Thesis Pfeiff

Two Adoptions of the Red Cross: The Chinese Red Cross and the Red Swastika Society from 1904 to 1949 Alexandra Pfeiff Thesis submitted for assessment with a view to obtaining the degree of Doctor of History and Civilization of the European University Institute Florence, 12 January 2018 European University Institute Department of History and Civilization Two Adoptions of the Red Cross: The Chinese Red Cross and the Red Swastika Society from 1904 to 1949 Alexandra Pfeiff Thesis submitted for assessment with a view to obtaining the degree of Doctor of History and Civilization of the European University Institute Examining Board Prof. Stephen Smith (EUI) - Supervisor Prof. Corinna Unger (EUI) Prof. Andrea Janku (School of Oriental and African Studies, London) Prof. Peter Gatrell (Manchester University) © Alexandra Pfeiff, 2018 No part of this thesis may be copied, reproduced or transmitted without prior permission of the author Researcher declaration to accompany the submission of written work Department of History and Civilization - Doctoral Programme I, Alexandra Pfeiff, certify that I am the author of the work Two Adoptions of the Red Cross: The Chinese Red Cross and the Red Swastika Society from 1904 to 1949 I have presented for examination for the Ph.D. at the European University Institute. I also certify that this is solely my own original work, other than where I have clearly indicated, in this declaration and in the thesis, that it is the work of others. I warrant that I have obtained all the permissions required for using any material from other copyrighted publications. I certify that this work complies with the Code of Ethics in Academic Research issued by the European University Institute (IUE 332/2/10 (CA 297). The copyright of this work rests with its author. Quotation from it is permitted, provided that full acknowledgement is made. This work may not be reproduced without my prior written consent. This authorization does not, to the best of my knowledge, infringe the rights of any third party. I declare that this work consists of < 91010 > words. Signature and date: 1 2 Abstract: Looking at the social and political transformation of China during the entire Republican era, my thesis explores the twofold adoption of the Red Cross in the country. My examination reveals that the model served reform-oriented philanthropists of the Chinese Red Cross Society to establish relief structures to improve the country’s welfare system through the implementation of Western approaches. In addition, the Red Cross was of use for supporters of China’s religiously-based philanthropy who reformed the faith-based mission of the Red Swastika Society to gain legitimization and to advance emergency measures. Adding to current research on the development of humanitarianism a so far marginally explored local case study, my thesis suggests that the Red Cross in China not only served reform-oriented philanthropists, but also served supporters of China’s traditional philanthropy. 3 Table of Contents 4 I. Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………………..…6 II. Historiography of the Chinese Red Cross Society …………………………………………………………....31 III. Historiography of the Red Swastika Society ………………………………………………………………...34 1. Establishing a National Red Cross 1.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………………..37 1.2 Setting the Red Cross in Motion ……………………………………………………………………………..38 1.3 Support during the Xinhai Revolution and the Foundation of the National Red Cross ……………………...47 1.4 Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………………………………....55 2. Nationalization and Politicization of the Chinese Red Cross 2.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………………..56 2.2 The Politicization of the activities of the Red Cross in China ……………………………………………….57 2.3 The Impact of the Reform on the Red Cross Work …………………………….............................................67 2. 4 Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………………………………...78 3. Creating the Red Swastika Society 3.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………………..80 3.2 The Daoyuan Society…………………………………………………………………………………………80 3.3 The Daoyuan Society’s Mission in Practice …………………………………………………………………86 3.4 Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………………………………....101 4. The Red Swastika’s Changes during the Nanjing Decade (1927-1937) 4.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………………..102 4.2 Adherence to the Original Mission …………………………………………………………………………..103 4.3 The Red Swastika’s Transformation in Shanghai ……………………………………………………………109 4. 4 Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………………………………....117 5. The Chinese Red Cross Society during the Nanjing Decade 5.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………………....119 5.2 The Chinese Red Cross during the Nanjing Decade ………………………………………………………….119 5.3 Development of Military Medicine during the Nanjing Decade ……………………………………………..125 5.4 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………………………………………..132 6. The Chinese Red Cross Society during the Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945) 6.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………134 6.2 The Red Cross Branches on the East Coast …………………………………………………………………...134 6.3 The Branches of the Red Cross in Western Provinces ………………………………………………………..140 6.4 The Chinese Red Cross Medical Relief Corps ………………………………………………………………...146 6.5 Support for Communist Areas as a Source of Political Conflict ………………………………………………150 6.6 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………………………………………..156 7. The Red Swastika Society during the Sino-Japanese War 7.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………………………….... 157 7.2 The Activities of the World Red Swastika South East United Emergency Management Office ……………..158 7. 3 The Red Swastika’s Work on Behalf of the Chinese Government and Cooperation with Allies ……………..171 7.4. The Red Swastika in Territories under Japanese Occupation …………………………………………………175 7.5 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………………………………………..182 8. The Red Swastika Society and the Chinese Red Cross in the Post-war Period (1945- 1949) 8.1. Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………………...184 8.2 The Red Swastika’s Restoration ………………………………………………………………………………187 8.3 The Chinese Red Cross Society during the Civil War ………………………………………………………..194 8.4 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………………………………………..202 9. Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………………………………….....205 10.Bibliography ……………………………………………………………………………………………....209 5 I. Introduction Among new humanitarian projects, which were founded by Chinese philanthropists in the late Qing period to enrich relief services in their country, some strove for the introduction of foreign models of humanitarian aid, while others were religious organizations which adhered to traditional religious philanthropy but integrated also foreign influences. My thesis examines the development of two humanitarian projects in China, the national Red Cross, created in 1912, and the Red Swastika Society, founded in 1921, from the creation of these organizations until the end of the Republican era to assess how each was influenced by the Western Red Cross model. My examination demonstrates that both organizations pursued missions, which were differently modelled on and inspired by the Red Cross , and that the implementation of their humanitarian agendas adjusted the Red Cross model differently to local conditions. One foundational difference between both organizations was their official recognition, which determined their administrative aspects and their duties. The Chinese Red Cross registered at the International Committee of the Red Cross in Geneva, the main seat of the Red Cross Movement which was founded in 1863. Due to the fact that the International Committee recognized only one national organization in each country, this group became the country’s official Red Cross. As a member of the International Committee’s network, the Chinese Red Cross was connected with other national agencies and agreed to adhere to international standards of assistance during armed conflicts. 1 A country-wide network of branches was connected by two leading centres, one in Beijing and one in Shanghai. The former was the seat of government representatives who participated in the national Red Cross. The country’s political leader, beginning with Yuan Shikai in 1912, was assigned the representative role as president of the Red Cross, and members of the government and governmental institutions were involved in the provision of relief by the organization’s branches. The Central Committee was located in Shanghai and was the operative and administrative centre, which organized campaigns, connected branches and members, and administered assistance services. The Red Swastika Society, founded in 1921, pursued a faith-based humanitarian aid mission. Until its ban from the Chinese mainland in 1953, it was recognized by political authorities, who ruled the country or its territories, as a national relief society. Despite this difference, the 1 David P. Forsythe and Barbara A. J. Rieffer-Flanagan, The International Committee of the Red Cross. A Neutral Humanitarian Actor (New York, 2007), 11. 6 group’s contribution to relief was as important and indispensable as the Red Cross work and observers regarded the organization as an alternative Red Cross. 2 Unlike the Red Cross, it possessed not only a country-wide network, but also a small number of branches abroad. It was recognized by political authorities who ruled China but was not connected with other international organizations or the International Committee, although on many occasions it cooperated with foreign agencies

Load more