http://radt.org/images/veroeffentlichungen/Terminologiebroschuere_NEU2015.pdf, consulted on 15.12.2016) Sacco, R. (1992): Introduzione al diritto comparato. V edizione. Torino:UTET. Sandrini, P. (1996): Terminologiearbeit im Recht. Deskriptiver begriffsorientierter Ansatz vom Standpunkt des Übersetzers. Termnet: Wien. Šarčević, S. (1997): New approach to legal translation. The Hague: Kluwer Law International. Wiesmann, E. (2004): Rechtsübersetzung und Hilfsmittel zur Translation. Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag.

Vocabulary and LSP for Global Engineers

Jamie Rinder (KTH Royal Institute of Technology)

In 2016, the Global Engineers Language Skills (GELS) project set out to identify the most common communication skills required by engineers in industry and to produce a framework of progressive goals to help language teachers meet the specific needs of student engineers learning any additional language (Rinder et al., 2016). The GELS framework is gaining in popularity and an increasing number of language teachers working at technical universities and engineering departments across Europe and teaching a wide range of languages are collaborating with the aim of producing a manual of teaching and learning activities for budding global engineers (Geslin et al., 2016). However, a potential stumbling block, especially in languages other than English, is vocabulary. What is meant by “frequently encountered lexis” in the GELS framework? How can language teachers, who often have no technical background themselves, provide engineering-related vocabulary for their students? How can teachers generate some interest in engineering-related vocabulary in languages other than English? This paper describes the progress that the GELS project has made in recent months and provides answers to these vocabulary-related questions by describing a pilot project undertaken at KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden. The project involves students translating words and phrases based on the Academic Word List (Coxhead, 1998), producing glossaries for their content courses, and translating the glossaries. This work is carried out in all the languages taught at KTH Language and Communication (English, French, German, Japanese, Mandarin Chinese, Spanish, and Swedish) and the other common languages spoken on campus (e.g. Arabic, Farsi, and Serbian). The potential uses of these glossaries and translations, the strengths and weaknesses of the work done so far, and the ways in which this project fits into the GELS project and LSP more generally will be addressed in the paper.

References Coxhead, A. (1998). An Academic Word List. ELI Occasional Publications #18, School of Linguistics and Applied Language Studies, Victoria University of Wellington: Wellington. Geslin, T., Rinder, J. & Tual, D. (2016). Le projet GELS (in French). Available at http://www.language-unit.eng.cam.ac.uk/news/GELS Rinder, J., Geslin, T. and Tual, D. (2016). A Framework for Language and Communication in the CDIO syllabus. Proceedings of the 12th International CDIO Conference, Turku University of Applied Sciences,Turku, Finland, June 12-16, 2016.

‘Legal Meaning’: a critique from linguistics

Raphael Salkie (University of Brighton)

The term ‘legal meaning’ is fundamental in the standard reference for British lawyers and judges on how to interpret the law: Bennion on Statutory Interpretation (6th Edn, 2013):

Any person or body charged with the function of applying, and therefore interpreting, an enactment is under a duty to arrive at its legal meaning (Bennion, §2)

The term is used extensively (366 occurrences) in the book, but is explained in a variety of ways:

The legal meaning of [an] enactment […] is the meaning that correctly conveys the legislative intention (Bennion, §150)

The legal meaning […] is the meaning that has been, or would be, judicially laid down … (Bennion, §150)

[...] the legal meaning is the one to which on balance the factors arising from the relevant interpretative criteria accord the greater weight. (Bennion, §152)

Although much of Bennion’s guidance is valuable and linguistically sound, this lack of clarity is a symptom of a serious flaw that runs through its 1273 pages: a failure to grasp the distinction between ‘meaning’ and ‘communicative intention’. The former is a semantic notion, whereas the latter falls squarely under pragmatics.

Bennion is not alone in this. Lawyers have developed their own special metalanguage to deal with linguistic matters, and Bennion follows common practice when he uses ‘enactment’ to mean ‘the text of a law’. The legal profession needs to recognise, however, that ‘enacting a law’ is a type of speech act. Standard accounts of speech acts, such as Bach (2006), emphasise that they involve meaning and also communicative intention – in the case of laws, the text and the intention of the enacting body.

Once this distinction is understood, the term ‘legal meaning’ can be discarded and Bennion’s book simplified and shortened. I will demonstrate this in detail.

Reference Bach, 2006. Speech acts and pragmatics. In M. Devitt & R. Hanley (Eds.), The Blackwell guide to the philosophy of language, 147–167. Oxford: Blackwell.

Designer languages in and beyond specialized communication

Klaus Schubert (Universität Hildesheim)

Making one’s message understood is one of the priorities of specialized communication. Documents need to be comprehensible. Many attempts have been and are being made to improve on the language in which specialized documents are written. However, there is no absolute measure of comprehensibility. Rather, what is easy to understand for one person may not be so for another.

Understanding depends at least as much on the recipients as it does on the message. In specialized communication and in a number of other fields, people have devised languages meant to be easier to learn, easier to understand, less easy to misunderstand or in some other way better than the existing languages. Examples of such optimized languages include the controlled languages of technical documentation, the easy-to-read languages for recipients with cognitive disabilities, plain languages used by authorities when communicating with the citizens, planned languages for international communication on equal terms and others.

Recent research shows that the audiences of optimized communication are not homogeneous but that recipients may well differ in cognitive capacity, communicative skills and cognitive competences. My talk is an attempt to review such research and to assess the most prominent of the available optimized languages with a view to specialized communication.

Lawyers in the age of social media: LinkedIn as an educational and a professional tool

Anila R Scott-Monkhouse (Parma University Language Centre)

In 2006 the Law Faculty of the University of Parma (Italy) launched EFLIT (English for Law and International Transactions), a postgraduate training programme for professionals and graduates in the fields of Law and Economics aimed at improving both their language and legal skills mainly through task-based learning by combining a linguistic focus (i.e. English for Law, at B2 level of the Common European Framework of Reference) and a content focus (i.e. Law in English) thanks to its multidisciplinary teaching staff. EFLIT is now the largest provider of ‘legal English skills’ instruction in Italy and is recognised by professional associations for accreditation purposes in continuous education. The development into a national project has entailed many changes, mostly based on the constant observation of the participants’ needs and the evolution of their professional world thanks to the information provided in interactions with them and through online surveys. The EU recommendations on key competences for lifelong learning have also been a guiding principle of these changes, and ‘digital literacy’ has become one of the additional competences now included in the scope of the course. EFLIT itself has moved from the development of its own webpage, to the active use of mailing lists, its own Facebook page, and, lastly, LinkedIn, which is now seen not only as a marketing tool for the project, but also as an educational tool to be used by the trainers in supporting participants in the creation and management of their own professional identity, and their digital reputation and network. The present study outlines how social media can be used as a learning tool within a training programme of continuing legal education for Italian professionals, and how this translates into developing valuable professional skills.

Gaining Multiliteracy: Multimodal Approach to Foreign LSP Training

Zane Senko and Marina Platonova (both Riga Technical University)

The emergence of the hybrid multimodal paradigm of communication “makes use of different communication modes, transfers information via multiple channels and functions on different planes” (Platonova et al 2016; 70). The changes in the communication paradigm, in their turn, induce changes in the composition and structure of their professional portfolio. Therefore, the profile of a contemporary student of an engineering study programme contains a variety of competences, which s/he should possess, e.g. apart from having a domain specific knowledge, it concerns developing terminological competence, addressing the issues of cultural sensitivity and linguistic diversity, which implies perfect mastering of a foreign LSP, English in particular.

The necessity to acquire multiple languages within higher education study programmes not majoring in linguistics is governed by the fact that nowadays multiliteracy is no longer seen as a “pedagogical phenomenon” (Čok in Sollars 2002, 5), but rather as a pedagogical necessity, as it is perceived as an important “general European value and criteria” (ibid). The concept of multiliteracy however has (r)evolutionized in the course of the years, as it has developed into the phenomenon, which, alongside other things, concerns enhancing literacy in the foreign LSP by exploring cultural diversity in the multilingual environment for multimodal information transfer. In other words, contemporary language acquisition theories and practices are aimed at exploring “how to use the range of students’ linguistic repertoires and transcultural knowledge in the learning of any language at whatever level using multiliteracies perspective” (Janks in Kumagai et al 2015; xi).

The aim of the paper is, therefore, by adopting a multimodal approach to foreign LSP acquisition, to find out the core competences and organize them into the matrix of related levels that students should possess to enhance literacy in the English language for specific purposes, pursuing their academic excellence, and achieving individual professional proficiency.

References Bamford, A. (2003). The visual literacy white paper. Sydney: Adobe Systems Pty Ltd. Retrieved 12 September, 2016 from www.adobe.com/uk/education/pdf/adobe_visual literacy_paper.pdf. Hanauer, D.I. (2006). Scientific Discourse: Multiliteracy in the Classroom, A&C Black. Kumagai, Y., López-Sánchez, A., Wu, S. (eds.) (2015). Multiliteracies in World Language Education. Language, Culture, and Teaching Series. Routledge. Platonova, M., Erins, I., Miltina, Z. (2016). Application of Tagging Services for Term Analysis on Visual Plane in Financial Engineering. In Meaning in Translation: Illusion of Precision, MTIP2016 edited by Marina Platonova and Larisa Ilinska. Published in Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, Volume 231, Pages 1-286 (5 October 2016) Provenzo Jr., E. F., Goodwin, A., Lipsky, M., Sharpe, S. (eds.) (2011). Multiliteracies: Beyond Text and Written Word. Landscapes of Education. IAP. Pullen, D.L. and Cole D. R. (2009). Multiliteracies and Technology Enhanced Education: Social Practice and the Global Classroom: Social Practice and the Global Classroom. IGI Global. Sollars, V. (2002). Issues in Multi-literacy. Language Learning. European Centre for Modern Languages. Council of Europe.

Coping with Long Texts in ESP Classes: Using Notes in Content Visualistion

Tamara Sladoljev-Agejev and Višnja Kabalin-Borenić (both University of Zagreb)

In the age of acceleration, claims Thomas Friedman (2016), 'everything important can only be done slowly..., the old-fashioned way'. Friedman's statement is of significance for advanced ESP taught in colleges, especially in the case of business schools. Indeed, our age is characterised by a non-linear increase in the amount of data that need to be processed in less and less time. As a result, structured communication is top priority for today's professionals, including the business community which has been using different formats of content structuring and data visualisation to accelerate decision- making processes (e.g. Minto, 2002). Can knowledge making through content visualisation be effectively applied in ESP classes? We argue that this can be practiced as a note-taking exercise in ESP classrooms in combination with ‘old-style’ careful reading (Weir & Khalifa, 2008).

We present a study of business students using graphically organized notes when reading long texts (c. 1,000 words). About 60 students were instructed to take notes on two texts as part of a course in Business English. While reading Text 1 students were instructed that notes 'should clearly convey the main ideas of the text to a third person who did not read the text '. In Text 2, students were additionally required to take notes 'whose graphic organization will reflect the logical structure of the text'. It is expected that Text 1 notes will be more fragmented with little or no graphic organization, while more visual structuring and more content integration will be found in Text 2 notes. Implications for teaching will be discussed including the role of ESP teachers as content management facilitators and motivators who encourage their students to put effort into careful reading and deep comprehension leading to knowledge making.

References Friedman, T. (2016). Thomas Friedman's talk on his book Thank You for Being Late: An Optimist's Guide to Thriving in the Age of Accelerations at the Sulaimani Forum 2016. Available at: http://www.thomaslfriedman.com/media [Accessed 15 Nov 2016]. Minto, B. (2002). The Pyramid Principle. 3rd edition. Prentice Hall. Weir, C.J., & Khalifa, H. (2008). A cognitive processing approach towards defining reading comprehension, Cambridge ESOL: Research Notes, 31, 2-10. Williams, R. L. & Eggert, A.C. (2002). Notetaking in College Classes: Student Patterns and Instructional Strategies. The Journal of General Education 51(3): 173-199.

Exploring health care regulators' “indigenous criteria” for communicative competence in reference to the needs of internationally-educated health professionals

Andrea Strachan (Touchstone Institute) and Ibtissem Knouzi (University of Toronto)

This paper explores the ‘indigenous criteria’ (Alder & McNamara, 2015) used by regulators to define entry-to-practice competencies for health care practice in Ontario, Canada. While Canadian immigration policy has emphasized the recruitment of highly qualified professionals to fulfill predicted skills shortages, there is a growing concern, among employers, regulators and colleagues, over internationally Educated Health Professionals’ (IEHP) ability to meet professional standards of work effectiveness and patient safety due to perceived gaps in communication skills. Entry-to-practice competency standards are used as a foundation for curriculum design and examination blueprints in Bridge Training programs and specialized performance-based assessments that have emerged to address IEHP’s medical knowledge and technical skills gaps. Less attention has been paid to how the language and communication abilities of IEHPs are defined, evaluated and taught.

For this study, we obtained entry-to-practice standards from 26 regulators and extracted all communication competencies (N= 91). We analysed these using word frequency and concordance searches and a detailed coding scheme based on Douglas (2000), in order to identify the specific components of language ability implied in each statement. We found considerable variation in the competencies across regulators and a recurrent use of certain general terms (e.g., effective/clear/ appropriate communication). Consequently, we conducted follow-up qualitative analyses to further explore the specific ‘indigenous criteria’ used by the regulators. We anonymized the 91 communication competency statements, condensed them into 25 essential statements, and applied a modified nominal group method with regulator representatives to further define the ambiguous terms. This allowed us to further define the components of language ability required in each standard.

The findings of this study clarified the language and communication criteria and expectations assumed in the entry-to-practice standards for IEHPs. Having clarified these language-related criteria, we are closer to being able to construct relevant curricula and assessments for IEHPs.

References Douglas, D. (2000). Assessing languages for specific purposes. Ernst Klett Sprachen. Elder, C. and McNamara, T. (2015/6) The hunt for “indigenous criteria” in assessing communication in the physiotherapy workplace. Language Testing Vol 3 (2).

Business, tourism and logistics for students of German Philology: Problems and challenges about tea

Grazyna Strzelecka (University of Warsaw)

The presentation in German shows an outline of a standard course on business language at the Institute of German Studies, University of Warsaw. The problems and challenges are due to the differences between the purposes of teaching German language at Philology and the practical side of the course. These classes, which convey practical knowledge are very popular among the students, because their wish is to gain skills required in their professions. Could it mean a reorientation of teaching at philology? If this presentation instigates a discussion on this issue, it will serve its purpose well.

Translating Patents and its Paratexts

Yvonne Tsai (National Taiwan University)

For a patent translator be competent in the translation work, the translator should at least have some fundamental knowledge of the internal organization of a patent, which includes the specification, claims, abstract, and drawings. Patent translators should also understand the specific features of patent language to distinguish appropriate register and translation strategies, and they need to understand the patent system and its restrictions. The translator should be aware of patent language, as this procedural understanding leads to appropriate use of translation strategies. The unique features of patent language also affect the workflow of the translator. In addition to conforming to the structure, the translator also has to search for information and terminology in order to complete the task. Streamlining workflow is thus an important area for patent translators. This leads to the use and mastery of available resources and a hands-on approach to these resources.

This presentation aims to integrate the prerequisites of a patent translator by compiling research findings, related articles, and references to present a comprehensive guide to translating patents. In this study, the paratextual features of patent translation is examined. Examining every part, from titles to illustrations, my study will investigate the translation of the paratext and the correlations between each of these paratexts in relation to the main text. This research will take a closer look at the data in order to shed light on specific features of patent language and corresponding translations.

Technology-Induced Pedagogy in the Specialized Translation Classroom

Yvonne Tsai (National Taiwan University)

From personal computers and notebooks to netbooks and tablet computers, technology has changed not only the way we live but also the way we work. In order to provide efficient services and satisfy client requirements, translators have endeavored to keep up with the rapid growth of new technology and meet the basic requirements of a workable translation environment. One basic requirement today is a word processing device, usually a computer, with translation software to help the translator. However, despite major changes in the working environment of translators, very few changes have occurred in the teaching environment, where increasing numbers of future translators are trained.

Conventional translation classes usually take place in classrooms equipped with one computer for the teacher. Translation pedagogy includes lectures, in-class hand-written translation assignments, student discussions, peer-review sessions, and labor-intensive translation evaluations, wherein student translators play a passive role. Technology could both facilitate and strengthen teaching and learning in the classroom. This presentation intends not to revolutionize translation pedagogy but to provide insight into how teachers could benefit from technology in teaching specialized translation, how student translators could be best prepared for the real world, and how academia could be connected to industry.

When computer labs are used as translation classrooms, student translators can be encouraged to make use of all the resources that are available to them, both online and offline. The meaning and translation of specialized terminology are just a few clicks away. With translation tools, even lessons with in- class translation assignments can be more productive and efficient. The quality of student translations can be monitored and double-checked via text analysis, corpus, or translation quality assurance programs. All these tools provide student translators an autonomous learning environment wherein they can be more proactive in learning and translating, while keeping up with trends in computer-aided translation. This presentation introduces changes in the field of specialized translation, reasons for using computer labs, a rationale for and approach to collaborative learning, and a call for changes in specialized translation pedagogy in order to create a proactive learning environment for student translators to prepare themselves for real life situations and combine academic studies on empirical grounds.

Translators’ methods of acquiring domain-specific terminology

Lulianna van der Lek-Ciudin (Leuven University), Ayla Rigouts Terryn (Ghent University), Geert Heyman (Leuven University), Els Lefever (Ghent University) and Frieda Steurs (Leuven University)

The SCATE (Smart Computer-Assisted Translation Environment) research project is a multidisciplinary co-operation with the objective of improving translators’ efficiency and consistency through a better integration of existing translation technologies and exploitation of resources. One aspect of this project was to investigate the process of terminology extraction by humans and to automate the process of terminology extraction from comparable corpora.

The methods consist of three main tasks: (1) study of translators’ methods to acquire domain knowledge and terminology, (2) determining comparable corpora, and (3) automatic terminology extraction from comparable text. In this presentation we will focus on the results of task (1) which has been completed, and present the preliminary results of task (3).

In task (1) we collected the data through an international survey and observations of 16 translators and terminologists at their workplaces across a period of eight months in 2015. The study revealed information about translators’ web search behaviour and usage of online linguistic resources to solve terminological problems. Besides these, we have identified needs and shortcomings of different CAT tools regarding the terminology management component, integration with online databases and exchange of terminological data.

In task (3) we identified two subtasks: monolingual term extraction and term linking (i.e., linking terms to their corresponding translation). For the term extraction, we applied a hybrid approach combining linguistic and statistical information (Macken et al., 2013). Subsequently, two different techniques were investigated to link the translation equivalents: probabilistic topic models as well as different neural network architectures. The best results were obtained with a neural network model. In order to evaluate the performance of the different modules, we created a gold standard for three different domains (heart failure, wind energy, corruption) in three different languages (English, French, Dutch).

References Macken, L., Lefever, E. & Hoste, V. (2013). TExSIS: Bilingual Terminology Extraction from Parallel Corpora Using Chunk-based Alignment. Terminology, 19 (1), 1-30. John Benjamins Publishing Company, Amsterdam, Netherlands. Poly-GrETEL. Available online at https://clarin.eu/showcase/poly-gretel-search-engine-querying- syntactic-constructions-parallel-treebanks TermWise: Resources for Specialised Language Use. Information available online at http://liir.cs.kuleuven.be/projects.php?project=177 van den Bergh, Jan et al. (2015). Recommendations for Translation Environments to Improve Translators' workflows. Translating and the Computer 37. Asling. London. van der Lek-Ciudin, Iulianna, Tom Vanallemeersch and Ken de Wachter (2015). Contextual Inquiries at translators’ workplaces. In Proceedings of the 1st TAO-CAT, Angers 2015

Performing Science: Press Conference as Performative Event

Lydia Wilkinson (University of Toronto)

On the one hand, press conferences provide academics and researchers a platform through which to educate and engage the public in science related discoveries, while clarifying and even correcting misapprehensions about scientific events. On the other hand, they provide an opportunity to encourage investment in science related fields and products by using strategies typically associated with public relations and marketing fields. While an analysis of language in these contexts provides one entry point into how science is framed, looking beyond this textual messaging provides insight into the contingent meanings that are connected to how and by whom this science is presented. The discipline of performance studies, which identifies and analyzes the mechanisms with which we present ourselves and our related products or perspectives, provides a useful tool through which to understand the motivations and associated strategies behind scientific communication. This framework assumes that the rhetorical and aesthetic devices through which stories are told are intentional and often referential, and that their meaning is intentionally constructed by the teller(s) and interpreted by their audience. Building on this foundation, a performance studies approach might analyze the meaning behind the visual layout of a press conference meeting room, or the behaviour of a research team’s spokesperson, combining these multiple references to understand the intended meanings behind the stories they tell.

This paper will use a performance studies lens to breakdown the strategies through which incidents or discoveries were framed in three controversial scientific communication strategies: Virgin Galactic’s 2014 SpaceShipTwo crash, NASA’s 2010 astrobiology event and the Higgs Boson announcement in 2012. Using this approach the paper will first analyze video press releases associated with these events and then review responses in the popular and scientific press, to understand the relationship between how performances shape scientific messages and how the public responds to them.

The role of corpora and blended learning in teaching Russian grammar

James Wilson (University of Leeds)

In this presentation, I describe the benefits of a corpus-based and blended learning approach to teaching Russian grammar, focusing on methods developed at the University of Leeds, UK. Teachers of Russian language at UK universities rely heavily on traditional approaches to grammar teaching, formally introducing grammar points and supporting their explanations with drill exercises that are often bereft of context and/or unnatural. An increasingly common practice in language teaching, especially in ELT, is to encourage learners to elicit grammar points through exposure to authentic language. I firmly believe that an elicitation-based approach to grammar teaching for a morphologically complex language like Russian is impractical and, from my own “experiments”, ineffective. The traditional grammar drill is still an essential element of learning Russian; however, a blended learning approach that combines tradition with technology, here with hands-on engagement with large electronic corpora, can help learners master complex points of Russian grammar and apply them appropriately in speech and writing.

At Leeds, students are taught to work with corpora which they access through the IntelliText Interface (http://corpus.leeds.ac.uk/it); they use corpora to consolidate material presented in formal grammar explanations and drill exercises and to contextualise grammar points by viewing them in dozens of authentic sentences, testing controversial points of Russian grammar for which variation is observed, and comparing prescribed grammar with actual language use. This blended learning approach not only improves students’ language competence and their understanding of Russian grammar, but it also encourages students to think analytically about language use and develops essential autonomous learning skills. In this paper, I present several examples, focusing on points of grammar with which British students frequently struggle, of how we use corpora to support more conventional methods of Russian grammar teaching and discuss students’ feedback to blended learning.

Creating a historical thesaurus for Austrian criminal law of the 18th century

Tanja Wissik, Claudia Resch and Daniel Schopper (all Austrian Academy of Sciences)

In this paper we will present a project on a collection of 180 printed single broadsheets that report on capital punishment in 18th century Vienna. The main focus of the presentation will be how these historical resources, which have hardly ever been the object of investigation so far, can be rendered accessible for researchers and a broader public. Announcing the lives and crimes of the malefactors, the broadsheets show different degrees of detail. The working group aims at covering personal data as a crucial part of the text genre: A granular metadata scheme based on the namesdates TEI module and an online application will allow for detailed analysis and enable researchers to query the data by biographical information (e.g. names, age, sex) and also by the offences in question. One method of opening up sources and making them searchable is the application of thesauri. Since we are dealing with historical sources and historical legal language, already existing thesauri, such as EuroVoc, cannot fulfil the project’s requirements. Some of the offences mentioned in the historical resources are unknown to the current legal system (e.g. Kirchenraub1, Urfehdebruch2). As a consequence, we started to create a thesaurus of historical crimes based on the legally binding norms of the 18th century (e.g. Theresiana). The relevant terminology is represented by means of the Simple Knowledge Organization System SKOS. As a thesaurus editor we started to use the Open SKOS3 editor. In our presentation we will introduce this set of data and its specific thesaurus application. We will describe the concept scheme(s) and the mapping between the different legal concepts.4.

References Ammerer, Gerhard: Das Ende für Schwert und Galgen? Legislativer Porzess und öffentlicher Diskurs zur Reduzierung der Todesstrafe im Ordnetlichen Verfahren undter Joseph II, (1781-1787). (Mitteilungen des österreichischen Staatsarchivs, Sonderband 11) Innsbruck / Wien / Bozen: Studienverlag 2010. Biasiotti, Maria Angela: Semantic Resources for Managing Legislative Information. In: Sartor, Giovanni / Palmirani, Monica / Francesconi, Enrico / Biasiotti Maria Angela (eds.): Legislative XML for the Semantic Web. Principles, Models, Standards for Document Management. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands 2011, pp 151-172. Broadsheets Austrian National Library: www.onb.ac.at Broadsheets Vienna City Library: www.digital.wienbibiothek.at Evans, Richard J.: Rituals of retribution: capital punishment in Germany 1600-1987. Oxford Univ. Press 1996. TEI: http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p5-doc/en/html/ND.html Theresiana Constitutio Criminalis Theresiana oder der Römisch=Kaiserl. zu Hungarn und Böheim ec.ec. Königl. Apost. Majestät Mariä Theresiä Erzherzogin zu Oesterreich, rc. rc. peinliche Gerichtsordnung. Wien: Johann Thomas Edler von Trattner 1769. (= „Theresiana“) http://reader.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/fs1/object/display/bsb10322049_00007.html Wersig, Gernot: Thesaurus-Leitfaden: Eine Einführung in das Thesaurus-Prinzip in Theorie und Praxis. Berlin / Boston: De Gruyter Saur Reprint 2016. W3C: SKOS Simple Knowledge Organization System Reference. W3C Recommendation 18 August 2009 (last accessed 20.12.2016 https://www.w3.org/TR/2009/REC-skos-reference-20090818/)

1 robbery in churches 2 breach of oath to keep the peace 3 http://openskos.beeldengeluid.nl/ 4 This project is part of the Austrian´s contributions to the CLARIN infrastructure (Common Language Resources and Technology Infrastructure) and DARIAH infrastructure (Digital Research Infrastructure for the Arts and Humanities).

Optimisation of translation workflow with integrated translation-oriented terminology workflow: A case study in the administrative and legal domain

Tanja Wissik (Austrian Academy of Sciences) and Vesna Lusicky (University of Vienna)

Translation workflows (inter alia Schubert 2009, Risku 2016) and terminology workflows (inter alia COTSOES 2002) have been analysed separately until recently. Popiołek (2015) proposed a model for relating terminology workflow to translation workflow in corporate environment. However, this aspect has been absent from considerations in the administrative and legal domain (Chiocchetti et al. 2013). Administrative and legal organizations are becoming increasingly challenged by multilingual issues and are implementing different models of computer-assisted translation workflows (in-house, outsourced). Terminology is a key factor in multilingual lawmaking (Strandvik 2015), as well as in specialized translation, and should be supported by terminological databases during translation assignments to “ensure that uniform, consistent terminology is used throughout a translation or by a project team and can make a significant contribution to the quality of a translation” (Risku 2006). Managing terminology and translation processes in administrative and legal domains presents a special challenge due to stakeholders with different backgrounds, inadequate language resources, and characteristics dictated by the nature of the work in public bodies (Cao and Zhang 2008). Furthermore, the texts produced might be legally binding.

In the presentation, we will present a case study of a translation unit within a public organisation, responsible for translation of documents for the European Union accession negotiation process and integration process. The translation unit faces many challenges: dealing with an under-resourced language, high translation volumes with short deadlines, managing a high number of stakeholders involved in a legally-binding revision process, and shortcomings in technical and human resources.

We will discuss the results of interviews and think aloud protocols, and propose an optimized translation-oriented terminology workflow with integrated translation workflow. The proposed model the aims at alleviating the practical and methodological difficulties, improving the quality of terminological processes and products, and strengthening the visibility of the key stakeholders in translation-oriented terminology workflow.

References Cao, Deborah and Xingmin Zhao (2008). “Translation at the United Nations as Specialized Translation.” JosTrans, 9/2008, 39-54. Chiocchetti, Elena, Heinisch-Obermoser, Barbara, Löckinger, Georg, Lušicky, Vesna, Ralli, Natascia, Stanizzi, Isabella and Tanja Wissik (2013a). Guidelines for Collaborative Legal/Administrative Terminology Work. Bolzano: EURAC. http://phaidra.univie.ac.at/o:399583 (consulted 20.11.2015). COTSOES — Conference of Translation Services of European States Working Party on Terminology and Documentation (ed.) (2002). Recommendation for Terminology Work. Bern: Federal Chancellery. Popiołek, Monika (2015). “Terminology management within a translation quality assurance process.” In Kockaert, Hendrik J. and Frieda Steurs (eds), Handbook of Terminology, vol.1. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 341-359. Risku, Hanna (2006). “Cooperation and Quality Assurance in Technical Translation Projects.” Language at Work – Bridging Theory and Practice 1, 15-19. http://ojs.statsbiblioteket.dk/index.php/law/article/view/6234/5409 (consulted 14.11.2015). Risku, Hanna (2016). Translationsmanagement. Interkulturelle Fachkommunikation im Informationszeitalter. 3rd revised edition. Tübingen: Narr. Strandvik, Ingemar (2015). “On Quality in EU Multilingual Lawmaking.” In Šarčević, Susan (ed.). Language and Culture in EU Law. Multidisciplinary Perspectives. Surrey/Burlington: Ashgate, 141-165. Schubert, Klaus (2009). „Positioning translation in Technical Communication Studies.” JoSTrans, 11/2009, 17-30.

Writer/reader visibility in research articles: Variability across language, regional variety, discipline and gender

Annelie Ädel (Dalarna University)

Writer/reader visibility in research articles has been studied contrastively between English and other languages (e.g. Dahl 2004; Pérez Llantada 2010; Sanderson 2008; Vassileva 1998). This study considers several variables as potentially affecting discourse patterns: language culture (English; Swedish), regional variety (British; American English), discipline (History; Linguistics; Literary Studies) and gender. The phenomenon studied is metadiscourse, defined as reflexive linguistic expressions referring to the evolving discourse itself or its linguistic form, including references to the writer-speaker qua writer-speaker and the (imagined or actual) audience qua audience of the current discourse (Ädel 2006). The study is based on a 1.6 million word corpus of single-authored research articles. The English-language material consists of 96 and the Swedish material 70 articles. All three disciplines are represented in the English material, but the Swedish material includes only Linguistics. The results to be presented cover first and second person pronouns used metadiscursively. Second- person pronouns occur rarely in the English and never in the Swedish material. First-person pronoun use exhibits considerable variation: occurrences of ‘I’ range from 1-28 and ‘we’ from 0.5-32 per 10,000 words. There are disciplinary trends in the English data, with an average of 15 occurrences per article in Linguistics, 11 in Literary Studies and 3 in History, following the same order as in Sanderson (2008). The results for regional variety were similar, with the exception of ‘we’, used considerably more often by the British authors. No major differences based on gender were found, in contrast to Sanderson (2008). In the Swedish material, ‘I’ is almost twice as frequent as ‘we’, which makes it dissimilar to both the British data where ‘we’ predominates and the US data where the distribution is even. The talk closes with a discussion of consistency in research design and findings in this type of research on scholarly writing practices.

References Ädel, A. (2006). Metadiscourse in L1 and L2 English. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Dahl, T. (2004). Textual metadiscourse in research articles: A marker of national culture or of academic discipline? Journal of Pragmatics, 36(10), 1807–1825. Pérez-Llantada, C. (2010). The discourse functions of metadiscourse in published academic writing: Issues of culture and language. In Ädel, A. & A. Mauranen (Eds.) Nordic Journal of English Studies, 9(2), 41–68. Sanderson, T. (2008). Corpus, Culture, Discourse. Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag. Vassileva, I. (1998). Who am I/who are we in academic writing?: A contrastive analysis of authorial presence in English, German, French, Russian and Bulgarian. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 8(2).

3. POSTERS

An Academic Competence Framework in the field of Technical Communication

Jan Engberg (Aarhus University) and Patricia Minacori (Paris Diderot University)

In Europe, the situation for Technical Communication is that a constant and growing need exists in the industry and in the software sector for specialists to write documentation and in other way communicate technical content for the purposes of companies and organizations. At the same time, Higher Education programs training such specialists are in many European countries rare, and the situation is very different from one country to another. Consequently, relevant job openings are regularly filled by engineers, translators or philologists, who are then trained on the job.

In order to help improve this rather unsatisfactory situation on a European scale, representatives of 8 universities and the Germany-based organization tekom have since 2015 worked on a framework project under the Erasmus+ program of the EU. The project group covers countries with BA and MA programs in Technical Communication (France, Ireland, Germany, Netherlands) as well as countries with no such programs or with only rudimentary training (Romania, Denmark, Poland, Belgium). The project aims at producing the following concrete results:

 An academic competence framework to be used as a basis for planners of future higher education programs at BA and MA level in Europe  A number of example curricula developed for different national and academic level contexts  A revised version of the existing set of guide lines (TecDoc-Net Guidelines from 2005) concerning the profession of Technical Communicator

In our poster, we will concentrate upon the presentation of the academic competence framework, which has reached its pre-final form. The purpose of the poster discussions is to inform researchers from institutions with potential interest in developing such programs about the present stage of the project and to receive input for the further steps in the project.

A corpus-based method for the acquisition of clinical terms and variants

Leonie Grön (Leuven University)

The availability of clinical data in the form of electronic health records (EHRs) enables the development of advanced applications, such as patient profiling. For information extraction, most systems depend on pre-compiled term lists (Vellupillai et al. 2015). For languages other than English, though, resources are limited. Moreover, the existing vocabularies fail to cover term variants, which limits system performance (Afzahl et al. 2014). Therefore, we propose a corpus-based procedure for the acquisition of term variants in clinical Dutch.

We use an iterative algorithm based on lexico-semantic patterns to extract terms for clinical diagnoses from a corpus of Dutch EHRs (14,400 files, 3,531,844 tokens). Our method takes a set of hand-coded terms as input and searches for patterns of semantic classes. For instance, diagnoses are frequently post-modified by their anatomical location (‘stenose thv arteria carotis’ stenosis in arteria carotis). Exploiting such patterns, we retrieved a list of 1,171 terms, which was expanded with synonyms from Wikipedia and morphological variants.

For evaluation, we compare the recall with that of an existing clinical terminology, MDRDut1 (15,204 terms, 8,890 concepts). Using case-insensitive string-matching, we retrieved a total of 4,003,373 matches from our corpus. Out of these, 1,130 concepts (34,248 occurrences) were only found by MDRDut, while 501 concepts (50,772 matches) were retrieved by our terminology alone. Crucially, our system captures a number of high-frequent forms, most of which are non-standardized compounds (‘nierfunctieachteruitgang’ fading of the renal function), lay terms (‘kalknagels’ onychauxis) and jargon abbreviations (‘hypo’ hypoglycemia).

Our study shows the benefit of including variants from various registers in termbases for information extraction. Using a pattern-based procedure, we compiled a clinical terminology from scratch. Even though conceptual coverage is limited, our system outperforms the baseline in the absolute number of matches. By adapting the acquisition patterns, our method can be easily transferred to other domains.

References Afzal, Z., Pons, E., Kang, N., Sturkenboom, M., Schuemie, M. J., & Kors, J. A. (2014). ContextD: an algorithm to identify contextual properties of medical terms in a Dutch clinical corpus. BMC Bioinformatics, 15(1), 373. Velupillai, S., Mowery, D., South, B. R., Kvist, M., & Dalianis, H. (2015). Recent Advances in Clinical Natural Language Processing in Support of Semantic Analysis. Yearbook of Medical Informatics, 10, 183–193.

1 https://www.nlm.nih.gov/research/umls/sourcereleasedocs/current/MDRDUT/index.html The compilation and analysis of Buddhism English Corpus

Hsin-Yi Lien (Ming Chuan University)

In recent years, research on English for Specific Purpose (ESP) has been prevalent in applied linguistics and second language acquisition. A growing number of corpus-oriented studies tend to accelerate learners’ language acquisition in various subject areas by emphasizing special terminology, vocabulary, and metaphors in different subject fields, such as business English, science and technology English or medical English. However, none studies on ESP research investigate religious beliefs or missionary work (Varghese & Johnson, 2007). Because of intercommunication among different religions and the rapid development of tourism in Asia, the needs of study in Buddhism English seem to become urgent and important. The present study aimed to investigate high frequency keywords and collocations in Buddhism English. A corpus of about 10 million running words were compiled. In the first phase, British National Corpus (BNC) containing about 10 million words was used as a reference corpus and WordSmith 6.0 was employed to conduct a keyword analysis. After excluding proper nouns and function words, collocates of keywords with positive keyness were identified by using cluster tool of WordSmith. In the second phase, a qualitative method—expert review was applied to increase the pedagogical functions of the keyword and collocation list. In the first stage, two linguists refined the collocations, and in the second stage six experts including one linguist, one professor of linguistics, one professor of TESOL, specialized in English writing, two professors specialized in Buddhism linguistic studies, one professor specialized in collocations and one Lexicographer completed a Likert Scale questionnaire containing the refined collocations. The questionnaire data were analyzed by using PASW statistics 18 to identify those valuable collocations and keywords which would benefit language learning.

4. WORKSHOPS

Workshops

WS1 Fachsprache Forum for Early-Stage Researchers Convenors: Jan Engberg, Ines-Andrea Busch-Lauer

WS2 Information Retrieval in Terminology Using Lexical Knowledge Patterns Convenors: Elizabeth Marshman, Lotte Weilgaard Christensen, Bodil Nistrup Madsen, Hanne Erdman Thomsen

WS3 Interdisciplinary approaches to climate change communication and LSP: Workshop for young researchers Convenors: Marte Reenskaug Fjørtoft, Anje Müller Gjesdal

WS4 LSP corpora in specialised translation – Issues and Implications Convenors: Claudia Hegrenæs, Marita Kristiansen, Jan Roald, Beate Sandvei, Ingrid Simonnæs

WS5 Languages in Transnational Military Conflicts: Interdisciplinary Insights and Future Directions for Research Convenors: Nina Pilke, Michael Kelly, Pekka Kujamäki, Hans Landqvist, Paula Rossi

WS6 How to Achieve Innovative, Inclusive and Fit-for-Market Specialised Translator Training? Convenors: Barbara Heinisch, Zita Krajcso

WS7 Cognitive terminology studies and their interdisciplinary methodology Convenor: Larissa Manerko

WS8 The Trans-Atlantic & Pacific Project in 2017: What It means to collaborate internationally in an era of rising nationalism Convenors: Elisabet Arnó, Laura Gonzales, Joleen Hanson, Suvi Isohella, Barbara Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk, Bruce Maylath, Patricia Minacori, Birthe Mousten, Maria Teresa Musacchio, Giuseppe Palumbo, Sonia Vandepitte

Workshop 1: Fachsprache Forum for Early-Stage Researchers

Convenors: Jan Engberg (Aarhus University) and Ines-Andrea Busch-Lauer (Zwickau University of Applied Sciences)

In continuation of the tradition of the last two LSP Symposia, the editorial team of the journal Fachsprache wants to convene a forum for early-stage researchers. The forum is designed for graduate students, junior researchers as well as post-docs from the wider field of studies in specialised communication. The aim of the forum is to provide a platform for early-stage researchers to introduce their research plans, address their methodology or discuss other relevant issues of their research. A panel of senior researchers will provide their comments on the short statement presentations and share their experiences and views.

Teacher Interventions of Structural Inequality Reasoning: an Analysis of Culturally- dependent Argumentation

Gian-Louis Hernandez and Emma van Bijnen (both Università della Svizzera italiana)

In classrooms with students of different cultural backgrounds it may be difficult for teachers to foster an environment of mutual understanding.

During discussions, students may agree on the logic that underpins the arguments used in support of a standpoint. However, they may be unable to accept, or even to understand, the culturally specific arguments given by other students of a different cultural perspective in support of their standpoints. Using the Argumentum Model of Topics (AMT) (Rigotti and Greco, forthcoming) we are able to reconstruct the implicit premises in argumentation by unearthing the link between standpoints and arguments, and separating the logical aspects of the discussants’ reasoning from the culturally dependent aspects. These culturally dependent aspects shape hierarchical value systems, which are a predominant factor in the social construction of systems of inequality. (Lamont et al 2014). Therefore, this model is particularly functional for making the culturally dependent aspects of the students’ understanding of systemic inequality explicit, which allows us to analyze the corresponding teacher interventions.

We are interested in the question: “How do teachers teach the topic of systemic inequality to students of conflicting material positions?”. Our corpus will consist of naturally occurring data collected during a bachelor course in intercultural communication at a small, Swiss University. We will record and transcribe the data and employ Critical Discourse Analysis (van Dijk 1987; 1993, Wodak, Fairclough 1997) to give insight to teacher mediation of material diversity as a tool for cultural education. We expect that instructional interventions of the material position deal with the argumentation informed by students’ cultural perspective and identity.

References Lamont, Michèle, Stefan Beljean, and Matthew Clair. "What is missing? Cultural processes and causal pathways to inequality." Socio-Economic Review 12.3 (2014): 573-608. Rigotti, Eddo and Sara Greco. Inference in argumentation: A topics-based approach to argument schemes. To be submitted to the Springer Argumentation Library. (in preparation). van Dijk, Teun A. Communicating racism: Ethnic prejudice in thought and talk. Sage Publications, Inc, 1987. van Dijk, Teun A. "Principles of critical discourse analysis." Discourse & society 4.2 (1993): 249-283. Wodak, Ruth and Norman Fairclough. “Critical Discourse Analysis.” Discourse as Social Interaction (1997): 258-284.

LSP in international radiotelephony: Searching for a definition of the Aviation English construct

Ana Lúcia Tavares Monteiro (Carleton University)

The multicultural context of international radiotelephony (RT) communications between pilots and air traffic control officers (ATCOs) encompasses high-risk situations in which safety is paramount and communication is key. It requires compliance with the English-based standardized phraseology and a minimum level of plain English used for the specific purpose of aeronautical RT, prescribed by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO).

However, the communicative needs of both native and non-native speakers of English involved in intercultural RT go beyond language proficiency (Douglas, 2014; Kim, 2012; Knoch, 2014; Monteiro, 2016). They encompass knowledge, skills and attitudes related to interactional competence, intercultural awareness and professional competence, suggesting a conflict with the current ICAO testing policy. By relying on the ‘indigenous assessment criteria’ (Jacoby & McNamara, 1999) of RT experts from different cultural backgrounds, the proposed research project aims to address interdisciplinarity in this domain-specific context of language use. The goal is to contribute to a better definition of the Aviation English construct, and possible ways to operationalize it in the LSP assessment criteria and LSP teaching.

The following questions will be explored: To what extent do pilots and ATCOs identify communicative strategies perceived as relevant and requiring an appropriate level of language ability in intercultural RT interactions? Are the identified strategies related to the existing ICAO Rating Scale? Could the constructs underlying them inform the training and assessment of pilots and ATCOs? To answer these questions, an exploratory mixed methods design will be used. A literature review and focus groups will identify and validate a list of communicative strategies in terms of relevance and difficulty, which will inform the development of a questionnaire to international participants. Results will be submitted to Rasch analysis, calibrated with reference to the ICAO Rating Scale, and the constructs underlying the communicative strategies will be identified through factor analyses.

References Douglas, D. (2014). Nobody seems to speak English today: Enhancing assessment and training in aviation English. Iranian Journal of Language Teaching Research, 2(2), 1-12. Jacoby, S. & McNamara, T. (1999). Locating competence. English for Specific Purposes, 18(3), 213- 241. Kim, H. (2012). Exploring the construct of aviation communication: A critique of the ICAO language proficiency policy. Unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia. Knoch, U. (2014). Using subject specialists to validate an ESP rating scale: The case of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) rating scale. English for Specific Purposes, 33, 77-86. Monteiro, A. L. T. (2016). Exploring the role of intercultural awareness and interactional competence: The case of aviation English as a lingua franca. Unpublished manuscript in ALDS 6109, Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada.

Workshop 2: Information Retrieval in Terminology Using Lexical Knowledge Patterns

Convenors: Elizabeth Marshman (University of Ottawa), Bodil Nistrup Madsen (Copenhagen Business School), Hanne Erdman Thomsen (Copenhagen Business School) and Lotte Weilgaard Christensen (Kolding – University of Southern Denmark)

When access to increasingly bigger electronic corpora became possible in the nineties, British and Canadian terminologists in particular began taking an interest in certain linguistic cues pointing to specific terminological information. Manifested in text in predictable, recurring patterns, they are thus suitable for use in approaches to (semi-)automatic information retrieval. After about two decades, we find it relevant to organize a state-of-the-art discussion relating to this aspect of terminology research. Subjects to be discussed by submissions include:

 state-of-the-art in the field,  approaches,  applications,  domain-specific studies,  studies on knowledge patterns conducted for different languages, and  other aspects

The workshop is supported by IITF (International Institute for Terminology Research).

Semantic relations at the Machine learning era: where have the (good old) patterns gone?

Nathalie Aussenac-Gilles (IRIT, CNRS-université de Toulouse)

Although looking for semantic relations in text has been the topic of a large variety of research works since the early 90's, it is still considered as a difficult task without easy solution. This question is addressed by more and more researchers with very different backgrounds, either in computer science (NLP, semantic web, information extraction, etc.), linguistics, terminology, etc. After various attempts of cross-disciplinary fertilization, it seems that each domain investigates its own solutions and methods without a real integration of results from other disciplines. For instance, the large efforts carried out in terminology and in computational linguistics to evaluate, define, improve pattern-based approaches are not much taken into account in Natural Language Processing, and even less in ontology learning. In a symmetric manner, relation extraction using machine learning has still little impact in linguistic analyses and when designing lexical resources. And Hearst's patterns are regularly the core of new work that little advances the state of the art.

I will first draw an overview of the current approaches to identify semantic relations in text, with a special focus on the ways pattern-based solutions have evolved since early works. Then I will present a few works that have evaluated the complementarity of various techniques to support this task. I will finally promote the idea to capitalize better all the experiments and tools developed up to now, in particular by sharing patterns and learning methods, but also but investigating more systematically how existing techniques can be used together in a single platform, and mutually benefit of each other's results.

Pattern-based extraction of taxonomic relations from German forum data

Julia Bettinger, Tanja George (both University of Stuttgart) and Ulrich Heid (University of Hildesheim)

The relation between supertypes and subtypes (henceforth: taxonomic relation) has first been explored in computational linguistics by Hearst [1992]; since then, researchers have worked on the extraction of taxonomic relations, among others for English [Snow et al., 2005], and for German [Granitzer et al., 2009], or on ontology construction [Maynard et al., 2009]. In [Zouaq et al., 2012] the extraction was based on part-of-speech (pos) patterns and lemmas and on (dependency) parsing and is considered as a basis before filtering methods.

Our research interest is both theoretical and applied. We extract taxonomic relations from German online forum texts of the (rather heterogeneous) domain of do-it-yourself project reports (27 million words). We analyze the performance of a refined pos-shape version of four hypernymhyponym patterns from Hearst [1992], as well as extractors for verbs of class membership (gehören zu, ’belong to’; zählen zu ’count among’) based on dependency parsing.

We combine the results with data gained from a morphological analysis of the structure and components of German noun compounds (Elektrobandsäge ’electrical bandsaw’ –> Bandsäge ’bandsaw’ –> Säge ’saw’).

We will present details, results and an error analysis of both approaches, pos- and parsing-based, and an evaluation according to two criteria: (i) the quality of the extracted relationship (do the extracted examples describe taxonomic relations?), and (ii) the domain relevance of extracted pairs. As we do not yet have a gold standard for these relations, we can only measure precision; a first evaluation shows over 76 % correctly identified taxonomic relations, with over 90 % of the pairs domain being relevant. A more detailed evaluation is ongoing and will be discussed in a final version of the paper. We will also discuss an annotation of our corpus with orality markers (in the sense of the work of Koch and Oesterreicher [1996]) allowing us to assess the terminological, variational and taxonomic richness of more vs. less conceptually oral forum contributions.

References Michael Granitzer, Andreas Augustin, Wolfgang Kienreich, and Vedran Sabol. Taxonomy extraction from german encyclopedic texts. In Proceedings of the Malaysian Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence 2009, 2009. Marti A. Hearst. Automatic acquisition of hyponyms from large text corpora. In Proceedings of the 14th Conference on Computational Linguistics - Volume 2, COLING ’92, pages 539–545, Stroudsburg, PA, USA, 1992. Association for Computational Linguistics. doi: 10.3115/992133.992154. Peter Koch and Wulf Oesterreicher. Sprachwandel und expressive mündlichkeit/language change and expressive orality. Zeitschrift für Literaturwissenschaft und Linguistik, 26:64,1996. Diana Maynard, Adam Funk, and Wim Peters. Sprat: a tool for automatic semantic pattern based ontology population. In International conference for digital libraries and the semantic web, Trento, Italy, 2009. Rion Snow, Daniel Jurafsky, and Andrew Y. Ng. Learning syntactic patterns for automatic hypernym discovery. In L. K. Saul, Y. Weiss, and L. Bottou, (editors), Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 17, pages 1297–1304. MIT Press, 2005. Amal Zouaq, Dragan Gasevic, and Marek Hatala. Linguistic patterns for information extraction in ontocmaps. In Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Ontology Patterns- Volume 929, pages 61–72. CEUR-WS. org, 2012.

Evaluation of Word Sketches for Semantic Relation Extraction

Pilar León-Araúz (University of Granada), Antonia San Martín (Maynooth University) and Pamela Faber (University of Granada)

Many projects, such as Caméléon (Aussenac-Gilles and Jacques 2008) and TerminoWeb (Barrière and Agbago 2006), have applied knowledge patterns (KPs) (Meyer 2001, Marshman 2007) to the retrieval of specialized information. However, terminologists still tend to rely on manual work to extract all the semantic information that they need for the description of specialized concepts, since they do not have user-friendly publicly available applications allowing them to find knowledge rich contexts (KRCs). To fill this void, we have developed KP-based sketch grammars in the well-known corpus query system Sketch Engine (Kilgarriff et al. 2004). In this way, terminologists can query their own corpora with ready-made knowledge patterns. Our approach (León-Araúz et al. 2016) enables Sketch Engine to extract generic-specific, part-whole, location, cause and function relations in KRCs from any English corpus uploaded by the user. The information is presented to the user in the form of summary lists (word sketches) containing the pairs of terms linked by a given semantic relation. This paper shows the results of the precision and recall evaluation of the 58 English sketch grammars that have been created so far. Precision is measured on the basis of a random sample of concordances extracted from each word sketch type. In turn, recall is assessed based on a random sample of concordances where known term pairs are found. The results of both measures will be useful for the improvement and refinement of word sketches. The noise caused by false positives will help to further specify sketch grammars, whereas the silence caused by false negatives will allow us to find new useful patterns.

References Aussenac-Gilles, N., and Jacques, M.P. 2008. “Designing and Evaluating Patterns for Relation Acquisition from Texts with Caméléon.” Terminology 14 (1): 45–73. doi:10.1075/term.14.1.04aus. Barrière, C., and Agbago, A. 2006. “TerminoWeb: A Software Environment for Term Study in Rich Contexts.” In Conference on Terminology, Standardisation and Technology Transfer (TSTT 2006). Beijing. http://nparc.cisti-icist.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/npsi/ctrl?action=rtdoc&an=8913210. Kilgarriff, A., Rychlý, P., Smrz, P., and Tugwell, D. 2004. “The Sketch Engine.” In Proceedings of the Eleventh EURALEX International Congress, edited by Geoffrey Williams and Sandra Vessier, 105–16. Lorient: EURALEX. León-Araúz, P., San Martín, A. & Faber, P. 2016. Pattern-based Word Sketches for the Extraction of Semantic Relations. In Proceedings of the 5th International Workshop on Computational Terminology (Computerm2016), pages 73-82. Osaka, Japan: COLING 2016. Marshman, E. 2007. Lexical Knowledge Patterns for the Semi-automatic Extraction of Cause-effect and Association Relations from Medical Texts: A Comparative Analysis of English and French. PhD thesis, Département de linguistique et de traduction, Université de Montréal. Meyer, I. 2001. “Extracting Knowledge-Rich Contexts for Terminography.” In Recent Advances in Computational Terminology, edited by Didier Bourigault, Christian Jacquemin, and Marie-Claude L’Homme, 279–302. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.

Corpus-based analysis of verbs to retrieve terms expressing disease in English and Spanish medical texts

Clara Inés López-Rodríguez (University of Granada)

In medical language, the adequate selection of verbs contributes to communication and to the comprehension of terms and conceptual relations within texts (López Rodríguez 2007). This lexical choice poses a challenge for translators and technical writers, especially for those who produce specialized texts in a foreign language. In specialized discourse, the meaning of a lexical verb constrains the semantic categories of the noun phrases that can combine with it and, at the same time, the verb is constrained and acquires nuances of meaning associated to the noun phrases that usually co-occur with it (Buendía 2013). For this reason, the initial research question of this paper is whether a controlled query of lexical verbs in a tagged medical corpus can be used to extract and organize terminology.

The aim of this study is to search for, analyze and describe the verbs that frequently co-occur with noun phrases referring to the conceptual category DISEASE in medical texts, with a view to extracting terminology, recognizing knowledge patterns (e.g. PERSON develops DISEASE) and providing good examples of medical language use. Based on the methods described in Buendía (2013), Buendía, León & Sánchez (2016) and López-Rodríguez (2016), and the notion of knowledge pattern, both a comparable and parallel corpus in English and Spanish were analyzed with the help of the Sketch Engine corpus query system. The methodology and corpus query language used are relevant in the research and development project “Combinatory Lexis in Medicine: Cognition, Text and Context” (FFI2014-51899-R). Finally, the results of the present study confirm that searching for specific verbs in a specialized corpus can be effective for harvesting terminology. In fact, these results are proving to be fruitful to enrich VariMed, a medical vocabulary aimed at highlighting the phenomenon of terminological variation in Medicine (Tercedor, López and Prieto 2013).

References Buendía Castro, M. (2013) Phraseology in Specialized Language and its Representation in Environmental Knowledge Resources. PhD Thesis. Universidad de Granada Buendía Castro, M., León-Araúz, P. & Sánchez Cárdenas, B. (2016) Categorías semánticas para describir estructuras argumentales en un ámbito de especialidad. In Actes du XXVIIe Congrès international de linguistique et de philologie romanes (Nancy, 15-20 juillet 2013). Nancy: ATILF. 65-78. López-Rodríguez, C. I. (2007). Understanding scientific communication through the extraction of the conceptual and rhetorical information codified by verbs. Terminology 13(1), 61–84. López-Rodríguez, C. I. (2016). Explicitness of specialized terminology in popular science: an English into Spanish corpus-based study. In G. Corpas & M. Seghiri (eds.) Corpus-based Approaches to Translation and Interpreting: from theory to applications. Frankfurt: Peter Lang. 79-104. Tercedor-Sánchez, M., López, C. I. & Prieto Velasco, J. A. (2014). También los pacientes hacen terminología: retos del proyecto Varimed. Panace@ 15 (39), 95-102. Varimed (2014). http://varimed.ugr.es/

Examining strategies for developing bilingual knowledge pattern sets

Elizabeth Marshman and Natalia Héroux (both University of Ottawa)

Research into knowledge patterns for extracting knowledge-rich contexts has focused on languages including French (e.g. Condamines & Rebeyrolle 2000, Malaisé et al. 2005), Danish (e.g. Weilgaard 2004), Spanish (e.g. Feliu 2004, Cabré et al. 1996), and English (e.g. Barrière 2001, Meyer 2001). While work has been extensive, patterns’ range and variation (e.g. with domain, genre and level of specialization [e.g. Condamines 2002, Marshman et al. 2009]) limit the “transportability” of pattern sets between projects and require frequent adjustments.

The adaptation is even more challenging when more than one language is involved. Strategies for finding patterns’ equivalents include independent discovery in comparable corpora, translation of patterns (using bilinguals’ intuition and/or of dictionaries or other lexical resources), and searching for equivalents in aligned bitexts. While relatively little work has focused specifically on how markers compare across languages, considerable variation was observed in the equivalents for a set of patterns observed in a corpus of popularized bitexts on breast cancer (e.g. Marshman et al. 2012, Marshman 2014), suggesting that their equivalence—even in such similar texts—is far from straightforward.

Although each of the strategies above may be useful, their strengths and challenges—and thus potential effects— remain to be clarified. This paper will present a comparative case study: the use of English-French dictionaries to translate English patterns signalling the cause-effect relation in breast cancer texts will be contrasted with a search for equivalents in English-French bitexts. We will then observe differences in patterns identified and evaluate their performance in a small French corpus comparable to the original English texts. Finally, we will discuss the requirements and limitations of the two methods. With this comparison, we hope to highlight potential consequences of the choice of approaches and help guide future development of bilingual and multilingual pattern sets.

References Barrière, C. (2001). “Investigating the Causal Relation in Informative Texts.” Terminology, 7(2): 135–154. Cabré, M.-T., J. Morel and C. Tebé. (1996). “Las relaciones conceptuales de tipo causal: un caso práctico.” Actas del V Simposio Iberamericano de terminologie RITerm. Mexico City, 3–8 November 1996. Condamines, A. (2002). “Corpus Analysis and Conceptual Relation Patterns.” Terminology, 8(1): 141–162. Condamines, A. and J. Rebeyrolle. (2000). “Construction d’une base de connaissances terminologiques à partir de textes : expérimentation et définition d’une méthode.” In J. Charlet, M. Zacklad, G. Kassel and D. Bourigault, eds. Ingénierie des connaissances, évolutions récentes et nouveaux défis. 127–147. Paris: Eyrolles. Feliu, J. (2004). Relacions conceptuals i terminologia: anàlisi i proposta de detecció semiautomàtica. Doctoral thesis, Universitat Pompeu Fabra. Malaisé, V., P. Zweigenbaum and B. Bachimont. (2005). “Mining defining contexts to help structuring differential ontologies.” Terminology 11(1): 21–53. Marshman, E. (2014). “Enriching terminology resources with knowledge-rich contexts: A case study.” Special Issue on Lexico-semantic approaches to terminology. Terminology 20(2): 225-249, 2014. Marshman, E., J.L. Gariépy and C. Harms. (2012). “Helping translators manage terminological relations: Storing and using occurrences of terminological relations and lexical relation markers.” Special issue, Terminology, Phraseology and Translation, JoSTrans: Journal of Specialised Translation 18: 30-56. Marshman, E., M.C. L’Homme and V. Surtees. (2009). “Marqueurs de la relation cause-effet : stabilité et variation dans des corpus de nature différente.” Proceedings of the Conference Terminologie et intelligence artificielle, Toulouse, France, 18–20 November 2009. Meyer, I. (2001). “Extracting Knowledge-Rich Contexts for Terminography: A Conceptual and Methodological Framework.” In D. Bourigault, C. Jacquemin and M.-C. L’Homme, eds. Recent Advances in Computational Terminology. 279–302. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Weilgaard, L. (2004). “Valency Patterns of Danish Verbs as Terminological Knowledge Patterns.” In Proceedings of the Computational and Computer-Assisted Terminology Workshop, LREC 2004. 20–23. Lisbon, Portugal, 25 May 2004. Pattern-based approach to causality in the field of maritime safety Päivi Pasanen (University of Helsinki)

The application of knowledge patterns (KPs) in corpus searches is a promising method for the semi- automatic extraction of semantic relations (see e.g. Marshman 2006). In our study, the term knowledge pattern refers to a lexico-syntactic pattern indicating terminological information, such as semantic relations, in texts. This paper examines the application of KPs and the methodology of frame-based terminology in the creation of a framework for a maritime occurrence event (cf. Faber 2014). The aim of our study is to construct a prototypical framework for a collision event. In the domain of maritime safety, event concepts and the representation of causality in them have special importance, and therefore, should be studied from a wide range of perspectives including frame-based terminology. The method applied here combines semi-automatic information extraction, in which we employ knowledge patterns as a tool for the extraction of causal relations, and the creation of event templates. In the extraction of causal relations, we focus on both verbal and nominal causation patterns. We applied the method to an English corpus of accident investigation reports published by the Marine Accident Investigation Branch (MAIB). The results of the application of KPs are evaluated qualitatively with a view to creating a framework for a collision event.

The results of our study show that much valuable information can be found by employing knowledge patterns in information extraction from a corpus of structured texts, such as accident investigation reports. In spite of these good results, the study also shows that the use of knowledge patterns in semi- automatic knowledge extraction involves a number of problems. These include, for example, lexical and syntactic variation of certain knowledge patterns, as well as diverse lexical and syntactic representations of cause and effect concepts in texts.

References Faber, Pamela 2014. “Frames as a framework for terminology.” In Steurs, Frieda and Hendrik Kockaert, (eds). Handbook of Terminology. Amsterdam: Benjamins. 14–33. Marshman, Elizabeth 2006. “Lexical Knowledge Patterns for Semi-automatic Extraction of Cause- effect and Association Relations from Medical Texts: A Comparative Study of English and French”. Montréal: Université de Montréal.

Defining Knowledge-Rich Contexts for Specialized Translation: Uses and Limitations of a Mixed-Methods Approach

Aurélie Picton (University of Geneva), Amélie Josselin- Leray (University of Toulouse Jean Jaurès) and Emmanuel Planas (University of Nantes and Université catholique de L'Ouest Angers)

The notion of Knowledge Rich Context, first introduced by Meyer in 2001 for terminography, has proved efficient for various aspects of terminological analysis. However, Marshman (2014) underlines that it is not very often displayed in resources available to users. This is why integrating KRCs into the translator’s environment has been suggested by Bowker (2011, 2012). In the research project CRISTAL (Josselin Leray et al. 2014; Planas et al. 2014), KRCs were automatically retrieved from comparable (French/English) corpora and integrated into a specific interface designed for translators. Following the growing interest among the translation research community for user oriented empirical studies (e.g. Ehrensberger Dow & Massey 2008 and 2013; Désilets et al. 2009), we investigated how KRCs, in combination with other resources, are used during the translation process –a complex process with a comprehension, a transfer and a revision stage. Five experiments, involving both trainee and professional translators who were being monitored while translating, were carried out between 2013 and 2015. The unusually large number of participants (68) and the amount and diversity of the data gathered (5 types of data, including over 100 hours of recording) allowed us to ponder over the usefulness of a “mixed- methods approach”, “used when several methods are used to collect or analyze data [and] often understood to mean using both qualitative and quantitative approaches” (Saldanha & O’Brien; 2013: 23). In our case, the quantitative data collected was associated, for example, with the closed questions of online surveys and keystroke logging, while the qualitative data included, among other things, the open questions of online surveys, and some cue-based retrospective interviews focusing on the translation of three given terms. Some crucial results, such as the number of KRCs used and the number of KRCs considered “useful” by the translators, were only accessible through a quantitative analysis, while some others, such as the reason why a particular KRC was picked by a translator, could only be derived from the qualitative data (through the analysis of the interviews or of the recorded translations). Although the combination of both approaches led us to some conclusive findings regarding, for instance, the design of the interface or the type of KRC most wished for by translators, it also had some limitations that need to be discussed, such as its time-consuming side and the need for coherent criteria to deal with the very heterogeneous data.

References Bowker, L.: Off the Record and on the Fly, in Kruger, A., Wallmach, K., & Munday, J. (ed.) Corpus based Translation Studies: Research and Applications. London/New York, pp. 211-236 (2011). Bowker, L.: Meeting the Needs of Translators in the Age of e-Lexicography: Exploring the Possibilities. S. Granger & M. Paquot (ed.) Electronic Lexicography, Oxford University Press, pp. 379– 387 (2012). Désilets, A., Melançon, C., Patenaude, G., Brunette, L.: How Translators Use Tools and Resources to Resolve Translation Problems: an Ethnographic Study. Beyond Translation Memories Workshop. Ottawa, Canada (2009). Ehrensberger, Dow, M., Massey, G.: Exploring Translation Competence by Triangulating Empirical Data. Studies in Translation. 16, pp. 1–20 (2008). Ehrensberger, Dow, M., Massey, G.: Indicators of Translation Competence: Translators’ Self- concepts and the Translation of Titles. Journal of the Writing Research. 5, pp. 103–131 (2013). Josselin, Leray, A., Fabre, C., Rebeyrolle, J., Picton, A.,Planas, E. : Good Contexts for Translators - A First Account of the Cristal Project, Proceedings of Euralex 2014: The User in Focus, July 2014, Bolzano, Italy, pp. 631-645 (2014). Marshman, E.: Enriching Terminology Resources with Knowledge Rich Contexts. A Case Study. Terminology (20: 2), Lexical semantic approaches to terminology, pp. 225–249 (2014). Meyer, I.: Extracting Knowledge Rich Contexts for Terminology: A Conceptual and Methodological Framework. in Bourigault, D., Jacquemin, C., L’Homme, M. C. (eds.) Recent Advances in Computational Terminology. pp. 279–302 (2001). Planas, E., Picton, A., Josselin-­‐Leray, A.: Exploring the Use and Usefulness of KRCs in Translation: Towards a Protocol. Terminology and Knowledge Engineering Proceedings, June 2014, Berlin, Germany, pp. 188-197 (2014). Saldanha, G., O'Brien, S.: Research Methodologies in Translation Studies. St Jerome, Manchester (2013). Exploring the semantic nature of automatically induced term clusters by means of knowledge patterns

Juan Rojas-García and Melania Cabezas García (both University of Granada)

One of the most common approaches used to extract conceptual information from a corpus is to search for knowledge-rich contexts (KRCs). A KRC is “a context indicating at least one item of domain knowledge that could be useful for conceptual analysis” (Meyer 2001). In order to find KRCs in corpora, knowledge patterns (KPs) are generally used, which are the markers that express conceptual relations (Meyer 2001).

Much research in terminology has focused on the links between conceptual categories and the semantic relations, and the KPs that reflect them (Meyer et al. 1999; Feliu 2004; Weilgaard 2004). Evidently, if concepts could be semi-automatically classified in hierarchies by means of a clustering technique, this would help to specify and refine the meaning of the relations in which they participate (Bodson 2005; León-Araúz and Reimerink 2010).

This paper describes a semi-automatic method based on KPs for exploring the semantic relations that underlie the clustering of terms. This method was applied to a corpus of English environmental texts. A clustering technique was first applied, based on a distributional semantic model tested to best estimate semantic similarity between terms, since words in similar contexts are found to be semantically related (Harris 1954; Firth 1957). Each term was then annotated with a specific tag, depending on the cluster (i.e. category) that it belonged to. Finally, the annotated corpus was uploaded to the Sketch Engine application (Kilgariff et al. 2004), and queried by means of KPs in the form of regular expressions joined with the cluster tags.

The preliminary results showed that the pattern-based approach combined with clustering-based category tags significantly clarified which prototypical conceptual relation was conducive to signalling the membership of terms in the same cluster, and which semantic relations were established between different clusters.

References Bodson, C. (2005). Termes et relations sémantiques en corpus spécialisés : rapport entre patrons de relations sémantiques (PRS) et types sémantiques (TS). Doctoral thesis, Département de linguistique et de traduction, Université de Montréal. Feliu, J. (2004). Relacions conceptuals i terminologia: anàlisi i proposta de detecció semiautomàtica. Doctoral thesis, Universitat Pompeu Fabra. Firth, J. R. 1957. A synopsis of linguistic theory 1930-55. Studies in Linguistic Analysis (special volume of the Philological Society), 1952-59: 1–32. Harris, Z. 1954. Distributional structure. Word, 10(23): 146–162. Kilgarriff, A.; Pavel Rychlý, P. S. & Tugwell D. 2004. The Sketch Engine. In Proceedings of the Eleventh EURALEX International Congress, edited by Geoffrey Williams and Sandra Vessier, 105–16. Lorient: EURALEX. León-Araúz, P. & Reimerink A. 2010. Knowledge Extraction and Multidimensionality in the Environmental Domain. In Proceedings of the Terminology and Knowledge Engineering (TKE) Conference 2010. Dublin: Dublin City University. Meyer, I. 2001. Extracting Knowledge-Rich Contexts for Terminography. In Recent Advances in Computational Terminology, edited by Didier Bourigault, Christian Jacquemin, and Marie-Claude L’Homme, 279–302. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Meyer, I.; Mackintosh, K.; Barrière C. & Morgan T. (1999). Conceptual Sampling for Terminographical Corpus Analysis. In Proceedings of Terminology and Knowledge Engineering TKE ’99. 256 267. Innsbruck, Austria, 23–27 August 1999. Weilgaard, L. (2004). Valency Patterns of Danish Verbs as Terminological Knowledge Patterns. In Proceedings of the Computational and Computer-Assisted Terminology Workshop, LREC 2004. 20–23. Lisbon, Portugal, 25 May 2004. Terminological Workflow Involving Knowledge Patterns and Word Sketches for Semi-automatic Extraction of Information

Lotte Weilgaard Christensen (University of Southern Denmark)

Many articles on terminological extraction of information by means of knowledge patterns are based on studies of corpora in languages like English and French, which means that extraction of terminological information is supported by grammars, including annotated corpora. Small languages lacking free access to advanced grammatical resources have received less attention. This paper thus aims to analyze the workflow for semi-automatic extraction of knowledge-rich contexts (KRC) (Meyer 2001), applying a pragmatic character string approach to Danish, based on knowledge patterns combined with statistically based word sketches. Finally, we aim to test our approach on a Danish corpus within a subfield of electric cars.

The study will be conducted using Sketch Engine. So far, Sketch Engine has been used mainly by lexicographers (Kilgarriff et al 2014) and to a smaller degree by terminologists. The word sketch is a core function of Sketch Engine and consists of a one-page summary of the grammatical and collocational behavior of a specific word (Kilgarriff et al 2014). Thus, the word sketch is a list containing different recurrent patterns of the search word. A full-featured word sketch function requires a sketch grammar; for Danish, an elementary statistically based word sketch function has been available for user corpora since 2016.

Our approach is based on extraction by means of recurrent patterns of verbs and their surroundings described in Weilgaard Christensen (2004, 2006). The knowledge patterns of Danish verbs are identified on the basis of the Pronominal Approach valency theory (Daugaard & Kirchmeier-Andersen 1995), building mainly on syntactic criteria. The method will be applied to an untagged Danish corpus of electric cars. The focus will be on type-of and less on part-whole relations.

References: Daugaard, J., Kirchmeier-Andersen, S. (1995): The Odense Valency Dictionary Programme for Verb Coding. In: Daugaard, J. (ed.) Odense Working Papers in Language and Communication No. 8, pp. 3-35. Odense University, Odense (1995) Kilgarriff, A., Baisa, V., Bušta, J., Jakubíček, M., Kovář, V., Michelfeit, J., Rychlý, P., Suchomel, V. (2014): The Sketch Engine: ten years on. In: Tono, Yukio (ed.) Lexicography: Journal of ASIALEX, volume 1, issue 1, pp. 7–36. Springer Meyer, I. (2001): Extracting knowledge-rich contexts for terminography, A conceptual and me- thodological framework. In: Bourigault, D., Jacquemin, C., L’Homme, M.-C. (eds.) Recent Advances in Computational Terminology, pp. 279-301. John Benjamins Publishing Company, Amsterdam/Philadelphia Weilgaard Christensen, L. (2006): Hvordan ord sporer termer og andre terminologiske oplysninger. In: Þorbergsdóttir, Á. (ed.) Nordterm 2005: ORD OG TERMER, NORDTERM 14, pp. 83–93. Reykjavík Weilgaard Christensen, L. (2004): Valency Patterns of Danish Verbs as Terminological Knowledge Patterns. In: Costa, R., Weilgaard, L., Silva, R., Auger, P. (eds.) Workshop Computational and Computer-assisted Terminology, LREC 2004, IV International Conference On Language Resources and Evaluation, pp. 20-23. Lisbon

Workshop 3: Interdisciplinary approaches to climate change communication and LSP: Workshop for young researchers

Convenors: Marte Reenskaug Fjørtoft and Anje Müller Gjesdal (both Norwegian School of Economics)

Climate change is a complex issue subject to public debate across the globe, as well as an object of study for disciplines ranging from the humanities to the natural sciences. As such, climate change communication is carried out across a wide range of media and text genres, digital as well as non- digital. The multifaceted quality of climate change discourses, which include everything from technological and scientific terminology to political and moral language use, raises a number of issues relevant to and important for LSP research.

The complexities of climate change pose a number of questions related to the status of expert and non- expert voices and discourses in this field. To what extent are knowledge and terminology originating in scientific discourse and policy documents disseminated in popular science and media? To what extent do political discourse and popular science genres contribute back to scientific language use, through the generation of new terms and framings of the issues?

Moreover, the increasing use of digital genres, including social media, further complicates the status of expert vs non-expert discourses. To what extent do these communication channels influence climate change communication in terms of framing and language use?

News frames analysis of the UN Climate report

Katherine Duarte (University of Bergen)

This study shows how the latest climate report (AR5) is represented in the Norwegian media. The Intergovernmental Panel of climate change (IPCC) fifth assessment report (AR5) is policy relevant in regards to adaptation and mitigation to climate change, and advises towards climate change policies.

Nevertheless, several studies show that climate change has gained less attention in the media after the Conference of Parties in Copenhagen in 2009.

The fifth assessment report (AR5) was released in four parts from September 2013 to November 2014, and my interest is how the media framed the report, and how the issue was kept newsworthy during a time span of 14 months. The analysis is based on quantitative content analysis of 154 newspaper articles from five Norwegian newspapers. The material consists of 154 newspaper articles from the four parts of the last IPCC climate report. A quantitative content analysis and a framing analysis of the four parts form a basis of the study. Based on 10 frames, the results show that there are some nearly absent frames, and others with outstanding salience. The ten frames are reflected on different areas, where some are highly present (in the title or headline) and others have a minor presence (in the text or in caption/ illustration). Following the examples from O’Neill and colleagues (2015), the minor and outstanding presence have been coded for the ten frames (New Research, Settled science, Consequences, Economics, Disaster, Domestic politics, International relations, Moral/ethics, Uncertain science and Opportunities).

Although the WG3 report on mitigation to climate change is the most quoted report in the material, there are also other pressing issues, such as the oil crisis which is mentioned as a secondary theme during the release of the WG3 report. Therefore, it generates a higher presence than other issues. In other studies, the WG1 and WG2 receive the most attention. However, this is not the case in Norway. There is a careful optimism in regards to the future. Opportunities is the most salient frame, showing possibilities to adaptation, new technologies, greener cities and less gloom-and-doom. The report on mitigation to climate change is the most covered in Norwegian media, and newspaper articles show some tendencies towards optimism and opportunities in the future. The frames “new research”, “consequences” and “opportunities” are the most covered frames in the media.

References IPCC (2014). Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change R. K. P. a. L. A. M. Core Writing Team. Geneva, Switzerland, International Panel of Climate Change. O´Neill, S., Williams, H. T. P., Kurz, T., Wiersma, B., & Boykoff, M. (2015). Dominant frames in legacy and social media coverage of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report. Nature Clim. Change, 5(4), 380-385. doi:10.1038/nclimate2535

Knowledge claims in political discourses about climate change

Marte Reenskaug Fjørtoft (Norwegian School of Economics)

Scientific and political complexity in the field of climate change has been a driving force for investigations of knowledge formulation and communication across a variety of disciplines. In recent years, climate change communication, realized through different genres and in different communicative settings, has also become an important object for linguistic study (Dahl, 2015; Fløttum & Dahl, 2011, 2012). The complexity of climate change manifests itself, inter alia, through the presence of knowledge claims from different knowledge fields and their related authorities. In the present paper, a linguistic discursive approach (Bartlett, 2012; Slocum- Bradley, 2009) is applied to investigate knowledge claims in political speeches about climate change. The material consists of speeches given by Evo Morales at the plenary sessions of United Nations’ climate change summits (2009-2016). Through content and linguistic analysis, the study aims to shed light on how different knowledge claims are linguistically endorsed or rejected (Martin & White, 2005), and to what extent they are construed as subjectively or intersubjectively valid (Nuyts, 2001). Morales, representing Bolivia at the UN summits, draws on different knowledge fields and authorities in his speeches, both from scientific, indigenous and experiential knowledge bases. The paper argues that linguistic discursive analysis can be a useful tool to address questions of what climate change knowledge is considered as valid and important to advance global action on climate change, and in relation, identify contestations about who are considered legitimate holders of knowledge in international climate change politics.

References Bartlett, T. (2012). Hybrid Voices and Collaborative Change. New York: Routledge. Dahl, T. (2015). Contested Science in the Media: Lingusitic Traces of News Writers’ Framing Activity. Written Communication, 32(1), 39–65. Fløttum, K., & Dahl, T. (2011). Climate Change Discourse: Scientific Claims in a Policy Setting. Fachsprache, 3–4, 205–219. Fløttum, K., & Dahl, T. (2012). Different contexts, different “stories”? A linguistic comparison of two development reports on climate change. Language & Communication, 32(1), 14–23. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.langcom.2011.11.002 Martin, J. R., & White, P. R. R. (2005). Language of Evaluation: Appraisal in English. Houndsmill, Basingstoke, Hampshire, New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Nuyts, J. (2001). Epistemic Modality, Language, and Conceptualization: A Cognitive-Pragmatic Perspective. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Slocum- Bradley, N. (2009). The Positioning Diamond: A Trans-Disciplinary Framework for Discourse Analysis. Journal for the Theory of Social Behavior, 40(1), 79–107.

Climate change terms in translation: terminology and indeterminacy in climate change communication

Anje Müller Gjesdal (Norwegian School of Economics)

Terms, i.e. words that are assigned a specific meaning within a particular professional or scientific context or domain, play an essential role in climate change communication. As climate change communication is a complex domain, circulating across disciplines, discourses and national and international contexts, the translation of climate change terms takes on an important status, as it may both facilitate and impede the circulation of climate change discourses across different contexts. However, the very complexity of the issue, added to the competing status of English as a lingua franca and other languages, may create a challenging situation with regards to the formation of climate change terms in languages other than English. Moreover, terms may be more or less complex semantically, i.e. they may have a complex, vague or indeterminate semantics that makes for a complex use in discourse. For this reason, it seems important to connect on-going reflections on climate change term formation to a more general reflection on climate change communication, in order to observe the discursive effects of translated terms.

In this talk, I will therefore consider the on-going work of standardisation of a Norwegian climate change terminology, as well as other digital text resources, in order to consider the role that a term may play in climate change discourse and communication more generally. As a case study, I will consider the term “mitigation”. Since standardisation is still in progress, an authoritative Norwegian equivalent term has not yet been decided upon. However, preliminary explorative analyses indicate that the Norwegian ‘utslippskutt/-reduksjoner’ has a widespread use. This observation is supported by the fact that it is used by the Norwegian Environment Agency, a de facto source of authority for the establishment of new terminology in this domain, since the Agency is responsible for the Norwegian translation and dissemination of the IPCC reports. Thus, the Norwegian Environment Agency’s choice of terminology may tentatively be considered normative for climate change communication in Norway. In order to examine the status of this term, I will present a preliminary analysis of its use in parliamentary debates (as represented in the digital text database Sagt i salen (https://tale.holderdeord.no/search/)), with a particular attention to its contribution to the textual representation of different positions in the climate change debate.

References Cabré, M. T. (1998): La terminologie. Théorie, méthode et applications. Translated from Catalan by M. C. Cormier & J. Humbley. Ottawa: Les Presses de l’Université d’Ottawa. Dahl, T. & Fløttum, K. (2014). “A linguistic framework for studying voices and positions in the climate debate”. Text&Talk, 34(4): 401-420. Gjesdal, A. M. & G. I. L. Samdal (2016). “Exploring an environmental neologism in Norwegian across corpora”. Neologica, 10, pp. 39-57. Kristiansen, M. (2014). “Concept change, term dynamics and culture-boundness in economic- administrative domains” In. R. Temmerman & M. Van Campenhoudt (eds.) Dynamics and Terminology: An interdisciplinary perspective on monolingual and multilingual culture-bound communication. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Pp. 235-256.

Communicating Environmental Arguments: Insights from a Rhetorical Approach

Sophia Hatzisavvidou (University of East Anglia)

Political scientists, and especially those who study policy, have a growing interest in, and concern for, the ways in which expert (scientific and technical) evidence and argument is used and misused in public political discourse. Especially with regard to climate change, it is evident that the urgency adopted and promoted by the majority of the scientific community is not translated into policies that could address environmental problems timely and effectively. Even in Europe, the place that according to experts “is warming faster than many other places in the world”, leaders seem to have “vacillated” (Stern, 2015)

The purpose of this paper is to put this inconsistency between science and policy in scrutiny. Drawing on the methodology of rhetorical analysis, this paper presents the outcome of the study of certain scientific as well as policy papers and offers insights with regard to the emergence and communication of concepts that have been established as key components of environmental discourse and politics in the last 20 years. As part of a three-year project that studies scientific discourse and political persuasion with regard to environmental politics, this paper focuses on how ideas such as sustainability, mitigation, adaptation and resilience have dominated our imaginary as the desirable aims or means to address our environmental predicament. The value of mapping the usage and communication of these ideas is that it enables us to explore continuity and transformation in environmental policy disputes, as well as the rhetorical reconfiguration of green and anti-green ideologies. The paper, then, demonstrates how certain aspects of scientific discourse have been strategically used to create and enhance political consensus. Our failure to respond effectively to climate change and its challenges, the paper suggests, is not irrelevant to our failure to invent and mobilise more creative and assertive ways of arguing about the environment.

“Before the droughts moved in”: Spatiotemporal orientation as a resource for indexing cultural affiliation in climate communication

Jessica Love-Nichols (University of California)

Recent work in environmental communication has identified cultural affiliation and social identity as important factors in the communication of environmental information (Baldwin and Lammers, 2016; Kahan, et al., 2012; Maibach, et al., 2011; Whitmarsh, et al., 2015). Most scholarship in this area, however, has studied the effects of macro-level categories like political partisanship or personality type, while less is known about this effect in locally-relevant identities or communities (Bucholtz and Hall, 2005; Eckert and McConnell-Ginet, 1992). This paper aims to address that issue by examining communication strategies used to encourage climate action among self-identified sportsmen in the U.S., a group at the intersection of seemingly opposed identities—rural political conservatives, but conservationists (NWF, 2012). Through an analysis of three climate change action-oriented videos, I argue that locally-relevant spatiotemporal orientations (Blommaert and De Fina, 2016; Woolard, 2012) are used as a semiotic resources to index cultural affiliation in environmental media. In the first videos analyzed, one by the NGO Greenpeace and the other by Hillary Clinton’s 2016 campaign, the predominant spatiotemporal image is the urban/suburban future. In the video created by the sportsmen’s organization Conservation Hawks, however, the focus is placed on the rural past, idealized through the use of nostalgic frames and a negative evaluation of the present. By mobilizing a spatiotemporal orientation prevalent in other discourses affiliated with white, working-class, rural Americans (e.g. rural nostalgia in country music [Fox, 2004], “industrial nostalgia” [Rich, 2016], and partisan perceptions of the past [Hibbing, et al., 2016]), Conservation Hawks indexes its sportsman identity and highlights its cultural affiliation with the audience. This research thus shows how political groups mobilize spatiotemporal orientations to maximize cultural affiliation with their audience, and suggests that researchers can benefit from attending to these orientations as a semiotic resource for indexing both social identity and cultural affiliation.

References Baldwin, M., & Lammers, J. (2016). Past-focused environmental comparisons promote proenvironmental outcomes for conservatives. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(52): 14953- 14957. Blommaert, J., & De Fina, A. (2015). Chronotopic identities: On the timespace organization Of who we are. Tilburg Papers in Culture Studies, 153. Bucholtz, M., & Hall, K. (2005). Identity and interaction: A sociocultural linguistic approach. Discourse studies, 7(4- 5), 585-614. Buell, F. (2004). From apocalypse to way of life: Environmental crisis in the American century. New York, NY: Routledge. Eckert, P., & McConnell-Ginet, S. (1992). Think practically and look locally: Language and gender as community- based practice. Annual review of anthropology, 21, 461-490. Fox, A. (2004). Real Country: Music and language in working-class culture. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. Hibbing, M. V., Hayes, M., & Deol, R. (2016). Nostalgia Isn’t What it Used to Be: Partisan Polarization in Views on the Past. Social Science Quarterly. Kahan, D. M., Peters, E., Wittlin, M., Slovic, P., Ouellette, L. L., Braman, D., & Mandel, G. (2012). The polarizing impact of science literacy and numeracy on perceived climate change risks. Nature climate change, 2(10), 732-735. Maibach, E. W., Leiserowitz, A., Roser-Renouf, C., & Mertz, C. K. (2011). Identifying likeminded audiences for global warming public engagement campaigns: An audience segmentation analysis and tool development. PloS one, 6(3), e17571. National Wildlife Foundation. 2012. National Survey of Hunters and Anglers, conducted by Chesapeake Beach Consulting. Accessed 10/15/15. https://www.nwf.org/News-and-Magazines/Media- Center/Reports/Archive/2012/09-25-12-National-Sportsmen-Poll.aspx Rich, J. L. (2016). Drilling Is Just the Beginning: Romanticizing Rust Belt identities in the campaign for shale gas. Environmental Communication, 10(3), 292-304. Whitmarsh, L., Nash, N., Upham, P., Lloyd, A., Verdon, J. P., & Kendall, J. M. (2015). UK public perceptions of shale gas hydraulic fracturing: The role of audience, message and contextual factors on risk perceptions and policy support. Applied Energy, 160, 419-430. Woolard, K. (2013). Is the personal political? Chronotopes and changing stances toward Catalan language and identity. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 16:2 210-224

Workshop 4: LSP corpora in specialised translation – Issues and Implications

Convenors: Claudia Hegrenæs, Marita Kristiansen, Jan Roald, Beate Sandvei, Ingrid Simonnæs (all Norwegian School of Economics)

This workshop’s topic is to explore and discuss the compilation and application of different kinds of legal and economic corpora and to assess their utility for specialised translation.

We kindly ask you to have downloaded the following software (Windows) which will be used during the workshop:

 Httrack: https://www.httrack.com/  Ultra Document To Text Converter: http://www.ultrashareware.com/Ultra-PDF-To-Text- Converter.htm  Mypony: http://www.mipony.net/es/  HTML to text: http://www.nirsoft.net/utils/htmlastext.html  Antconc: http://www.laurenceanthony.net/software.html

On the usability and challenges of legal corpora in specialised translation

Łucja Biel (University of Warsaw)

The objective of the paper is to analyse challenges of legal corpora and to assess their usability for specialised translation both from practice-oriented and research-oriented perspective. The overarching objective is to map recent research in order to identify main trends and problem areas.

The application of corpora to specialised translation may be seen as a major methodological development in Translation Studies. Specialised translation scholars show increased methodological awareness, rigour and eclecticism — one of the new empirical methods is corpus linguistics. Corpus linguistics is a quantitative approach which ensures reduced speculation and hypothesis testing on more extensive linguistic data in a systematic way (cf. McEnery and Hardie 2012). It has been applied in Translation Studies till late 1990s (Olohan 2004, Zanettin 2012).

One are of application of legal corpora is translation practice. Corpus tools may improve the efficiency of translation process thanks to fast information retrieval, precision of searches and contextualisation of information. As reported by a number of studies, the uptake of corpora among practitioners is rather slow compared to the academia; however, the awareness and popularity of corpora are overall growing (cf. Gallego-Hernández 2015). The main barriers to the uptake are underdeveloped resources and a lack of integration of corpus tools with CAT tools, which slows down the translation process. There are promising new developments, which may help overcome them: growing institutional corpus resources with new search tools (EU corpora on Sketchengine, cf. Baisa et al. 2016), online search platforms which combine comparable and parallel corpora – JudGENTT (Borja Albi 2013) and a CAT tool extension –TermWise (Heylen et al. 2014). It is argued that to increase the uptake of corpus tools by professionals, further work is required on: compiling corpus resources, integrating corpora with other resources and tools, and developing more user-friendly interfaces.

Legal corpora seem to have much more applications as an analytical tool in researching specialised translation, both as regards applied and theoretically-oriented research. As for applied corpus research, it focuses on hands-on training (cf. Monzó Nebot 2008, Biel forthcoming, Sánchez Ramos and Vigier Moreno (2016)) and practice by developing tools for practitioners (e.g. the Qualetra project). In respect of more theoretically-oriented research, what is noticeable is a growing number of large scale projects — Simonnaes (2012), Biel (2014), Pontrandolfo (2016), as well as ongoing funded projects: McAuliffe, Prieto Ramos, Biel, Mori, to name a few. Overall, corpus methods contribute to the methodological development, sophistication and refinement of Translation Studies. They contribute empirical data which allow us to search for patterns of linguistic patterns and patterns of translators’ behaviour, leading to generalizations about translation. Yet we still need more empirical data, including data from lesser used languages, from varied genres and translational settings. We also need to find ways how to interpret and triangulate corpus data with other methods.

References Baisa, V., Michelfeit, J., Medveď, M. and Jakubíček, M. (2016). ‘European Union Language Resources in Sketch Engine.’ In The Proceedings of tenth International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC’16). European Language Resources Association (ELRA). Portorož, Slovenia. 2016. http://www.lrec-conf.org/proceedings/lrec2016/pdf/572_Paper.pdf. Biel, Ł. (2014). Lost in the Eurofog. The Textual Fit of Translated Law. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. Biel, Ł. (Forthcoming). “Enhancing the communicative dimension of legal translation: comparable corpora in the research-informed classroom.” The Interpreter and Translator Trainer. Borja Albi, A. (2013). ‘A genre analysis approach to the study of the translation of court documents.’ LANS-TTS, a special issue on Research Models and Methods in Legal Translation 12(2013): 33-53. https://lans-tts.uantwerpen.be/index.php/LANS-TTS/article/view/235/202. Gallego-Hernández, D. (2015). ‘The use of corpora as translation resources: A study based on a survey of Spanish professional translators.’ Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 23 (3): 375-391. Heylen, K., Bond, S., de Hertog, D., Kockaert, H., Steurs, F. and Vulić, I. (2014). ‘TermWise: Leveraging Big Data for Terminological Support in Legal Translation.’ Terminology and Knowledge Engineering, Jun 2014, Berlin: Germany. https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal- 01005842/file/TKE2014HeylenEtal.pdf. McEnery, T. and Hardie, A. (2012). Corpus Linguistics. Method, Theory and Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Monzó Nebot, E. (2008). ‘Corpus-based activities in legal translator training.’ The Interpreter and Translator Trainer 2 (2): 221-251. Olohan, M. (2004). Introducing Corpora in Translation Studies. London: Routledge. Pontrandolfo, G. (2016). Fraseología y lenguaje judicial. Las sentencias penales desde una perspectiva contrastiva. Roma: Aracne. Sánchez Ramos, M. D. M. and Vigier Moreno F. J. (2016). ‘Using monolingual virtual corpora in public service legal translator training.’ In E. Martín-Monje, I. Elorza and B. García Riaza (eds), Technology-Enhanced Language Learning for Specialized Domains: Practical applications and mobility, 228-240. Abingdon: Routledge. Simonnaes, I. (2012). ‘Zur korpusbasierten Erforschung von Fachübersetzungen bei der Nationalen Übersetzerprüfung in Norwegen.’ Meta: Translators’ Journal 57(1): 132-144 Zanettin, F. (2012). Translation-Driven Corpora. Corpus Resources for Descriptive and Applied Translation Studies. Manchester: St. Jerome. Monolingual Corpora of Legislative Texts under the Magnifying Glass: What Findings Can We Expect?

Jan Engberg (Aarhus University)

In recent years, the easy access to cheap, efficient and easy-to-use corpus tools and to pools of texts from which corpora may be built has enhanced the accessibility of the corpus methodology to new fields like enhancing the explicitness of law and the quality of statutory interpretation (https://cal2.eu/) or investigating the process of automatization of international courts (http://jura.ku.dk/icourts/research/autonomisation/).

The purpose of my presentation will be to demonstrate how some of these corpus-based approaches may be used in a translation context. The relevant research question is: In what ways may we apply corpus methodology to enhance translators’ insights into knowledge differences and similarities with relevance for legal translation? In a knowledge-communication context, legal translation may be viewed as the process of mediating legal knowledge embedded in a source situation to target-situation receivers with a knowledge background different from that of the source situation. In order to perform this task, the translator needs insight into similarities and differences in the knowledge structures underlying communication in the two situations. In previous work (Engberg 2016), I have argued for the relevance of three lenses when describing the development of legal concepts. These lenses lead to three categories of knowledge especially relevant in the context of legal translation: 1) knowledge related to (national) culture, 2) knowledge related to socio-functional systems, and 3) knowledge related to interpersonal communication. In my presentation, I will demonstrate the possible use of corpus methodologies to achieve insights into knowledge structures from the different categories. Thus, my aim is to show how corpus methodology may be applied for the purposes of a translation- relevant methodology of comparative law.

References Engberg, Jan (2016). Conceptualising Corporate Criminal Liability: Legal Linguistics and the Combination of Descriptive Lenses. In Tessuto, Girolamo / Bhatia, Vijay K. / Garzone, Giuliana / Salvi, Rita / Williams, Christopher (eds.): Constructing Legal Discourses and Social Practices: Issues and Perspectives. Newcastle upon Tyne 2016: Cambridge Scholars; 28-56 Kjær, A. L. (2016). A corpus linguistic analysis of how law articulates its autonomization: the case law of the ICTY 1993-2013. Nordic Journal of International Law Vogel, Friedeman (2015). Zugänge zur Rechtssemantik. Interdisziplinäre Ansätze im Zeitalter der Mediatisierung zwischen Introspektion und Automaten. Berlin / New York: Walter de Gruyter

DIY Corpora of Economic texts – A practical approach

Daniel Gallego-Hernández (University of Alicante)

Parallel texts are a kind of documentary resource that complements others, such as dictionaries, glossaries and terminology databases. Translators have used them for a long time and scholars have been discussing them since the last century. However, there seems to be a lack of consensus about both how to conceive of and how to use them. Against this backdrop, we propose a methodological framework that systematises both the retrieval of parallel texts with search engines and the creation of DIY corpora. First, we review some studies on the concept of parallel texts and others on the use of search engines in translation. Next, we put forward the actual framework. We then look at a series of case studies in which we apply our model to various texts from the field of economics and business. Finally, we use some free software that can assist the user in downloading the texts retrieved and converting them into a readable format by corpus linguistics software. The corpora compiled may be used as resources not only for business translation practitioners but also for translation researchers.

References Gallego-Hernández, D. (2012). Traducción económica y corpus: del concepto a la concordancia, Alicante: Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad de Alicante. Gallego-Hernández, D. (2015). Business translation training and ad hoc corpora. In: P. Sánchez-Gijón, O. Torres-Hostench & B. Mesa-Lao & (Eds.), Conducting Research in Translation Technologies, Oxford, Bern, Berlin, Bruxelles, Frankfurt am Main, New York & Wien: Peter Lang, 119–140. Gallego-Hernández, D. (2015). The use of corpora as translation resources. A study based on a survey of Spanish professional translators. Perspectives. Studies in Translatology, 23 (3). 375–391. Herrero, L., and Román, V. (2015). English to Spanish translation of the economics and finance genres. Intralinea. Special Issue: New Insights into Specialised Translation. Retrieved from http://www.intralinea.org/specials/article/english_to_spanish_translation_of_the_economics_and_fi nance_genres Maher, A., Waller, S. & Kerans, M. (2008). Acquiring or enhancing a translation specialism: the monolingual corpus-guided approach. Jostrans, 10. Retrieved from http://www.jostrans.org/issue10/art_maher.php. Rodríguez-Inés, P. (2013). Electronic target-language specialised corpora in translator education: building and searching strategies. Babel, 59 (1), 57–77. Wilkinson, M. (2006). Compiling Corpora for Use as Translation Resources. Translation Journal Vol. 101. http://www.translationdirectory.com/article910.htm.

Company law collocations in original and translated texts: a corpus-based study

Ondřej Klabal (Palacký University)

It is a well-recognized fact that phraseology, including collocations, is an essential component of legal texts (e.g. Kjaer 2007). In translation, the use of natural collocations is crucial to producing a good translation as “unacceptable and improbable” collocations are always spotted by readers (cf. Newmark 1981: 180). This poses a challenge for legal translators working from languages of limited diffusion (Czech in our case), who have to translate into their L2 (English in our case). High-quality collocations dictionaries could be very helpful, but generally do not exist for specialized languages such as legal language. Therefore, the use of small DYI corpora may be a useful tool to replace such dictionaries (e.g. Scott 2012). Drawing on all the above assumptions, this study explores small-scale corpora of company-law legislation from a number of English speaking countries (UK, US, Ireland, Canada, Australia, New Zealand) and a comparable corpus compiled from the English translation of the Czech Companies and Cooperatives Act published by the Czech Ministry of Justice. Using the SketchEngine tools, key terms and their most frequent collocations (mainly verb-noun and adjective- noun ones) are extracted from each corpus. First, the collocations from the texts drafted in English are compared to see any differences in phraseology as used across individual jurisdictions; this part is an extension on Biel (2012) covering more jurisdictions. Subsequently, the terms and collocations extracted from the original texts are compared with the collocations extracted from the English translation of the Czech law to determine its textual fit, i.e. how it differs from non-translated legislation in English, and thus its phraseological quality.

References Biel, Lucja. 2002. Areas of similarity and difference in legal phraseology: collocations of key terms in UK and Polish company law. In Phraseology and Discourse: Cross-Linguistic and Corpus-based Approaches (edited by A Pamies at al.), 225-233. Kjaer, Anne-Lise. 2007. Phrasemes in Legal Texts. In Phraseologie/Phraseology. Ein internationales Handbuch zeitgenössischer Forschung/An International Handbook of Contemporary Research (edited by H. Burger), vol. I-II. Berlin, New York: de Gruyter, 506-516. Newmark, Peter. 1981. Approaches to Translation. London/New York: Prentice Hall. Scott Juliette. 2012. Can Genre-Specific DIY corpora, Compiled by Legal Translators Themselves, Assist them in 'Learning the Lingo' of Legal Subgenres. Comparative Legilinguistics 12.

The Bergen translation corpus, a multilingual parallel corpus of LSP texts

Marita Kristiansen, Jan Roald, Beate Sandvei and Ingrid Simonnæs (all Norwegian School of Economics)

The aim of our presentation is to describe the Bergen translation corpus (formerly TK-NHH) and challenges connected to its compilation. Using a corpus-based approach, we will discuss some findings with respect to their didactic utility for specialized translation.

The corpus is a multilingual parallel corpus consisting of Norwegian source texts that have been used in the Norwegian translator accreditation exam (NTAE) as well as the candidates’ translations into the target languages English, French, German and Spanish, respectively. The corpus is thus divided into five sub-corpora, including the original Norwegian source texts (source language), and the four target texts. All texts have since been digitalized and aligned. As such, they represent a unique collection of digitalized LSP texts with Norwegian as source language, being a language of lesser diffusion.

Metadata allow i.a. for an analysis of texts in the fields of law, economics/finance and technology. It is for example possible to compare more or less successful translation solutions either in one particular target language or by comparing the solutions in two or more target languages.

References Baker, Mona (1993): "Corpus Linguistics and Translation Studies. Implications and Applications". In: Baker, Mona / Francis, Gill / Tognini-Bonelli, Elena (eds). Text and Technology. In Honour of John Sinclair. Philadelphia/Amsterdam: Benjamins. 233-250. Granger,Sylviane (2003): "The corpus approach: a common way forward for Contrastive Linguistics and Translation Studies?". In: Granger, Sylviane / Lerot, Jacques / Petch-Tyson, Stephanie (eds). Corpus-based Approaches to Contrastive Linguistics and Translation Studies. Amsterdam: Rodopi. 17-29. Simonnæs, Ingrid & Whittaker, Sunniva (2013): "The Bergen translation corpus TK-NHH - design and applications". In: Hareide, Lidun / Johansson, Christer / Oakes, Michael (eds). The many facets of corpus linguistics in Bergen. In honour of Knut Hofland. Bergen. 93-106. Simonnæs, Ingrid /Langerfeld, Christian/Roald, Jan & Sandvei, Beate (2015): "Teaching legal translation in Norway - JurDist: an online course". In: Terminology Science & Research (TSR), 25. . 28-39. Ulrych, Margherita & Murphy, Amanda (2008): "Descriptive Translation Studies and the Use of Corpora: Investigating Mediation Universals". In: Torsello, Carol Taylor / Ackerley, Kathrine & Castello, Erik (eds). Corpora for University Language Teachers. Bern etc.: Peter Lang. 141-166. Zanettin, Federico (2002): "Corpora in Translation Practice". In: Yuste-Rodigro, Elia (ed.). Language Resources for Translation Work and Research. LREC 2002 Workshop Proceedings. Las Palmas. 10-14.

Workshop 5: Languages in Transnational Military Conflicts: Interdisciplinary Insights and Future Directions for Research

Convenors: Nina Pilke (University of Vaasa), Michael Kelly (University of Southampton), Pekka Kujamäki (University of Graz), Hans Landqvist (University of Gothenburg) and Paula Rossi (University of Oulu)

War is a disharmonious process that separates individuals and peoples, while forcing them simultaneously into new, closer interaction. Wars, like other conflicts, know no linguistic boundaries and, while they are ongoing, the organization’s internal linguistic activities are directed both by pre- standardized practices of specialized communication and practices that are shaped by the situation. As an instrument of interaction, language is at the core of war: it helps people to plan, direct, monitor, document and assess their own activities in cooperation with their allies, to seek information about the enemy and build peace through negotiations (cf. Footitt & Kelly 2012). Furthermore, on a methodological level, languages and people with linguistic skills can be seen as a gateway for the analyses of how cultures intertwine in times of conflict.

Research challenges and opportunities will be the focus of this workshop, which aims to gather scholars working on past and present transnational military conflicts as multilingual operations. We invite contributions on different aspects of research on language and transnational conflicts dealing with both wartime and peacetime defensive and diplomatic encounters. Proposals could cover, but need not be limited to, the following issues:

 language policies/strategies of multilingual communication  norms governing multilingual activities  methodological challenges  methods and models for interdisciplinary research  analytical challenges, concepts and insights  multi-party research collaboration  the historicity of the present language practices  terms and concepts in different cultural settings  language-bound practices in different professional contexts  role of language intermediaries  language learning and language teaching

Languages and remote warfare

Michael Kelly (University of Southampton)

Scholars have recently begun to investigate the role of languages in warfare, opening up new fields of enquiry into military operations and peace building. (Footitt and Kelly 2012) (Kelly and Baker 2013) As yet, very little attention has been devoted to the role of languages in remote warfare. This paper is aimed at defining the terrain and asking key questions that need to be addressed in order to gain an understanding how it works. The concept of remote warfare is not new, but recent political and technological developments have made it a much more significant part of warfare. Remote warfare includes a wide range of military operations, including special operations forces, private military and security companies, unmanned vehicles and lethal autonomous weapons systems, cyber conflict, and intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance. (Open Briefing 2016)

In each of these types of operation, combatant forces have a significant dependence on the ability to manage a diversity of languages in order to be effective. This paper will examine two of them, where the language dimension is less apparent: unmanned vehicles (drones) and cyber conflict. It will focus on the interfaces between human and technological language capability and will ask whether the increased scale and reach of remote warfare also amplifies the contribution of languages to the ‘fog of war’.

References Footitt, Hilary, and Michael Kelly, eds. 2012. Languages at war. Policies and Practices of Language Contacts in Conflict. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Kelly, Michael, and Catherine Baker. 2013. Interpreting the Peace: Peace Operations, Conflict and Language in Bosnia-Herzegovina Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Open Briefing. 2016. The Remote Warfare Digest. Penzance & London: Open Briefing and the Remote Control Project.

Bilingual Practices of Documentation in the Finnish Defence Forces in WW2

Nina Pilke (University of Vaasa), Paula Rossi (University of Oulu) and Noora Seppälä (University of Vaasa)

This paper presents preliminary findings from a recently initiated research project concerned with the study of bilingual defence activities in Finland as regards the situational language use of the military organization’s actors during the Winter and Continuation Wars and, for comparison purposes as well as to provide a perspective on the future, also in the current peacetime. Our presentation focuses on the activities of the bilingual Finnish Defence Forces by shedding light on military experts’ linguistic practices. The aim is to examine bilingualism as regards the situational language use of the military organization’s actors during the WW2. The research questions are: How does the division of duties between the two languages work in the Finnish defence context? and What kinds of language-bound practices are connected to the documentation of the activities? The hypothesis is that bilingualism plays a central role throughout the material and that, on the basis of the practices discovered, it will be possible to pinpoint the linguistic operations models of the bilingual defence context.

The material consists of official war diaries produced by the Swedish-speaking regiment number 10 in the 4th Division in the Winter War. The value of war diaries as a source has been criticized for their heterogeneity. At the same time, they have been noted to reveal both the course of battle and matters that cannot be found in other sources. (Tuunanen 2006) One such matter is the practices of bilingual operative activities at the front.

When describing the bilingual practices, we will follow the categorization used by Reh (2004) in her study on the use of written language in a linguistic landscape. Starting from the criteria of specialized communication (economy, efficiency, precision) the material is hypothesized to be founded primarily on complementary practices of multilingualism. The texts in the material will also be analysed as LSP texts in terms of their vocabulary, syntax and concepts within the specialism.

References Reh, M. (2004). “Multilingual Writing: A Reader-oriented Typology – with Examples from Lira Municipality (Uganda).” International Journal of the Sociology of Language. 170: 1–41. Tuunanen, P. (2006). “Saamani kuva on masentava”. Näkemyksiä suomalaisten sotapäiväkirjojen lähdearvosta, käytöstä ja säilyttämisestä. Tiede ja ase 64, 196–220.

“As the Frenchman saith”: Multilingual practices, code glosses and military instruction in Early Modern English

Jukka Tuominen (University of Tampere)

For the development of the professional discourse domain of warfare in English, the sixteenth and seventeenth century were an important formative period characterized by marked changes. British soldiers were involved in numerous foreign wars on an unprecedented scale as conscripts, volunteers and mercenaries. The technology, tactics and social impact of warfare were evolving at a heady pace, and knowledge of innovations from abroad needed to be disseminated across state and language boundaries. These circumstances gave rise to new forms of military writing that provided interested readers aspiring to a career in the army with information on how to become a successful soldier (Lawrence 2009).

Military historians often present the multilingual nature of soldiers’ experience in the early modern period as a given, but there is very little research on what this actually entails from a linguistic point of view. How are language contact situations in the field reflected in soldiers’ writing? How were new entrants into the profession prepared for the multilingual reality of service?

In Ken Hyland’s (2005, 2007) model of metadiscourse, code glosses denote ways of introducing and clarifying content which the reader is assumed to find unfamiliar or difficult to understand. This paper argues that such metadiscursive textual elements provide an effective way to study multilingual practices in military writing in a systematic and quantifiable manner. Using corpus-linguistic data from Early Modern English instructive texts on warfare, the paper analyses the forms and patterns of code glosses associated with foreign-derived terms and expressions. The results enable a nuanced discussion of the role of multilingual practices in the emerging professional domain and of the applicability of models of metadiscourse in professional writing based on present-day data to historical sources.

References Hyland, Ken (2005) Metadiscourse: Exploring interaction in writing. London/New York: Continuum. Hyland, Ken (2007) Applying a gloss: Exemplifying and reformulating in academic discourse. Applied Linguistics 28 (2): 266–285. Lawrence, David R. (2009) The complete soldier: Military books and military culture in early Stuart England, 1603–1645. Leiden/Boston, MA: Brill.

Workshop 6: How to Achieve Innovative, Inclusive and Fit-for-Market Specialised Translator Training?

Convenors: Barbara Heinisch and Zita Krajcso (both University of Vienna)

This interactive workshop has the format of a world café. It addresses specialised translator training and the preparation of prospective specialised translators for the requirements of the market.

As language for specific purposes plays a central role in specialised translator training this workshop comprises the following topics:

 What skills should specialised translators have?  What should a transferable training scheme include?  What should the training material look like?  What are innovative modes of assessment?  How can information and communication technology reshape education and training?  What should a virtual collaborative space to exchange ICT-based resources look like?  What should a centre or network for ICT-based training in specialised translation look like?

This workshop puts special emphasis on the inclusion of disadvantaged groups.

After a short welcome and introduction by the host, the participants form groups. Each group discusses one of the topics at a table. Thus the questions mentioned above guide the conversations. The participants can write their insights or key information on the flipchart paper that is available on the table. After a 20-minute conversation, the members of the group move to different tables (according to their interests). Preferably, there will be a table host who informs the next group about the results of the previous conversation.

The final step is the presentation of the flipchart papers and the sharing of insights with the entire group of participants. The host sums up everything in the end and provides suggestions for further research and action.

Workshop 7: Cognitive Terminology Studies and their Interdisciplinary Methodology

Convenor: Larissa Manerko (Lomonosov Moscow State University)

From the very beginning of its development the Cognitive-communicative linguistic research was aimed at cognitive and communicative function explanation in discourse. The cognitive function presupposes the description of linguistic knowledge and their peculiarities corresponding to internal, mental processes of an individual. This perspective presupposes the study of the linguistic and conceptual pictures of the world. The communicative function incorporates not only the human knowledge about the world and the use of linguistic forms, but also pays attention to the communicative activity, the role of participants taking part in it, social and cultural conditions of the speech activity of a person in some particular communicative situation.

According to cognitive and communicative perspectives linguistic studies are organized according to four main directions of research: the expansion in language investigations, anthropocentricity, explanatory character of the cognitive paradigm, and attention to functionality (Koubriakova 1995). The expansion tendency of the linguistic “universe” at the end of the 80s of the 20th century was compared with the “widening” and transformation of the object of study that brought integration and interdisciplinary observed in Cognitive science.

Cognitive Terminology studies is characterized by a growing attention to social and cultural aspects of language, knowledge structures based on human creative processes of cognition and their development in specialized discourse, conceptualization influenced by time periods and linguistic competence of a human being.

In this colloquium we will focus on 1) Knowledge as information pertaining to learned facts and practical skills involved in human interaction and always changing its mental shape due to human thought and special interaction; 2) Academic and special discourse built on the domain of knowledge reflects cultural attribution and interdisciplinary character of term correspondence to various registers; 3) The study of special and narrative kinds of discourse points at integrative processes in special terminology coming from psychiatry and other domains, these terms have equivalent correspondences in common picture of the world, which is enriched by human feelings, emotions and beliefs; 4) Special concern is illuminated in the evolution of vocabulary of computer engineering language; 5) Knowledge structures are evolving and revealing different kinds of integration in the domain representation; 6) The broad conceptual content may develop language-cultural images into nominative units and then into terms when the conceptual dominant is not fixed and acquiring new conceptual features; 7) The terminological competence of language users depends on cognitive mechanisms of term formation realized within the special kind of integrative discourse.

After the introduction of the convener the mentioned issues will be focused on in presentations, which constitute the explorative part of the workshop, based on the results of research work. The total number of presentations is 7: 4 presentations constitute the first of the workshop. The other 3 presentations will be given afterwards. It is planned that each presentation will be followed by questions.

After all the 7 presentation the colloquium is ended by the discussion from the audience.

Modeling of the terminological competence

Larissa Alekseeva (Perm State University), Svetlana Mishlanova (Perm State University) and Olga Burdina (Perm Pharmacological Academy)

The study of terminology should take as its focus the terminological competence which correlates with the ability to verbalize special knowledge with the help of a special meta-language. Following this, we have undertaken the construction of an integral model of the terminological competence of the university students during the process of learning the professional communication. The research subject is the activity of a professional language personality, aimed at the gradual mastery of terminological knowledge, methods of cognition and skills by means of knowledge transfer. The issue of the terminological competence modeling as a reflection of a professional language personality development has been observed within various perspectives, translation studies (Faber 2003, Montero Martínez 2009, Alekseeva, Mishlanova 2015, etc.), metaphor study (Musolff 2007), and discourse analysis (Dijk 2008, 2012; Roelcke 2009; Alekseeva, Mishlanova 2002; Burdina 2013, etc.). We suggest that formation of the terminological competence is realized during the three stages of professional language personality development – low, high and the highest ones. The low level is linked with professional communication training on the basis of linguistic, cognitive and communicative competences. The result of the efficiency of students’ work at this level would be the demonstration of their knowledge and the ability of terms identification, the ability of terms reception, and the knowledge of branch terminology, corresponding to their profile. The high level of the terminological competence model suggests the development of terminology usage as a means of professional knowledge transfer. We associate this process with a social practice that moves the doer out of the boundaries of a definite subject or a definite set of competences. In this sense, a person who is able to find a problem solution beyond the professional subject boundaries, i.e. by the usage of various nets of knowledge and communication, may be called a transfessional, and the process of reaching the aim of this practice – transfession. The result of the terminological competence formation at this level is students’ ability to identify, to understand and to handle the process of knowledge transfer, and the ability of argumentation and reasoning of this process. The highest level of the terminological competence model is oriented to the reflexive activity and suggests knowledge of the main laws of professional and transfessional activity, the ability to work consciously and autonomously according to the needs of these types of activity. The expected results will clarify the cognitive mechanism of terminological competence formation realized within the discourse.

References Alekseeva L.M., Mishlanova S.L. (2002). Medical discourse: theoretical foundations and principles of analysis. Perm, Perm State University press. Alekseeva L., Mishlanova S. (2014). Knowledge transfer in scientific translation. In: International multidisciplinary scientific conferences on social sciences and arts, SGEM. Anthropology, Archaeology, History, Philosophy. Conference proceedings. P. 115–122. Burdina O.B. (2013). Modeling of terminological vatiativity in the pharmaceutical discourse. PhD thesis. Perm, Perm State University press. Dijk, T.A.Van. (2008). Discourse and Context: A Socio-Cognitive Approach. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. Dijk, T.A.Van. (2012). Discourse and Knowledge/ In James Paul Gee - Michael Handford (Eds.), Handbook of Discourse Analysis. London: Routledge. P. 587–603. Faber P. (2003). Terminological competence and enhanced knowledge acquisition. In: Research in Language 1: P. 95-117. Montero Martínez S., Faber P. (2009). Terminological Competence in Translation. In: Terminology 15, no. 1: P. 88–104. Musolff, A. (2007). Popular science concepts and their use in creative metaphors in media discourse.//metaphorik.de. Roelcke Т. (2009). Fachsprachliche Inhalte und fachkommunikative Kompetenzen als Gegenstand des Deutschunterrichts für deutschsprachige Kinder und Jugendliche // FACHSPRACHE: International Journal of Specialized Communication Vol. XXXI | 1–2. P. 6–21.

Structuring knowledge in scientific discourse in the field of physics

Elena Kovaleva (Moscow Pedagogical State University)

The basics of specific discourse studies have been practically applied in many fields of knowledge. Domain-specific language use related to physical theory and practice has proved to be prolific in different aspects of research: from terminological systems functioning to physical knowledge development through discourse analysis.

It is a proven fact, that any field of specialized communication is constructed by means of two general strata: LSP proper based on terminology, professional lexis, different specific laws of vocabulary and syntax organization; and specific discourse studies with the focus on its structural analysis and basic functions.

This very specific domain could be analysed through mental mapping correlation between this knowledge ‘initiator’ and the recipient like the representation of “mapping the cosmic microwave and infrared background radiation fields” in John C. Mather’s Nobel speech “From the big bang to the Nobel prize and beyond” [December, 2006]. The processes of knowledge conceptualization and categorization in this speech are very specific due to the domain under study. The algorithm is being developed in cognitive paradigm but within a multistage mechanism. The first of it is the information- gathering level where all the data about the phenomenon under study is being systemically analysed. This data lay in a specific domain of knowledge and presented, on the other hand, the essence of a specific discourse analysis. And the process of specific knowledge development through several levels of knowledge representation constituting the field of a prolific research presented in the article of Nobel laureate.

Having intermingled physical and mathematical terms with scientific discourse structure the author achieves the effect of the report of popularized speech due to some specific mechanisms of knowledge development organization. The mode of this specific discourse analysis is subject to this abstract discussion.

Specialized engineering languages vocabulary: History evolution

Alexander Lavrova (Nizhny Novgorod State Technical University)

The paper deals with the peculiarities of engineering American computer language of “virus threat”, which is studied as the reflection of Cognitive Terminology approach. The evolution of the engineering language vocabulary is concerned with the influence of the early vocabulary, where basic Latin words are found. This Latin vocabulary organizes a highly scientific set of “virus threat” units, the origin of which didn’t belong to any specialized notions. During the period of their development a number of common words were influenced by extra-linguistic factors, which helped to change them into terms bringing forth the specialized meaning in science and technology engineering domain.

In our presentation we stress the idea that the principles of this cognitive specialized construal of computer “virus threats” vocabulary are similar to the principles organizing any engineering system vocabulary in the last decades of the 20th century and the years of the new millennium. This engineering American computer vocabulary is a complex phenomenon that accepts specialized units of other relative to computer vocabularies, combines a highly professional written language with oral manifestations, and continues to develop the vocabulary formation developed during the 90s of the last century, including additional specific units to concern “virus threats”. All this helps to construct the conceptual specialized picture of the world of the examined sphere.

To go deep into the specialized units details the experimental analysis was carried out to get the information to concern these units long history, e.g.: virus, threat, warn, file, attacking. Their history of the usage is very long as their origin goes to Latin. Sure, this specialized engineering vocabulary can be divided into some groups to pay some special attention first to computer viruses as dangerous elements then to “virus threats”, and at last to viruses warning to be protected. The last is seemed to be the most effective part of the vocabulary constructed to concern the preventing measures to block this virus spreading against the attacking viruses to install the virus protection programs. Such unique terms system vocabulary has been developed for several decades increasing the number of units available. The cognitive analysis allows to show the real origin of the examined units.

In conclusion the paper provides the basis of a well developed specialized vocabulary and warns the users to block or remove unknown emails, which contain file attachments.

Specialised and narrative discourse structures as a way to understanding a schizophrenic personality

Larissa Manerko (Lomonosov Moscow State University)

The description of a linguistic personality as a speaking and thinking one possessing a unique language image of the world is the subject and object of human cognition. The speech activity of this person exhibiting “variation within the same linguistic community” (Geeraerts 2016) pertaining to the general image of some ethnical, social, gender or other group of people is the dominant perspective throughout the anthropocentric, sociosemiotic and usage-based nature of Cognitive linguistic and Cognitive terminological research of today.

A schizophrenic belongs to the exceptional group of linguistic personalities characterized by key symptoms of the mental illness in which he suffers from delusions and withdraws from social relationships into the life of imagination. The presentation is based on works (Manerko, Voron- Kovalskaya 2015; Voron-Kovalskay 2016; Manerko, Voron-Kovalskaya 2016), in which special (medicine and psychiatry literature) and narrative (an autobiographical novel, fictional books) discourse of such people is discussed in connection to special and common picture of the world underlined by mechanisms of their cognition and feelings, conceptualization peculiarities.

In special LSP of psychiatry schizophrenia as a mental disorder is described on the basis of the disease course, behavior and cognition of this person, his attitude to reality, genetic basis and corresponds to a number of interconnected disciplines: medicine, neurophysiology, genetics, neurolinguistics. The terms of the LSP is discussed on the interdisciplinary basis. The representations in common picture of the world are associated with emotional characteristics in its defining, misunderstanding of the phenomenon and individual’s vision of the real and imagined world and common mistakes arising from lack of knowledge. Those who suffer from the illness describe this phenomenon differently, with the help of emotional words and metaphors. In the presentation cognitive modeling including image schemas, cognitive domains and conceptual metaphor’s techniques are used.

Knowledge structures illuminated from the material of the autobiographical novel (and few fiction books) refer the description of the state of the person from the “negative” and treatable” to “terrible, severe and life-threatening”, associated with dangerous, mystique, and disastrous consequences. These individuals, who are known to live between the real external world and the inner imagined CONTAINER, move along the PATH and cross the borderline between these two worlds. Metaphorical models of movement characterizing the dynamic character of physical and mental transition of a person from one state to the other one may be represented like a journey or odyssey, where the schemas of CONTACT and LINK (a “bridge”, “a tennis ball”), point at beginning stage of the disease. The getting through “a tiny door” shows that it becomes more and more difficult to return to the real world after episodes of the “personal storm” or “volcano eruption”. The seriousness of the disease presents a person as “an underwater creature”, “a two-faced Janus”, when the disease progresses; hallucinations and “the awful state of horror” brings him to the hospital bed.

References Geeraerts D. (2016). The sociosemiotic commitment. In: Cognitive Linguistics. No 27(4). P. 527-542. Manerko L.A., Voron-Kovalskaya V.Е. (2015). Space relations through the prism of a particular linguistic personality. In: Cognitive research of language. Chief editor N.N. Boldyrev. Vol. 23: Materials of the round table in Institute of Linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Moscow, Tambov. P. 307-317 (in Russian). Manerko L.A., Voron-Kovalskaya V.Е. (2016). A borderline metaphor as a way to understanding a schizophrenic personality. In: International Symposium on languages for special purposes “Metaphor as a means of knowledge communication. Perm State University 10-14 October 2016: Book of abstracts. Perm, Russia. P. 56-57. Voron-Kovalskaya V.E. Language peculiarities of schizophrenic phenomenon description in fiction and special English Discourse: Thesis of the candidate dissertation. Moscow, 2016 (in Russian). Interdisciplinarity of medicine and its reflection in language

Valentina Novodranova (Moscow Medical and Stomatological University)

At the beginning of the 21 century scholars working in the sphere of cognitive science started to discuss the issue of the integral knowledge as the cognitive basis of the notion of interdisciplinarity.

In the talk the notion of interdisciplinary character of the domain will be discussed on the basis of the domain of medicine, which was multidisciplinary and multilevel even from the first steps of its development. On the basis of medical disciplines the author shows different ways of integration distinguished in cognitive science, particularly in the framework of dynamic systems theory (Van Gelder, 1988) including local, cluster and cross cluster integration.

At each level of integration a particular conceptual system is used and its special terminology is constructed. The metalanguage is multilingual: it is based on Greek and Latin lexis and derivational capacity arising from national word-formation and grammatical structures according to which units are formed as well as the borrowed units taken from other European languages.

In the presentation it will be shown how particular kinds of integration process influences LSP of anatomy, histology, gynaecology, cardiology, neurology and other spheres of medical knowledge.

References Van Gelder T. The dynamical hypothesis in cognitive science. Behavioral and brain sciences. Vol. 21. Issue 5. 1988. P. 615-628

Knowledge representation through personal style: traditions and innovations

Olga Oparina (Lomonosov Moscow State University)

The development of the humanity greatly depends on the amount of knowledge gained, properly processed, applied, and accumulated.

The question of the very essence of the notion know is raised. According to а set of dictionaries, to know means to have knowledge of smth. especially as a result of personal experience, to have information in the mind. Knowledge is treated as facts, information, skills and understanding that one has gained either by experience or learning. Hence, knowledge presupposes practical acquisition (skills), acquaintance (facts, information) and comprehension. The latter is endeavour, procession, abstraction and systematization.

Тhere can be different types of knowledge. It depends on the principle / principles taken as the basis of its classification. J. Hinds considers common knowledge and specifies two types of common knowledge. The first is the knowledge about the universe, its structure, possible events / phenomena and their consequences. Otherwise stated, it is a set of fixed stereotypical notions or sequencing of events based on logical strings. The other type of common knowledge is metalinguistic one. Its foundations are in convention and uniformity while using symbols and signs within linguistic community. The latter type of common knowledge is stable on the one hand, on the other – it varies a lot depending on a particular individual, his own background, world view and intentions. In any case, there is a complex interrelationship between common and individual knowledge.

The other type of classification is every day and academic knowledge. The first type is associated with practical experience and expertise, the second with theoretical acquisition achieved mainly by learning. As any person acquires knowledge from different sources and by various means the obtained sets of information, ideas and concepts can be described as integrated.

At the same time there is a customary division into natural science and humanities knowledge. Each type of knowledge has its own features and peculiarities. Some scientists speak generally about interdisciplinary academic discourse focusing not on the reference field but on the cultural attribution. The main subject of their study is the structure of a paragraph concerning various cultural traditions of its organization. In the English language the paragraph must be not more than 12-14 lines and should begin with the framing sentence announcing the topic in the paragraph. Further on, narration is logically strict and straight without deviations and associations. Based on the theory of paragraph organization, J. Gatung distinguishes cultural types of intellectual / academic style. As far as English is concerned he speaks about Saxon type characterized by non-global / not comprehensive theories and based mainly on empirical data.

The subject of the research is the texts by H. Spencer who demonstrates both natural science and humanities approach. Their correlation is studied: both terminology and suggested methodology. Considering author’s intentions and pragmatic approach cultural principles of academic register division are verified. The goal of the presentation is to establish individual H. Spencer’s methods of knowledge representation as part of English academic discourse evolution.

Metaphoric potential for culture specific concepts in discourse of biology

Anastasia Sharapkova (Lomonosov Moscow State University)

Metaphors have always attracted attention of cognitive linguistics for offering inside on how new ideas emerge, how they are transformed with advances in knowledge and how they are thus explained and disseminated. Since “The essence of metaphor is understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another” (Lakoff, Johnson, 1980: 5), it amounts to a tool for clarifying, elucidating and simplifying the complicated abstract concepts of science. No matter scientific discourse is to be simple and informative metaphors pertain to its dynamics leading to terminology formation.

This potential for the terminology to be formed is high for culture specific concepts like Trojan Horse and Rosetta Stone. Used in quite a variety of contexts these metaphors first retaining the broad conceptual content, gradually become terms when the conceptual dominant is not only profiled but fixed. Recent works in cognitive linguistics argue the significant role of broad cultural knowledge being stored and structured in various culturally specific concepts (Komova 2005, 2013).The analysis of the corpus data shows that the dominant evokes mental representations of the cultural content acting like a key to the piece of discourse and determining the meaning of the set of phrases in the text e.g.: Molecular Trojan Horses are brain transport vectors; proteins would not be the Rosetta Stone for unravelling the true secret of life.

Understanding complicated metaphors in science with source domains of the kind in terms of a concept with the identified core and periphery zones opens up new possibilities for the analysis of target domains being no less complicated. Moreover, outlining the conceptual dominant within the concept structure helps to predict the development of metaphor in late 19 and 20th centuries. Therefore, we put forward that cultural knowledge represented by metaphors in scientific discourse should be approached from a broad cognitive linguistic perspective, especially investigating the conceptual structure. We also stress that given the growing role of metaphor in science the cultural component in teaching ESP should not be dismissed.

References Komova T.A. (2005). Language concepts in the context of history and culture : A course of lectures. 2nd ed. Moscow: MAKS-press. (in Russian) Komova T.A. (2013). Prototypical “I” of the speaking subject in “Adam and Eve’s diary” by M. Twain. In: Linguistic personality: From the word to the text (on the material of English language discourse). Moscow: Publ. house “Librocom”. P. 55-64. (in Russian).

Workshop 8: The Trans-Atlantic & Pacific Project in 2017: What it means to collaborate internationally in an era of rising nationalism

Convenors: Elisabet Arnó (Polytechnic University of Catalonia), Laura Gonzales (University of Texas at El Paso), Joleen Hanson (University of Wisconsin—Stout), Suvi Isohella (University of Vaasa), Barbara Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk (State University of Applied Sciences), Bruce Maylath (North Dakota State University), Patricia Minacori (University of Paris-Diderot) Birthe Mousten, (Aalborg University/Aarhus University) Maria Teresa Musacchio (University of Padua), Giuseppe Palumbo (University of Trieste) and Sonia Vandepitte (Ghent University)

Over the past 17 years, the Trans-Atlantic & Pacific Project (TAPP) has connected 29 universities in 16 countries on four continents, linking writing classes to usability testing and translation studies classes in collaborative projects. The TAPP spread rapidly during the era of globalization, allowing students to gain insights to each other’s cultures and languages, as well as each other’s work processes. At European Symposia for LSP in 2009 and 2011, TAPP members presented panels describing their projects, and, in 2013, conducted a half-day workshop/colloquium so that Symposium attendees could learn how to join the TAPP or run collaborative projects on their own. This year, the TAPP proposes to run another half-day workshop/colloquium, this time with a view to how to run and gain support for international collaborative projects in a political environment of rising nationalism.

At the XVII. Symposium, in Aarhus in 2009, participants were introduced to the Trans-Atlantic Project (TAP), which then connected technical writing classes in the US with translation classes in Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, and Italy (Humbley et al., 2005; Maylath, Vandepitte, & Mousten, 2008; Mousten, Vandepitte, & Maylath, 2008). All projects at that time were limited to bilateral collaborations: one class of technical writing students would write instructions, then work with partners in a single class abroad to render the text accurately in a single target language. At the XIX. Symposium, in Vienna in 2013, participants were introduced to TAP’s multilateral projects, connecting co-authoring technical writing classes, usability testing classes, and translation classes in as many as seven countries with seven languages at one time (Mousten et al., 2010a; Mousten et al., 2010b; Mousten, Humbley, Maylath, & Vandepitte, 2012; Maylath, King, & Arnó Macià, 2013; Arnó Macià et al. 2014). By 2015, the TAP had connected thousands of students at 19 universities in 12 countries on four continents and has been redubbed the Trans-Atlantic & Pacific Project (TAPP) (Verzella & Tommaso, 2014; Vandepitte et al., 2015; Sorensen, Hammer, & Maylath, 2015). Thus, at the XX. Symposium in 2015, again held in Vienna, the TAPP network conducted a workshop to exchange ideas and methods with attendees who wished to learn how to conduct learning-by-doing projects in LSP education, particularly in international, interlingual, or intercultural settings, with a view to what TAPP instructors had learned, and thereby been able to improve, over the preceding 15 years. Now in 2017, additional research has been taken place examining the value of TAPP collaborations for student learning (Lisaité, Vandepitte, Maylath, Mousten, Valdez, Castel-Branco, & Minacori, 2016; Vandepitte, Maylath, Mousten, Isohella, & Minacori, 2016); however, the Era of Globalization appears to have stalled, if not ended. Will there continue to be a place for global networks? Can they continue to grow? Or even endure? How might they do so? For the XXI. Symposium in Bergen, the TAPP network plans to convene a colloquium to discuss global LSP teaching/learning networks—indeed, international LSP collaborations of any kind—to examine the new, emerging era.

The crucial role of interpersonal relationship-building in the TAPP: Tools and applications

Joleen Hanson (University of Wisconsin—Stout)

Stärke-Meyerring &Wilson (2008) describe globally networked learning environments (GNLEs) like TAPP as “pedagogies of engagement” where cross-boundary knowledge making becomes possible due to learner interaction and relationship building. Likewise, Hammer & Maylath (2014) note that when these interactions are enhanced by real-time, face-to-face interactions, students report higher levels of performance and satisfaction with the project. As TAPP has developed, recognition of the importance of students’ interpersonal interactions and the number of tools available to facilitate it have increased. Email and other asynchronous communication tools like Google Docs and Facebook still play an important role in GNLEs (Maylath, et al., 2013, Paretti et al., 2007), but synchronous interaction with tools like iChat, Skype, and whole-class video conferencing offer a helpful complement (Hammer & Maylath, 2014; Maylath, et al., 2013; Sorensen et al. 2015). This paper provides a review of how various communication tools have been deployed in previous TAPP projects and provides new data about the impact of interpersonal interaction on student learning in collaborations among students in the U.S. and students in Portugal, The Netherlands, Belgium, and Thailand (four separate bi-lateral projects). If a political environment of rising nationalism threatens the future of global learning networks like TAPP, then the interpersonal relationships that are being formed today among student participants may become even more important.

References Hammer, S., & Maylath, B. (2014). Global collaborations, face-to-face conversation: Social media in trans-Atlantic translation projects. In M. Limbu and B. Gurung (Eds.) Emerging pedagogies in the networked knowledge society: Practices integrating social media and globalization (pp. 144-161). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. Maylath, B., King, T., & Arnó Macià. (2013). Linking engineering students in Spain and technical writing students in the US as coauthors: The challenge and outcomes of subject-matter experts and language specialists collaborating internationally. connexions • International Professional Communication Journal, 1 (2), 159-185. Paretti, M. C., NcNair, L. D., & Holloway-Attaway, L. (2007). Teaching technical communication in an era of distributed work: A case study of collaboration between U.S. and Swedish students. Technical Communication Quarterly, 16 (3), pp. 327–352. http://dx.doi. org/10.1080/10572250701291087 Sorensen, K.S., Hammer, S. & Maylath, B. (2015). Synchronous and asynchronous online international collaboration: The trans-Atlantic & Pacific project. connexions • International Professional Communication Journal, 3(1), 153-177. Stärke-Meyerring, D., & Wilson, M. (2008). Visionary pedagogies in globally-networked learning environments. In D. Stärke-Meyerring & M. Wilson (Eds.), Designing global learning environments: Visionary partnerships, policies, and pedagogies (pp. 105-113). Rotterdam: Sense Publishers.

Corpora and collaborative translation tasks for FL terminology development

Barbara Lewandowska (Tomaszczyk, State University of Applied Sciences)

The present paper focuses on the processes and effects of collaborative writing/translation tasks in the development of translation skills in general language and in terminology acquisition in particular. Special emphasis is put on a comparison of the English-as-a-Foreign-Language learner translation and the application and use of professional Polish-to-English and English-to-Polish parallel corpora with reference materials from the British National Corpus and the National Corpus of Polish (nkjp.pl). The study exploits regular co-operation between Polish MA students of English and translation at the University of Lodz and the State University of Applied Sciences in Konin and students of technical and engineering subjects at North Dakota State University within a Trans-Atlantic Pacific Project (TAPP) (Maylath et al. 2013, Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk and Slomski 2016). The aim of the present research is twofold: (i) to study Polish EFL learner translation strategies in terms of collected learner translation corpora as the outcome of the Native - Non-native student collaborative projects and (ii) to study the students’ use of professional parallel corpus data in their translation tasks. An additional research aspect relates to the applicability of the national corpus materials (BNC and National Corpus of Polish nkjp.pl) to the student translation tasks.

In the concluding discussion the role of the processes of translational inter-language displacements and re-conceptualization cycles (Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk 2010, 2016), is shown to lead to the development of cluster equivalence patterns across languages, at the interface of both general and specialized Source Language and Target Language. A special function of so-called threshold concepts in particular fields (Meyer and Land 2003), and corpus restricted domain keywords, changing the way students view the disciplines, are shown to be of particular significance in parallel special-domain terminology acquisition.

References Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk, B. (2010). Re-conceptualization and the emergence of discourse meaning as a theory of translation. In: Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk, B. and M. Thelen (eds.) Meaning in Translation. Frankfurt a. Main: Peter Lang. 105-148. Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk, B. (2016). Principle of Cluster Equivalence and parallel corpora. Translation and Meaning New Series, Vol. 1 [Lodz Studies in Language vol. 41], Frankfurt a. Main: Peter Lang. 229-244. Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk, B., & Slomski, H. (2016). Collaboration in language development between American and Polish university students. Konin Language Studies. Maylath, B., Vandepitte, S., Minacori, P., Isohella, S., Mousten, B., & Humbley, J. (2013). Managing complexity: A technical communication translation case study in multilateral international collaboration. Technical Communication Quarterly, 22, 67–84. Meyer, J. & Land, R. (2003). Threshold Concepts and Troublesome Knowledge: Linkages to Ways of Thinking and Practising within the Disciplines. ETL Project: Enhancing Teaching-Learning Environments in Undergraduate Courses. Occasional Report 4. University of Edinburgh.

Setting up TAPP collaborations and integrating them into regular course: Options and outcomes

Elisabet Arnó Macià (Polytechnic University of Catalonia), Suvi Isohella (University of Vaasa) and Bruce Maylath (North Dakota State University)

This presentation takes a close look at the different types of outcomes resulting from the transnational collaborative projects undertaken by classes of lecturers and students. As a grassroots project since its inception back in the 1999-2000 academic year, the TAPP has evolved into multiple project formats that have allowed participants to integrate international education into their regular courses, collaborating with international participants and addressing global audiences in what has been termed “globally-networked learning environments” (Stärke-Meyerring & Wilson 2008). Based on their practical experience in past TAPP projects, the presenters will reflect on the versatility of the TAPP as a framework for meaningful project work that can form integral part of different types of university courses focusing on language and communication with different student profiles (e.g., Arnó Macià et al. 2014; Vandepitte et al. 2016). The TAPP has thus become a useful vehicle for developing specialised written texts, oral presentations and usability studies, in a realistic scenario of international collaboration that replicates what future graduates will encounter in their professional lives. From the particular perspective of such different courses, we will reflect on the characteristics that make a meaningful TAPP collaboration and how different types of outcomes (written, spoken, usability) can be adapted to the TAPP, thus promoting a series of transversal competencies related to (technical) communication, collaboration, and international project management, which are now more necessary than ever in an increasingly globalized and complex professional scenario.

References Arnó Macià, Elisabet, Suvi Isohella, Bruce Maylath, Tatjana Schell, Massimo Verzella, Patricia Minacori, Birthe Mousten, Maria Teresa Musacchio, Giuseppe Palumbo & Sonia Vandepitte (2014). Enhancing Students' Skills in Technical Writing and LSP Translation through Tele- Collaboration Projects: Teaching Students in Seven Nations to Manage Complexity in Multilateral International Collaboration. G. Budin; V. Lušicky. European Symposium on LSP, Jul 2013, Vienna, Austria. Languages for Special Purposes in a Multilingual, Transcultural World, Proceedings of the 19th European Symposium on Languages for Special Purposes, 8-10 July 2013, Vienna, Austria, pp. 249-259. Stärke-Meyerring, D., & Wilson, M. (2008). Visionary pedagogies in globally-networked learning environments. In D. Stärke-Meyerring & M. Wilson (Eds.), Designing global learning environments: Visionary partnerships, policies, and pedagogies (pp. 105-113). Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. Vandepitte, Sonia, Bruce Maylath, Birthe Mousten, Suvi Isohella & Patricia Minacori (2016). Multilateral collaboration between technical communicators and translators: a case study of new technologies and processes. Journal of specialized translation, 26: 3-19.

A historical perspective on the Trans-Atlantic & Pacific Project: Past, present, future

Bruce Maylath (North Dakota State University)

This portion of the panel presentation will provide a summarized background and history of the formation and growth of the Trans-Atlantic & Pacific Project, then move on to unexpected but positive consequences of TAPP collaborations, before finishing with a perspective on the future of international, collaborative LSP projects in an era of increasing nationalism and isolationism. The history of the TAPP has exhibited quantum growth by emphasizing teacher autonomy while not relying on institutional agreements or grants. Both participating students and their teachers have sharpened their knowledge of skills in each other’s languages and cultures in ways that did not happen before collaborations took place. For many students, success at landing jobs in their respective professions has been nearly guaranteed because of their international experience with cross-cultural virtual teams. Presumably, employers will continue to value such experience, but we have to wonder if employers’ enthusiasm will diminish if global trade tightens and nations become more insular. The presentation will end with prompts for brainstorming approaches to continue and grow international LSP collaborative learning projects in the face of a climate of isolationism.

Collaborative technical communication and translation in TAPP

Patricia Minacori (University of Paris—Diderot)

Among the many partners involved in TAPP, Paris Diderot University has been participating in the collaborative project since 2011. At this university, the students, who are taking part in TAPP, are in the first year of their master’s degree. The reason that this class was chosen is linked to the kind of curriculum these students have to follow. In the presentation, I will describe the specific curriculum: students have a large number of hours dedicated to translation each week while they have one class on technical communication per week (amounting to eighteen hours over one semester). I will also discuss a definition of technical communication and of translation according to the French experience at Paris Diderot University. At the end of the project, students have two pieces of work to submit. One is the translation itself. But it is not possible to analyze how the project unfolded and developed, based on this submission alone. This is why we ask students to write a blog that could be also named a “reflective diary”. We consider it as a return on experience. Thanks to the blogs, we can better analyze collaboration between the team of translators, between the technical communicators and the translators, and the other way round. In the presentation, I will explore whether this balance in the curriculum is sufficient to meet the challenges facing the students during TAPP. Results also show that the students learn about project management, team management and professional communication. They have also been found to analyze what they have learnt and what could be done differently. In this enriching experience, TAPP links two professional activities, and students learn much about procedure and about challenges facing the two professions. Ultimately Paris Diderot students can choose between these two professions thanks to the TAPP.

Code glossing as a tool in text writing and translation

Birthe Mousten (Aalborg University / Aarhus University)

In the Trans-Atlantic and Pacific Project (TAPP) network—across types of networks, subjects, languages and student professionals—a recurring problem for cognitive understanding has been how to explain cultural differences or differences between the set-up of systems occurring in terms, acronyms, slang or the context as such. A common strategy to solve this kind of problem can be found in code glossing: the way an unknown or imprecise or new concept is presented in the text. Often in the TAPP network context, the solutions to this problem have had an intuitive character rather than following a certain strategy that would conform with given methods in the different languages. Code glossing—the definition, exemplification or clarification of a term—is a linguistic or metalinguistic device that can be used as a strategy in writing and translation to fill in asymmetric gaps of knowledge between a writer and a reader. Therefore, the code-glossing tool can be used between professionals and laypeople as well as between source text (Language 1) writers and target text (Language 2) readers. Code glossing is thus relevant as a tool to improve the readers’ cognitive capacity for reading and understanding terms. This presentation will show how code-glossing has helped students and instructors explain cultural differences and make good solutions to improve understanding between cultures and languages.

References Hyland, K. (2007). Applying a gloss: Exemplifying and reformulating in academic discourse. Applied Linguistics, 28 (2), 266-285. Swales, J.M., & Feak, C. B. (2004). Academic writing for graduate students: Essential tasks and skills. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2nd edition.

Formative assessment of translator competence and TAPP exchanges in glocal world

Maria Teresa Musacchio (University of Padua)

This paper presents examples of the use of TAPP virtual exchanges as means for formative assessment of competence in translator training. Details are provided of how an exchange based on the writing and translation of instructions and another one on writing and translation of an academic journal article on GMOs supplemented by further activities to adapt the text for translation as a popular science article may be used for formative as opposed to summative assessment. While the translation of instructions and journal articles often follows international strategies (cf. the EU Machinery Directive 2006/42/EC and guidelines for journal papers) typical of a globalised world, popular science articles closely reflect national culture requirements. The stages of competence development at which assessment took place are described and the criteria used for the formative assessment of the activities designed to develop translation competence are illustrated in detail.

The sample TAPP exchanges presented suggest that virtual exchanges between technical writing students – ST writers – and translation students – TT translators – are very useful to assess the progressive development of competence in trainee translators and can replace summative assessment partially or completely. Besides learner autonomy, and reflective, critical thinking, they encourage self-assessment, while the translation-related tasks devised as part of the exchange are meant to develop all the skills required to successfully develop LSP translation competence. TAPP exchanges do not only require close collaboration between technical writing and translation students, but also between students and trainers, especially as a sustained effort is necessary to establish, and apply, effective formative assessment criteria of developing LSP translation competence.

References EU (2006). DIRECTIVE 2006/42/EC OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 17 May 2006 on machinery, and amending Directive 95/16/EC (recast). http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2006:157:0024:0086:en:PDF (last visited on 29 January 2017). Galán-Mañas, A., & Hurtado Albir, A. (2015). Competence assessment procedures in translator training. The Interpreter and Translator Trainer, 9(1), 63-82. Kiraly, D. (2013). Towards a view of translator competence as an emergent phenomenon: thinking outside the box(es) in translator education. New prospects and perspectives for educating language mediators. Tübingen: Gunter Narr, 197-224. Vandepitte, S., Mousten, B., Maylath, B., Isohella, S., Musacchio, M. T., & Palumbo, G. (2015). Translation competence research data in multilateral international and interprofessional collaborative learning. In Y. Cui & W. Zhao (Eds.), Teaching language translation and interpretation: Methods, theories, and trends. Hershey, PA: IGI Global. 137-159.

Monitoring student learning through personal learning networks

Giuseppe Palumbo (University of Trieste)

The University of Minnesota (UMN) in Minneapolis, USA, and the University of Trieste (UniTS), Italy, have been collaborating within the framework of TAPP for two years. Every year a class of UMN technical communication students prepare a set of instructions for a North American audience, conduct a usability test on the document, and then prepare the same document for translation into Italian. UniTS students then translate, and as needed, further revise the documents. Much like in other TAPP collaborations, students are required to complete pre- and post-learning reports, so that instructors can monitor expectations and receive feedback. In 2016-2017, instructors decided to ask a selected group of students to integrate the learning reports with a “personal learning network”, or PLN (Duin and Moses 205). A PLN is a collection of people, information resources, organizations, and other connections valued by a networked individual who sees connections as supporting and contributing to learning interests. Students are asked to visualize graphically their own individual PLNs at the beginning and end of their TAPP collaboration. In this contribution, I will compare and contrast individual PLNs along two main dimensions: interculturally and longitudinally, based on the assumption that how participants conceptualize their PLNs and render them visually suggests ways in which PLNs reflect both cultural values and learning stages. In terms of cultural values, I will look at whether PLNs exhibit differing, and distinguishing, features across the students’ language divide. As for the learning stages, I will look at whether and how students PLNs longitudinally record and visualize the impact of their own participation in the TAPP collaboration.

References Duin, A. H., & Moses J., 2015, Intercultural Connectivism: Introducing personal learning networks. Rhetoric, Professional Communication, and Globalization, 7 (1), 29-46.

The language of definitions: Conceptualizing technical communication with the eyes of a translation student

Sonia Vandepitte (Ghent University) and Laura Gonzales (University of Texas at El Paso)

Drawing on data from a bilateral TAPP collaboration between translation students at Ghent University in Brussels, Belgium, and technical communication students at the University of Texas in El Paso, Texas, USA, presenters will discuss how international, interdisciplinary, intercultural, and interlingual collaborations can help students develop and expand their understanding of discipline-specific terminology, and to deepen their insight into the language of definitions. For example, technical communication students in this collaboration were asked to define the term “technical communication” in an academic introductory text to an article to be translated by their partners at Ghent University. Although technical communication students read and discussed scholarship about technical communication in preparation for this project, having to describe this disciplinary concept for international partners not only added a functional purpose to the exercise but also an extra level of complexity. Their audience may, indeed, be unfamiliar with the term, so that clarity of the definition becomes an important issue (Darian 2003). While the translating students needed a helping hand from the teacher to take a more critical attitude to the source text than usual, they were able to detect shortcomings in the defining statements. The presentation will show how this collaboration not only helped both groups of students to better understand discipline-related technical language, but also to identify basic expectations about definitions of abstract concepts (e.g., Nippold, et al. 1999, Alexander 2014).

References Alexander, A. (2014). What Does That Mean? Crafting and Using Definitions in Statutes. Presentation at National Conference of State Legislatures: Legal Services Staff Section. New Drafter Training, 25 September 2014. Darian, S. (2003). Understanding the language of science. Austin: University of Texas Press. Nippold, M. A., Hegel, S. L., Sohlberg, M. M., & Schwarz, I. E. (1999). Defining abstract entities: Development in pre-adolescents, adolescents, and young adults. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 42 (2), 473-481.