TWENTY-FIRST ANNUAL REPORT

COUNCIL FOR SCIENTIFICAND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH

FOR THE

YEAR ENDED 30~~JUNE, 1947.

Presented pursuawt /o Statute; ordered to be printed, 21st November, 1947.

COP^ of Paper.-Pr+l~nrntlcr~~.not glven ; 822 copies ; approximate cast of printing and pubUshing,£158.]

I'r~uted n~idpublished for the GOVERNMENTof the C~~~~ONWEALTHor AUW~RALIA by L. F. JOHNSTON, Commonwwlth Government f'rir~ter Car~berrt~. (Printed in Australia.) No. 43 [GROUP F'.]--F.~~~~.-PRICE6s. CONTENTS.

I. INTRO~UCTORY- 1. General ...... 2. Council and Executive Committee . . . . 3. Wool and Textile Research ...... 4. Division of Soils--Appointment of Chief . . 5. New Investigations ...... 6. Coal Dust-Visit of the Late Professor T. David Jones 7. Au~tralianNational Antarctic Research Expedition 8. National Association of Testing Authorities . . 9. Overseas Training ...... 10. Collaboration with Universities . . . . 11. Finance ......

11. PLANTINVESTIQATIONS- 1. General ...... 2. Pasture Investigations ...... 3. Weeds Investigations ...... 4. Plant Introduction ...... &Wheat ...... 6. Bruit Investigations ...... 7. Drug Plant Investigations ...... 8. Tobacco Investigations ...... 9. Vegetable Investigations ...... 10. Tomato Spotted Wilt ...... 11. Northern Australia Regional Survey . . . . 12. Other Investigations ...... 13. Publications ......

111. ENTOMOLOQICALINVESTIOATIONS- 1. General ...... 2. Cattle ~ick' ...... 3. Buffalo Fly ...... 4. Sheep Blowfly ...... 5. Dawson River Sandfly ...... 6. Insect Physiology and Toxicology . . . . 7. Biological ('ontrol ...... 8. Population Dynamics ...... 9. Australian Plague Locust (Chortoicetes terminifera) 10. Pasture Cockchafers ...... 11. Red-legged Earth Mite (Haloi?ydeus destructor) . . 12. Insect Vectors of Plant Viruses . . . . 13. Orchard Pests ...... 14. Field Crop and Vegetable Pests . . . . 15. Termites ...... 16. 3liscellaneous Pests ...... 17. Systematic and General ...... 18. Publications ......

IV. ANIMALHEALTH AND PRODUCTIONINVESTIQATIONS-

1. General ...... , . . 2. Animal Health Research Laboratory, Melbourne 3. McNaster Animal Health Laboratory . . . . 4. The F. D. DIc&IasterField Station . . . . 5. National Field Station -" Gilruth Plains ", Queensland 6. Other Activities ...... 7. Pnblications . . . , . . . .

1. General ...... 2. Nutrition and Wool Production . . . . 3. The SuuaIv of Raw Materials for Wool Production 4. ~etab&{cktudies ...... 5. Vitamin A Requirements of the Sheep . . 6. Physiological and Tissue Metabolism Studies . . 7. Chronic Fluorosis ...... , 8. Minor Elernents ...... 9. Agrostology and Plant Nutrition . . . . 10. Accessory Food Factors and Food Composition 11. Publications ......

VI. SOILS INVESTIGATIONS- 1. General ...... 2. Soil Survey Section ...... 3. Soil Chemistry Section ...... 4. Soil Physics and Mechanics ...... 5. Soil Bacteriology ...... 6. Publications ...... A . Commonwealth Research Station (Murray Irrigation Areas). Merbein. Victoria- 1. Genera1 ...... 1 2 . Irrigation and Reclamation 3 . Land Use . . . . 4 . Horticulture . . . . 5 . Vegetables . . . . 6 . Fruit Processing . . 7 . Biology . . . . 8 . Finance . . . . B . Irrigation Research Station (Murrunlbidgee Irrigation Areas). Griffith. New South Wales-- 1 . General ...... I 2 . Field Experiments with Fruit Trees 3 . Irrigation Investigations . . 4 . Rice Field Investigations . . 5 . Drainage Investigations . . 6 . Soil Reconditioning Investigations 7. Salt Investigations . . . . 8 . Vegetable Investigations . . 9 . Plant Physiology . . . 10. Frost Investigations . . . I1 . Soils and Irrigation Extei~sionService ...... 45 I

5 . Timber Mechanics ...... 50 6 . Timber Seasoning ...... 52 7 Timber Preservation ...... 53 8 . Veneer and Ululng ...... 55 9 . Utilization ...... 56 10. Pnblicntions ...... 57

IX. FOODPRESERVATION INVESTIGATIO~ S- 1 . General ...... 57 2 Physical Investigations ...... I ...... 57 3 . General Chemistry ...... 58 4 . ...Microbiology ...... 59 5 . Meat lnvestigations (Brisbane) ...... 59 6 . Preservation of Fish by Refrigrration ...... 61 7. Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Storage Investigations (with New South Wales Dejartm't~t of Agriculture) . . 61 8. Cannioe and Fruit Products 1nvestig:~tions ...... 62 .-9 . Dehydrated- .. Foods ...... 63

I . Introduction ...... 64 2 . Developmental Work. South-East Australia ...... 65 3 . Biological Inve~tigations ...... 65 4 . Publications ...... 73 XI. METROLOGY- 1. General ...... 73 2 . Measurement of Length and Associated Quantitia . . . . 3 . Measurement of Mass and Associated Quantities . . . . 4 . Applied Mechanics ......

1. General ...... 75 2 . Direct Current ...... 75 3 . Alternating Current ...... '75 4 . Audio Frequency ...... 75 6. Radio Frequency ...... 75 6 Properties.- of Materials ...... 76 '7 . Applied Klectronics ...... 77 8 . Mathematical Instruments ...... 77 9 . Publications ...... 77

XI11. PHYSICS- 1. General ...... 77 2 . Heat ...... 78 3 . Light ...... 80 4 . Solar Physics ...... 81 5 . The Physics of solids' ...... 81 6 . tl7ool Investigations ...... 82 7. Atomic- Physics ...... 83 8. Publications ...... 83

XIV. AERONAUTICALINVESTIGATIONS- 1 . General ...... 83 2 . Structure8 ...... 83 3 . Fngineering Materials ...... 85 4 . ~eroaynam~cs ...... 87 5 . Aircraft Propu~lsiion...... 68 6. Mechanical Engineering ...... 89 7 . Electronice and Inrtrumentr ...... 90 1. General ...... 2. Minerals TJtilization Section . . . . 3. Cement and Ceramics Section . . 4. Foundry Sands Investigations . . 5. Physical Chemistry Section . . . . 6. Chemical Physics Section . . . . 7. Organic Section ...... 8. Biochemistry Section . . . . 9. Chemical Engineering Section . . 10. Publications ......

XVT. RADIOPHYSICS- I. Introduction ...... 2. Extraterrestrial Noise ...... 3. Superrefraction ...... 4. Ionospheric Investigations ...... 5. Middle Atmosphere Investigations . . . . 6. Radio Meteorology ...... 7. Mathematical Physics ...... 8. Vacuum Physics ...... 9. RIeasurements and Standards . . .. 10. Civil Aviation ...... 11. Radar Aids to Ground and Aerial Survey . . 12. Radio Control of Model Aircraft . . . . 13. Work for the Serviccs ...... 14. Publications ......

XVII. TRIBOPHYSICS- 1. Introduction ...... 2. Lubricxtion ...... 3. Metal Physics ...... 4. Explosives ...... 5. General ...... 6. Publications ......

XVIII. B~ILDIN~MATERIALS RESEARCH- 1. General ...... 2. Infnrmation ...... 3. Physical and Mechanical Testing Laboratory 4. Concrete Investigations . . . . 5. Masonry Investigations .. . . 6. Surfacing Matcrials ...... 7. Building Boards and Insulating Materials 8. Organic Materials Investigations . . 9. Publications ......

XIX. FLAXRESEARCH- 1. Geneml ...... 2. Agricultural ...... 3. Processing ...... 4. Evaluation ...... 5. Pul~lirations ......

XX. OTITERINVESTIGATIONS- 1. Dairy Research ...... 2. Radio Research Board . . . . 3. Mineragraphic Investigations . . 4. Ore-Dressing Investigations . . . . 5. Mathematical Statistics . . . . 6. Physical Metallurgy...... 7. Rnbher (Guayule) Investigationa . . 8. Oenological Research . . . .

XXI. INFORMATTON SERTIICEAND LIBRARY- A. Information Service- I. General ...... 2. Tnformation Section ...... 3. Tran~lat~ionSection ...... 4. Cine-Photographic Section ...... 5. Pub1ic;ttions ...... B. Library ......

XXII. FINANCIALMATTERS, STAFF, AND PUBLICATIONS- 1. Finance ...... 2. Contributions and Donations ...... 3. Wool Research Trust Account ...... 4. Staff ...... 5. Publications of the Council ......

XXIII. AOKNOWLED~MENTS ...... APPENDIX- A. Personnel of the Counoil and of ite Varioue Committees .. B. Committeee Conwrning Work ia whiob the Counoil is Co.oper~~< COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA.

1 I Council for Scientific and Industrial Research.

TWENTY-FIRST ANNUAL REPORT (FOR YEAR ENDED 3&~JUNE, 1947).

I. INTRODUCTORY. 5. New In?ia$tigations.-During the year, a com- 1. General.-The Couilcil for Scientific and Indua- menceu~enthas been made with several investigations trial liesearch was established in 1926 by the re-orga- in fields of work not covered by the existing Divisions nization of the existing Institute of Science and Indus- and sections. try. The powers and functions of the Council are (i) ~TleleorologicalPhys~cs.--One such activity is in defined by the Science adIndustry lleseurch Act the field of meteorological physics. illthough for many 1920-1'315, and include the initiation and carrying out years systematic meteorologists have studied the day- of research in connexion with, or for the promotion of, to-day changes in Australian weather, studies of the primary and secondary industries ; the training of funclaiiiental phenomena underlying these rhanges have research workers; the malriilg of grants in aid .of pure rarelg been undertaken. Nevertheless, it has been felt research; the testing and standardization of scientific that the importance of weather to Australia un- apparatus and instruments, and the carrying out of doubtedly justifies a much more intensive study of the . scitntific investigations connected with standardiza- physics of the atmosphere, as only a knowledge of the tion; and the establishment of an information service baaic physical phenomena can ultimately lead to the relating to scientific and technical matters. possibility of making successful long-range weather 2. Council and Executive Com&ttee.-There have forecasts. Pollo~ving discussions with officers of the teen further changes in the membership of the Council Conlmonwealth Meteorological Bureau, the Council has during the past year. Xr. D. A. Mountjoy was now appointed an officer to take charge of the Meteoro- ' appointed as a member of the Executive Committee logical Physics Section. He will be advised by tho for a period of three years as from 20th November, 3Ieteorological liesearch Consultative Comniittee on 1946. Mr. A. J. Gibson rvas appointed as Chairman of which tht Meteorological Bureau, the School of the New South Wales State Committee, thus becoming Meteorology in the University of Melbourne, and the a member of tlie fllll Council, for a period expiring on Con~n~ol~wealthObservatory, Mt. Stromlo, arc repre- 31st December, 1948 ; he fills the vacancy arising out of sented. A programme of research has b~endrawn up th~transfer of the former Chairman (Dr. I. Clunies and staE is at present being recruited. It is proposed Ross) to a position on the Executir~eCommittee in that in the first few years the work should centre on all Melbourne. Finally. Professor Ashby, of the Univelu- examination of the detailed conditions of the atmr: - sity of Sydney, resigned from the Council on his phere over a small area. This offers a fi~ldfor fund;t- departure from Australia to occupy a Chair in thr rnental revarch and, by the light it shonld throw on tht' IJrlirersity of hlanchester. nlechanihrn of meteorological changes, shonld have a 3. Wool and Textile Rrscarck.-In the previous wide ~arietyof applications o~erthe whole range uf report, it was mentioned that it was proposed to estab- weather problems. lish a Division of Textile Research, and that the (ii) ,~lclullurgy.-For some time past, the Council position of Chief of that Di~~isionwas being advertised hac: had under con.cicleratioll the iilitiatiolz of investipa- in Australia and overseas. No appointment has pet tions in tlie field of serondary metallurgy. It already been made, and consideration is now being given to the has within tl~pDivi~ioil of r\er~na~tic~a small group establishment of t~t,Ijivisions Oile would develop of meta1lur:ical investigatol-s, bl~tthis group has of more fundamental work on the chemistry and physics necessity confincd its atte~itionin the main to rather of the wool fibre, and the other would concentrate on specific prohlr 111s arising in connexion with the work the technology of the spinning and utilization of wool. of thc Division, ant1 ha* not been able to undertake In the meantime, one or two officers of the Council who mucll work of a fundamental nature. Nevertheless, had previously been associated with other Divisions the derelopment of the engineering industries of Auu- have been diverted to wool textile work in existing tralia depend., to a considerable extent upon an ade- laboratories. It is hoped at an early stage to commence quate knotvlrdge of the physical and chemical pro- some work on the degreasing of wool by means of hydro- pertie? of metals. The Council has been fortunate in carbon solvents as distinct from the normal snap and arra~lginqfor the establishment of a small co-operative water scours. It is also hoped that University research section of metallurgy to be accommodated in the Rr- workers will be encouraged to study the fuudamental search School of Metallurgy at the University of Ncl- structure and properties of the wool fibre and in that bourncl. The qcction is directed 1137 thc Re~earcliPro- wa.y facilitate the ultimate establishment of thc fnnda- fewor of hletallllrgy in thr Vniversitv (Professor J. N. mental Division mentioned above. Qreen-cvood). T7ro or three investigators have now 4. Division of Boils-Appointment of Chief.-At been appointed, and are working with Professor Grreil- the close of the period under review Professor Prescott. \rood. T~~itially,the proprammr of work n-ill ilicludc who had been Chief of the Council's Division of Soils qtndie. on thc properties of metals at high tempcraturec. since its forrmation in 1929. resigned. Hc will continue, pr~paratjonof metal compact.. from metal r~owders,and however, in his position as Director of the Waite Agri- the application of X-rays to the studies of metals and cultural Research Institute of the University of Ade- alloys. laide, and mill colitinue to co-operate with the Council (iii) Nuclear Ph?qsics.-A commencement has been in variouh mays. His place as Chief of the Division has mpde in gathering together a small team of chemists now been filled by the appointment of Mr. J. R. Taylor, and engineers to ctudy the ntilization of atomic energ,- formerly Depnty Chief of the Division. for indi~strial ~I~ITPOC~S.The officers appointed prc 8 I I being sent to the United Kingdom, where they will work 8. National Association of Testing Autho?.iti&p.- I ul the Atonlic Energy Research Establishment at Some time ago, the Council set up a Committee on ~ Rarnell. Arrangement.; have also been made with Standards and Testing to explore requirements from the University of Melbourne for a co-operative pro- the point of view of providing Australia11 secondary granlme of research in nuclear physics at the Physics industry with improved testing facilities. ilrising out School. AS a result of these artivities, it is hoped that of recommendations of Committee, a Anztralia will hare available a small team of traincd was convened by the Government under the aegis qcicntifir men who should wrre as a nucleus of staff of the Council late in 1945. It was then agreed for ally atomic energy projedts which map be under- that steps should be taken to co-ordinate the activities taken in Australia. of the various laboratories which already provided (iv) Badlo-active Tracer E1enzents.-An importallt industry with a service for the measurement and offshoot of the atomic bomb project in the Unit~d testing of materials, and that this objective might States of America and Canada is the quantity produc- be attaind through the formation, on a purely tion of a number of artific-l,rll;y radio-active elements. voluntary basis, of a National Association of This makes pos~iblea grcat extclnsion of the use of Testing Authorities. Existing laboratories woi~ld trarcr elerr~cnttechniques in physical, biological, and retain their present autonomy and would continue medical research, and provides a potent tool for inve.3- 10 perform their existing functions, but in addition tigation in these fields. In collaboration with the would be licensed to endorse their certificates of Cornmonlvealtl-1 Department of Health, arrangements test in the nanie of the Association, these endorsed haw been made to procure supplies of radio-active certificates to have Commonwealth-wide recognitiort isotopes from overseas and to develop a service for indicating that such tests had been carried out ~II their handling and dissemination to research workers accordance with procedures agreed to by members of in Australia. Bn officer has been appointed for this the ~Issociation. The recommendations have aow been work and hc xrill be available to act as a consultant to endorsed by Federal and Stlate Governments and con- research workers drqirous of startine; experimental siderable progress made with the establishment of the work with any specific element. A Tracer Element -Issociation. The Council is acting as the means of Research Committee has been established to advise the liaison between the ,issociation and the Government. Council on this project. In the initial stages until the Association has built up a 6. Coal Dusf-17isif of the Late Professor T. Davi,2 staff of its own, the Council is providing it with secre Jones.-During the year, the Federal Cabinet decided tarial and clerical assistance. that the Council shoald be empowered to proceed at 9. 02.''""~ l'minky.-In the previous report, men- once with the scttinq up of research facilities to carry tion was made of the scheme for which ministerial out investigations into the prevention of dust in coal approral had been obtained for the sending abroad of mineq, and to that end, if need be, to obtain expert up to 25 officers in any year in order that they might a,csistance from overseas to assist in the inquiqr. collect information on new de.\relopments in scientific Arrangementa were subsecluently made for the late research and to acquire general experience in research Professor T. David Jones, formerly of the University and a training in new techniques. That scheme is now of Walrs and lately Professor of Mining at the Uni- ill full operation, and at the present time 25 officers are verqit-j of Birmingham, to visit the various Anstralian abroad. ,I nun~ber of studentships have also been coal-fields and to report on his findings. Re left Aus- created with a somewhat similar purpose in view, but tralis at the end of Map, 1947, after having submitted more particularly for the training of recent gradnates. a report which indicated that much of the trouble *it the present time, 28 students are located in United existing in Allstraljan coal mines could be considerablv ICingdom laboratories and a few in T'nited States alleriatrd by the application of alreadv established laboratories while they are becoming acquainted with methods of dnst prevention. He recommended, how- the latest developments and acquiring a breadth of ever, that the Council should undertake investigations vision and inspiration ~rhichwill be of great value jn into the best means of measuring dust concentrations in their future work in tlustralia. mines, and that a more detailed survey of the conditions 10. Gollaborntion with the Universities.--The in the mines shonld be made. He suggested. further, Council has for long adopted the policy of co-operating that the work undertalcen should be carried out in with other orgariizations to the greatest extent. close co-operation with the Joint Coal Board, which a result, tl~cvolume of work in which various woi~ld be the body responsible for carrying into scientific bodies, and in particular State Departments ~ractical~ffrct recommendations for the alleviation of of hgriculturc and universities, are interested has now di1.t~ rondition~in mines. Concurrent1-v with the visit gro~11to large dirncnnsions and is mentioned ill the of Profesqor Jone~.the Council established a Coal nust main body of the report that follows. Tzesearch Ad7-iqorp Committee to advise on a pro- With the development of the Council's il~vestig~ti~~~ rawm me of rr~carch. That Olommittee has now con- ill the physical sciences. the 21elp afforded by the Uni- ;.idcrcd the report of Professor Jones and has also versities has become increasingly important. For collected information on its own behalf. example, at Sydney, the National Standardq Labora The whole matter is still under consideration by the tory, the Radiophysics Labor&tory, and the lIcMastel Council and the other bodies concerned. Laboratory are all accommodated in the grounds of 7. Australian Nafionnl Antarctic Research Expcpedi- tile TTnirersity. Similarly, in Melbourne, the Section [ion.--During the year, attention has been gven, at of Tril~ophysicsis housed in the University's Depart- the request of the Department of External Affairs, to tuent of Chemistry, while in Adelaide, the Dirision of the more scientific aspects of plans for the Australian Biochemistr~and General Nutrition is located in the Expedition which is to be sent to the Antarctic during Univrrsity grounds. The close ~roximityof these the summer of 1947-48. In particular, the council has laboratories to ITniversity facilities and the opj~ortuni- played a considerable part in consultation with other tic's for consultation and exchange of vie~vswit11 mem- interested bodies such as the Commonwealth Bureau of bers of the University staff, is of the greateqt bellefit. Xineral Rpsoilrces, the Commonwealth Meteorological Further, in developing new lines of worlr, particu- Bureau, and the Universities of Melbourne and Sydney larly on the more fundamental side, the Council frc- in drawing up plans for the scientific work of the Expe- quently turns to the Ur~iversitiesfor assistance. For dition. It is anticipated that the Expedition will pav example, in Melbourne, a number of nlen art. being particular attention to problems of geophysics, includ- trained i~ nuclear physics at the Physics School, and ing meteorology, the earth's magnetism, cosmig rays, at the Research School of Metallurgy a programme of and. poseibly, radio propagation. 00-operativq work has recently been pommsaced. There is good reason to believe that such association with visited Norfolk Island at the request of the Department Universities, which are the natural home of funda- of External Territories, to advise on the rehabilita- mental research, is a source of mutual strength that is tion of agriculture and horticulture. of no little national importance. 0n:e again it is a pleasure to acknowledge the ready 11. Finunce.-Section XXII. of this Report gives assistance and co-operation which have been forth- details of expenditure by the Council during the finan- conling froni the authorities in all States in the wide cial year 1046-47 of a sum totalling £1,352,522. Of rnngc of investigations in which the Division is this amount £119,3Si was contribnted other than engaged. It would be invidious to make any special directly from the Commonwealth Treasury and this reference to this assistance, but without the help that aniount included £46,448 expended frcrn the Wool the Division has received, the inrestigations could not Jildus~ryFund. In addition, the sum of 534,469 was hare been so far advanced. It is desired, however, to expended on wool and textile research from funds refer especially to the help given by State Departments derived as a result of the passing of the TIVool Use of ,Qriculture and by Universities, Promofion Act 1945. Certain other exp.enditure in- 2. Pasti~reInvestigations.-(i) Canberra, A.C.T.- volved in erection costs of baildings was also ilicl~rred (1) Management of Soz~~nPusturcs.-(a) Phalaris- on 1)ehalf of the Council. The Council is particularly suhter~trileu~Lclover.-Following a demonstration that gratified with the way irL which contrihutorp bodies a system of rotational grazing at fixed intervals continue to support it, and with the marked interest gi~-es no advantage over coiitinuous grazing on a evinced by, and donations for co-operative research Phirlaris-subterral~ean clover pasture, work has been received from, certain sections of industry. Among continued to determine whether any systeni of deferred the many contributions received, reference may be pazing might be ac1mntagt.o~~.Both in 1945 and made to those of tLe Comrnon~:.~alth13ank, th~Wool 1946 dry weather led to cessation of growth before the Scoi~rers', Carbonizers', and Fellmongers' Federation full growth cycle of the Phalaris was complete, and in of Australia, the Australian Cattle Gesc~arcliAssocia- neither season mere infiorescenc~esproduced. It is evi- tion, the George Aitkcn Pastoral Research Trujt, the dent that the unreliability of the winter and spring Dried Fruits Control Board, the New South Tales rainfall in Canberra will necessitate the adoption of a Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission, the technique not depending on an unbrolzen and full- Cement Manufacturers' Association, the I?nral Bank of length growing sraqon by Phalaris. Work is being New South Wales, and other co-operative bodies initiated in 1947 using a different approach to this associated wth soils and irrigation work, the timber problem. industry. and the pulp and paper industry. (h) Wimmera ryegrass-subterranean clover.-A number of experiments were commenced in 1946 to determine the factors influencing the survival of II. PLANT INVESTIGATION8. Wimrncra ryegrass under grazing at the Dickson EX- 1. General.--Cnring the year the pasture improve- periment Station. The main experiment will determine ment programme of the Division of Plant Industry, the effect of ~urvivaland production in ensuing years which mas held up by the Tar, was reopened, but with of Wimmera ryegrass-subterranean clover so treated ailplisented cffort on m~oolpastures because of the pro- as to vary the density of the population of both the ryegrass and the subterranean clover, the amount of foi;l~(i~rilportz-:c,l of wool to the welfare of Australia. Despite a shortage of personnel, a satisfactory start litter on the surface at the commencement of the season, has been made. and the incidence of autumn cultivation. Subsidiary Thr development of the Regional Station at Denili- experiments have +en useful data on the quin is going on steadily, irrigation channels having effect of ~vctersupply, nitrogen supply, and competi- been constructed and some experiment areas planted. tion hy subterranean clover on the development of Thc first reconnaissance survey in North Australia \lTir:immera ryegrass in an old sward. w'as completed during th~year, and a report with maps (2) ilfa.nagement of ATatural Pasture.-A large-scale prepared for submission to the Northern Australia grazing trial to be condllcted in co-operation with the Developnlent Committee. The survey party encoun- New South Wales Department of Agriculture at its tered many difficulties of terrain, but nevertheless was Experiment Farm at Trangie, will commence in very s~~ccessfulin its work. Future work in North August, 1947. This farm lies on the western boundary ,lustralia will be helped by th8 establishnlent of a of the wheat belt in north-west New South Wales where station at Katherine v;h~reintensive work on both dry nii:ch of the perennial cover has been appreciably re- and irrigated crops u~illbe done. The Division is duced by overgrazing. The experiment area was con- co-operating with the Department of Agriculture of tour-surveyed in October, 1946, and a soil survey made Western Australia at the Kirnherley Research Station in January, 1947. Commencing in December, 1946, a on the Ord River, near Wyndham. detailed vegetation survey was made; at the time, As with pasture work, so with tobacco the exigencies severe dronght conditions were being experienced, and of war tended to a reduction of effort on behalf of that the record of basal area of perennial grasses thus pro- industry. In order to re-establish the 1~10rkon a sollnd vided an excellent account of the permanent com- basis the officer in charge was sent to North America ponrnts of the groulld flora. to investigate the latest developments there. Since his (3) Min era1 Nutrition Investigations. - Eleven return, a conference betwren the Council and State trials were established during the autumn of 1946 on the Technical Oflcers was held in Brisbane to determine Southern Tablelands of New South Wales. The the co-operative programme for the succ~eding five centres mere selected to represent a wide range of soils pearfi. It was, for-tuuately, for the Tobacco of different origin at Young, Booroowa, Crookwell, Research Officer of the D.S.I.R. of New Zealand to Taralga, Gonlburn, and Tarago. These trials were de- attend the conference, and to give the benefit of signed to test the rffect of all known essential major experience in that Don~inion. and trace elements on the establishment and yield of During the year, the Chief of the Division paid a a Phalaris-subterranean clover pasture. The design visit to the Territorp of Papua and New Guinea at the included a comparison of various rates and frequencies reqr1ect of the Administrator, who was seeking advice of applications of superphosphate, but the rainfall dur- on plant problei:ls. Later, he attended the Second ing the growing season in 1946 was low and growth Conference of the Food and Agriculture Organization generally was poor. Nevertheless, the Phalaris estab- of the United Nations at Copenhagen, as one of the lished well, while the clover set sufficient seed for re- delegates representing Australia, Dr. C, Barnard establishment ip 1947. Responsee to superphosphate were obtained where the rainfall conditions were most Pour such surveys have been completed. The abnor- favorable. Though no responses to trace elements were mally dry winter and spring of 1946 prevented normal obtained, results from pot cultures indicate that in pasture powth on most of the propclrties surroyd. seasons with better rainfall responses to molybdenum So obvious relationship has yet been observed between are likely in certain of the soils. Responses to nitrogen the disease and the botanical composition of the various were common, indicating the need for developing pastures surveyed. Copper content of all pasture legunles on these soils. species has shown a general decrease from September, Work at the iJickson Experiment Station continues 1045, to September, 1946, but full iriterpretation of the to demonstrate the lack of response by pasture species results will depend on the accumulation of further to superphosphate. The poor or niediocre development botanical and analytical data during 1947. of lucerne at the Station has been under inquiry for (8) l3cology of Native Pasture~.-~I commencement soule years, and evidence is now forthcoming that the has been made with the survey of the natural vegeta- abnormal development is due not to any deficiency of tion and pastures of a section of the tablelands and major or trace elements, but to an excess of manganese slopes of New South Wales. Only data in the soil. Analyses of lucerne have given values for hare yet been collected. manganese coritcnt spme six-fold greater than those -1 detailed study of the ecology of the Stipa- usually recorded for the spe6ies. It has been demon- Danfhonia pastures of the Canberra region is being stratcd in pot cultures that the raising of pH and of undertaken. The first phase is a study of the pheno- the calcium level by the application of lime will reduce logy of these pastures based on fortnightly records of substantially the uptake of manganese, and thereby the incidence and state of growth of the various con- permit a more normal development of the lucerne. tributary species. A study of the degencratioll of the Pot culture studies on the mineral status of savannah climax grassland of this area under the influence of wootlland and dry scierophyll forest soils from the grazing is in progress; it is based on the examination, Canberrs district are continuing; a relationship be- by the line intercept method, of a large number of tween the rlirnax vegetation and the mineral status of pastures varying from those which have been fully the soils is apparent. protected for a number of years to those suffering severe overgrazing. (4) Pasture Establishmenf 7lnd~rrover Crops.-A cover crop trial sonn in 1945 with varying rates and (ii) Regional Pasture Laboratory, Dendipin, New various methods of sowing cereals, pasture species, and South Ilia1es.-The year's activities have been directed fertilizer was repeated in 1946. The experiment has to thc physical development of tl~rFalkiner Memorial been confinrd in these first two years to the use of Field Station and to the developmental investigations Wirninera ryegrass as the sown pasture grass, but re- to define the field station environment. A research pro- s~lltsindicate that the method of sowing thp cereal can gramme has been developed, as a result of empirical be so raricd as to warrant the investigation of the pos- trials ~hichhave been laid down and completed during sibility of establishing Phnlaris tuherosa under a cover the year. The first building contract has been com- crop. This pe~nnialgrass is costly to establish, and pleted, and the plans and working drawings for the any method ~\hichenabled a cereal crop to be har- main laboratory buildings are well advanced. vested during its establishment year would be (1) Developmenfa7 Works.-Four (brick cottages and extremely useful. a field laboratory-workshop at the Falkiner Memorial (5) Species and Strain Investigations.-The com- Field Station and the preparation rooms of the main parison continued of the introduced perennial grass, laboratory in Deniliquin have been completed. These li'astuca ilInirci, and the standard perennial pasture rooms provide temporary laboratory accommodation. species of this area, Phalaris tubcrosa, each in a sward The internal irrigation channels of the Field Station with subterranean clover under grazing. Results are were constructed during September-December, 1946. disappointing. The P~siucahas shown heavier summer Fifty-five acres of Tand are llow under irrigated pasture mortality than the Phalaris and yields have been sig- and fodder experiment, with a further area being pre- nificantly lower. In March, 1046, the yield of Phtclnris pared for planting in the spring of 1047. was appro~inlatel~~double that of the Ii'estuca, while in In 1046, 1!1-eliminary trials with summer fodders Decsember, 1946, it was almost four-fold greater. The under irrigation were made on rice stubble at Wakool intlications are that E'rsfuca Mairri is inferior to on Noorong clay loam and on Mundiwa clay loam at Phnlaris tuberosa as a perennial grass under Canberra Waristoll Station. Yields of up to seven tons per acre conditions. of dry material were obtained on the rice ~tubbleswith Preliminary work on a numlber of species and strains two acre feet of irrigation water, and 2 cwt. per acre of other pasture plants is in progress at various points, of sulphate of ammonia. The yields on the Noorong some in conjunction with the Plant Introduction clay loam after rice were appreciably better than on Section. the Mundiwa clay loam. Tests mere also made of summer-growing perennial (6) Danthofiia Investigations.-Work is continuing grasses. Rhodes grass (Chloris Guyana) and Paspalurn to determine economic means of artificially establishing dilafaflrm can be readily established on the "difficult " Dunthonii~pastnres. The tn.0 principal aspects under clay loams, and they provide good yields during the inquiry arc the factors affecting the germination of the first two summers. seeti undrr both laboratory anti field conditions, and cornparison of the two winter growing pasture nlcalls of securing naked seed by mechanical treatment mixtures-Wimmera ryegrass-snbterranean clover and with minimum breakage of the caryopses. It is hoped Phularis tubeaosa-subterranean clover, was initiated on in 1947 to harvest a sufficient bulk of seed to enable the Cobram-Katunga soil series at Carrigan Park. The semi-commercial tests to hc made of methods of seed clover established poorly, but both grasses established treatment and field establishment. wcll. This trial will continue. (7) Tozaemic Jauf~dice.-Co-operative work with Tnfiltration tests on a number of representative soil the Division of Animal Health and Production and the types under varying conditions are in progress. Im- Division of Soils on the factors influencing the geo- prorernent in brairding of pasture plants on rice graphic and s.easonal outbreaks of toxaemic jaundice in stahhle compared with virgin soil was not accounted for New South TITalw is being continued. Survejrs of the by any modification of infiltration rates. botanical composition of the pmture on a number of A vegetative survey of the Field Station was com- selected properties in the Murray Valley and Wood- pleted during the year. This has been linked with a stock districts are being made at regular intervals. detailed soil survey. Assistance has also been givrn to the Division of Animal Health and Production on heavy textured soils. The assay results have been toxaemic jaundice investigations at their Barooga variable and so difficult to interpret that the work is Field Station. being repeated in 1947. (iii) Institute of Agriculture, Nedlands, Western (c) Strain trial.-Sixteen strains of subterranean Ausfralie.-(1) Ehrharta Grazing Trial.--A compari- clover were gro.r$n on an affected property in 1946 for son of continuous and six-weekly rotational grazing of determination of differences in potency. This work, a pasture mixture of Ehrharta calycina and I~wal- also, is being repeated, since an unexpected deficiency ganup subterranean clover by Merino sheep was laid (probably zinc) precluded the lcollection of sufficient dolVn in 1943 on Karrakatta sand series at the Institute material for assay purposes. of Agriculture, Perth. The pasture has been stocked (5) Wong~cn Hills Grazing Trial.-This compre- at the rate of four sheep per acre and has been hensive expelknent, the objectives of which were out- fertilized annually with superphosphate, ~otash,and lined in last year's report, was commeliced in 1946 ropper sulphate, and more recently with cobalt. and is being continued. There have been no important differences between (iv) Amzidale, hTezo South Wales.-(1 ) Grazing the yield of pasture or sheep liveweights on the two Mnnagerr~entStudies.-Experiments to study the effect grazing treatments. Wool production has also re- of different grazing treatments on natural pasture in mained unaffected. On both treatments the percentage the New Englarld district and on parasitism in the of Ehrlzarta calycina has declined, but the decline has grazing sheep, have been planned in co-operation with been more rapid on the continllous grazing plots. Dur- the Division of Animal Health and Production. The ing 1945, the grass virtually disappeared under con- experiments involve a comparison of: (a) different tinuous grazing, while a small percentage remained in ratcs of wtocking, (6) continuons versus rotational ' the rotational grazing until 1946. grazing, and (c) the effect of different size3 of flock, (2) M7immera Ryegass Trials.-The disappearance and a study will be made of grazing treatments on: of Wimmera ryegrass in admixture with subterranean (0) parasitic infection, (b) wool production, (c) live- clover has become important in Western Australia n-eight and growth of sheep, (d) yield and botanical partly because of the absence of a suitable associated composition of the pasture, and (e) chemical composi- perennial grass. The effects of various cultivation tion of thc pasture. pra~tices,available nitrogen, interspecific competition, A botanical survey of the sites for the experiments and seed rates both in the first and subsequent years has been made, and the plots arranged to ensure are being examined. No adequate explanation of the reasonable uniformity of pasture types on each treat- decline has yet been foi~ndand the investigations will ment. be continued. (2) Species Trials.--A sowing of 15 forage species, (3) iIIineraZ Deficiency Studies.-Pot culture and mostly legumes and grasses, on each of the three main field trials on mineral deficiencies of the coastal sandy soil types in the district, was made in the autumn of soils have been continued. Phosphate and potash 1946. The object of the trial is to determine the most deficiency and responses to molybdenum have been re- suitablr species for the New England environment, corded in pot cnltare tests with subterranean clover on particularly with regard to their capacity to provide yellotv sands from the Gin Gin district. Cobalt sul- forage during the critical winter months. I11 these phate, in field plots of subterranean clover at the Insti- initial tests the species have been grown in inter-culti- tute, has increased the cobalt content of the plants with- crated rows. out any measurable change in the yield of dry matter. In the first year Phalaris tuberosa, sheep's burnet (4) Pasture Trials Belated to the "Infertility " (Poferiz~m Sanguisorba), and several varieties of Problem in Sheep.-These studies form part of a co- lucerne gave the best overall performance. Wimmera operative programme with the Department of Agricul- ryegrass, prairie grasses, sheep's burnet, hairy Peru- ture, Western Australia, and the University of Western vian lucerne, and several varieties of wtbterranean Australia. clover gave the best minter production. Various Agro- pyroa spp., Phalnris tuberosa, some firornus spp., red (a) Grahg trials.-Two experiments on " affected " country were initiated in 1945 to examine the effects clover, and two Melilofus spp. made best summer of two contrasted pastures on the incidence of infer- growth. tility, dystokia, and prolapse. The pastures were: (v) Cooper Laboratory, Lawes, Qzieens1nnd.-Dur- (i) subterranean clover dominant, and (ii) oats plus ing the past year, facilities for pasture research at this Wimmera ryegrass. For each treatment a paddock of Laboratory have been improved by the erection of a 100 acres was used and the rate of stocking maintained soil store, dehydrator room, sorting laboratory, and at about 1 sheep per acre. Unmated two-tooth Merino garage-workshop. ewes were employed in each trial, those at Wandering (I) Lucerne-Rhodes Grass Pastures.-Grazing was being from " healthyv country and those at Narrogin commenced in the spring of 1945 on a beef-cattle graz- from " affected ". Pasture samples were collected at ing experiment in which comparisons are being made fixed dates throughout the season, chiefly for the deter- between two strains of Rhodes grass, each sown in mination of botanical coniposition. Lambing data were swards with and m~ithoutlucerne as the pasture legume. collected in detail. Each treatment is replicated three times, and each plot Results to date indicate that young sheep from is subdivided into five sub-plots to permit rotational " healthy " country remain frrtile after a few months7 grazing. The value of each pasture is being assessed grazing on green subterranean clover. Further, by re- bp liveweights of the steers, and the yield and chemical ducing drastically the percentage of subterranean clover and botanical composition of the past~ires. in the pasture, previously unmated young ewes from For the fifteen months. the steers have made better " affected " country are less affected by dptokia than pains in liveweight where luc?rno is present in the on subterranean clover dominant pasture. A further mixture. There is some indication that stnndard com- field trial is being initiated. ~nercialRhocles crass gives better liveweight increases (b) Plant nutrition studies.-The effect of all than the introduced Kenya No. 1 strain, though the known nutrient elements on the potency of Dwalganup yield of dry matter from the latter is the greater. Dur- subterranean clover is being examined. The results, as ing the winter period the gazing animals lost weight yet incomplete, suggest no effect of nutrient status of in all pastnres, the live weight loss being the same for the plant on oestrogenic content. The work has been all treatments. During this winter period the yield of supplemented by samples colleoted from light and lucerne in the mixtures was less than cwt. per acre. 1a

Observations on a number of lucerne strains, includ- (vi) " Oilruth Plains ", Cunnamulla, Queensland. ing " creeping" types, planted in associated with -(I) Investigations in the Semi-arid Summer Rain- Kenya No. 1 Rhodes grass and commercial Rhodes fall zone.-(a) Grazing management studies.--A con- grass, show that " Hunter River lucerne " has been tinuation of drought condition at Gilruth Plains pre- ouiqtwnding in yield and survival. vented the resumption of stocking on the Mitchell grass grazing experiment, in which the effect on a Mitchell (2) Row Pastzires.-The experiments reported in grass pasture and on the grazing sheep of light, the 20th Annual Report on row pastures using medium, and heavy stocking under both continuous I'arpalum scrohimlritunz and Medicago sati~aalone and rotational grazing, are being measured. How- and in combination have been continued. Rows of ever, completion of the laboratory work on the samples P. scrobiculafunz at 3-ft., 4-ft., and 5-ft spacings have collected before the discontinuation of stocking on been coni~aredwitla swards in the presence and absence account of drought in October, 1945, enables additional of applied sulphate of ammonia at 4 cwt. per acre, and data to be presented. of lucerne. :I11 ro\~treatments are superior to swards. (b) Total available f orage.-.4t the final sampling, In the absence of the sulphate the highest yield of grass the total forage under all treatments nlone is obtained from 4-ft. rO*'S, with sulphate the was at a low level (from 0.3 to 1.8 cwt, of dry 3-ft. row give slightly higher production per acre. per acre). Under continuous grazing the amount of The total yield per acre from alternating rows of forage available was the same at both light and medium P. .srrohicu2uturn and lucerne is less than from grass rates of stocking, but under heavy stocking it was sig- alone over a three-year period-i.e. gross production nificantly Icss. Under rotational g-razing there were no of dry matter is greater from P. scrobiculatum than differences in the amount of forage available at any . from lucerne. There are, however, important differ- ratc of stocking. encps in the ~eriodicit~of the production between the (c) Botnaical composition of the pastura.-The most important real effect of the grazing treatments on Earlier observations that lucerne grown in alternat- the botanical composition was the decrease in the pro- ing rows exerted a serious competitive effect on the portion of Mitchell grass under the heavier rate of grass r0n.s have be" confirmed. Studies indicate that stoclcing, ~~~~~~~~~~~ly with rotational grazing involving root competitioll is the significant factor; luc.crne in summer grazing and winter spelling. Some high figures rows develops a lateral spreading root system which, for the relative amounts of miscellaneous (herbage) durinq the second and subsequent years, penetrates species were recorded at the later samplings, but these tllrough the root zone of the adjacent P. scrobicolntum "fie from rotational grazinq treatments that Tq-ere low alld lnay attain a lateral spread of 8 ft. on each side of in other constituents and which had been unstocked for tllc row, The prelimil~arvevidence available indicates "me 'time prior to sampling. that the competition is primarily for aaailable soil (d) Chemical composition of pasture.-No changes moisture supply. in chemical composition of the pasture under the (3) Catfll: Pasfwres.-Experiments at R"odd7sBay different grazing treatments have been recorded. The Station, near Bororen, Central Qneensland, have different species groups (i.e. Mitchell grass, other demonstrated that light surface cultivation increases graLvPs, miscellaneous species, legumes, and inert material) have, however, varied markedly in chemical the yield of spear grass (Hetero~gonconfortus) pas- composition. The (herbage) specieshave tures. In one Year the 26 Per sholin a potentially high nutritive being high in cent., and the total yield equal to that from plots protein, calcium, and phosphorus, and low in cellulose. dressed with mixed fertilizer (200 lb. sul~hateof 4 cmt. superphosphate, and 3 cwt. muriate of (e) Wool production.--The sheep on the experiment poixsli). Tllc increa~eic. tlzollght to result from better have been shorn five times. The mean weight of greasy prnetratio~~of water in cultivated land. The results produceti Per head was 10 Ib. 2 oz. (valued at from one year's tests will be checked. 13s. Id.) with one sheep to 7.5 acres under continuous grazing, and 10 lb. 7 oz. (13s. 7d.) under rotational Jn firld e~Pprimmf9and/or in pots phosphatic grazing. At one sheep to 5 acres the figures were fertilizers have incrmsed the yield of l~~-emeand of 101b. 3 oz. (13s. and lb. oz. (lls. 10d.) Tm7nsville lucerne on Rodd's Bay soil. In one erperi- tirely, and at one sheep to 2.5 acres, 9 lb. 4oz. Bd.) rnent, Tonnsville lucerne ~ielded7 cwt. per acre, this 8 11). 8 oz. 5d.). being 21 per cent. (dry weight) of the pasture. There is some indication that additi~nalbenefit was obtained Net cash returns per head show a greater disparity frorn al~plicatic~lsof potash. Lime did not improve between treatments because of the need to provide more sllpplementary feed to the groups on the heavier rates yields in the first year, and Tomnsville lucerne did not of stocking. respond to applications of trace elements. New will njcasure yields with varying amounts (2) Regeneration of -Natural Semi-arid Pastures.- of phosphate and Potash. Among introduced species An experiment to test methods of re-establishing broadcast on surface cultivated spear grass pasture, Mitchell grass on country from which it has dis- Ph(csrolus lathyroides and Styiosanthes gracilis gave appeared, but on which reasonably good seed-bed con- enconraging rc.nlts in the first year. ditions are available, has been started. The seeding nlethods involved include broadcasting and sowingwith An experinlent to measure the Yield and botanical a seed drill, the latter using different row spacingsand and chemical composition of spear grass pasture, at drill spacings. Calliope Station near Gladstone, Central Queensland, 3 $veeds Inrestigations,-During 1946, the weeds under the present form of management, was commenced work was divided into tivo sub-sccti~ns-~h~~iolog~and It is designed to give basic in Janl1ary. lg47. ecology. The Physio]ogy Sub-section is concerned nlth tjon about these pastures. the physiology and biochemistry of plants as related to The effect of burning on the botanical composition the penetration and translocation of plants poisons and of native pasture is being studied at Idawes. Present with the development of more efficient herbicides. The indications are that Heteropogon contortus is favoured Ecology Sub-section is concerned with the determina- by burning, while Bothriochloa decipiens and Bremoch- tion of the ecological factors concerned with the in- loo bimaculata are suppressed. The experiment will be vasion and establishment of weeds, ,particularly in continued for several more yeare. grassland. In particular, this aub-seotlon is conown&

On account of the importance of surface roughness trial at Katherine. Several rarieties of bulrush millet of leaves in studies of wetting, a simple interferometric (Penniseium typhoideu7n) have been outstanding, and method has been devised for measuring the roughness indicate the potentialities of this species in regions of cuticle deposits. M hich are too dry for the grain borghllmq. 4. Plant Introduction.-(i) General.-The principal In trials at hluresk some introduced strains of Vici/r developinents in the work of the Plant Introdnction and Lafhyr~lshave proved superior to the locally-grown Section (luring the past year include :-(a) Continued field pea ~arictiesin both grain and greell-niattcr pro- expansion in overseas plant exchaliges and in the duction, and they have the additional advantage of interchange of material with Departments of *Lgri- immunity to pea weevil. They are being further culture and similar organizations within Australia. tested i11 Western ,iustralia and at Griffith, New South (b) Initiation of plant introduction trials at Katherine, Kales, where they may be of value as green-manure Northern Territory. These trials comprise pasture and cover crops. and forage plants, and a wide range of crop plants Sailiples of seed of Stylo (Xtylosanthes gracilis) of possible economic value in the Territory. (c) Trans- have been distributed for trial in numerous localities fer of plant introduction activities in Western Aus- throughout Queensland and other parts of northern tralia from Muresk to the Institute of Agriculture, Australia. The results of these trials will yield Perth, and the State Experiment Station at Wokalup. information on the regional adaptability and the (d) Greatly extended regional trials of Illore promis- climatic and soil requirements of this valuable pasture ing introcluced plants, largely in co-operation with legume. The early-flo~verin~variety of Stylo men- other Sections of the Division and with State organiza- tioneti in the previous report has been further tested at Katherine, where it is of particular value because of tions. (e) Expansion in the work of the herbarium, inrolving routine deternlinations of pasture and other the coincidence of its flo\vering period with that of the plants, and large additions to the collections. native grasses. Some of the more recent introductions which appear. There no~vexists a ~vell-locatedchain of initial test- ing stations and suitable facilities for regional trials promising under trial at Redland Bay (Queensland), of more promising introduced species an,d strains. but which mu3t be further tested before final con- clusions can be drawn, include Stylosanfhes viscosa, (ii) Introduction and Exchange of Plants and seaeral species anrl strains of Brachis, a species of Seeds.-During the year, 825 introductions of seeds and Desnzodium, and the kudzu vine (Pi~erarial'hunber- plant material n ere received from overseas countries, giar~u). this beiilg an increase of over 60 per cent. on the Further work is in progress with varieties of pigeon previous year. 11" approximately equal number of pea (Cajanus Cajun) and cowpea (Vigna unguicu- -\i~straliai~seed saruples were sent away in exchange. lata), ,1 feeding trial at Canberra indicated that the The introductions came from 31 countries in all parts leaves and pods of the former can be used as a rnain- of the ~orld.As in previous years, pasture ant1 forage tenance ration for sheep in drought areas, whilst an plants constituted the largest class of introductions. extensive test of com-pea varieties has been conducted Notable among these are 89 sanlples of vetches (Vicin at Katherine. spp.), including 52 varieties forming part of an inter- (iv) Trials of Vegetable Oil Plants.-Vegetable oil esting collection of forage plants received from Bul- plants under trial at one or more centres include garia. Some recently introduced varieties of vetches varieties of soybean, linseed, sunflower, peanut, castor have shown great promise in Western Australia and bean, safflower, rapeseed, sesame, Perilla, and Lalle- elsewhere, and the extensive collections now available mantia. Importance is attached to these crops because should make possible a fuller evaluation of the genus of the dependence of Australia on overseas supplies, in Australia. and because vegetable oils are among the few poten- Oilseeds (122) and vegetable varieties (108) are tially valuable crops for the Northern Territory. next in inzportance among the classes of introductions. Varietal trials of soybeans have been conducted at Technical plants introduced for trial include additional several centres from Victoria to the Northern Terri- varieties of guar (Cyamopsis) and \ arieties of tory. Preliminary indications confirm previous ex- camphor basil (Ocirn~rmkilimandscharicum). perience of the great range of varietal response to More than 600 samples of seed have been supplied to different conditions, and indicate the need for much State 9epurtments of Agriculture and otEier outside inorf3 work bclfore the full potentialities of the crop bodies for trial, and many samples have been received call be assessrtl ant1 suitable varietirw selected for each in exchange for trial by the Section and for sending to locality. overseas correspondents. Climatic conditions in southern Queensland were (iii) Pasture and Forage Plant Trials.-Trials of very unfavorable to the growth of linseed, and yields new and promiqing pasture and forage plants have were much lotver than in the previous year. Further been continucd at all centres, and coincidentally strains varietal trials are in progress at several localities. selected as suitable for further investigation are being ilt Katherine, investigations are in progress to tested. determine the potential value of various vegetable oil Particular attention is devoted at Canberra and in crops, both under irrigation and under natural rainfall. Western Australia to the search for self-regenerating Some of the Indian varieties of rapeseed, especially annual and perennial grasses which might replace varieties of ('Raya " (Brrrssica ju~~cea)gave high Wimmera ryegrass where the species is unsuccessful. yields in a trial under irrigation, and were Some of tlle species of Brornu~show promise in this conspicuously vigorous and healthy. Further trials connexion, and are being subjected to critical trial. of spacing and time of sowing are in progress. A Other promising grasses which have been introduced variety of sesame gave a seed yield averaging 6.6 cwt. recently include species of Agropyron from Canada, per acre from a trial plot grown under liatilral rnin- which are vigorous and productive at Canberra, 3Iel- fall, compared with average yields of 2 to 4 cwt. from l)ourne, and drnliclalc, and species of Sfipa and other cdoniniercial plantings elsewhere. genera from Uruguay wliiclr~are under trial in northern (v) Trials of Technical and Miscellaneous Plants.- New South Wales. Trials of barley varieties were continued on a restricted I11 the search for grasses which might advan- scale at hluresk (Western Australia). Six introducetl .ageously replace the natire species in parts of the varieties have outyielded the local control variety in interior of northern Australia with a short but \"ell- each of the last three years, and appear to w,arrant defined growing season, many species hare been under extensive commercial trial. Work with guayule rubber (Padkenium argentatum) (ii) At Stunthorpe.-A general account of the scope will be discontinued at Canberra after the present and purpose of the investigations at Stanthorpe which season, as tlie growth at this centre is much inferior to concern apple and pear rootstocks, was given in the that else\\ here. The experiments conducted over the Co~incil's,Jo~crntrl for May, 1938, and results obtained last three years ha~~efurnished information on the durir~gthe first ten-year period were summarized in effect of periodic cutting on the growth and rubber the 18th Annual Eeport of the Council (p. 10, 1944). content of the plant. Koutinc operations, growth measurements, and il variety of guar (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba) has records of yield and behaviour of the different apple grown well on the black soils at Lawes (Queensland) and pear stock-scion combinations under trial in and furthrr varieties have been introduced for trial. nursery ant1 orchard plantings have been continued. This plant is receiving much attention elsewhere as a hfultiplication of the Merton apple rootstocks Nos. 793 source of mucilage for use in the manufacture of paper, and 789, which gsve the best results in nursery trials ice cream, and other products. previously reported, was continued and a few parcels of Other technical plants under trial include varieties these stocks were released during the winter of 1947. of yam bean (Pachyrrhizus spp.) and of camphor basil Further supplies should be available during 1948. ( Ocimum kilimandscharicum) . In another nursery trial a locally selected apple (vi) Herbarium.--Since October, 1946, when a full- rootstock named 54 has produced more vigorous and time systematic botanist was appointed to tlie staff, healthier trees than tlle ordinary Spy stock. Sursery over 1,500 specimens have been determined. The trials hare also ~honnthat Jonathan scions on Merton majority of these were plants collected by members of stocks 778 and 779 and Zuccamaglio liecnette the Agrostology Section while on fielcl work in con- nliich are all immune to woolly aphis, grow more nexion with pasture surl-eys and investigations in strond..Y than on Spy stock. lZdditional types of root- Queensland and New South Wales. Other specimens stocks immune to woolly aphis and obtained by crossing wele received from the Northern Territory, South Aus- Spy with Malling stocks have been obtained from East tralia, Victoria, and Tasmania. $falling, allti are being propagated for trial under Most of this material has bcen mouilted and placed Stanthorpe conditions. in the herbariun~,mhich has increased during the year -1 further 10 acres of land have been cleared and by more than 1,500 specimens, bringing the total to prepared for planting during thc year, partly for the 13,387. Additions include a collection of 155 British establishment of a further orchard trial including grasses received froni the Herbarium of the Royal Merton stocks 793 and 789, and partly for nursery and Botanic Gardens, Iicw, England, ~i7l1icli ill be of par- multiplication n ork. Tl-lis cxteiision will increase the ticular value in checking the identity of some of the area of experiment plantings to 20 acres. A dam to :!lien grasses now establislled in Australia, and of hold 230,000 gallons of water has been constructed, a spccies introduced for trial. Other additions inclilde tractor acq~i~etl,al~d several othcr capital improve- exchange specimens from Sweden and Portugal, and a ments affected. arcel el from Mr. C. T. White, Governn~entBotanist of 7. Drug Plunf In?-esfigcitions.-The general nature Qnrcnsland. aid scope of these in~estigationswas sunlnlarized in 5. Wheat-Take-all of Wheat.-The results of both last year's report. The main items of study have con- pot and plot experiments show that if the soil and cli- tinued to be: (i) the study of Duboisia spp. as sources matic condition; are suitablr for satisfactory develop- of hyoscine and atrol)ine; (ii) the study of varieties rne~ltof the n2leat plant, take-all will be of little or no of opium poppy as sources of the opium alkaloids ; and economic importance. Conrersely, if conditions are (iii) the systematic. search for sourc.cr of pharmaco- unfavorable the disease will significantly decrease logical aud insecticidal substances in native plants. the yield of grain. The conditions may be inherent (i) Iluboisia. Spp.-The results of cultix ation and in the soil and climate of the locality, or they may be harvesting trials conducted at Nambour (Queensland) induced by improper management that has resulted in and Canberra (Australian Capital Territory) were temporary soil exhaustion. The means whereby leported in the Council's Jotirnccl for Novcn~ber,1946, fertility can be restored are well-known and widely p. 359. The intensive work in the plots at Nambour nractised. is being concluded, as they have noa~served their main The exact role of the organism, Ophiobolus graminis, purpme. In tlie comillg year tlie rcsnlls of differential in causing economic loss has for mally years been cliltural treatments .r~7ill be determined by periodic uncertain. I-Iowerer in all experiments made since observation only, and tlle plots will then be aband.oned. 1938 the enviro~imentalfactor that determined whether 13y courtesy of the Department of Agricnlture and plants produce empty heads mas unavailability of Stock of Queenslai~d,a small plot of trees of selected plant food. The soil and clinlatic factors influencing types will be maintained at Nambour. Other trials availability are different in most localities and seasons. will be ronducted at Canberra in future. Progeny For practical purposes, the organism may be assumed trials hare sho~vnthat lines can be selected which to be in the soil of every whPat field. But it mill not rombine the best field characteristics (high leaf yield cause appreciable loss in yield of grain unless and per acre and hardiness) with a consistently high yield until the plant is seriously weakened physiologically of alkaloid in pure form in both D. myoporoides and by any of several conditions that make soil nutrients D. Leichlzardtii. Selection is continuing from the best unavailable for its use. The disease is, therefore, a types in both species. good indicator of the unsuitability of soil and climate Investigations into the synthesis of alkaloids in the for econornic wheat production. Some of the soil con- Solanaceae have heen continued, using grafts between ditions can be ant1 are controlled and corrected by man. i)~rboisia spp. and other Solailaceous plants (tomato 6. Frrrit Inoestign tions.-(i) In Tasmania.-The and tobacco). Results indicate that the alkaloids or pre- iavcstigations dealing with the pliysiological disorders cursors of tlirm are synthesized in the roots anti translo- of apples and pears in the orcllard and tlie disorders c.:.rted to the Icaves. The~erecults were reported in of these fruits during storage, are still suspended. The detail in the Austrulian Journal of Science, August, officer responsible for these studies has been seconded 1945, and ilugust, 1946. to the Department of Commerce and Agriculture for An experinlent has heen conducted to trace the ap- the I947 espolt sc\asoil, for duty in the United Iiingdom pearance and identity of alkaloids in young Duboisia tvliere he will examine and report on the condition of seedlings. It was found that hyoscine appears first in Australian apples and pears reaching the English the young plant, being present to bout 1 per cent. at market. the six-leaf stage. EIyoscyamine appears only 16

after some months' growth. This work is reported in Queensland plants has also heen completed. It includes the Council's Journal for August, 1946, p. 295. The reported and suspected, as well as proven, properties of need for more detailed chemical investigation of certain natire plants and it covers aboriginal lore and bush- I)uboidia samples is recognized. ,In in~proredassay Lnari's remedies, pastors1 experience as well as scientific for hyoscine and hyosc~aminein Duboisia leaf is in reports. the course of preparation. IvIention might be made of one particular substance (ii) Opium Poppy pa pave^ somniferum).-In- which is thc subject of present investigation. Hutin, a vestigations were concerned this year, solely with the flavonal glucoside, which has recently assumed clinical trial of different varieties and the breeding and selec- importance for the reduction of capillary fragility and tion of types most suited to high morphine the prevention of capijlary haemorrhages, occurs in under Australian conditions. Eucalyplus macrorrhyncha, and preliminary informa- The breeding and selection programme, commenced tion suggests that this species may provide a very good in 1944, aims to combine the most desirable characters Source of "PP~Y. -1 sllrreY is, therefore, being made of promising varieties. Eight hundred single plants to determine the variation in rutin content in this were grown of a cross one variety which is speciemithin its geographic range, and with seasonal characterized by high morphine content but unsatis- conditions, kc. Allied spec3ies of eucalypts are also factory vegetative growth, and another in which the k)eing tested for the presence of this substance. yield of dry matter is high, the capsules large and inde- 8. Tobacco Investigations.-(i) Visit Abroad.- hiscent, and the straw stout. Some 65 of these indi- During the year, flue-cured tobacco-growing areas of vidual plants were assayed and twenty selected for the United States of America, Canada, and New Zea- further trial. Morphine figures were low compared land were visited by the officer in charge of the Sec- with previous years but compared favorably with those tion. Particular attention was given to research pro- of the high morphine producing parent. Progress is grammes and objectives, with a view to formulation of slow, and only partial success has so far been obtained a programme of work suitable for Australian condi- in satisfactorily combining all the desired characters. tions. The rcport stresses the necessity in Australia Crosses between other varieties have been made on a for adaptation of the tobacco plant and its environ- smaller scale with the same objective and so far with ment in order that quality and yield may be improved. somewhat comparable results. In Ilustralia, climates and soils difFer from those used Variety trials were conducted (both at Canberra and in United States of America, Canada, and New Zea- Griffith of a number of varieties and lines, the latter land, and different procedures should, therefore, be being from a cross between two varieties in the fourth followed. A most important feature of the Australian generation, and some outcrosses from another variety. environment is unreliability of rainfall, a factor re- In all, 48 varieties and lines were tested. Of these, 31 sponsible for many of the difficulties associated with were selected for acsay on the basis of field perform- tobacco production. Adaptation to, or aroidance of, ance. Morphine percentages ranged from 0.1 per cent. this factor is essential for stability within the industry. to 0.53 per cent., and yields from 0.34 to 2.3 lb. per By comparison with the countries vititcxtl, the propor- acre. All morphine figures were generally lower than tion of good quality leaf produced in Australia is low in previous years. The most promising varieties and and the yield per acre uneconomic. lines were selected for further trials during the coming In Australia, seasonal conditions are such that irri- season. gation is essential for tobacco prc,duction. In some dis- (iii) Native Plaats as Sources of ~[edicinal Drugs tricts it supplements rainfall, while in others it sup- and rfisecficidal Sl~bstances.-The search for sources plies the full water requirements of the ~lant. This of supply of pharmacological and in,secticidal sub- necessary del::!rtule frorti overseas ~racticemeans that stances in native plants, which was commenced in a flue-cured tobacco is being produced under new condi- spstenlatic manner during 1944-45, has been continued. tions for which appropriate production procedures and 1)uring 1945-46 survey work was mainly concentrated suitable varieties hare not been determined. Results in North Queensland; during the past year, survey and "Liained by growers so far are promising, but much sample collection has been undertaken mainly in the work remains to be done before the economic ~ossibili- south of that State. Several hundred spot tests for tiemf the illdilstrg on the new basis can be assessed. allraloids arid other substances were made on samples The primary objectives of a programme of research collected. From these results, species were selected for and experimentation for Australia should be to deter- further examination by the Department of Physiology, mine the suitability, for flue-cured production, of areas University of hfelbourne, which has contillued to co- !'here conditions generally are favorable and full water operate in this project, and by the Division of Indus- requirements can be supplied, if necessary, by means trial Chemistry of the Council. The co-operation of of ir'igatioll; to de~~elopvarieties and strains better the Department of Physiology of the University of adapt" to the environment, and having qualities Queenslancl in the testing of samples has also been con- ac~p~jtableto buyers; to control diseases and to incor- tinucd, and daring the year the j'epartments of porate (]isease resistance, when required, in acceptable Chemistry at both the Universities of Melbourne and rflieties; to determine water requirements of tobacco Sydney have collaborated in the examination of and the effect of water on quality; and to determine samples. procedures for the maintenance of soils undrr irrigation. Over 100 bulk samples were despatched to various The recommendations of the report have been investigators. During February, 1947, a confer- ?d(Tted and a five-year programme of work on diseases, ence was held in JIzibourne under the aegis ch('l"istrJ', physiology, varieties, and agronomy, has of the Council; the various collaborators in this heen approved. Field work will be undertaken in co- work were present as were representatives of the "['"ration with the States on tobacco experiment Ilepartrnents n~rntioned, a member of the staff -r:itions- of the Forestry Department of New Guinea, and (ii) Conference of Commonwealth and State of the Department of Chemistry of the Unirersity of I'ohacco 0ficers.-The eleventh conference was held at Western Australia. AS a result a firm basis of co- Brisbane on the 3rd and 4th June, 1947. The main operation and collaboration was established between the object of the conference uras to define programmes of research workrrs of the Council and of the various rork for the next fivr years. Experiment stations on [Tniversities interested in the chemistry of native which co-operatire ~~~orkcan be undertaken, are to be plants. ,4 compilation of all published and reported est:thlished at hfyrtleford, Victoria, in the Queensland- references to the medicinal and poisonous properties of New South Wales border district, and in North Queensland. At Manjimup, Western Australia, the problem in a number of the important tomato areas in work on the. existing experiment station is to be .lui;tralia. A ~rojectis in progress to develop resist- ex tended. knee to this disease. 9. vegetable ~~~~~ti~~ti~~~.-(i)Potatoes.-Work Work on resistance to the virus of spotted wilt in on resistance to the potato virusesA, X, Y, the tonlato has been in progress for some time without all,jleaf roll, in hybrids of good agronomic quality is proi:r:~ing positive results. The high resistance, being contjllued. study of the reactions to virus y in niuounting alm0~tto immunity, of Lycopersicon Peru- hypUmusitive hybrids has been carried a stage further &anurn has been confirmed a number of times. The by comparative C, a o.. virus y. (Iifiiti:~lticiassociated in its hybridization with corn- paper on this aspect was published in the Council's mercial varieties have resulted in a search being made ,journal for August, 1946, p. 273. The development of for resistance among L. pimpinealifolium strains. One resistance to the leaf roll virus in potato has strain Elas shown sonw promise, and work on hybrids difiicult, ,but work done recently indicates the possi- between it and commercial varieties is in progress. bility of developing highly resistant hybrids. (iii) Yeas.-Flowering in relation to pod setting Over the last few years the potato-adapted strain of and yield has been studied in a number of pea varieties. the tonlato spotted wilt virus has become serious in This project will be completed in the coming season. potato crops in certain highland districts of Australia. AsrockyLu resistance has been found in a few A survey of the Canberra potato hybrids under con- European peas which are of a primitive type. It has ditions of severe field infection has sho~~nat least half been shown that this resistance is heritable in crosses of them to be immune or highly resistant to infection. with cornn:ercial canning and garden types. A co- Further work on resistance to spotted wilt in potatoes opcrativc project is in progress with the Victorian is planned. Depart~nent of dgriculture to develop a pea of the Resi5tance studies in the potato to common scab Greenfeast type possessing resistance to Ascochyta pisi. (dcti1aomyces scabies), 12hizoctonia scab (Rl7izoctonia Bacterial blight of peas causes sporadic and severe solrrni), Fusarium wilt, early blight, and late blight lo in iluitralia, and a search is being made for are in progress. The aim is wentually to combine material resistant to it. A technique for sterilizing seed resistance to these diseaccq with vir11s resistance in infect~ciwith bacterial blight has been deve!oped; pre- hybrids of good agronomic type. liminary trials have shown it to be satisfactory. Ten potato varieties and hybrids reputedly resistant Po~~derymildew and downy mildew are serious on to Actinomyces scab were tested in replicated field ex- occasions in pea crops. Pea varieties resistant, but pcrinl?llti against Late Carn:nil and Factor controls. not in all rases completely resistant, to tlirse fungi have ~11the former were m11ch less affected than the con- been found and hybridized with commercial varieties. trols, and one, an unnanled Canadian hybrid, appeared Studies on cold and frost resistance in peas have been specially resistant. No rc.-iqtan+ rnricty was equal to in progrrss for some time. The American variety either control in yield. Wando has been shown: to have better than average Fifty-four potato varieties were subjected to a pre- liminary test for resistance to Bhizoctonin solani. Part (iv) Beans.-Concentration of work has been mainly of each variety was harvested at each of three stages on ETalo and common American blight resistance in of growth; separate ratings were made for suscepti- beans. The relation between plant resistance and pod bility to cortical lesions of stolons and stem-bases, and resistance in a number of varieties is being investigated to the formation of sclerotia on the mature tubers. ~\;rhthe aim of isolating varieties resistant to these Differences in susceptibility were much less marked disca.;rs in all stages of their life histories. than for Acti?lomyces scab; about tml varieties less l'ielJ obsel~vationson root alld basal stalk rot of affected than the average were selected for further test- tJcans >yere continued, and trials of the resistance of ing against a few of the most severely affected. many varieties ancl strains gave results similar to those The potato work has reached the stage where it is obtaiiicd in previous seasons, indicating marked differ- becoming of direct use to State Departments of Agri- ~1lc.r.sin susceptibility, both between varieties and sorne- culture. Agronomic investigation and development of limes between strains of a given variety. the more ~romisingresistant hybrids is being under- Xumerolls isolates of several~~~~~.i~ and of iuacro- taken by potato specialists of the Victorian, Tasmanian, phon~ina phaspoli from diseased beall plants were and Western Australian Departments of Agriculture. te:ted for pathogenicity at high temperatures in (ii) Tomatoes.-Agronomi? studies of tomato "d soil temperature tank cans of sterilized soil. There varieties under different environments, a project occa- \17['re no consistent differences between the aerial parts sioned by the war, has been completed, and is to be of control and inoculated plants. At the start of senes- written up and published in the Council's Journal. cence, the root systems were washed out. Two Work on Fusarium resistance has been continued, and Fu""'i~m species caused significantly more rotting of a preliminary study of this aspect in tomato varieties stern4bas.e~of inoculated plants than occurred in and species has been completed and reported in the the controls, but Macropholninu did not. The worst Council's Journal for November, 1946, .p. 376. Further l'ottillg occ~jrred in pots inocnlatcd with chopped work has shown that the high resistance of Pan di~easedbean roots. America to Fubarium wilt is readily inherited in 10. Tomato Spotted Wil{.-Field experiments mere crosses with comnzercial varieties. Hybrids of high I~I:~(]Pat Sydney allcl Canberra to test the possit)ilities ~ieldillgability and p~cq~cs~ingthe high resistance of cf applying the multiple planting method, as develol)ed Pan America have been developed and they are being fcr the control of the dit~case011 tobacco in South tested in various parts of Australia. Some have .'frica, to tomato crops. At Sydnep, normal single shown distinct promise under conditions in the Mildura I)la~ltingWas compared with triple planting and with district of Victoria where local varieties harp failed triple planting spraying \q-ith 0.1 per cent. DDT owing to the depretlations of Fusarium wilt. nt two-nrcek intervals. At Canberra the To~ilatohybrids showing pomise are being developed was made in two stages: (a) as a multiple planting by agronomic selection by the tomato specialists of plot similar to 8ydney with the exception that spraying Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland. A study with '117' was done at weekly intervals; (b) after of the factors affecting resistance to Fusarium wilt in thinning at the conclusion of stage ((a, as a spray trial Pan America and resistant hybrids developed from it on normal spacing to compare DDT with Gammexane is in progress. Early blight of the tomato is a major for thrips control. F.7446.-2 At Sydney, the incidence of infection was extremely marked, though there has not yet been any re-appear- high (the controls were 100 per cent. infected after ance of " needle fusion" in the treated plots of P. five weeks), and at Canberra extremely low, making the caribea. statistical examination of the data didicult. Ilowever, 13. Publications.-The following papers were pub- in sorue respects the results at both places were essen- lished during the year :- tially similar. It was calculated that the effect of DL)T Anderson, A. J. (1946).-Fertilizers in pasture spray on the triple-planted plots was to reduce iafect- development on peat soils in the lower south- ing tlirips attack to a quarter of that on the unsprayed east of South Australia. J. Coun. Sci. Ind. plants. The calculated eff'ect of triple planting was Res. (Sust.) 19 : 394-405. only partially attained, apparently because of the attractive effect for thrips of the greater mass of ----(1946) .-Molybdenum in relation to pasture greenery in the multiple planted plots. The results of improvement in South Australia. Ibid. 19 : stage (b) of the Canberra plot indicated that signifi- 1-15. carit control of spotted milt was obtained by the use of ---(1946).-Plant responses to molybdenum as l)DT, infection being reduced by approximately 50 a fertilizer. 1. Molybdenum and symbiotic per cent. Slight control was obtained with Gam- nitrogen fixation. 2. Factors affecting the mexane but the degree was not significantly better than response of plants to molybdenum. Coun. Sci. unsprayed plots. . Ind. Res. (Aust.), Bull. 198. Observations were continued on field symptoms of ::aid, ,l. G. (1S46).-Li plal~of growth, maturity, s~~ottedwilt on dahlias, and further study made of the and yield of the potato plant. Enzp. J. Exp. problern of obtaining illfeetion of dahlia by mechanical -4gric. 14: 43-8. inocul at' 1on. {'nshmore, A. B., et al. (1946).-Control of cape- The study of the spotted wilt virus aii'ecting potatoes m-eed (Cryptostemma cale~~dulaceum(L.) was continued in greenhouse ancl field. Spotted wilt R.Br.) in flax. J. Coun. Sci. Ind. Res. \\,:is epidemic again in 1946-47 in field crops of potatoes (Rust.), 19: 1-4. both in Ken, South Wales ancl Victoria. Large num- Cashmore, A. B., and Campbell, T. G. (1946).- bers of tubers from diseased plants were tested, and it Weeds probleni in Aastralia : a review. Ibid. was confirmed that approximately 30 per cent. carried 19 : 16-31. the virus and gave rise to secondary diseased plants. Davies, J. G., and Greenham, C. G. (1946).- l-'reliminary observations indicated that delaying Eradicatioil of 1lyLZrocotyle tripartita R.Br. planting until December resulted in great reduction in from golf and bowling greens. Ibid. 19: incidence of spotted wilt. As noted in the last report, 335-40. the rir~~saffpcting potatoes is a strain complex lacking Dickson, B. T., and Hartley, W. (1946).-Rubber- tip blight, the most severe strain. Further work has growing in Australia. Trans. Inst. Rubber sho~~nthat in the virus present in potatoes the ring- Ind. 22: 17-24. spot strain is dominant and the symptoms are Dickson, B. T. (1946).-Some thoughts about primarily those of this strain. agriculture. J. Aust. Inst. Agric. Sci. 12: 1-4. i1. Northern Australia Regio~~nl91rrvey.-As men- Donald, C. M. (1946).-Competition between tioned in the previous report, a surrey of Northern pasture species with reference to the hypo- .liistralia is being carried out lby the Counc+ilon behalf thesis of harmful root interactions. ,I. Coun. of the Northern Australia Development (lommitt~e. Sci. Ind. Res. (Aust.) 19: 32-7. 't'liis surycy is intended to detcrn~inttho best way of Greenham, C. G. (1946).-Application of inter- csing areas in the Northern Territory. In the first ferometry to biological surfaces. _.Lust. J. pear, 1946-47, an examination mas made of the is'ci. 9: 26. R2therine-Darwin area; in 1947-45 attention is being Hutton, M. (19.46).-Relationship between trrrned to the Barkl-y Tabl~land. E. necrosis and resistance to virus Y in the The object of the survrg is to record the nature of thc potato. 3. Interrelation with virus C. J. country as zcci~rately:IS pos~ible,to assess its pott.11- Coun. Sci. Ind. Res. (*lust.) 19: 273-82. tialities, and to male rccclL:mendations with respect to Lvftus EIiLlr, I<. (19t46) .--Suitability of a number its development. A nnml cr of recornmcndations have of varieties of opium poppy for the produc- been made to the Northern dustrolia 1)erelopment tion of morphine from the ripe capsule. Ibid. Coninlittee follo~vingthe 1946 sarwy, and a full report 19: 177-86. of that survey is to be published. Loftus Hills, K., and Kelenyi, G. P. (1946).-A 12. Other Invesiigafions.-FertiZizer Experiments preliminary report upon the cultivation of in Pine Plantations.-Plots of Pinus faeda at Wood- Duboisia spp. Ibid. 19: 359-75. burn pine plantation, treated once ~vith2 cwt. of super- Loftus Hills, K., and Rodwell, Cynthia (1946).- phosphate per acre ill 1'!41. or with la cwt. per acre in Distribixtion and nature of the alkalcids in 1939, gave an initial response in faster growth rate, developing seedlings of Dlcboisia m!j:prroidos improved appearance, and lessening or disappearance and Du hoisza Leichhardtii. Ibid. 19 : of "needle fusion " symptoms, l;ut the eflect of these 295-302. treatments now appears to have largely worn off. Plots treated with 3 ewt. per acre in 1939 are also showing Loftus Hills, K., Trautner, E. M., and Rodwell, ~igii~that tl~cfertilizer treatn:csi~ts need renewal to Cynthia (1946).-A tobacco-Dul~oisia graft. Aust. J. Sci. 9: 24-5. maintain healthy .growth. " Necdle fusion " symptoms are re-appearing and the extra grox~thof the fertilizer Mills, Margaret, and Hutton, E. M. (1946).- as compared with the coiltrol plots is less Fusarium wilt of tomato in -4ustralia. I. The msrlscd, though these changes are less evident relationship between different isolates of the in the 3 cwt. than in the $! and 14 cwt. plots. The pathogen and resistance in varieties of Lyco- 3 cwt. treatment has already produced enough extra persicon esculenfum Mill. and other Lyco- timber to show a substantial profit over the com- persicon species. J. Coun. Sci. Ind. Res. pounded cost of application, as also have treatments of (Aust.) 19 : 376-87. 21 cmt. per acre of gronnd rock phosphate or 2 cwt: of Moore, C. W. E. (1946).-Effect of soil moisture superphosphate, applied to adjacent plots of P. carzbea co-ntent and depth of planting on the gerniina- in 1939. The difference between the growth rates of tion of dehulled seed of Dnnthonia semi- the latter plots and the controls is also becoming less annulnris. Ibid. 19 : 172-6. Norris, D. 0.(1946).-Failure with " DDT " and take up were suggested. Advantage was taken of the success with ('Gammexane " in the control of presence of the State Entomologists in Canberra to the culture mite. J. Aust. Inst. Agric. Sci. discuss other. problems of comn~oninterest. 12: 51-2. 2. Catile Tick.-The main object of the work under- -(1946).-Recent advances in plant protection taken Luring the year was to give graziers some relief fungicides. Aust. J. Sci. 9 : 1-6. from the disabilities they were suffering as a result Wark, D. C. (1946).-Some observations on the of tlie increasing prevalence of arsenic-resistance in magnitude of agronomic variation within ticks. cabbage varieties and a description of varieties. J. COUW,Sci. Ind. Res. (Aust.) (i) CO~L~TO~of Ticks on CTmzing Prope7ties.-D'DT, 19 : 347-58. as a 0.5 per cent. suspension in the form of Bucide, has been studied in sixteen dipping experiments on ten widely separated properties in Queensland. It has 111. ENTOMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. proved superior to arsenic in every respect except cost znd ease of preparation, its chief advantages being: 1. General.-The most important development during absence of irritation, so that cattle thrive better; the year has been the change in the cattle-tick sitna- effectiveness against arsenic-resistant tic!rs; and resi- tion resulting from the investigations, of an immedi- dual toxic;ty for one to three weeks after dipping, as a ately practical nature, carried out by the Division of result of which the tick population is greatly reduced Economic Entomology's team of workers in Quet.n,- and tl~cintervals 'uLtneen dippings consequent!y pro- Land. Wliereas at the beginning of 1946 cattle-owners longed. It is also active against other pests, which are in that State were extremely worried by the problern unafiected by arsenic. Suspensions have been shown presented by the increasing arsenic-resistance of ticks, to rernaii~active in dipping vats for more than a year. and in June of that year it was only possible to report promising results obtained in preliminary experiments (ii) Cleansing Experiments.-These were designed with a miter-miscible preparation of T)DT, during the to show whether DDT could be used to cleanse cattle last twelve months the practicability of using this completely of ticks for movement from infested into material in dipping vats, and its e~yicacy,have been clean country. Thirteen sets of observations were thoroughly established, and the anxiety of cattle- made, and the conclusion has been drawn that dipping owners has given place to confidence. twice in suspensioris containing not less than 0.35 per cent. D!)T, T: ith an interval of three to six days between Much of the work being- carried out by the Division dippings, will cleanse cattle efficiently, provided the on the chemical control of in~ectps-is has beer1 con- animals are in fat or good store condition and are not cerned with the use of DDT and Galnmexane (hexa- chlorcyclohexane, referred to in the last annual report groqsiv over-infested with ticks. In the case of im- ~mrerished, very heavily infested stock, preliminary as " 066 "), though attention bos been given to soine control of the ticks would be neceqsary before this more recently developed insecticides. In the investiga- clcansing procedure could be relied on. tion resunled in Western Australia, after an interrup- tion over ;he war years, very interesting and premising {iii) Chev~ical 1.r~l;estigutions.-No method of results have been obtained with DDT and Gammexane cleansing would be acceptable to State authorities dusts against the red-legged earth mite. In general, ~1nle.i t11c aclilai coneextration of active ingredient in 17,~ork~~ith these insecticides is no:v not so mi-ch a the dipping vat could be determined, so considerable matter of establishing their efficacy against difierent attention was cirvoted to developing a routine method pests, as a determination of the best methods of apply- of IIDT analysis, which could be used on dip samples. ing thern, together xvith a definition of their limitations. The procedure evoired has proved to be iree from The Division's biological control investigations, serious error in the analysis of some 500 samples of which form a major part of its activities, have shoan various ages and degrees of dirtiness; it is now in very saii;factory progress. The il~trocluced insect rontine use. Special instructions for sampling dips enemies of St. John's wort are continuing to clear land containing DDT were also formulated. of th~weed at an undiminished rate; and very large dl. Riiside can be mixed only ~vithsoft or softened numbers of the beetle.; have been collected and distri- water, many determinations of water hardness have buted. The introdnction and breeding of parasites of been necessary in the course of the work. 21 curve has the cabbage moth comprised one of the new projects been constri~ctc(~showing the relation of total hardness initia~edduring the year. to stabiiity of the suspension, and an empirical rule developed to indicate the an~o~uztsof softencr required. Other new investigations started include a biological study of the nawson Eiver sandfly, which appears as (iv) 'Toxicity of DDT.-The experiment reported a serious pest of qtocli in parts of Qucensland after last year, in 1:hich cattle are being anointed weekly heav? rains; laboratory studies of what may be termed with oily solutions of DDT, has now run for fifteen the competition factors controlling the levels of insect months. The aninlals have remained well, and post- popnlatiolls; and ecological studies of cockchafer rnortem examination of three killed at the end of beetle,, the larvae of which (popularly known as " curl twelve months showed no detectable microscopic or grub: " or "nhite grubs ") are a serious pest of chemical evidence of poisoning. However, the treated pastuces. This last-mentioned investigation is being group has not gained weight as rapidly as the controls; carricjd out in collaboration with other interested whether this is significant or not has yet to be deter- bodieb (see later). mined. After a lapse of eleven years without a meeting- (v) Other Prepamtions.-DDT, in the form used, durin:; which interval DDT and Gamm~xanehad been has certain disadrz.ntages, in that it is somewhat develsped and tested on a large scale against this tedious to mix into a dipping vat, is unstable in hard important orchard pest--a meeting of tlre Codling ~v~ters,and evrn in soft waters a certain proportion llloth Committee was convened at Canberra in May, appears to he lost, suspensions made to a calculated 0.5 1947. The Departments of Agriculture of all six per cent. DDT usually stabilizing at an art11~10.35 to States, the Waite Agricultural Research Institute, and 0.4 per cent. as determined by analysis. S~:idies of the Divisioll of Econonlic Entomology were repre- alternative preparations have, therefore, been Lnitinted. sented at the meeting. The results of the past two One dipping experirr7ent with Gammexalle hes i3e.n seasons7 trials, which had demonstrated the effica.cy undertok~n in association ~ritliMr. I-'. A. Elliott of of DDT for controlling codling moth, were discussed, Mooiboolaman. The kill of ticks mas very ,good, but and lines of work which the Division might profitably more illformation is required on persistence and intervals between dippings before the relative merits of A constant-pressure air valve for the standard Gammexane and DDT can be assessed. Rather atomizer used in the Peet-Grady method has been encouraging preliminary observations hue also been developed, and a description of it published. This made on a dispersible DDT powder and paste. attaclinlcnt does not affect the atonlizing characteristics 3. Buffalo Fly.-Active research on the control of of the splay-gun, but ensures that all the spray fluid is this pest lias now virtually ceased, it having been dispcnsed at the right constant pressure. shown that the " partial spraying " technique described (iii) Insect Nuscle Respirntion.-As part of a pro- last year for dairy cattle is equally effective for beef gramme of research into the enzyme systems concerned cattle which are handled at regular intervals, e.g., for with respiration and energy exchange in insect tissues, dipping in arsenic. In this -way, efficient control may an investigation on the enzyme adenosinetriphosphatase be maintained at an annual cost of less than 3d. per of insect muscle is being undertaken. It has been head. Moreover, it has been found that dipping in found that the adenosinetriphosphatase of insect DDT to control cattle tick apparently reslllts in com- nluscle, unlike that of vertebrate muscle, is not firmly plete local extermination of the flies. Experience in attaclied to the contractile protein, myosin, but can be North Queensland has, however, also demonstrated obtained in aqueous solution. Studies on the substrate that these measures are effective only 1~11e11tl~ey can speciiirity, pII optimum, and the effect on activity of be applied regularly and efficiently, so that the buffalo inhibitors and ~ariousmetal ions have revealed other fly problem of the " outback" properties still remains important differences between the enzyme of insects and to be solved. that of higher animals. Some progress has been made 4. Sheep Blowfly.-In collaboration with the Animal in purifying the insect adenosinetriphosphatase. Health Station of the Queensland Department of Agri- 7. Biological Control.-During. the past year, villture and Stock, experiments ~verecarried out to test althougli the possibilities of extcnd~ngbiological control the eflicacy of light spraying with DDT on the tip of activities to cover adtlition::l pchts were explor(>d, active the fleece, which had previously given encouraging work was confined almost exclusively to three major results in preventing experinlental body strikes in the projects : insect control of the noxious weed St. John's insectary at Canberra. In addition to a semi-field wort (IIypericunz perforofurn), and control by hymen- experiment at Yeerongpilly, three sets of field experi- opterous parasites of the potato moth (Gnorimoschema ments in the Stanthorpe district and two in the Cler- operculc71u) and the cabbage moth (Plutella maculipen- mont-Emerald area were undertaken during the year. nis). Results indicate that some degree of protection is (i) St. John's Wort.-Inspections made in St. given, but it appears to be insufficient for practical John's wort areas in Victoria and New South Wales purposes. The work is to be continued, with special during November and December, 1946, showed that, reference to the rate and meclianism of loss of DDT for the most pa&, colonies of the introduced insects from the fleece and to the uie of heavier dosages. were making very satisfactory progress. I11 the Oven's 5. Dawson River Randfly.-Preliminary work has Valley (Victoria), where the increase of the insects been commenced on this blood-sucking insect, which and the control of the weed have reached a more occasionally lias a serious effect on stock, and is a advanced stage than elseorhere, the two Chrysomelid posqible vector of worm-nodule in cattle. Of the eight bcctlcs, Chrysomela llyperici find C. gemellafa, as a species of Simuliidae now known from Queensland, result of natural as well as artificial spread, occur to- only one (an undescribed species of Austrosimulium) gether throughout a considerable extent of infested is a pest. It breeds in enormous numbers in very fast, land, and it is only possible to collect reasonably pure muddy water near the middle of flooding streams, its lines of either species in certain restricted areas. larvae and pupae attaching especially to partly sub- (a) Chrysomela h yperici.-In Victoria, this species merged tea-trees (Melaleuca). The breeding period is is continiling to increase at a number of points in the short, and is probably restricted to one generation, vicinity of Bright, and at Oven's Vale, near Myrtleford, unless further " freshes " come down the stream. The a co~lsiderablearea of the weed in pine plantations adult$ congregate in tea-trees, and appear to attack has been hen-cily attacked and much of it destroyed. man, cattle, and sheep with equal readiness, though In New South Wales, colonies in the Piambong and kangaroos were probably their original source of food. Itylstone districts continue to make satisfactory pro- The resistant stages, nhich enable the spccies to persist gress, and in the Mannus Valley, near Tumbarumba, between floods, have yet to be discovered. the colony started in 1944 has extended considerably, 6. Insect Physiology and Toxicology.-(i) General. and part of the reclaimed area is re-oceupied by a thick -Research activity in this field has heen somewhat snrard of grass. From South Australia and Tasmania, reduced during the past year owing to the absence where liberations of C. hypevici have also been made, abroad of two members of the physiology and toxicology no recent reports have come to hand, but it would team. A good deal of work has been rarried out In apprar that the insects are now well established at collaboration with other investigators, e.g. on the cattle- certain points and making satisfactory progress. tick problern (methods of analysis of DDT dips) and on (7)) Chrysomela geme1lata.-In the 1945-46 Report, vcgctable pests (breakdown of T)DT in dust, mixtures), the opinion was expressed that this species was the most and is referred to elsewhere. effectire of the three Hypericum insects now established (ii) I1ousefly.-Further work has been carried out in Australia: the spectacular progress that it has made on the mode of action of adjuvants (" activators ") of rlilring the last twelve months confirms this opinion. pyrethrum, special attention being given to lubricating In the Bright district, (7. g~mellatnis now established oil. It has been shown that the adjuvant effect of in very large numbers, and appreciable areas of good lubricating oil in fly sprays is due to its relatively low agricultural and pastoral land are being reclaimed at an rolatility, which tends to decrease the rate at which increasingly rapid rate; little or no regeneration of the spray droplets diminish in size as the carrier-solvent weed has taken place. Most of the redistributions made c~~aporates. during th? last t~oyears have consisted of this species. The effects of starvation for varying periods on the During the past season, distributions of C. gemellnta susceptibility of houseflies to pyrethrum, and their tc arms in Australia and overseas reached a total of behaviour during exposure to pyrethrum sprays, have approximately 1,046,000. Of these, rather more than been investigated. The results obtained snggest a way lialf were distribnt~d in various parts of Victoria of increasing the e)fficiency of the Peet-Grady method (mainly in the Ovens and Kiewa Valleys, some in the of testing fly sprays. Renella and Rutherglen districts) by officers of tho Vermin and Noxious Weeds Branch of the Department in the pupal stage in field cages, but it is not yet known of Lands and Snrvey. In New South Wales, liberations whether this is the normal overwintering stage, nor totalling 200,000 were made in association with the whether Copidosorna can overwinter successfully under Wecds Officer, Department of Agriculture, at Nannus, ordinary field conditions. near Tumbarumba; in the Mudgee district (Piambong, (iii) Cabbage iWoth.-Angitia cerophaga Grav., an and cn the Catchment Area) ; and at Nllllo Mountain, Ichneumonid parasite of the larval stage of the cabbage near Rylstone. il, further 200,000 collected by officers moth, was introduced into Australia some years ago but of the Di-,ision of Economic Entomology were for- was not cstabiished. It was again imported in Decem- warded to Sonth Australia, for liberation in the Port ber, 1946, from New Zealand, through the co-operation Lincoln area by the Waite Agricultural Research of the Cawthorn Institute, Nelson, and it has been Institute. liberated in the Australian Capital Territory. The (c) Agrilus hyperici.-The area at Baker's Gullep, parasite can now be recovered with ease in one locality, Bright, where one of the main colonies of this root- and is thought to be eztablished. The techniques used boring beetle is established, has now been largely elsewhere for the breeding of this insect were found to occupied by Chrysomeln gemellata. Although at be unsatisfactory, and a new method is being developed. present the effect of the inter-specific competition can- Alaglfin should be available for general liberation by not be accurately assessed, general observations indicate next spring. that incidence of Agrilus has been reduced. At Piam- Another Ichneumonid parasite, Didromus collaris bong and the Mudgee Catchment Area, the position Grav., wl~ichattacks the pupal stage, has been obtained relating to the establishment of Agrilus appears to be from Tasmania, the specimens received being part of rnuch more satisfactory. Samples taken at both sites a consignment from New Zealand. A flourishing showed that over 50 per cent. of the plants within the colony now exists in the laboratories at Canberra! and areas occupied by the colonies nTere being attacked, a it is expected that this ~arasitewill also be available number by more than one larva. The weed in both for general distribution before long. places shoned some reduction in the vigour of the 8. Population Dynamics.-The control of an insect plants, as well as an appreciable degree of reduction in pest generally consists of reducing the population density. density of the species from a level that is economically (d) Overseas shipments.-It was possible during the too high to a lower one that is tolerable. To bring 1946-41 season to send further consipmeats of Hyperi- about this control intelligently, it is necessary to under- stand the mechanism that regulates population c7cm insects to America, to assist the " Klamath Weed " control project being carried out in California by the densities, but u:lfortunately little is known at present United States Department of Agriculture in co-opera- about this mechanism. Basic studies of population tion with the University of California. These two con- dynamics in their simpler forms have therefore been signments included 43,000 Chrysomeln gcm~llainand resumed, using various species of blowflies and the 55,000 C. hypcrici. Vcry satisfactory progress in the housefly in the experiments. As new ground is being project has been reportdd from California during the broken, most attention during the year has been given past year, and if additional large numbers of Ilyperi- to developing suitable new techniques and apparatus, cum insects can be shipped froni Australia during the bat important preliminary results have been obtained. coming season, fllrther introductions will probably not These provide the necessary basis for future critical be necessary. experiments. The preliminary resnlts have indicated that competition for food can prduce results of a com- (ii) Polato J1olh.-Improvements in equipment and plexity that was previously unsuspected. techniqile madc it possible to breed certain of the im- 9. dus/ralian Plague Loc.z~st(Chortoicetes termini- ported potato moth parasites in large numbers, and fera).--During the spring of 1946, numerous hbpper rendered unnpcessary further introductions from over- swarms of Chodoicetes developed in the Trangie dis- seas. The large-scale breeding and distribution of the trict from eggs laid by swarms of the previous autumn. polyenibryonic Encertid Copidosoma koelzlcri formed The opportunity was taken to carry out detailed obser- the main part of the season's programme of work, vations on the behaviour of these swarms. These ob- although the breeding of the Braconids, Chelonus servations, which covered the development of ph lh orin7rlet~eand Microbracon gelechine, ras continued gregarious behaviour, band formation and marching, and further distributions of these parasite, were made. the effect of different pasture types on the form of As in the 1945-46 season, liberations were made almost hopper bands and the direction of movement, feeding, exclusively in areas where large-scale potato-growing kc., have been completed and prepared for publication. forms a permanent feature of the local apricultnre. Observations on the times of feeding of hopper bands In pursuance of this policy, liberations of Chelonus ~howcdthat these vary widely according to temperature (each of 1,000) insects were made at Crookmell and and other factors. Thus for best results from poison West Maitland, and 1,500 Microbracon were released baiting as a control measure, the operator nee,dds to have in the former area. considerahlo knowledge of the habits of the insect, and A total of 610,000 Copidosoma were liberated during should make his applications of bait so as to coincide the 1946-47 qeason, 200,000 at Crookmell, 110,000 in with a readiness on the part of the hoppers to feed. the West Maitland district, New South Wales; and in This requiremellt militates against successful Iocust Qi~e~n~lancl,200,000 in the Lowood district and control by poison bait, and emphasises the desirability 100,000 at St:lntl~orpe. The lastnlcntioned liberation of further tests in the use of contact insecticides, such rvas madc against Gnorimoschema operculellu reported as Gammexane or " DNOC ", which are not subject to to bc :ailsing s~riouslosses to tomato crops. The this limitation. Q~ieenslandlihcrations Were carried out by officcrs of Work on ecological control of Chortoicetes has been tl~eDepartment of Agriculture and Stock. continued from the Trangie Field Station. Old-man Following the large liberations of Copidosoma saltbush, Atriplcx nummularia, still gives great promise Loehleri that have been made in the Crookwell area as a constituent of barriers for planting between the during the last two years, some observations have been oviposition and food-shelter habitats of outbreak made on field recoveries of the parasite. These have centres. The problem of finding a satisfactory tree for indicated that up to 10 per ce,nt. of the potato moth such harriers still remains unsolved. larvae in a given plot in which Copidosomal had been The scalded areas that were fenced and sown with released may be parasitized in subsequent generations. various colonizing species in furrows have continued In this diatriot the parasite ia able to survive the winter to &ow very Iittlcl re-vegetation, and this approach to the rehabilitation of scalds must be dismissed as a insect, it is quite evident that intensive fundamental failure. On the other hand, the experiment in which investigations are needed before snitable methods for branches were laid on four areas of scald, with the its large-scale control can be devised. To avoid over- object of catching wind-blown sand in which seed might lapping between the Division's investigations and those germinate, is showing considerable promise. The projected by the TlTaite Institute and the Victorian branches have not only accumulated a certain amount Departnlent of Agriculture, a Pasture Cockchafers of sand, but they also catch and hold both seeds and Comn~itt~erepresentative of these organizations was seed-heads, and considerably impede the flow of wate'r set up towards the end of 1946. ~Subsequently,the Tas- off the scald after rain, so that the soil under them rcanian Department of Agriculture also nominated a remains ~aturatedfor some time after it has dried out representative. The Committee has drawn up a general elsewhere on the scald. Follo~ving5 inches of rain in programme of research on Aphodius and other pasture FI~bruary,many plants, including a high percentage of hcockchafers, and has allotted special responsibility for perennial grasses, germinated under the branches, but different aspects of the problem to each constituent none at all on the c~ntrolareas. The progress of the organization. An information service, from which it is young plants is being recorded photographically at suit- hoped to ascertain the extent of the infestation in able int~rvals. different seasons is bcine organized. The experiment with the branches was suggested by The Di\~iqion's investigations have been carried out the observation that plants tended to germinate in mainly in Canberra, where a heavy infestation of accumulated sand along the fence surrounding the Aphodius was discovered on the Dickson Experimental scald plot. Once sorlle growth has occurred there, the E'arn~. Although still of a prelim~narynature, they plants hold water flowing off the scald, so that a broad have yielded murh valuable new information on the band of new pasture is spreading over the scald from life-cycle, bchavioilr, and ecology of A. howifti and the fence on its downslope side. This advance is being other species. recorded. The cockchafers as a group are inadequately known In view of the satisfactory performance of old-man in the adult stag?, and in relatively few species have saltbush on all kinds of soil, a new section of scald has the larval stages been described and correlated with bee11 fenced and is being planted with saltbush seed- the adillts. Ac:,ordingly arrafipments have been made lings. It is hoped that a sufficient number will become for a sptlcialist in the British Natural Ilistory Museum established to form their own wind and water barrier to undprtake a general taxonomic revision of the and thus allow of the germination of pasture plants Melolonthinae, the subfamily that includes many of beneath them. producing et-rntually a sali-bush-grass the pest species, and for a New Zealand entomologist pasture. at present in Australia to revise the Aphodiinae, to h new piece of work has been undertaken to obtain which Aphodius ho~r,ittibelongs. The immature stages quantitat&e information an the effect of the presenoe of A. howitfi are being studied at Canberra. of trees on locust numbers. Further observations are 11. Red-legged Earth Mite (I'lalotydeus destructor). required along these lines, but it is already apparent -Investigations into this important pasture pest, that the planting of trees at not excessive densities which rrerP discontinued during the war, have been would render an outbreak centre much less effective in rcsumed in Western Australia. During the summer producing snarms. A test has been made of the value months, laboratory studies have been carried out at of aircrsft as a means of locating outbreak centres and the Institiitc of Agriculture, Perth; and during the hopper swarms. Even using a slam--flying Avro-Anson season of mite activity (approximately April-Wovem- at 100-200 feet, the results were disappointing, and it her), field experimel,i; hare been conducted in the was concluded that a helicopter would be required for Katanning di~trict,;vhere damage caused by the pest sucresuf111 aerial survey work of this kind. id at times very severe. Furthcr progress has been made in the analysis of In t2~efield experiments, the efficacy of DDT and past outbreaks of Chortoicefes and in studies of the Gamn~~xanewas studied. In preliminary trials, taxonomy and phases of species of Chortoicetes and heavily infested subterranean clover pastures were A~~stroicetes,the parasitic mites of Acrididae, and the treated with 2 per cent. DDT and Gammexane in biology of the predacious wolf-spiders. sllperphosphate at the rate of 2 cwt. per acre. (Crude 10. Pasf~rreCockchafers.-In July, 1946, it became ~emmexane,containing approximately 12 per cent. of possible for the first time to allot a scientific officer to the active gamma isomer was used.) An excellent kill carry out full-time inrestigntions on the important (over 95 l)er cent.) of mites was obtained in both problem of cockchsfer grubs in pastures. A number treatments. Further trials, designed to determine the of species of the family Scarabaeidae are known to dosages necessary to produce a kill approaching 100 dam~gepastnrss in the larval stage, but the most im- per cent., and the persistency of the treatments, were portant of thesr is a species of Aphodius, usually identi- accordingly carried out in the 1947 season. fied as A. howitti Hope. This pest has been causing 111 theze experiments, 2 per cent. and 0.5 per cent. concern to graziers in Victoria, South Australia, and IfDT and Gammexane dusts were used, and each Tasmania for a number of pears. It is particularly applied at the rate of 2 cwt. and 1 cwt. per acre. Over numerous in sown pastures of high carrying-capacity. 95 pPr cent. lrill of mites was obtained with the lower The grub is the larval stage of .a small dark brown tlosapc, of the 0.5 per cent. DDT and Gammexane dusts. beetle which has a brief swarming flight in about N7hen applied at the rate of 2 cwt. of 2 per cent. dust February of each year. So far as is known, the adult per acre, DDT revealed outstanding persistency, beetle is quite harmletss-all the damage being inflicted remaining potent on thc soil for at least two and a by the larva, mhirh lives in a vertical burrow jn the holf months, ahereas the comparable Gammexane soil during the day, and comes up at night to feed upon tleatment appeared to lose itr potency in from one the pasture, a part of which it drags down the burrow to two months. for future consumption. When grubs are numerous, These results indicate that the earth mite could be their earthen castings may lie so thickly upon the sur- effectively controlled by DDT or Gammexane dusts. face of the denuded pasture as to give the appearance 'he cost of applying the dosages used in these experi- of a fallow. ments would, however, be excessive. The persistence Although Aphodius can be controlled quite simply of low dosages of DDT is now being studied, as a when it occurs in lawns and golf-courses, the methods preliminary to inveqtigating the possibility of attain- arailable are too expensive for use on grazing paddocks. icp effective and economic control by a single applica- Since practically nothing is known of the ecology of the tion, combined with the normal annual top dressing ~ithsuperphosphate, which is usually carried out in and a 3 per cent. DDT aerosol (giving a dosage of March, i.e. beheen one and two months before the DDT comparable with that obtained with the 0.1 per first appearance of the mites. cent. spray) were tested for protection of the haulms In the course of the work, some interesting observa- from potato moth attack during the growing ~eriod. tions were made on the effect of DDT and Gam~nexane Two applications were made in each case. The DDT dilsts on other species. The lucerne flea (Sminthurus spray proved the most effective, followed by the aerosol. tiridis) appeared to remain unharmed by colltact with The Xyanex treatment was not significant1;y better DDT, in the dosages used in the experiments, but than tlie untreated control. succumbed comparatively rapidly to the Gammexane In laige-scale trials at Crookwell (New South dust. On the other hand, the Bdellid mite, Biscirus Wales) three fields of potatoes were dusted twice with lapidarius, which is a predator on the lucerne flea, 2 per cent. DDT at three-weekly intervals. The efficacy appeared to be killed by the DDT dust but unaffected of the treatment is indicated by the figures for per- by the Qanlmexane. Controlled experiments are being centage infestation of tubers recorded at harvest, being carried out to confirm these observations. 7.2, 8.5, and 15.9 for the treated plob, compared with Marked differences in the susceptibility to earth mite 25.5, 17.1, and 38.5 for the untreated control plots. attack of various species of legumes (Vicia spp., Final adaptations of power spraying and dusting I,,r tkyrzcs spp., and Trif oliuwb spp.) have been noted, machinery for the field-scale application of insecti- and a selected series of these has been planted to pro- cides to crops were made during the year. rid? material for an investigation into the basis of (ii) Cubbage Noth and Cabbage Butterfly.-Nine this variation. In the first place, it is intended to field trials, involving a total of 19,000 cabbages and rompare the micro-anatomy of the leaf structure. 9,600 cauliflowers, were carried out during the 1946- 18. Itbsect J7ectors of Plant Viruses.-(i) Tobacco 19-17 season. Of the new insecticides teated, hexethyl kellcw I1t~~nrf.-The investigation of yellow dwarf tetraplros~~lzate("II.E.T.P."), tbe German prepara- viri~sdisease of tobacco was continued, in co-operation tlon " Xirosan Spritzmittel ", and the American with the Division of Plant Industry, at Canberra " Ryanex ", failed to give effective control of moth during 1946-47. Records of the prevalence of the and butterfly larvae at the recommended dosages and vector, Orosius argentata (Evans), showed that this strengths ; but 3.5 per cent. " Gix " (a German insect first appeared on 27th August, 1946, and con- preparation, the active principle of which is the tinued to be caught in the rnechailical nets until the iluorine analogue of DDT) proved effective. ~nr1of December. The jassid was most abundant in The 1946-1947 results with DDT dusts and sprays September. confirmed those of the previous season, i.e. a 0.1 per An experiment designed to determine whether till: cent. spray, a 0.05 per cent. spray, a 1 per cent. dust, incidencc of the disease could be reduced, to a degree aild a 0.5 per cent. dust all gave effective control, that nonld be significant in commercial practice, b~ ranging from excellent in the first named to satis- multiple planting and roguing, ,by the use of DD'I' factory in the case of the last. The addition of sprays, or by a combination of the two methods, had iotenone and pyrethrum to the 1 per cent. DDT dust to be abandoned in January oming to the low incidence did not increase the lar~icidalpropertie?. The previous of the disease and an infection of blue mould. season's results with Gamrr~cxaneaTerc., ho~~ever,not (ii) Potato Virus Disease.-The survey, begun in confirmrd. Dusts containing 1 per cent. and 1941, of the abundance of the green peach aphis 2 per cent. of the crude material (i.e. 0.12 per (M?)z?cs persiccce) arid the potato aphis (Macrosiphu~r~cent. and 0.24 per cent. respectively of the gamma suluni,fo7ii), vectors of leaf roll and mosaic diseases isomer) proved significantly inferior to the 1 per cent. of potato, was continued. The spring population at DDT dust; and under conditions of intense grub C'anbcrra was low, and appeared earlier than ~rsual; infestation, dusts containing as much as 2 per cent. there were no massed flights of winged form, and of the gamma isomer proved less satisfactory than a.b!:ids continued to be caaght in the mechanical nets n 0.5 per cent. DDT dust. until the end of December, scven weeh later than in (iii) Cabbage Aphis.-With the shortage of nicotinc other seasons. A small autumn generation appeartlil dphate likely to continue for some time, special in March and ,4pril. attention was paid to aphicides that may be more 13. Orchard Pests.-Investigations into the controi readily obtained. The plots used in the field trials of the oriental peach moth (Gydia molesta Busck.), rr,c utioned aloo~ewere ~uficientlgheavily infested with the codling moth (("~jdiapomonelln L.), and the red rr bbagc aphis (B~el~icoryr~ebrassicae) to provide satisfactory condition.. for corrlparative tests. spider and mite (7'cl1~rtn!jr1~1~;urticne and Bryohia 'The various apl~icideswere tested incorporated \\ith praetiosu) were continued. Good results were again obtained with a 0.1 per cent. DDT emulsion spray. IjDT dusts and sprays, with the object of obtaining CTnder tlie conditions of the experiments c+arried ou~ simultaneous control of moth, brrtterfly, and aphis. at Narrabundah, Australian Capital Territor.y, how- The following proved effective:-1 per cent. DDT dust, with acltlctl nicotine sulphate (5 per cent. v/w), ever, DT)T clnillsions of 0.06 per cent. or lo,,er call- I1.E.T.P." (5 per cent.. v/w) and Gammexane (1 centration prored inferior to treatment vith 0.5 per " cent. leati arscnate pln3 1 per cent. white oil :or thr per cent. crude, 0.12 per cent. gamma isomer) ; and P.l per cent. DDT sprag:s with nicotine sulphate control of codling moth. (0.125 per cent.), "H.E.T.P." (0.1 per cent.), Special attentioil was given to two acaricides, Gsrnmexane (0.1 per ccnt. crude), and soft soap (1 1r11ich were tested against the red spider and red mite infestations that developed following treat- pCr cent.). I11 view of gronf,rs' preference for dust DDT trr2tment, the shortage of nicotine, and the necessitx ment. Dicyclohexylamine dinitrocyclohexylphenate, ~'fusing hesethyl tetraphosphate preparations frelhly incorporated in two DDT corer sprays against codling matie up ithis mac found to apply to dusts as ell as ~noth,control!ed the mite but not the spider. Hexethyl -prays), it would seem that the DDT-Gammrxane tetraphosphate ("H.E.T.P.") gave a complete kill of dust ~~ouldbe the treatment of choice for practical use. red mite and red spider present at the time of applica- Rotenone (0.5 per cent. and 1 per cent.) and tion, but dicl not prevent reinfestation by the spider. pyrethrins (0.15 per cent. and 0.3 per cent.), when 14. Field Crop and Venefable Pests. - (i) Potaio ilzcorporated in a DDT dust failed to give adequate Moth ((#norimoschema operculella).-In field experi- control of the aphis. n~rntsat Canberra, two sprays containing, respectively, When the work with DDT and Gammexane was 0.1 per ceat. DDT and 0.4 per cent. "Iiyanex" started, it mas considered that these insecticida wollld (prepared from the ground wood of Ryania sp~ciosa), affect the population of the cabbage aphis (Diaretus mpue Curtis), which occurs in large num- Gammexane dusts, a campaign of meat ant eradica- bcrs in the Canberra district. However, although some tion in the city and suburbs of Canberra was initiated rtiortality of adult parasites was observed after the in October, 1946. The campaign was planned and aj~plirfitioaof DDT-nicoti~ieand DDT-II.E.T.1'. dusts, carried out in eo-operation iiitii the staff of the Parks at the end of the season a high percentage of para- and Gardens Section of the Departnlent of the Interior. sitized aphids was found on the experimental ~lots, I11 the course of the campaign, 3,241 colonies were v hen an infestation was present. ti-eatcd. (iv) niluenfs for IIDT 1lusts.-At an early stage 'l'he operators working in the southern half of Can- berra used a 2 per cent. DDT dust at an average in the experiments on tlie cont~olof caibba~ge pests, rate of one-third of an ounce per entrance hole; while tl,e failure of certain 13DT (lusts (notably DDT- tklose uorking in the northern half, and in Westridge, n:'cotinP sulphate in hydrated lime) became apparent, used a 5 per cent. crude Gammexane dust (0.6 per a~ldit was suspected that decorl~positionof thc DDT rtnt. ga~rirnaisomer) at the same dosage rate. The o,,curred. Farallel sti~dice. in the field and the iliitial treatments were made in November and Decem- labcratory were therefore initiated. ber, csanii~iatioiisarid retreatments (where necessary) In the field thc following diluents for DDT-nicotine in February and April, 1947. The final examination blllphatr d11-ts were tcsttcl : i\ustralian pyrophyllite, in Nay sho~~cdthat ants in most of the colonies had calci11111Itpdroxide, calrium carbonate, magnesium been killed out, and that the two dusts were equally ci!rbonate, n~agneqiunl oxide, and barium hydroxide. r ffective. The obqervation of the prrvious season was colifirmed, Examination of colonies treated in the course of i.r. c*alcium lqdroxide as a diluent, in the presence of tlie 11)+>-1946 experiments, mentioned in the last nicotine, caused DDT to fail as a larvicide. The report, showed that although the 5 per cent. crude results also indicated that barium hydroxide was Gammexane dust might not appear as effective as 2 significantly inferior to pyrophyllite, calcium car- per cent. DDT for the first three months or so after bonate, and magnc'qium carbonate, and that magnesium treatment, the long-range efficacy of the two was oxide was inferior to all diluentj except calcium similar. hydroxide. (ii) Gladiolus Th&ps (Taeniothrips simplex Mor.) . The laboratory studies consisted of storage tests of --Experiments of a preliminary nature were carried DDT d~istsmade up ~viththe above diluents, with out on a commercial gladiolus farm at Fyshwyck, Aus- and without nicotine. One experiment only has been tralian Capital Territory. A 0.1 per cent. DDT cwmpleted, the results indicating that when the pure cmulsioii effecti\cly coiitrolleci the thrips and was sig- pp' isomer of D13T is made up into a dust, with or nificantly superior to a 0.2 per cent. crude Gammexane withoi~t nicotine, a very rapid decompo~ition occurs emulsion (0.024 per cent. gamma isomer) and to the uith certain alkalinc diluents. Some clecornposition usually recommended tartar emetic bait. Hexethyl appear's to take place in pyrophyllite, ~hichmight b~ serious in a storage period of several months, tetraphosphate, applied as a 0.1 per cent. spray on the e~peciallywith nicotine. same schedule, failed to give control. 15. Trrmites. - Rrsearch into various aspects of (iii) Sil verfish (Ctenolepisma lo~~nicaudataEsch.). tcrmite actiritp has been re=nmed and is now almost -An experiment in silverfish control, using a 10 per back to its pre-war basis. The most important develop- cent. DDT dust, and involving the co-operation of ment has been the resumption of laboratory testing. some 40 Canberra householders, was carried out during It is intended to employ this technique for the com- the year. Treatment consisted of blowing the dust into parative evaluation of the natural resistance of about the crevices where the insects hide, e.g. behind skirtings, 20 species of Australian hardnoods known to have arrhitraves, picture rails, cupboards, and on .the upper a certain cl~gree of naturnl resistance which, it is surface of ceilings. Day-to-day records of dead silver- considered, might be exploited to better advantage fish picked up were kept. Used at the rate of 13-2 lb. than ha? been done hitherto. To date, 10 series of 11c~liouse, the dust effectively controlled tlie pest, most tcsts, li'sing I?~:fcrnz~srxifiows, haw been installed, houses being apparently entirely free from silverfish primarily with a view to improving certain details six montl-is after treatment. of the technique and training new staff; but material 17. Syst~mczfic and General.-Daring the year of five tin~bers(Evcnlypfus pilirlnris, E. mnculnfa, 3. lrialiy ili~wt,have been identified for elitonlologists and ncincinioides. E. microcorys, and Tristania confertal) institutions in Ailstralia and overseas. -2dditions have has bcen received from Forestry Departments in New been made to the Division's reference collection of Sclith Wales and Qneensland, and rolltine testing will insects, inclitding further specimens of moscyuitoes b~ginin July. from the ,\nstralian region, presented by Mr. D. J. Lee, Daring the year, 122 series of termites from of Sydney Cnirersity. I7aqter.n Aa~tralia,collt.cted mainly by officers of the Following the appointment, early in 1947, of a Division, have been identified. Data are being collected specialist in Diptera, a considerable amoiint of time relating to the distribution, and intra- and inter- has been devoted to sorting and re-arranging material y~ecific~variation, of the apecies of the economically of this group. The systematic revision of certain fami- important genus Coptote~nzes. A study of the produc- lies of flies, and description of new species, have also tion of ~npplementary reproductires in Porotermes been undertaken. ridnn~soni and Sfolofcrmcs i~icforiensis has been 18. P1ib1icntions.-The following papers were pub- initiated. lished during the year :-- The anniial routine examination of samples in the Bald, J. G., Norris, D. O., and Helso~i,G. A. H. International Termite Expoiure Test nas carried out, (1!116).-Tranqmission of potato viruq and a report on their condition prepared for the disease. 5. ,\phid populations, resistance. .\meripan authorities. and toleration of potato varieties to leaf roll. .Idvice on v:rrious aspects of termite activity, but Coun. S(*i. Ind. Res. (ilust.), Bull. 196. mainly concelming control and preventive measures, Gay, F. J. (1!)46).--A case of house infestation has bren given to numerous enquirers, including several by a trcc-dwelling colony of Copfofcrmes (;overnment Departments, during the year. frenchi Hill, J. Coun. Sci. Ind, Res. (Aust.) 16. Miscellaneous Pests. - (i) Meat Ants (Irido- 19: 330-4. nzyrmex detectus Sm.).-As a result of the successful lGilmour, D, (1946).-The toxicity to houseflies experiments carried out in 1946-1946, using DDT and of paints containing IIDT, ?bid, 19 : 225-32, 26

Greaves, T., and Rochford, R. R. (1946).-0b- physiology of the sheep under intensive controlled con- servations on the relative susceptibility of ditions. The laboratory will also house the Fleece potato varieties to attack by the Rutherglen Analysis Unit. bug (Xysius vinitor Berg.). Ibid. 19: 357-93. Plans for the development of the work on .animal Hackman, R. H. (1 9-17) .-The persistence of breeding, ,genetics, and animal production were ad- DDT on cattle. Ibid. 20 : 56-65. vanced during the year. Helson, (J- A. 13- (1947).-8 survey of insect Pests -1, in tile the work mentioned in the fol~om,ing and details of insecticide trials on army farms paragraphs is described mainly under the in the Sorthern Territory. Ibid. 20: 9-16. laboratories and field stations,althongh health and -(1947).-1nveqtigations the of production studies are interwoven, as are those being orientalpeach moth, 'ydin Busck., carried out in co-operation with other Divisions of the the G0ulbum Valley, Victoria. Ibicl.20 : Council and with Departments of ilgriculture in the 17-26. several States. Hitchcock, L. F., and Mackcrras, I. M. (1947).- ~l~~use of JJDT in dips to colltrol cattle tick. 2. Animal Health Reaeazh Laboratory, Melbourne. [hid. 20: 43-55. -(i) Pleuropneunaonia of Cattle.-The experiment K~~~,R. (1916).-eontrol of fleas: laboratory designed to determine the influence of nutritional experiments with DDT and certain other in- stresses on the maintenance of immunity against secticides. Ibid. 19 : 233-40. pleixropneumonia continued. It was found difficult to H~~~,R. w., W. J. (1946).-h lower the plane of nutrition to suitable levels under air for the pePt- grazing conditions at Tooradin. The results to date Grady atomizer. Ibid. 19: 241-4. do not show a significant depression of immunity to ~~~~i~,R. it. (1917).-~h~use of DDT for the infective aerosols. D:n.ing the year 314,000 doses of of tile bllfialo fly (,yi2,honu erigaa (de vaccine were distributed to centres in Queenslarid and Neijere) ). Ibid. 20: 25-42. the Northern Territory mainly. Antigen for the com- waterhouse, D. F., and mier, M~~.~E. (1g46).- plemont-fixation teqt was supplieil to Kenya as in the The use of borax for the prevention of fly past. breeding in trap baits. Ibid. 19: 321-9. (ii) Diseases due to C1ostridia.-Attention was Wilson, F. (1946).--The use of mineral dusts for given to the classification of the GI. oedematiens group the control of wheat pests. Coun. Sci. Ind. by means of the toxic fractions recognized by Oakley Res. (Aust.), Cull. 109. and Warrack in England. Using antisera provided by (Note.-In addition to the publications listed above, the them, it has been possible to classify strains as Type A follo\\inq Hullcti~~\by oEcers of the Division, which would or Type B on the basis of toxic factors produced. All norrnallj 11~11'. 11ecn 1?ilbli511etl d~lriuqthe year, are in the tile blaclc-disease strains, classified on other press: Sos. 207, 208, 209, 213, 216, 217, 218, 219, 225, 22% and 228.) grounds as belonging to Type B, have been showll to produce bcta-lecithiaase and in many cases zeta-haemo- lysin, and are accordillgly confirmed as Type 13. The 1~.ANIMAL HXAI,TII AND PROT)UCTION strain isolated in 1928 by Bull from " swelled head7' ;NVESTIG,lTIONS. in rams produces gamma - and epsilon-lecithinases with delta-haemolysin and is accordingly classified as 1. General.-Uuring the year progress with the work T~~~ A. pIanned and to be financed from funds from the Wool ~tt~~ti~n%,as given to two toxic fractions Researc.11 Trust Account has been disappointing. This of ~1. referred to as eta and iota. work caIls for new facilities, particularly laboratory Strains producing the iota fraction have been accommodation at Prospect, and at .lrmidale, New elaimed in England to produce a type of entero- South Wales. Matrrials and labour have not been toxaemia. Strains prerioIlsly isolated from cases of available to providr these fecilities. Financial assis- enterotoxaemia in Australia, but incapable of pro- tance, given in the past by the Australian Wool Board, duciIlg the epsilon toxin of Type D was obtained, by virtue of the nex provisions, from the ,trains, were examilled for capacity to I,roduce iota Wool ~esearchTrust Account. The continued finan- toxin bllt with negnti.i.e rcsillts. The same mas true cia1 which nas received. from thc Australian of T~~~ D strajnq examined, and olxr various ~1. Cattle Research Association, from the George flitken we/chii antisera diti not contain detectable iota anti- Pastoral Research Trust, and from the Queensland toxin. Therefore tlnere is no evidence so far that (II. Govcrnment greatly facilitated the work of the t,,e~c~liiType E exists here. In an earlier publication Dirision. it was reported that trypsin increased the toxicity of At every turn, during the year, difficulties have epsilon toxin through s! digestive effect upon inert arivn in all branches of the work mainly because of epsi]oll prototoxin. It has now heen found that this ~llortageof accommodation, of supplies, and of Per- activation is produced both bg Fure crystalline trypsin sonnel. The Fleece ~knalysis Laboratory has been 2nd chymotrypsin received from Dr. Northrop, United housed temporarily at Villa~~~ood,New Sollth Wales, state.. of L\lllcrIca. This finding invalidates earlier and the Wool Biology Section at 17 Randle-street, ,speculation as to the nature hf the maslcing groups. Some reconstruction of two lahorat~riesin Sydney. (iii) Caseous Lymphndeniii,s of Xh cap.-Further the Mchtaster ,inimal Heallh Laboratory 7.1-as carried experin~entswere ;tarter; on an investigation of the out and arrangenlrnts were made the University protective value of annual vaccination one month College at lrnlidale vales), by which for the before elhearing. The value of placing sheep about 4 arws of land Tvere made " off shears" into a cleail, rested paddock is also being construction of Itegional Laboratory bnildingq. When these will be orclipird by of the Division 'liring the Year a of the occur- and of the Dirision of Plant Industry. Negotiations rence of the disease in the Eyre's Peninsula district of South Australia n as carried out in co-operation with took place for the jlurehase of 4,500 acres of land near .\rmidale for the establishlncnt of the main Field "le Department Of Agriculture' Station for the regional centre. These were not com- (iv) Tub.erculosis of Cattle.-The complement-fixa- pIeted at the end of the financial ymr. An area of 115 tion test has been more extensirely studied using several acres at Prospect IIill, near Parramatta, was acquired antigens, and the reactions of sera from tuberculosis- in August, 1946. This is reserved as the site for a free herds have received special attention. The results sheep and wool research laboratory to invedgate the have indicated that adjustment of the diagnostia titre to a level necessary to minimize false positive reactions In spite of this intellsive treatnlent rare infections still in animals free from the disease leads to a marked appeared at il~tervalsbegilllling a fortlli,I ~t aftt,r treat- reduction in the numbers of tuberculous cattle detected. ment. The herd is still under observation. On the Interesting academic observations have been made, and other hand, ill anot]ler herd a similar total-llerd treat- the work is being continued in the hope of finding a ment was successful, SLr. agaluc.tiue being comIlleteIy practical application of the test in the detection of eliminated. It is of interest that a comlllercial herd cattle which, rvliile not reacting to the tuberculin test, was examined wllicll Jvas naturally completely free of are heavily infected and are dangerous spreaders of the Str. agalactiae (but not of micrococci, staphylococci, disease. non-group B streptococci, or diphtheroids) and of any (v) Mastitis in Dairy Cattle.-The main experi- evidelicc of mastitis. mental herd at Werrihee is still under supervision. ' The new acridine antiseptic 1-methyl-5-aminoacri- The three small herds rr~mtionedin the last report have dine (" salacrin "), described by Albert and Rubbo, was been incorporated in other herds; none of the group found to be too irritant for use in the udder; 4,4'- which were introduced into an infected herd to test diamin~dipheaylsnl~~hone(" sulphone "), introduced their susceptibility developed clinical mastitis, and by Impcrial Chemical Industries and recommended by t1~t.r.c\iTcl.r 0111: six occa~ionalinfections, but this might Francis, is being tested against staphylococcal infec- hare been related to the fact that penicillin treatment tions but so far has not sho.ivll itself to be outstandingly of the infected herd had greatly reduced the oppor- successful. tunitic.3 for infection of the introi!uccd group. Further (vi) Toxaemic Jaundice in Sheep.-The investiga- observations on the possibility of calfhood infection by tion has contillued with the co-operation of officers of Str. agalactiae by means of infected inilk are being the Veterinary Research Station, Glenfield (New carried out on animals which were re~novedfrom their South Wales), and of officers of the Divisions of Soils mothers at birth, one group being then fed on infected and of Plant Industry. The incidence of the disease milk and the other on sterilized milk. Since weaning !bas low ill the Murray Valley during the dry period. they have hcen run together, and three have recently Severe outbrealrs occurred under early and high rain- come into production. fall conditions in Victoria and Ne~v South SVales. 111 an investigation of the effect of hygienic precau- These were associated with the luxuriant growth of tions up011 the incidence of 8fr. agalncfiae 011 the subterranean clover bronght about by the early rains. surface of teats, this was isolated from Observations have indicated that soil acidity provides 46 Per cent. of the teats in a herd in which conditions favorable to the occurrence of the disease in hygiene was of a very low standal'd and flom sheep. More evidence has been obtained on the impor- 0% 3 per cent- and 17 per cent. (two examina- tance of plant species. Conditions wl~icall favour tions at an interval of eight weeks) in a herd herbage as against grass have been associated with the nhere hygiene was good. In this lllilBing shed, exten- occurrence of the disease. Some herbage plants show sire examination of the apparatus, fittings, and utensils a high u;t)take of copper and a low uptake of rn0lyb- revealed the organism in only one illstance (handle of delmm, elld these seem to favour a high copper status a water tap) out of 39 object< trcted. Furthrmore, in tllp ?beep. Three species of plants were studied at only two swabs out of 50 taken from the several levels of pH of the soil in pot experiments. vaginal and perineal regions of the cows were Studies on copper assimilation by sheep under pen positive, and one from a milker's hand. In conditions were continued. A more detailed report has the same herd over a period of nine months, no been submitted to contributing boil ies i,p th~Tn7-estiga- significant difference was found between the ii~cidence tion committee. of infectioii among 276 halltl-etrippptl quarters and ainolig 128 rnachiiie-stripped quarters (29 and 30 per (vii) Baernnt~lriaVesicnlis of Cattle.-The analy- cent+ respectively) ; similarly the incidence of infertian tical mahods for estinlat;ng groups of urinary phenolic on the teats did not t3iffer significantly in the two bodies, referred to in the last report, based upon spectro- groups (15 and 14 per cent. respec~tirel~). In an photometric estimaticln of azo dyes prepared from the attempt to eliminate Str. agalactiae from the teat various phenols, have been further improved, and surfaces, hypochlorite solution (1250 avnilable hy st en la tic observatiolls have been continued- Sugges- frce chlorine) was compared with an ointn,.elit con- tive differences have been found between the wines of cattle fro111 affected and those from non-affected areas, taining 0.1 per cent. of trypaflavine and 555 units of peniczillin pcr gram in a mixture of equal parts of soft but many more examinations will be required before parafin and wool fat. After treatment after each milk- reliable conclusions can be drawn. ing for fourtceri days, there mas no significant dif- (viii) Contagious Abortion of Cattle.-The experi- ferellce bet5yeen the incidence of infeetioil with eacll ment designed to test the resistance of vaccinated calves treatment or between these and previous experience to natural illfection has been conchled. It supports in tile same herd. 3 peculiar feature, which has the claims that vaccination with Br. abortus "Strain frequellt1-y been observed with strains of Sty. analnctiar! 19 " vaccine prevents both infection and abortion: isolated after exposure to various antiseptics, including only one of 27 vaccinated heifers subseq~1entlybecame crystal violet, was again allcouIlter.c~d 8ftel. this test: infectcd and aborted alherea< eighteen of 29 nnvacci- all the strains isolated after treatment and exanlined, nated heifers became infected; of the eighteen, ten altbollgh they reacted with the goup B p:.ecipitin test, aborted and three others excreted virulent l'r. uborlus failed to agglutinate x~~ithany of the type antisera, thus in the discharges- Only one of 30 Pregnant heifers, suggesting some injury to the nlechanism which iyn- whicll had been vaccinated intracaudally and were thesizcs the type substance. exposed in the same environment, became infected and In the same u~ell-maIlagedherd, it has been found aborted. rl study on the various factors influencing impossible to eliminate Str. agaZactiae completeIy by "lability of Br. aborlus " Strain 19 " ~ac~inewas corn- surrcqsful penicillin treatment of all clinical and of all ~letedfor publication. persistrnt subclinical caves; although cli~~icalmastitis Thr investigatinn into the cause of deterioration of was prevented from developing, subclinical infections, vaccine was concluded. Important factors were (a) usually slight, continued to appear. An attempt was intrinsic peculiarities of particular substrains which then made to eliminate irifertion completely by frequent affected the initial of suspensions and the optimal bacteriologiaal examination followed by standard incubation period, and (b) toxic substances leaching pe~icillintreatment of all infected quarters. This also from rubber vacciae caps, particularly if they we,re failed. Filially every quarter of every con7 in the herd manufactured from red-rubber mix containing about Was simultaneously treated without regard to infection. 20 per eent. of zinc oxide, if they had been prepared by acid-washing, and if they were repeatedly autoclaved. of the uterine glands. A great proportkon of the in- Freezing was also found to be highly lethal. The crease in weight of the uterus occurred within two days. results of this investigation are being prepared for and there appeared to be little further increase after publication. eight days. The degree of increase during the first two (ix) Toxicity of Wheat for Stock.-The repeated days was found to be related to the quantity of clover administration of the antihistamine drug Neoantigan, consumed over a limited range of consumption. N-dimetlrylaminoethyl-N-P-niethoxybenzylS-oc-amino dn attempt is being made to develop a method of pyridine, at the rate of 2 mg. per kg. body weight to assay of the active material in clover on the basis of horcrs and sheep which had gorged upon wheat had no these changes in uterine weight. significant cfht in prercnting laminitis. This finding, 3. McMaster Animal IIealth Laboratory.-(i) Para- talien in conjunction with the earlier experimental sitological Investigations-Tnfernul Parcrsites.-(a) results, makes it unlikely that histamine plays an im- SLudy of action of phenothiazine against Haemonchus portant part in wheat intoxication. The possibility of contortus.-It was found that when doses from 2.5 g. excesqive production of lactic acid is being considered. to 12.5 g. are injected directly into the rumen of in- 11 publication is being prepared. The decarboxylating fested sheep, although egg production by the parasite is enzymes of the Lactobacillus referred to in the last greatly reduced for a time there is very little destruc- report are being studied in greater detail at the tion of the worms. With the smaller doses there was no Biochemistry Laboratory at Cambridge, England. anthelmintic effect and the egg production by the para- (x) Anaplasma centralc and Buemobartonella bovis. site returned to normal in a few days. -The strains have becn propagated in calves and main- (b) Study of action of phenotl~iazineagainst Tri- tained at -78' C. Splenectomy of infected calves was chostrongylus spp.-E6ciency trials have shown that followed by an intense infection with H. bovis, with with an increase in dosage to 59 g. and beyond, the minor synlptoms, and rapidly responded to penicillin anthrlmintic action of phenothiazine is increased. The therapy. results have shown that in the treatment of tricho- (xi) Effect of Administration of Thyroxin on Cattle. stronglosis the date rate should not be allowed to fall -Examination of the materials collected at autopsy is below 25 g. for sheep ten to twelve months old. almost completed and the results will be submitted for (c) Phenothiazine against Oesophagostornum colurn- publication. bianum.-Phenothiazine was found to be less effective (xii) Efect of Long-continued Cutaneous Applica- in the treatment of "pimply gut" when used as an tion of BDT Oily Solutions to Cattle.-The experiment enema than as a drench. The results of the studies referred to in the last report is being continued. The with this and other verminous infestations suggest that animals have shown no signs of intoxication. Five factors other than the concentration of the drug in the have borne calves which are suckling their mothers vicinity of the parasite are concerned in the efficiency without obvious harm. Samples of milk are being of the treatment. analysed for DDT by the Section of Dairy Technology. (d) Study of infestation of the bowel by larvae of 0. Present indications are that excretion is very low, of colu~nbianum.-Infested sheep were kept under condi- the order of 3-4 p.p.m. tions which preventejd re-infestation. They were (xiii) Bacterial Oxidation of Arsenical Cattle-dip treated periodically with phenothiazine to remove all ping Fluids.-Three distinct types of Gram-negative adult worms. It was found that adults continued to organisms capable of oxidizing arsenite to arsenate in emerge from the nodules in the bowel wall for many the presence of oxygen have been isolated, two being months, a few were still emerging after a period of active at temperature.: up to about 25" C., the other tx-elve months but observations are not completed. As up to 37O C. larvae in the bowel wall are not affected by anthel- (xiv) Physiology of Reproduction.-(a) Reproduc- mintic treatment, it is obvious that control methods tion in the ewe.--Two st~idieahave been in the course must be prolonged in any campaign ag~instthe infesta- of development: (1) a study of the nature of cyclical tion. activity in the reproductive tract of the mature Merino (e) Ef ect of fasting of the host on egg production ewe, and (2) a study of the development of this activity by zunrms.-Factors affecting egg production must be in the young ewe, and the influence on this development considered when anthelmintic efficiency is to be judged of the time of the year at which the lamb is born. by faecal egg counts. It was found that fasting the An even line of ewes of medium-fine woolled type from ~heepfor four or five days reduced egg output for a Western District flock has been procured for the several days thereafter. The effect upon Trichostrongy- first study. They have been accommodated at Werribee, lus was greater than on Haemonchus, probably because where preliminary observations on them have beeen of their different feeding habits. Dosing with pheno- initiated. To provide the lambs for the second study, thiazine reduced food consumption by the sheep but ewes of a medium-fine woolled type from the Riverina appetite returned to normal within a week. have been obtained. These ewes have been divided into (f) niutrition and resistance to worm infestation.- groups to be mated at different times of the year. The (1) Two groups of young sheep, naturally infested first of these matings has been completed. with Trichostrongylus spp., A.contortus, and 0. colum (b) Changes in the reproductive tract of guinea pigs biunum were kept in pens, and one fed on a ration which consuming subterranean clover.-A study has been caused a gain in weight, and the other on a ration made of changes in the reproductive tract of virgin which approximately maintained the initial body female guinea pigs following the consumption of dried veight. The period required to throw off H. contortus subterranean clover of the Mount Barker strain from was 6-43 days (mean 19.2 days) among those on the a property at Heywood, Victoria, on which breeding better diet, and 12-120 days (mean 57.1 days) among troubles among sheep have been experienced. The con- those on the poorer dirt. When subsequently dosed sumption of clover from this sample had previously with infective larvae, those on the poorer diet proved been found to produc'e changes in the endometrium of highly susceptible, whereas those on the better diet were entire females of a similar nature to those observed by relatively resistant. The group on the better diet also Western Australian workers with Dwalganup subter- tended to throw off their trizhostrongylous infection. but ranean clover from " affected )' properties in Western any effect of the diet upon nodule worm infection was Australia. In ovariectomized young virgin females it obscured by the continued emergence and development produced oestrous changes in the vagina and a marked of larvae during the period of observation. Further increase in the weight of the uterus and in the activity experiments are being planned, (2) The results of administering infective larvae of lethal, but these snails can survive for long periods in 8. contortus experimentally to sheep already carrying places which remain moist and are sheltered from sun- an established infection are variable : sometimes the light. It is thought that the holes made by " ~abbies" established infertion is thrown off, but is soon re-estab- (Parachaerops spp.) enable many snails to survive over lished by adults developing from the infecting dose of prolonged dry periods. No evidence has been found that larvae; sometimes no re-establishment occurs. Field they burrow into the ground ahen pools and creeks observations iliciicatr that similar phenomena occur dry up. There is a well-marked oviposition period in naturally and whrn the infestation is thrown off the the late winter or early spring. A second such period phenonier~on is referred to as "self-cure". A occurs about mid-summer, but relatively few eggs were group of infected sheep was divided into two produced during the period of observation. Prolonged groups, one being left on pasture and the other brought exposure to temperatures about freezing point appear into pens at tl~c,laboratory. " Self-cure " subsequently to be uiifavorable to this species and none could be occurred among those at pasture, whereas infection found above 5,000 feet on Mount Kosciusko persisted among those in the pens. in February, although many favorable habitats were Zl'urtllcr observations on " self-curec" were made near present. The poqsibility that Limnea Zessoni may serve Armidale. lShcep on three properties, each about 10 as an intermediate host of the liver fluke is being miles from the other, were kept under observation by investigated. The observations by earlier workers that faecal examination. " Self-cure " occurred at the iame rabbits may be heavily infested with liver fluke has time in the three groups in December and again in bcen confirmed. February. Experiments have shown that the sheep (h) IIelminth physiology and toxicology.-Studies on have no appreciable resistance to infection at the time the physiology of worms, with a view to finding vulner- " self-cure " is manifested and that the phenomenon IS able points for attack or, them, have been continued. of very short duration. Present indications are that it Studies on the uptake of oxygen and the production of is probably an anthelnzintic effect rather than a form carbon dioxide by eggs, larvae, and adults of H. con- of inimunity or resistance. tori~~s,N. nzuris, and A. gnlli showed that all stages (3) A further trial of the value of green oats for could utilize oxygen mllen it was available. The winter grazing by weaners in New England, conducted methods of use of oxygen indicated that adult forms of by the Armidalc laboratory, confirmed the results of the the larger sprcies used F lgars for energy production, previous year. Weaners which gazed continuously on whereas larvae were depL.ndent on fat as a source of green oats from May to September gained over 26 lb. encrgy. Study of the localization of alkaline phos- per head, none died, and only a few showed any phatase in the cuticle of the sheep tapeworm suggests detectable infection with nodule worm at the end of the that inhibitors of this important enzyme should have a trial. Those on green oats for two or thxe Iiours a toxi:. effect on thr worm. Itadio-active phosphorus was day and on natural grazing at other times, only gained used to examine the uptake of phosphorus in two 1.3 lb. per head, cut over 2 lb. less wool per head than species. They were found to have a high demand for the continuous-oats group and did not lose their phosphate. Preliminary studies on the mode of action 0. columbianurn infestation. The groups on natural of phenothiazine showed that it inhibits an enzyme, grazing, incll~ding one group u~hich was drenched acid pliosphatase, of the parasite's tissues. Fllrther periodically with phenothiazine, lost weight and stlldy of this problem amsits receipt of radio-active suffered heavy mortality. Over 12 per cent. of the sulphur. Sheep nematodes were shown to produce dreilched group died and nearly 50 per cent. of the arnines which may be toxic to the host. The effects of undrenched group. The great advantage of a high nematode infestation on the physiology of the host's plane of nutrition for weaners during their first winter intestine is being studied. was further shown by retaining from the 1945 trial (i) Immunity and resistance phenomena in nemu- groups of slwep nhich had been on oats and natural tode infestations.-A complement fixation test has been grazing, respectively, during their first winter. At developed, using antigens prepared from H. contortus shearing in 1946, those which had spent the 1945 and 2'richostronglus spp. and having low anticomple- minter on oats cnt 1 lb. 10 oz. more wool and weighed mentary and moderate combining power. Results of about 9 lb. more than those which had spent the 1945 tests on selected sheep of known history suggest that winter on natural grazing. this test may be of considerable value in tracing the rise (g) Stt~di~son Limnea brazieri.-Copper sulphate and decline of residence to parasitic infections. There is well known to be highly toxic to this snail, the inter- is considerable cross resction between antigens pre- mediate host of the liver fluke. It has been found that pawd from 13. contortzrs and [rrichostrongylus spp. it is the free copper ion which is toxic. Copper salts Btternpts to prepare antigens from larvae have not yet with other acid radicles are just as effective as the succeeded. Fractionation of adult worm material used sulphate, but compounds in u~hichthe copper is masked as antigen indicates that the lipoid fraction is of par- or protected, e.g. by ammonium groups, are much less tin~larimpcrtnnce in tlle complement fixation test, effective. When copper sulphate is added to some whereas skin reactions to intradermal injections are natural waters in fluke-infested areas a precipitate is smaller, but considerably more specific, when the poly- formed which reduces the cfificaiency of the quantity of saccharide is used. copper sulphate which has been used. Several other (j) Administration of phenothiazine in salt licks.- chemicals were examined for toxicity to L. brazieri, Continuation of this work has shown again that the including rotenom, which was quite ineffective after quantity of phenothiazine ingested was too small to long exposure at 1/10,000, but none approached copper have, any appreciable anthelmintic effect. Moreover, sulphate are being investigated. Examination of the phenothiazine staining of the fleece occurred to a approximately half as toxic as copper sulphate. marked degree. Methods of draining more effectively those areas in which L. brazieri persists despite treatment with copper (k) Epidemiology of helminth infections of sheep.- sulphate, are being investigated. Examinaton of the Observations have contini~edat Saumarez, but drought snail's crop content confirmed that it feeds upon dia- compellrd several co-opcrating iraziers to cease the toms and species of Desmidaceae. Inorganic material trials temporarily. It is hoped to commence again which is ingested remains in the crop for several days shortly on these and other propertias. and probably aids in grinding up the organic matter (ii) External Parasites of Sheep.-(a) Controt taken in as food. L. brazieri is non-operculate and hence measures against lice and Leds.-Earlier work had susceptible to dejsiccation. Large numbers die when shown that when emulsions of DDT were used as sheep their habitat dries out. Direct sunlight also is quickly dips, the dispersed phase wae "stripped out" a, ciipl)ing proceeded. DDT analyses on dip-bath samples trends to the louse populations. Sheep on the poor as made at several institutions appeared to be incon- diet gained 7 lb. in 12 months; those on the good diet sistent. A method which gires consistent results was gained some 68 lb. in the same period. evolved in the laboratory. The usual dehalogcnation (iij ) Blowfly-Stril~eProblem.-(a) Modified Mules technique is used, but the residues precipitated from Operation, Opiirn7rm Tail-le?~gt/~,ccrld Surgical Treat- dip samples are dried at lcss than 60' C. to avoid nlent of Tails.-No further trials havc been under- lo~sof DDT. Also, owing to the low concentration t:tken during the year, but co-operative observations of DDT in the dip bath, a considerable volume must with oificers of the New South Wales Department of be talren for analysis. Preliminary tests wcre then ilgricult~~reare being made in a trial at the Experi- wade to discover the rate of "stripping" from rvirnt Farm, Trangic, to compare the eficiency of the emulsions of finer and coarser dispersecl phase and modified Mules operation plus medium-long tails, from suspensions of DDT in the form of dispersable n,odified Mules operation plus shorter tails treated powders. This work is still in progress. Carrent sargically, and the Manchester treatment. rcs~~ltssuggest that the rate of stripping does differ (6) Studies on Body-stri1ce.-Observations which with different formulations, bnt that it tends to be commenced last year on a property near Stanthorpe to the number of sheep passed through ale cont;r;uing. ilssociation between so-called fleece- the dip. rot and body-strike was confirmed; last year approxi- ,4 series of field dipping trials was carried out, mately 1.0 per cent. of strike occurred among sheep nsing Rucide (a proprietary DDT preparation) in showing no fleece-rot compared with about 22.0 per six flocks involving some 10,000 sheep. Both plunge cent. of strikes among sheep showing severe fleece-rot. and shower dips were used. In plungs dips, concen- Sheep showing fleece-rot in 1946 are tending to show trations of 0.1, 0.07, 0.04, and 0.03 per cent. para- it again in 1947. Tt'hen the sheep wcre classified para-DDT were used and in shower dips 0.1 per cent. visually for "density ", it was found that fleece-rot I\.eds were eradicated from both newly-shorn sheep a as more prevalent anlong dense sheep than among and woolly lambs in plunge dips with 0.1 per cent. those wiih very slaclr fct ces. This tvas observed also pp'-DDT, but at 0.03 per cent., although infestation among the sheep at the Mchlaster Field Station, and was elin~inated from the newly-shorn sheep, it is noted because it is contrary to the usual belief. No persisted in the woolly lambs, probably due to poor other lnarkcd cori.elationi; are yet apparent between \\ ctting. One flock of shorn sheep which was dipped fleece-rot and fleece characteristics. il, 0.1 per cent. pp7-DDT was carrying a light infesta- tion with body lice (B. ovis) which the dip eliminated. (c) Lamb-nearlci~~gdressings.-Previous trials having In the trial with a shower dip "stripping " took place shown that a lamb-m:irking dressing coxtailling niore quickly. Although 0.1 per cent. pp7-DDT was boric acid, citronella, and bentonite as highly effec- u~ed,it gave only a partial kill of keds on woolly tive in preventing strikes of the marking wounds, the sheep after the first 1,000 head had passed through qi~~ntityof dressing which must be used to ensure tLc dip, but still eliminated keds from newly-shorn ehciency was next investigated. As a result, it may sheep. b(1 said that, although results depend to sonie extent on il.~activity, the number of lambs dressed should not (b) Bionomics of the sheep foot-louse (Linognathus exceed 100 per gallon. If flies are relatively inactive, 1" dakis) .-Considerable dificulty has been experienced the drcs~ing may be effective when used more in keeping the parasite alive under artificial condi- spariilglly, but fly activity cannot be predicted with tions or in transmitting it from affected to unaffected sufficient confidence to recommend this. It appeared sheep. Nevertheless, close obseri ation on infested sheep that tlie efficacy of the dressing was almost certainly has enabled the life cycle to be determined tentatively due to the repellent effect of the citronella oil which a.: follo~irs:-Deposition of egg to hatching-14 to 15 it contained. In further trials, using the boric acid- daya; 1st stage larva to adult-16 or 17 days; pre- citronella-bentonite dressing as a standard, a similar ovi-position period-5 days; egg to adult-30 to 32 dcgree of prorection was afforded by spraying the days; rate of egg production-approximately 1 per tail and crutch with pure citronella oil, semi-natural day. These results, however, are based on complete citronella oil (i.e. citronella oil from which most of observations of relatively few lice and need thorough tiie gcraniol has been removed), or dibutyl phthalate. checking before acceptance. The work is continuing The quantity used was approximately 2.5 ml. per and observations are being made at monthly intervals on an infested flock of Romneys near Sydney. The 12mb. R.K.B. blowfly dressings were tested again in this series and proved relatively ineffective. Blowflies degree of infestation is generally heavier in younger were not partieulariy active during these trials, which sheep. Lambs as young ad 4 months were found to must be repeated and extended to inrlude other repel- he heavily infested. iZ slight decline in infestations Icnts. If present conclusioni are confirnied, citronella aas observed in the autumn with a tendency to increase oil would prore a highly economical dressing: for this again in the early winter. Tests are being made as purpose. opportunity offers, to determine the value of arsenic, rotenone, DDT, and Gamrrlexane for the control of (iv) Biochemical Studies.-Work has been hindered this parasite. b long delays in necessary alterations to the laboratory and tlie absence of one of the tivo senior workers on (c) Nutrition and resistance to external parasites.- post-graduate stcdics overseas. Uuch accumulated Eight sheep were each infested with 10,000 lice ~llformation has been checked and prepared fo~ (B. ovis) in June, 1946. These sheep also carried a publication. light infestation with keds (41.ovinus). After one month the infestations of B. olis on all of them had (a) Studies on mineral metabolism of sheep.-No declined considerably. The sheep were then divided new experiments were undertaken. The results of into two groups which were placed on high and low several years' work are being prepared for publication. pianes of nutrition, respectively. The infestation of (b) Analytical Studies.-M~thods for estimating the sheep on the poor diet was still at a low level serum magl~esiun~are bcing critically examined. The when they were shorii in January, but has increased effects of storage, temperature, and transport of blood since so that they now sho:v ;]bout the same degree and serum samples on the level of serum inorganic of infestation as at the beginning of the trial. The phosphate have been investigated. L2ccurate serum infestation of the sheep on the high plane of nutrition inorganic phosphate values can be obtained provided fell rapidly and after thrre months the sheep were tllc sam1:les are held at not more than 20' C. and the virtually clean. They have remained so ever since. fcrum is renioved from the clot within 24 hours. At Ked populations in the two groups have shown similar Eilgher temperatures, e.g. 37OC., the serum should be removed within 5 hours of collecting the blood sample. (b) Responses of sheep to high temperatures amd If analysis cannot be completed within 24 hours of humidities.-Some Corriedales and Camden Merinos, removal from the clot the serum should be depro- already stildied intensively in the previous experiment, trinized. Deproteinized filtrates showed no change in were transferred to the PEiysiology Department of the 1,~organicphosphate even after 24 hours at 37' 0. Queensland Tlniversity, &here their reactions to long (c) Studies on poisonous plants.-Samples of spurry and short periods of exposure to various high tem- (Sl,ergula spp.) and mouse-eared chickweed (Geras- neratnres and humidities are under study. tium glomerafu?)z Thuill.), alleged to have been con- (c) Skin cancer in sheep. -A peculiar form of ccrncd in an outbreak of acute hypocalcaemia among epithelioma in a strain of Merino, which appears to ewes in Tasmania, were found to contain only 1.60 hale a strongly inherited tendency to the development and 1.02 per cent. anhydrous oxalic acid respectively. of such turnours, is being studied in asscrciation with These samples, however, had ;been collected several the Sydney University School of Veterinary Science. weeks; after the outbreak occurred. (rii) Sfudies on E'ertiliiy in Ram.-The effect of (d) E'l'f'ect of vitamin D supplements during winter, diet on spermatogenesis.-The effect on spermatogene- or, body weight and wool production of weaners in sis of high and low planes of nutrition, with and southern latitud~s.- In southern latitudes, sunlight ~iithoutsupplements of carotene, is being studied on ]:leks effective ultra-violet rays for several weeks during several groups of rams. Blood vitamin A values are winter. rnder these conditions weaners in New I~G-,Tdeclining in rams not receiving carotene supple- Zealand have benefited appreciably from vitamin D ments, the decline being greater among rams on a snpplernents. A wries of controlled experiments has high plane than on a low plane of nutrition. Abnor- therefore been commenced, ranging from Tasmania n~alitiesin ejaculated sperm are increasin~according;ly to New England. The effect of massive doses of with vitaniin A deficient animals despite the hlgh bitamin D (calciferol) will be examined at these dif- plane of nutrition. During the summer months both ferent latitudes as regards live weight increases, wool the number of spermatozoa ejaculated and their production, and the .ierum calciunl and phosphorous longevity diminished but rose again with the onset levels. of winter. During the summer months when high (I-)Endocrinological SCudies. - (a) Studies on temperatures appeared to affect spermatogenesis oestrogens.-Ewes produce oestrogen, a female hor- ~clrersely, the proportion of abnormal spermatozoa nicme, at appropriate periods. These are destroyed in reached 40 per cent. in some rams on the low plane the body or excreted. Substances which have similar of nutrition, irrespective of carotene intake. All rams action but which are not easily destroyed in the animal again gal-c normal sperm in the early winter, but body are produced by sonie plants, and some such latterly, as blood vit:lmln A levels have declined, some substances have been synthesized in the laboratory. rams in the high plane group, receiving no additional Studies have been rnade on the excretion of natural c~rotene,are again showing an increasing number of oestrogen in the urine and faeces of sheep. Studies abnormal spermatozoa. have also been made on the oestrogens produced by 4. The 4'. D. ~VclllasterField Station.-(i) Genera!. plants and their destruction by enzymes produced by --Approximately 23 inches of rain were recorded as some species of plants. Groups of wethers on high falling at the station during the year; 19 inches fell and low protein diets were injected with hexoestrol, betmeen November, 1946, and April, 1947. The winter a synthetic oeatrogen, over a period of three months. was again dry, and the :casonal conditions favoured Changes in the bulbo-urethral glands, the udder and summer crops and pastures rather than cereals. During skin glands, and in the prepuce were studied. Con- the year, 100 acres of oats, 60 of millett, and 16 of tinued treatment with the oestrogen failed to main- phalaris and subterranean clover pasture were sown. t~inmammary enlargement of skin gland activity. The At the end of the year the sheep at the station wethers on the high protein diet quickly developed consisted of 97 rams, 174 :vethers, and 747 ewes. c-sternal ulcers on the prepuce but the ulcers healed 1,ambs reared during the year totalled 318 from 497 quickly in those receiving hexoestrol whereas they ewes. For the 1947-1948 season, 560 ewes were mated. persisted in the control group. Cattle numbers mere increased to 24. Consequent on (h) Studies on gonadotropins. - Human castrate the purchase of a tractor, draught horses have been urine is rich in gonadotropins but, except on one reduced to 3. One light horse has been maintained. occasion, the urine nf wethers has given negative deter- (ii) Inheritance of Skin Wrinkles in Sheep-The ~ninations. The possibility that castrate sheep may investigation of the method of inheritance of IT-rinkling dentroy or inactivate such hormones will be investi- of the skin of sheep has shown the characters gated. Takadiastase destroys gonadotropins, 'but no "wrinkledness" and "plain body" to be paired in clciar cyclic change in blood diastase has been detected the Mendelian sense. Among sheep for which environ- with sheep and the level is not grossly affected ]by mental factors were controlled, the characters were sex hormone injections or castration. determined to depend upon the action of many genes, (vi) Wool Biology. - (a) Study of production among which those for plain body displayed dominance. fuctors in fwo contrasting types of sheep.-An inten- The evidence indicated, however, that underlying this tivtb study was made of fine-wool Camden Park cl~ar-cut dominance there were quantitative effects. Merinos and Corriedales. Groups of each type were The investigation also disclosed that whereau in sheep lnaintairied (i) at a uniform level of feeding, (ii) on such as those under observation, it would !be relatively a low plane, changing by stages to a high plane, and simple to evolve either very plain or very wrinkled (iii) on a high plane, changing by stages to a low anin~als,control of intermediate types would be ren- plane of nutrition. The sheep were housed in single dered difficult by their heterozygosity. Experimental pens and very frequent and detailed observations were ~natingswhich are now in their third repetition have, made. From the information obtained it is hoped to on the two earlier successive occasions, disclosed little, rstahlish the conditions necessary to assess critically if any, relation between the appearance of Merino the production performance of breeds and strains of s:res and the degree of wrinkledness of their progeny sheep in comparative studies. The Corriedales and from first-cross, heterozygous ewes. Although there C'iiniden Merinos reacted to nutritional changes very nas no significant difference between the progeny from differently in some important respects, and differences crossbred ewes, of four out-bred Merino sires graded in wool grouth depending on temperature, existing from 25 to 5 with respect to wrinkling (maximal score fleece growth, and other factors became apparent. 27), the progeny of all four were different from those Detailed results are in preparation for publication. of an inbred sire whose wrinkling score was 2. In

From its inception in 1938 up to 1946, the research homozygous sires is established, and third, the Family programme of the National Field Station had been System as evolved by the Bureau of ,2nimal Industry chietly concerned with studies relating to the blosrfly of the United States Department of Agriculture. problem. With the evolution of the modified Mliles The well linown wealillezh of a nlass selection system operation coml)ined with the medium-long tail, as a of breeding is that animals are heterozygous for impor- means of blonfly control, it was believed that intense tant factors and these are indistinguishable from ani- work on this problc.ln was no lonser necessary. The inals nllich are hornozygous. The Hagedoorn System main experiulental work on the alllnlal sidc has there- aims at the establishment of a nucleus of sires whlch fore been designed toward investigations into methods are proven to be homozygous for selected characteris- of animal 1)reetling. This cllange in prograxllme has tics. The falllily system has a rather dilferent approach meant fairly extensive changes in the Eieltl Station to the same obje,ative. Inbreeding follows as may; itself. The resident scientific staff has been increased, some families ill collapse whereas with others, a and additional station plant and facilities hare been highly productive line ~17iilbe evolved in which homo- installed. There has also been expansion in zygosity will be featured. investigations on pasture and plant problcnls during The sheep for this trial were selected in Febrnary, the year. Grazing trials which were interrupted by 1947, wllel~1,180 e\vcs were obtained by classing clown drought conditions were recomn~enced,and some atten- a composite flock of 2,400, made up of the 1942, 1943, tion has been given to fodder production and conserva- and 194-1 drop station breeders. In all, 33 groups were tion. established al~dmating cornlncnccd on 20th May, (ii) Salt Feeding Trial.-To ascertain whether or 1946. not any beneficial effects could be measured when sheep were fed roarsc salt, a small trial involving two groups (c) Grazing trial and plant studies.-The results ehch of 100 ewe weancrs was commeliced in June, 1946. of these studies carried out at the station are reported One group had free access to coarse salt and a second as from the Division of Plant Industry. group acted as a control. The groups were weighted 6. Other Activities.-(i) Fleece ilnalysis Laboru- fortnightly and at the same time they were changed tory.-(0) Nuicfilze measuraments.-Equipment and from to paddock. The trial was abandoned in accon~rnodatiorlhave been obtained, and a nucleus staff December, 1946, when mortalities fro111 general low trained, for carrying out routine measurcmellts of tht: nutrition in both groups were reaching high propor- chardciers of fleeces requirecl in experilrlental and other tions. At no stage throughout the six months was there scientific work. During the year the following routine any evidence that the shcc~)receiving the salt were in measurements were made :-Scouring tests-3,977, any better condition tlian the controls. In ally case, diameter distribiltion-4,873, mean diameter-571, the rate of consumption of salt-less than 2 oz. per density of fibre population-1,922, anti staple lcngth head per week-was too low to reflect any benefit even and crimp-5,353. Fleece sarnples measured came if this mineral was required. from ex1:eriments on the effects of nutrition on wool (iii) Animal Breedil~~Projects.-With the ultimate production, progeny testing, a survey of Merino wool object of contrasting various recognizccl systems of production, and other observations. animal breeding, comprehensive long-term experiments (b) Investigational w~rl;.-~~ftention has been Mere designed. Tile conlmencement of these trials mas given to finding improved techniqxes for determining dependent upon proviqion of facilities in the way of the total nunlter of fibres in a bundle. A new method sxtensive yards suitable for joining small groups of with greater accuracy and versatility than older ewes with rnms, and also on a satisfactory break in the methods nas developed. In this, fibres are sectioned drought conditions which prevailed during 1946. tvhile under cor~ip~~r~land. It is anticipated that this project will rainfall areas (22 23 inches). The region is of require field nark extenJing over two sf~i~o11s. particular interest not only becaustl of it. soil charac- (vii) Soil Xtrrveys of Building Sites.-Soil surveys tclictic.; bi~talso because of the present high incidence and inspectioils of suburban arc Ls in both Mc,ll)ournc of infcrtility disrases in shcep and because of pro- and Aldrl-ridchaxe heen carricd v~ltwith t11~ohject of jected land settlement of ex-servicimc~n. It is alsn an arsistinq ihc work of the Section of Soil I'l~ysics and area in which salinity and associated erosion manifest 1lccl1aiiic.s and as a basis for modification of founda- tl,cmselres in a slight to moderate degree. The spot tion strnrturer; in numerous lio~~sin~projects beilig surveys which are lorated so as to assist not only in the study of the composition of the soil associations undertaken by the State authorities. It is 1:~11e(l .ulti- ~natriyto claasify t!ir soils according to their engineer- bvt also to be of direct value in land settlement, will illg and building aud prepare a nlap of also provide basic data for current infn.ti1it.y research characteristics and for any subsequent investigation of the salinity the capital cities showing the location of such soil and erobion nroblem. groilps. Initially the survey is being largely concen- trated in Al(;c~laitie. Over a wider area a number of inspections of the soils, in relation to ealinity and erosion, 3. cy)have been continued. A11 extensive pot experi- the associated valley sides and hills on nhich there lncnt ponfimnlrd results obtained in the previouq pea:. is a significant iaridence of erosion. that pasture plants growing on the, -oil fror~i tlw Following an earlier inspection of the soils of the Raronga Field Station (lid not have a higher copper Northern Rivers district whcre a declining fertility status tlian the same specie.. growing. on TJJaite Tniti- of pastures is causing concern, a soil survey and tute soil. For both soils, thr coi)pfxrIn tlic plaiitc: was chemical unit accommodated in a mobil~laboratory, of the same order as that norttl as the normal range 11;y has commenced work at Wollongbar. This survey, West1 :11 ,lustralian and New Zealand workers. The both in it9 field and laboratory aspec3ts, is being done copper conte~it11 as apl~reciabl~11ighrr. ho:\ rrer, than ill conjunction with the T)cr)artment of Agricnlturc1 that of tlie same plants gro7iinp on a nleacio~~~podsol alld the Council's Di\isjon of Pla~~tIndu,.try. frcm Rpbyholite. 130th the Iiarooga ar~tll17aite InstI- As in past years extensixre Taork has heen done in tute soils belong to the red-'bronn earth group. the Rirrrina. A ~erydetailed soil survey has been The effect on the copper stntus of the plant of all completed of the (lonncil's Falliine;. Menlorial Fipl.1 alteration in the soil reaction (by the IIQP of sulnbilr or :$:ation, and a commencement made with the detailed lime) was also investigated. Increasing the acidity of' snrve-ev of the Deniboota Irrigation Area of which a the Waite Institute soil to about pTI 4.1 tended to increase the amount of copper taken up by the plants. mechanical composition. The first such diagram was The same increase in the acidity of the Barooga soil published by the Ilivision in 1934. A new type of did not markedly affect the copper uptake. texture diagram has also been developed in which the Change of soil reaction produced marked effects on uledian size of the non-clay fraction is plotted against the uptake of molybdenum by all three plant specles. the clay content. As has been noted by others, acid conditions decreased (ii) Mechanical Analysis.-A new plummet method the uptake and alkaline conditions favored high uptake. has been developed for measuring the density of soil The application of niolybdruum to the soil did not suspensions. This allows a more critical measure of affect the yield or copper uplake of the plants in either density to be made than is obtained with soil hydro- soil type. There was, however, a big increase in the meters. The instrument is more sensitive and allows amount of molybdenum taken up from the molyb- measurements to be made corresponding to a limiting denum-treated soils. As before, the uptake was settling velocity which can be more accurately defined. greatest from the alkaline soils. Readings of density can be obtained as rapidly as with il field survey of the react'on of the surface soil of the an hydrometer. Barooga Field Station and an adjacent property has b~encarried out. This discloscd that the soils of the (iii) Soil Structure.-An investigation into the field station were distinctly inore acid than those of the effect of a wheat-fallow rotation on soil structure has adjacent property. The significance of this is being been concluded. -4 significant decrease in water-stable further examined. aggregates was found. The major part of the decline As indicated previously a soil fertility survey has which occurred over a period of up to twenty years took been commenced at Wollongbar, New South Wales. place in the first five years of cultivation. Cultivation In the preliminary survey, attention is being directed, was also found to have caused a significant decrease in on the chemical side, to reaction, lime requirement, the nitrogen content. From statistical evidence, it is and organic content of the soils. As the investigation improbable that, in the cases examined, the decline in proceeds, other determinations likely to assist in deter- nitrogen was itself the main imnediate cause of the mining the cause of the decline in fertility of these soils parallel decline in aggregation which resulted from will be investigated. cultivation. Methods of analysis have continued to receive atten- Work is being continued in co-operation with the tion. Methods for the dcderminntion of phosphates in Council's Researell Station at Griffith (New South soils have been investigated and a colorimetric nlethod Wales) on changes in structure occurring under various reconditioning treatments of old irrigated orchard has been suitably adapted to yield accurate results, even in soils high in iron and low in phosphate. land. Methods for the deternmination of molybdenum in Statistical investigations have been carried out on plant materials have also been investigated and a new the relation of mechanical composition and nitrogen method developed. This method not only yields accu- content to water-stable aggregation. It has been found rate results for quantities of molybdenum as little as that, in the soils studied, clay and silt content are both 1-10 gamma, but it also enables the determination of positively related to aggregation but that there was copper and molybdenum in the same plant digest. The no significant relation for nitrogen content. method is based on the preliminary extraction of molyb- A procedure has been developed for examining soil denum with cupferron and the production of a deep- structure in relation to a descriptive system being green coloured complex with dithiol. evolved by the Soil Survey Section. The resistance The arrival of the IXilger Medium Spectrograph has offered to the subdivision of large aggregates into enabled further progress to be made with the acetylene smaller units and the hardness and size of these units flame method for the determination of exchangeable are being examined. From data so far available, it cations. The method is now in use for the routine appc2ars that the descriptive method can be represented determination of escllangeable cations in many soils. quantitatively. Some funclamental m-ork remains to be done before the (iv) X-ray Difraction.-An X-ray crystallograph method can be adopted for all soils coming in from the has recently been obtained for studying the crystal various surveys. Other spertro-chernical technique has structure of clays. The change in structure which been investigated. A comprehensive study of the takes place when water is adsorbed by clays is being behaviour of soil, plant ash, and other samples of bio- invrstigated. This is being related to the phenomenon logical interest, in the direct current arc under different of swelling which is of importance in regard to the conditions, has been made in order to effect improre- stability of house foundations. It is intended later to ment in methods used for arcing these substances and nadertake a survey of clay minerals occurring in Bus- so obtain results which are more strictly quantitative. tralian soils. The spectrographic equipment has been used to (v) Jlovement of Water in Soil.-Work has been assist in a number of investigations both within the continued on the irrigation characteristics of soils of Council and for other organizations. Various sample3 the new irrigation area at Loxton (South Australia). of subterranean clover, together with the soils on which A number of the soil types studied earlier possessed they have been grown, have been examined from areas highly calcareous subsoils, some of which were in the giving rise to infertility in sheep, but no positive clues form of hardpan. The effect of pan upon water move- of any mineral factor have so far been disclosed. In ment has been studied in more detail, and it has been connexion with the toxaemic jaundice investigations, a concluded that it is unlikely to be a serious factor con- number of liver samples have hclen examined for their tributing to seepage trouble in the area. less common mineral constituents; the plant samples. . Comparisons have been made between infiltration from the pot experiment are also being examined r~rnl- measurements by the ring infiltrometer and the spray larly. infiltronletcr recently developed by the Division. It 4. Xoil Physics and 1Mechanics.-The main lines of has been shown that in the soils examined the guard investigation of this Section have continued to be in mea of wetter soil around the test plot of the spray the fields of soil-water relations, soil structllre and infiltrometer restricts lateral movement sufficiently to texture, and the engineering properties of soils. make the results comparable to those which would be (i) Soil Texture.-The increasing experience of the obtained if a large area were wetted by spray irrigation. Division has made possible a revision of the triangular On the other hand only 30 per cent. of water entering diagram conventionally used to exprem the relationship the same soils from a ring infiltrometer penetrates between the field description of texture of a soil and it8 vertically. The lateral movement of 70 per cerit. of the water away from the test column results in exces- 5. Soil Bacteriology.-Investigations were continued sively high values for the infiltration capacity when on the possible influence of molybdenlim on nitrogen the ring method is used. The ring method is never- fixation by Rkizobium in association with a leguminous theless of great value as a relative measure of infiltra- plant. By using Phasealus lathyroides with and tion. without inoculation, as the host plant growing on a (vi) Retention of Water by Boils.-The principles Tasmanian soil responsive to molybdenum, evidence underlying water movement have been investigated was obtained that the molybdenum is effective only further. Laboratory work has confirmed the low ten- with inoculated plants and that similar responses can sions recorded at field capa~ityin sandy soils last year be obtained by the use of nitrogenous fertilizers in the under field conditions. Similarly the tensions noted absence of molybdenum. Investigations upon the ) during water application have also been confirmed. growth of Clostridium butyricum, a non-symbiotic The scope of this investigation has been extended to nitrogen-fixing organism occurring in certain soils i cover tension measurements during applications of under anaerobic conditions, were made with a view to water and at field capacity in a loam and a clay soil. ascertaining the role of molybdenum in nitrogen fixa- From work in progress it appears that tensions in these tion under these conditions. soils at field capacity will also be found to be much The demand by farmers for cultures of Rhizobium lo^-er than the commonly accepted values. Transmis- itrains for the inoculation of legume seeds has sion tensions (tensions recorded during application of increased considerably and during the past year some water) were found to be of the same order as those 1,500 cultures have been supplied, in comparison with recently reported overseas. 700 cultures for the preceding twelve-monthly period. The measurement of water retention at low water All strains so dist~ibuted]lave been tested for their content by means of the freezing point method was con- effectiveness under controlled conditions in the glass- tinued. It was found that the depression of freezing house. A large stock culture collection of other strains point of soil water at the permanent wilting percentage has also bccn maintained. Studies have been commenced could be talien as corresponding to 1.5' C. The freez- upon the life, grow.th, longevity, and death of species of ing point method is useful as an indirect method for Rhizobium in liquid cultures under varying conditions determining the permanent wilting percentage. of aeration, and upon the resistance of such organisms (vii) Electrical Merxsuremenfs of Grater Content to desiccation and lyophilization under controlled con- and Temperature of Soil.-Further work has been done ditions and with respect to the activity of so-called on in situ methods for determining water content of 'protective colloids '. In this way it is hoped to gain soils indirectly. The electrical conductivity of gypsum further information upon the viability of Rhizobium blocks and a dielectric method have been examined. A in soil and dust with the possibility of application of number of field installations of gypsum blocks have these results to a dry-type inoculating medium instead been made in connexion with investigations on soils -. -. of the liquid-type at present in current use. under house foundations. 6. Publications.-During the year, 32 Divisional In the course of this work it was found that soil reports dealing with small units of work not in com- temperature affected the results sufficiently to warrant plete form or of a confidential nature were prepared a correction being applied. A new type of soil ther- and circulated to interested bodies, and the following mometer was dcreloped for this purpose. Tempera- papers were published :- ture was mePC 1, d indirectly from the electrical resis- Clarlie, G. B., and Narshall, T. J. (1947).-The tance of a solution of sodium chloride contained in a influence of cultivation on soil structure and small cylinder buried near the gypsum block. This its assessment in soils of variable mechanical thermometer possesses the advantage of requiring composition. J. Coun. Sci. Jnd. Res. (Aust.) simpler measuring apparatus than is necessary for use 20: 162-75. with thermocouples. In the field, the same ~nstruments Crocker, R. I,. (1946).-The soils and vegetation can be used for measuring resistance of both gypsum of the Simpson Desert and its borders. Trans. blocks and thermometers. Roy. Eoc. 8. Aust. 70 : 235-58. (viii) Soil ia Relation to House Foundations.-In- Downes, R. G. (1946).-Tunnelling erosion in vektigations recently commenced by arrangement with North Eastern Victoria. J. Coun. Sci. Ind. the Building Materials Section on soil as a foundation Res. (ilust.) 19 : 283-92. material for houses have been continued. Soil maps Gurr, C. G. (1947).-The freeing point of soil have been prepared by the Soil Survey Section and the water in relation to the permanent wilting physical properties described for various suburban percentage. Ibid. 20 : 105-109. estates. The work has been undertalcen to assist archi- Harris, J. R. (1947) .-Legume inoculation. J. tects of the Housing Commission of Victoria and the Dept. Agric. S. Aust. 50: 447-54. Housing Trust of South ilu3trxlia in their design of Hubble, G. D. (1947).-A soil survey of part of foundations which is varied according to the type of Waterhouse Estate, County of Dorset, North- soil. General information is being built up on soils in East Tasmania. Coun. Sci. Ind. Res. (Aust.), the suburban areas at the sarno timc. Bull. 204. An important part of this project is the study of Marshall, T. J. (1947).-Mechanical composition moisture changes under houses and the soil movement of soil in relation to field descriptions of tex- resulting from this because of the shrinkage or smelling ture. Coun. Sci. Ind. Res. (Aust.), Bull. 224. of the soil. Field installations of electrical moisture Northcote, K. H. (1946).-A fossil soil from meters have been made. In the laboratory, swelling is Kangaroo Island, South Australia. Trans. being stuclicd in relation to crystal lattice structure and Roy. Soc. S. Aust. 70: 294-6. by measuring volume changes of soil clods. The field Oertel, A. C., Prescott, J. A., and Stephens, C. G. moisture studies are co-ordinated at a Sydney site with (1946).-The influence of soil reaction on studies of experimental foundations being made by the the availability of molybdenum to subter- Building Experiment Station, Department of Works ranean clover. Aust. J. Xci. 9 : 27-8. and Housing, which is working on the question of Oertel, A. C., and Stace, H. C. T. (1947).-A foundation design. spectrochemical survey of some phosphate (ix) illiscel1aneous.-The properties of soils have rocks and supcrphosphates. J. Coun.. Sci. been examined in an area intended for testing the mud- Ind. Res. (bust.) 20 : 110--3. crossing ability of Army vehicles. Soil has also been Stephens, C. G. (1946).-The purpose and twh- examined for its suitability for soil-cement ooustruc- nique of land-use surveys in South Australia. tion in a mburban street. J. Bust, Inat, As&. Sci. 12: 128-9, Stephens, C. Or., and Crocker, R. L. (1946).- have been continued. An interesting phase is the Compositions and genesis of lunettes. Trans. development of tomato hybrids resistant to Fusariuin Roy. Soc. S. Aust. 70: 302-12. wilt. Stephens, C. G. (1947).-Pedogenesis following Biological investigations comprise the collection and the dissection of lateritic regions in southern identification of insects of the Mildura district, par- Australia. Coun. Sci. Ind. Res. (Aust.), ticularly those of economic importance. Trials of spray Bull. 206. specifics have been hampered by the rarity of vineyard pests in the past season. VI1. IRRIGATION SETTLEMENT 2. Irrigation and Reclamation.-A survey of cur- INVESTIGATIONS. rent irrigation practice and methods of application of A. C~MMONTYEALTHRESEAROH STATION (MURRAY irrigation water and of subsoil drainage has been

~ILRIQATIOX TI RE AS),,, MERBEIN,VICTORIA. matle by officers recently appointed. The purpose is 1. General.--During the year, the staff has been to compare production methods with the standards en- brought to a strength beyond that of the pre-war visaged by agricultural scienre. Some of the sub- period. The work of recently appointed members (five surface drains designed for soil preservation have not graduates) is naturally not yet reflected in any com- been sufficiently intensive. Extensions to cover reclama- pleted investigations; but this report indicates the tion needs have been investigated and the necessary directions in which they are working. modifications explored. A knowledge of the irrigation The dried fruit industry has now experienced three and reclamation requirements of Mallee soil types of successive years of low production, for which there is the Murray districts has also been gained. complete evidence that seasonal conditions were respon- The trial and modification of means to measure sible. The potential crop was in each year saxlsfac. irrigation water has proceeded, and a model suitable tory, the reduction in the 1944-45 season being due to for experimental measurement has been developed. It the withering effects of exceptionally hot dusty winds, consists of a rotor whose speed of revolution is related and in the two subsequent seasons to rain on the ripen- to the flow of water through a short length of pipe. ing grapes. The potential yield for 1947-48 is lower than The four blades of the rotor have a constant pitch and in any of the three previous years, but if realization their leading edge is inclined at 45' away from the of the potentialities follows, the yields will be higher. oncoming water so that rubbish will pass over the edge The chief concern of the irrigated areas of the of the blade, clearance being for this purpose. Delay Murray River in recent years has been the decline in has occurred in obtaining facilities for the number of productivity of small portions in many important dis- metem required for experimental use. Consideration tricts. Examination has shown that the decline in has been given towards designing a meter more suitable most cases is due to well recognized and well defined for commercial measurement of irrigation water than causes, associated with salt, seepage, or a combination those in present use. of the two. In the light-textured horticultural areas, Contact with the State Rivers and Water Supply loss of productivity is directly attributed to the de- Commission, Victoria, and the Water Conservation crease in reclamation works during the war period in and Irrigation Commission, New South Wales, has areas which were imperfectly or incompletely drained. been maintained, and arrangements are in hand to In the heavier soils, used for pastures and fodders, co-operate in the investigation of water usage and in overstocking during periods of drought, with its In- service trials of the results of the enquiry. Preliminary evitable devrease in the plant cover necessary as a work has been carried out on equipment for measuring dewatering agent, has resulted in soil deterioration due the rate of entry of water into soils. Results from to a rise in the underground water-table. Corrective infiltration rate determinations are linked with inves- measures are in hand in areas to which estabtished tigations on the optimum water requirements of the methods of reclamation can be applied, and investiga- major soil types of the irrigated districts. tions are in progress in settlements in which the irriga- T11 co-operation with officers of State Departments tion environment and the drainage response of the soil in Victoria surveys have been made of irrigated pasture types are not yet sl~fficientl~defined to warrant plan- lands in Swan Hill and Cohuna districts (Victoria), ning sub-snrsace drainage. Decreases in fruit pro- and in thc, Wakool district (New South Wales). The duction associated with soil decline are minor com- usual association of free subsoil water and the rise pared with losses due to unfavorable seasons, as decline of injurious salts were noted on portions of the areas in productivity is restricted to small areas. in ~vhichproductivity was either lost or declining, and Assistance has been given to Commonwealth and the work is being continued by State officers by the State authorities in locating suitable areas and plan- establishment of expe~imental areas on which the ning for post-war land settlement for returned service- methods and the rate of reclamation are being studied. men. These activities include minor soil surveys, selec- 3. Land Use.--Some minor soil survey work has tion of suitable locations for the crops to be grown, and heen carried out, the Station having agreed with the economic considerations, including farm size and irriga- Soils Division and with the Department of Agriculture tion design. to undertake local requests involving less than a week's A survey of water usage and distribution in the Red field work. in order to save diversion of their eflorts Cliffs settlement has been continued in co-operation from ma.jor operations, to satisfy urgent soldier settle- with the State Rivers and Water Supply Commission ment requirements, and to maintain contact with local of Victoria. The examination shows that the quan- problems. So far 2,300 acres have been surveyed under tities of water applied to the land cannot conceivably these eonditions, including 1,400 acres at South be required by the plants grown. Devices and methods Merhein for the Department of Agriculture; the re- for the measurement of water under the conditions sults have been reported to the authorities concerned of usage have been studied, and measuring appliances and to the Soils Division. adopted on an expenmental scale. This work has disclosed weaknesses in the knowledge Fruit processing requisites are still in short supply, of the relationship of citrus growth to management including the vegetable oils used in dips for grapes. and to soil type, and a beginning has been made on A sulphonated oil, " Sulphol ", gave slightly better collecting material for a better definition of this rella- results than the vegetable oils, and was used to supple- tion,~hip. In the irrigation districts of Wakool seven ment the supply. esptrirnental plots, on land representative of the Vegetable work, for which the Station is a unit in major soil types of the district, have been established, comprehensive investigations of the Division of Plant for a study of the productivity as associated with the Industry, has been extended and further developed. type of soil. The overall results for the first year Variety trials of tomatoes, potatoes, and rock melons indicate greater productivity in the soils of relative17 light texture, with also extreme variation in the pro- from a State Rivers and Water Supply channel where ductiivty of some of the soils of heavy texture, which water can be obtained during the irrigation periods for appears to be related to soil structure. vines. Investigations have concerned tomatoes, 4. Horbicu1ture.-Iron chlorosis investigations haye potatoes, carrots, red beet, rock melons, and beans, and been continued; for currants there is increasing evl- results obtained to date are being assembled for pub- dence to show that chlorotic vines can sometimes be lication. cured or very considerably improved by restricting With regard to tomatoes, many new varieties and cultivation to occasional very shallow working to de- hybrids have been tried under irrigation conditions ln stroy weeds; and by swabbing all pruning cuts with this district. Pcarsoii 29-17 has proved an outstanding a 20 per cent. ferrous sulphate solution. One plot of variety for both yield and quality over the last four currants, in which the vines has ceased to bear fruit years. The most promising hybrids tried to date are and were dying some two years ago, was treated in this thoye varieties that have been crossed with Pan manner and has continued to make good progress and America, a variety fairly resistant to Fusarlum wilt last season bore a good crop. disease. This disease causes extensive losses in some Swabbing trials with minor elements on sultanas seasons in the Mildura district. Of the hybrids so far and currants were continued at the Research Station. tested, Rouge de Marmande x Pan America and (Veto- Negative results have so far been obtained by swabbing mold C x Rouge de Marmande) x Pan America appear all pruning cuts with concentrated solutions of salts .the most suitable. Arrangements have now been made containing boron, iron, manganese, zinc, and molyb- for the Victorian Department of Agriculture t? con- denum. With Gordo vines, zinc treatment by swabbing duct commercial plots of these hybrids in this dlstrict pruning cuts with 20 per cent. zinc sulphate again for further observation. If considered suitable, seed gave an increase in yield on one plot at Red Cliffs. will be released to growers. Other varieties of tomatoes Three general manurial trials on irrigated sultanas considered suitable as regards yielding ability and --one at the Station, one at Red Cliffs, and one at quality were crossed during the year and seed collected Woorinen-are maintained, and with their known for further studies. history of treatment are to be used in an examination Sereral varieties of potatoes have been tested, and of chenlical changes in soil under irrigation, for which all have been more or less affected by Fusarium wllt other preliminary work is still being carried out. during the growing season. Most varieties also pro- For a study of the lack of uniformity of grapes of dirced undesirable second growth tubers. Varieties, the Gordo Blanco, continuous study of the grapes, however, which showed promise under irrigation condi- including growth records, were made from flowering tions in this district are Eatahdin, Pontiac, Kusota, time until maturity. After setting was complete, it Houma, Sebago, and Sequoia. was found that the grapes on the majority of bunches With regard to carrots, some 48 varieties and strains, could be graded into three distinct classes-large the seer1 of which wps obtained from various seed berries with seeds, medium sized grapes with imperfect n~crchants, have been investigated. Duplicate plots seeds, and small seedless grapes. Weekly measure- of each variety and strain were sown during the ments of size disclosed that both the large normal winter and spring. Results disclosed that there were berries and the medium berries with imperfect seeds significant tliiferences for both yield and quality had regular growth characteristics, the chief differences betmen strains of the same variety as well as between being the size and the shape of the berries. At matura- different varieties. Seed sown during the spring tion, they constituted two distinct classes. p~.oduced higher yields than seed sown during the The annual examination of the buds on sultana \\inter. The percentage of roots that split was much canes of the Mildura district revealed a decrease in 11igher for the winter-sown seed than the spring-sown the average bud fruitfulness and also in the average ,c~ed, and no unusual seasonal conditions to which this primordia size. There was very little difference in c.,ultl be attributed were noted. either fruitfulness or primordia size between canes Duplicate plots of thirteen varieties and strains of examined from frosted and non-frosted areas in the red beet were established during the winter and spring. Woorinen district. The percentage of fruitful buds A strain of Early Wonder Tall Top prod the most has provided a reliable estimate of yields, except in suitable for both sowings. With winter-sown seed, seasons when losses from varioi~sproduction hazards ai: varieties and strain? (with the exception of two) have been heavy. l~nda percentage of plants that seeded. No plants On a manurial trial on citrus at Merbein, which is fro= sci~dsoiln during the spring secded. The per- being carried out in co-operation with the Department c~ntageof roots that split was much higher with the of Agriculture, a growth census of one shoot from winter sowing than spring sowing. each of 100 trees covering the various treatments, has Man? varietie,, of roclr melons new to the district been started. In this connexion a relation between hare been tried. Some of these show promise of being growth cycle and deficiency symptoms has been noted. initable for growing under irrigation conditions in The testing of a fan for frost damage prevention, the Murray Valley. designed by the Council's Division of Aeronautics, Studies of the growth of bush and climbing beans was undertaken during the spring of 1946; results ha~ebeen continued. Brown Beauty has been the warranted further investigations during the winter of principal variety grown in the district, and has pro~ecl 1947. A site has been prepared for the test in a vine- quite suitable. However, with a view to investigating yard known to be affected by frost. Preparations the suitability of other varieties, trials were carried include the installation ,of Sanborn Element ther- out on qeren buqh ~'ari~ties,including Brown Beauty. mometers (i) exposed to imitate the radiation charac- C:i.owth studies carried out included times of flowering, teristics of a young vine shoot, and (ii) aspirated to t;mes of setting, percentage of pods of total flowers, measure actual air temperatures. Psychrometer San- nlatnrity size of pods, and coolring qualities. Welling- born apparatus together with balloon gear is also toil Wonder and IIa\~ke~huryWonder Tve1.t. the highest available to determine the temperature and the humi- yielders, whilc New Zealand Stringless Greenpod and dity of the air immediately above the site of the test. 1,ogan were best for cooking qualities. 5. Vegetables.-Vegetable investigations have been Studies on the periodicity of irrigation for tomatoes, carried out at the Merbein Station in close co-operation have heen continued and extended to include further with the Veqetable Section of the Division of Plant treatments. Treatments now iuclude watering plants Industry. Most of the work is carried out on an area (furrow irrigation) at 1, 3, 4, and 5 weekly intervals. of land in the Red Cliffs district where an urban water Data are at present being exainined, hut Fusari~~m supply is available for both furrow and spray irriga- wilt affected many plants in the trial last year and tion. Tn addition, the plot is served by a pipe line mag have to some extent masked resnlts. At the request of the Division of Plant Industry, bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis), hoary cregs small preliminary plots of soy beans were commenced (Lepidium Draba), and hardheads (Centaurea picrls in 1947, to study the growth habits of various varieties syn. repens). Apparently good results were obtained when grown under irrigation. Records of yield and with the first two weeds but hardheads proved more growth indicate that some of the varieties tested may resistant, for with it time of application seems to plaove suitable. Some varieties, however, failed to be very important. It was found that spraying of mature. box-thorn trees killed the leaves alone and they were In conjunction with the tomato variety trial con- replaced by the tree on three occasions in three months dncted at Rcd Cliffs, the vitamin content of each with no ill effects to the tree. A currant vine was variety was estimated on 18th February, and 5th easily killed when sprayed with Methoxone. March, 1947. The eight hybrid varieties contained Although several insecticides were applied in a trial as much ascorbic acid as the four standard varieties to conlbat the light brown apple moth (Tortria in the trial. The results obtained were higher than postaitiana Walk.) on grape vines, only the prelimi- last season's and comparable with the figures for Gary sprays were applied, as the apple moth popula- 1944-145. tion did not build up to pest proportions and in the 6. Fruit Processing.-Investigations were continued laiter part of the season was almost wholly absent. on the use of special sulphonated oils and wetting Insects belonging to the following orders have been agents in the dipping and drying of sultanas, and the collected and where possible identified : Hymenoptera, stage has been reached where it has been shown that Diptera, Lepidoptera, Coleoptra, and Orthoptera. certain specially pr~paredsulphonated oils give slightly 8. Finance.-The station is partly financed by the better results than the vegetable oil emulsions which Treasury and partly by other organizations. Contri- have been in general use. When supplies of vegetable butions received during the year included £1,200 from oil were unavailable last season the use of a special tlie Dried Fruits Control Board and £1,000 from the sulphonated (( Oleine " was recommended. This was Mildura Packers' Association. Other contributing sold under the trade name " Sulphol". Latest results bodies comprise the State Rivers and Water Supply suggest that it may be possible to use paraen oil in Commission of Victoria, the Water Conservation and dipping if special wetting agents are used in conjunc- Irrigation Commission, New South Wales, the Rural tion with it. Bank of New South Wales, and several producers' Further investigations were carried out on the use organizations for examination of special problems of of potassium hydroxide (caustic potash) in spray their districts. mixtures for hastening the drying of cold-dipped sultanas. These have shown that during slow-drying 3. IRRIGATIONRESEARCH STATION (MURRUMBIDGEE m father notassium hvdroxide is murh more effective IRRIGATIONAREA), GRIFFITR, Natv SOUTH WALES. than poiassi~un caGbonate, but that during good 1. General.-The Irrigation Research Station at weather the difference is not so great. Spraying with Griffith was established in 1924. It has 140 acres of caustic ~otashbrowns th~fruit more than carbonate irrigable land, 30 acres of which are ~lantedto orchard of potash. In the Woorinen district spraying trials trees. Dnring the past year, extensive additions have were carried out with both the mixed and cold dips. been made to the laboratories, which now provide

Investisationsu were continued on the control of excellent facilities for research. mould growth. on fruit drying on the racks. These 2. Field Experiments u:ith Fruit Trees.-Permanent showed that mould growth in currants could be checked field experiments with orange trees cover investigations by enclosing the rack with " Jutex" or similar side of the fol101ving:-Methods of irrigation and water curtains and sulphuring the fruit for one to two hours requirements of trees, fertilizer requirements, including with the fnznes of burning sulpliur produced by burn- trace elements, cultural treatments, and other studies. ing approximately 2 Ib. of sulphur in a suitable con- Besides these experimental fields on the station's tainer under every second bay. Light sulphuring in property, there are experimental plots on settlers' this manner caused no appreciable bleaching. orchards. 3luch information concerning suitable Work is in progress on the packing-house treatment methods of irrigation for different soil types and the of rain-damaged fruit, and in particular the treatment efl'ect of different cnltural treatments on tree growth of curraiits affectcd with mould. A washing procedure has been obtained from these plots. has been devised whi& removes approximately 90 Zinc deficiency following on the application of per cent. of the mould spores present. The condition s~~perphosphateto the soil often leads to serious of the fruit this season ei:?plln.izt.s the necessity for unthriftiness in trees. The reason for this effect of the thorough washing and drying of all dried fruits the phosphate ion on the availability of zinc to the in the packing houses prior to packing, and work has plant is being studied. A study of the root systems of been commenced wit11 tlie ohject of finding the most fruit trees has shown that soil texture exerts some efficient method of incorporating this treatment in influence on the distribution of the roots, but other the standard production line. factors, such as cultural methods adopted, overshadow Investigations were also carried out on the spqilaae tile effect of soil texture. of dried fruit in certain food parcels sent to Britain, 3. Irri,qafiorz Investigations.-For better understand- and on the use of moisture-proof cartons for dried ing of the principles involved in the infiltration of fruits. A report corering this work was submitted to water from furrows and its lateral soakage, experi- the Export Control Board. ments were continued using short sections of furrows A study was made of the use of hessian wicks and of different shapes and containing different quantiti~ of sodium nitrate as aids to the burning of American of water. powdered sulphur in the sulphuring of tree fruits. The results to hand show the importance of close A summary was presented to the (Interstate) Dried spacing of furrows, in order to effect economy in the Fruits Proces~ingCommittee. use of water. The furrow shape and size within the Drying trials with infra-red rays were carried out irrigated strip is of secondary importance except when in co-operation with the Red Cliffs Co-operative the shape of the furrow brings the water rather close Packing Co., and a report on this work was prepared. to the plants irrigated. The results showed that freshly washed fruit could These results are of importance in designing suitable be thoroughly dried in about fifteen minutes but that irrigation layouts for the wide range of slopes and the cost mas likely to be high. soil conditions which obtain in practice, and are 7. Biology. - Preliminary trials were commenced especially important when considering the exacting using Atlacide and Methoxone as weed-killers on requirements of vegetable growing. 46

4. Rice Field Investigations.-Rice-growing is rather Two experiments were carried out on salty land to extravagant in the use of water, and with a limited compare farrow and spray systems of irrigation under supply of water for irrigation this aispect of the these conditions. Spray irrigation showed to advan- industry constitutes an important ~roblem. On some tage on the two soil types, a clay loam and a sandy parts of the irrigation areas sandbeds underlie the luam. soil, and excessive infiltration to these beds is a serious Material has been grown for dehydration and bio- rnenace to neighbouring horticultural districts. An chemical studies by the Division of Food preservation irlvestigation to determine the amount of water lost and small trials carried out for various section8 of to the atmosphere from paddy fields by transpiration the Division of Plant Industry. and evaporation, and the amount that infiltrates into 9. I'lant Physiology.-A study is being made of the the soil, under the varying conditioiis that obtain, was problem of soil structure in relation to organlo carried out during the past rice season. The results manures, using the crop itself as a guide to soil con- are important in determining future policy in the use ditions. Rice hulls--a by-product of the local rice of water for rice-growing. mill-%ere used as an organic manure for tomatoes. 5. Brainage ~nvestigations.-Waterlogging and salt- Tlie initial project established a positive effect of rice ing are widespreadon the Yurrumbidgee Irrigation hulls, eren without additional nitrogen, on the yield Area, and are threatening the commercial life of many of fruit. However, this result followed a very pro- nounced depression in early growth with the same Drainability studies on the major soil A study of the establishment and early have been continued to determine the optimum depth t~eatnlent. and spacing of tile drains. The information supplied growth of the plants with a wider range of treatment by these studies is being used as a basis for the installa- is in progress. tjon of farm7size tile drainage trials on each of two In field experiments, especially with organio The effects of drainage on crop and manures, consistent treatment effects on yield are often major soil types. difficult to get. This is due to thc complexity of the 011 soil-salt status will be studied. Two suitable farms circulnstances which obtain from time to tim; and at have been selected for these trials. Mole drainage ciiflerent sites. Final success in interpretation would investigations are proceeding. The possible use of to depend upon a s,multaneous study of the salted horticultural land for dairying purposes is being changes in the soil, and in the crop which it supports. explored, and methods of establishing and maintaining The physiological aspects of such a On such land are being out. Such for the development of plant sampling techniques as width of bay7 length of run, and pasture Lrhich attain at least as high a degree of precision mixtures are being considered. aq that now obtainable under the relatively oontrolled 6. Soil Reconditioning Investigations.-The average conditions of the glass-house. The work on this life of orchards is about twenty years, and as most technical problem has occupied much of the current of the ~lantingson the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area year, and very satisfactory progress has been made. are now twentp to 30 years old, the district has passed Work has begun on the aater relations of plants. through the first cycle of its development, and the use The initial project is a study of the effects of mild of old orchard land presents some problems. and severe wilting on the subsequent growth of indl- The constant tillage and working of the land results vjdual parts of young tomato plants. in the loss of crumb-structure and the formation of 10. Frost Investigatzons.-A survey of the "frosti- a plough sole; these cause a decline in the fertility izess" of the Northern Lake View district on the of the soil. Investigations are proceeding to determine Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area is being carried out. the exact nature of these soil-structural changes, how '.!'he suitability of the district for horticulture depends they can be prevented, and how the structure of soib on its relative "frostiness ", and this must be deter- so affected can be improved. mined before it can be said that the area is suitable 7. Salt Investi,qatio.ns.-Work on the diagnosis of fer horticulture. The method adopted oonsists in salting in orcllards shows that foliar analysis is more exposing minimum thermometers distributed systemati- reliable than soil analysis and that, by the use of a cally over the area and comparing the readings with quick method, an overall saving of time can be those obtained on already settled areas. achieved, The chloride ionhas to be an effeo In co-operation with oficers of the Division of t:ve indicator, but further work is in progress for cases Radioph~sics, temperatures on calm clear nights are where sulphates are important. being recorded at levels up to 400 feet by means of a In collaboration witll the Water Conservation and sounai~igballoon. The nature of the "temperature Irrigation Commission, the composition of drainage inversion " SO recorded is of importance in developing waters pumped from deep sand beds under the Yanco nlethods to combat frosts. area has been followed from mollth to month. The II. h'oib and Irri.(Ja'iiOn Extension 8ervices-B~ good quality of Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area irriga- arrangement with the New South Wales Department tion water has been established, and the fluctuations of Agriculture, the ~ouncilhas undertaken a pro- in composition determined, over one irrigation season. gramme of education and extension work to bring the results of investigations of soil-water relationships and lnuestigations.-During the past Year, iIrigation methods to the irrigation farmers. The investigations in the field have centred on the nitrogen work was inaugurated in 1943 for a period of phosphorus nutrition of the main pars. The precise forlu of its organization for future grown on the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area. Short- gears is at preseIlt ullder with a view term and the fate of :O the Depar*tment of Agriculture taking over the siiperphosphate applied to soils under irrigation are responsibility for it. in progress. The degree of fixation of phosphates and The policy of the serviceis directed by the Adv&orJ their rate of accumulation under commercial vegetable Committee of the &search station, local culture, in conjunctioli with leaf analysis and yield farmer interests state and ~~d~~~lorganizations will point the way to sounder recom- concerned with agriculture on the Jlurrumbidgee mendations for the use of phosphatic fertilizers. Irrigation Area. All these organizations contribute Further aspects of the dominating influence of fallow- tc the cost of the service. Details of the work are ing On the nitrogen requirements of vegetable crops given in mimeographed progress reports available from have been investigated. It has been shown that there the station. is a carry-over of the accumulated nitrates from a The service hau concentrated on more urgent district fallow in the previous summer to the succeeding season problems chisfly, irrigation to prevent for both spring and autumn crops. salting, reclamation of salted land, and cultural practices to maintain ,soil fertility. The aim of exten- absence of data covering the inter-relationship of sion worli must be to contact every member of the production rates, sawn recoveries, and conrersion farming community to see that research and other methods, with type of equipment used in ilustralian ;nformation is applied on every farm. A proved saw-mills and the influence of these factors on saw- requirement for effective extension work is the fuIl mill design. Therefore, with the object of accumulat- participation of' local farmers in its planning and ing the requisite background and information necessary voiiduct, and the Soils and Irrigation Extension Service to undertake an examination of saw-niill design, saw- has co-operated with the New South Wales Depart- mill studies have been carried out by the Division in nlent of Agriculture in assisting farmers to form eight (Jueensland in co-operation with Queensland Sub- district extension groups, which are now organized I~r~~artmentof Forestry and the Queensland Timber on a regional basis through the Nurrumbidgee Irriga- Stabilization Board, and in Victoria in co-operation tion Area District Council of Extension Groups. xith the Victorian Saw-millers' Association. In addition to farm visits, the methods used include Officers of the Division have again been called upon the holding of field days, farmers' extension schools, to give numerous lectures on forest products. These lectures at meetings of extension groups and at general have included public lectures, lectures to variour farmers' meetings, q~eeklypress articles and broadcasts, rrhabilitation clas,ies, and lectures to the forestry ar~dthe periodical publication of a Farmers' News- students of the University of Melbourne. A success- Ictter. Visual education methods, including the use ful kiln-seasoning course was held in February, 1947, of an epidiascope and a sound-film projector, greatly ir, Adelaide and mas attended by manual training illcrease the effectiveness of the work. Special courses instructors of the South Australian Education Depart- for Junior Farmers are conducted. ment, kiln operators, and others of the timber industry During 1946-1947, the future of the Extension in that State. It was arranged by the South Aus- Service has been under consideration by the contri- tralian Branch of the Timber Dereloprnent Association. buting organizations. The Advisory Committee to the The publication of the Forest Products News Letter Research Rtation has prepared a report, with detailed has been contir~ued throughout the year. The News recommendations for co-ordinating research and Lofter has been given wide circulation and through il~tegrating extension on a regional basis. In this, it the work of the Division has become known, not tl~erxperience of the past four ycars has been used only to the general public in Australia, but also in to draw up recommendations aiming to use the other parts of the world. In addition, the internal Mlxrrumbidgee Irrigation Area as a testing ground rcports prepared by the officers of the Division have for rnodern principles and techniques of agricultural in recent years beer1 given a solllewhat wider circula- organization. tion and, by this means, the ~vorkof the Division has received attention orer a wide field. VIII. FOREST PRODUCTS INVEtSTIGATIONS. Two eenior officers of the Division spent a con- siderable time in Japan as members of the Australian 1. Introduction.-At the beginning of the year under Scientific Mission. review a rather ambitious programme of work covering The Division was represented at the Fifth British scme 170 projects and sub-projects was drawn up. Commonwealth Forestry Conference held in London i\ i\ great number may be considered as recurring pro- jects likely to extend over many years, while others in June, 1947, by the Chief of the Division and the wcre listed in the hope that during the year a start Officer-in-('harge of the Wood Structure Section. could be made on some outstanding problems. The The number of inquiries received from trade, tielay has been almost entireley due to the difficulties government, and semi-government sources has increased it1 procuring suitable research and technical officer considerably. Over 3,000 such inquiries, in addition staff. Ilonever, it is pleasing to report considerable to those covered by correspondence, were handled. progress in many lines of work and to record that 2. IVood Structure.-(i) Cell Wall and Fibre attention has been devoted to many projects of a Studi~s.-(a) The nature of fhe cell wol1.-In order fundamental nature, without neglecting the all- to obtain further evidence on the micellar angle, the important maintenance of contact with the timber various layers of the cell wall were investigated by industry. the follorc-ing methods :-the rnic*ro~copicappearance 'Throughout the year 00-operation has been main- of fibre and tracheid walls after crushing; the tained between the State Forest Services and the behaviour of cross sections when viewed by means of Cnmmonwealth Forestry and Timber Bureau. It has the ultra-microscope: the comparative dichroism of been officially agreed that the Division will co-operate various cell types; the comparative birefringence of with the iienly-formed Forests Departmext of the various cell types. Papua-New Guinea Administration in the same way (b) Collapse.-It has been felt for some time that as it does with the various State Forest Services. one method of investigating collapse, particularly Fundamental studies on wood chemistry and pulp that which does not rccorcr during a standard steaming and paper problems hare been continued throughout lroress, was by invedtigxtion of cell wall structure. the pear in co-operation with the pulp and paper Tension wood specimens collapse very badly and show industry. At the Eighth Annual Pulp and Paper little or no recovery. It was considered that this would C'o-operative Research Conference, held in March, pcrhaps give sol~~elead as to tlie relationship between 1347, Nen Zealand Forest Products Ltd. was repre- the physical and chemical nature of the cell wall and seiltetl for the firqt time. This research conference extent of collapse. The cell mall of tension wood mrao timed to coincide with the first annual meeting fibres is known to be low in lignin by comparison with of the Australian Pulp and Paper Industry Technical that of normal wood fibres of the same tree. Hence Association-a body that will supply the much overdue it is possible that recovery under steaming may be opportunity for co-operation and exchange of ideas ciirectly correlated ~iththe lignin content. 'I'csts are bct~~eenall technical personnel of the pulp and paper bcing carried out to explore this possibility. A industry on a much broader scale than that which technique has been developed whereby sections of concerns fundamental research. The Research Con- collapsed vood can be cut nithout immediate recovery ference and tlie Technical Association will function nccurrlng. independently although there will naturally be clov~ (c) Compression zuood tracheids and tension wood iidison between them. fibres. -- In the determination of the longitudinal The Division has for some years recognized that the shrinkage of isolated fibres, no significant difference i:ldustrial and economic development of the timber has been observed beheen tension wood fibres and industry in Australia is seriously handicapped by the normal ~vood fibres from the same growth ring in 47

tk:r same tree. Similar results were obtained with 'i'he fcatures of each species will be shown in cross compression wood tracheids and normal wood tracheids, sc.ction at both low and hidl power, in tangential wl:ile nieasurenlents carried out at the same time section, anti in radial section. choaed that the micellar angle of the compression wood (iv) Idet~tifiraiions.--Over 1150 timber and fibre tracheids was on the average much higher in relation idcntificntions have been completed during the year. tu the longitudinal fibre axis than that of normal wood Many of thc timbers submitted came from the various trachrids taken from the same relative position in the J'ancific islands, and it is evident that the Australian I gro~vthr:ng. Different methods of isolating the free t;n~ber trade is lookirlg to this source for future fibres wele employed and measurements li7ere carried supplies. Numerous requests nere receired for the out in adter, in alcohol, and in sylol. It has been identification of the fibrous raw material used in the concluded that there is no direct relationship between nianufacture of board- of various kinds and of paper micelle angle and the longitudinal shrinkage of the r~roducts. fibres after remoral of water. The abnormally high (r) Timbers of the South-West Pacific Area.-(a) iongituc!inal shrinkage of reaction wood must be New Quinra.-The examination of various species has explained on other grounds, and it is suggested that bcn rontinued. A vorking plan for a proposed series tile nature of the intercellular layer and the relative r)' pirblications on Sen Guinea tirnber species has been chemical composition of the cell walls might have some drawn up in collaboration with Mr. J. B. McAclam, bearing. Pecretaly, Forests Department, New Guinea-Papua (ii) Cjrowth Studies. - (a,) Eucalyptus spp. - The ~\dminist~.ation,and Mr. C. T. White, Government gro~rthof E'. regnans F.v.M. as represented by increase Botanist, Brisbane. Some 25 of the more important in the woody tissue of the stem is apparently con- bliecies \rill be covered in the first bulletin. For this tinuous througliout the year, although not uniformly work the ntwssary timber descriptions covering macro- n? the same rate. There is no evidence of cessation scopic and microscopic features have been prepared. of growth at any period either in summer or winter. Information on the forestry and botanical aspects I liather sinlilar rcxsults were obtained with E. gigantea \\ill be supp1ic.d by Mr. J. B. AfcAdanl and Mr. C. T. Hook f., although with this species there is a definite ffhite respectively. The collection of information fcrrnation of so-called latewood quite late in the winter flom all sources has been centred in this Division. and just prior to the con~mencementof spring growth. (b) Brilish Solomon Ts7ands Protectorate. - T,he The change to latewood and then to early~voodis very examination of the timbers from this region has been rapid, and apparently occurs in late August or early completed and the re.;alts forwarded to Mr. F. 8. September. \'Tallrcr who condllctcti the forest survey for the High (6) Pinu6 spp.-With P. radinta D. Don and P. Commissioner of the Western Pacific. Discussions ~mnderosa Doug., latewood formation begins at the on the timbers and methocls for their identification clld of May in most of the trees examined; in a few were held mith Mr. Walker when he visited the Divi- his formation was a month later. Latewood was sion at the end of 1946. c~ontinuouslylaid down in all trees throughout June, (vi) Pard-#orfing Identification Keys using Macro- J~xly, and the early part of Angnst, and the next sco21ic 17eafures.-The revised key for New Guinea scason's earlywood was first discernible in late August timbers has been completed and 200 sets prepared. or early September. There is apparently little or no h/fal~~of these have already been _distributed. The resting period. key for the Australian commercial timbers has been (c) Species from N. Queens1amd.-The detemina- practically completed, all the information for the tion of the amount and nature of tlie woody tissue ii~diridualspecies being prepared and in the printer's leid damn by the five species selected for examination Fflnds. During the year, arrangements were made to has been extremely troubleson~ebecause of the difficulty Include on the card for each timber species botanical cf correlating the ,qrowth from month to month. il~forniationand line drawings of leaves, flowers, and Follo~vingthe original plan, the monthly specimens fruits. A record of the work carried out during the were collected in rotation from north, south, east, and war on the preparation of various card-sorting keys west sides of the one tree. In some trees it has been [or use bg the fighting services has been prepared found possible to correlate specimens taken from the for publication. same side and from these some results have been (vii) Reaction ?Vood.-In collaboration with the obtained. However, it has been decided to change Division of Industrial Chemistry, X-ray diffraction the plan of collection to corer one side of each tree patterns have been obtained of tension wood in com- only. A preliniinnry survey of the reqults shows that paris011 with norlnal wood, and of compression wood :npposedly terminal parenchyma bands are laid down in comparison with normal wood (early and latewood). very irreglilarly and apparently at no particular time The tension mood pattern gave evidence of high in thc growing season. n~ic~llarorientation and this was correlated with the (iii) Wood ilnatomical Investigations. - (a) tilicit inner layer of the secondary wall so characteleistic Myrtaceae.-For the revision of the earlier work on of tension wood fibres. Tllib layer is practically pure the eoloured commercial eucalypts (Bulletin 67) cellulose. Further experiments have been our-, numerous lon-power photomicrographs have been pre- in co-operation nith tl~eCommonwealth Forestry alld pared of the cross sections of the various timbers to Timber Bureau, on the development of tension wood in shorn details of structure. These, when incorporated in young saplings. In young stems of E. melliodora ,I. I tlie reviwd publication, will prove of considerable Cum. wl~ichwere pulled from the vertical, tension assistance in macroscopic identification. Following the mood had developed in all trees in 16 days and, in some esaminatioil of these and other eucalypt timbers, a f2ases,could be definitely detected in twelve day,c. It card-sorting key baqed on macroscopic features only way not possible to follow the actual stages in the has been developed. This is intended in the first place development of the tension wood fibres, although there for laboratory ure and will not be for general distribu- appeared to be an "incipient" stage. t40ri. A sho~tarticle has been published on tlie results (viii) Sapwood-Truewood (Heartwood) Transfor- of the examination of the woods of the genera mation.-The investigations in this field have been Pymyqiurn, Acrrzena, and Cleistoccdyx in comparison confilled mainly to the genus Eucalyptus, although some wit11 those of the genus Euyrnicx (restricted mainly Qneenqland timbers with a wide zone of intermediate to the New World according to l\/lerrill and Perry). :vood have also been studied. In an attempt to fil~da (b) Photographic record of anatomical features.- reliable method of distinguishing sapwood from true- The preparation of an atlas of photomicrographs of tvood in species in which the truewood is 11ot colouired lI!e various commercial Australian timbers is in hand. and in those in which the truewood vessels arc l2ot commonly plugged by tyloses, a preliminary aurvey lignin in the methanol extracts. Strict control of pre- was made of some 40 eucalypt timbers. It was found cipitating conditions is necessary. Lignins precipi- that sodium nitrite reacts with woods which contain tated at low pH values have high methoxyl contents. tannins of the " depside" group to give a colour reac- The yield of precipitated lignin depends on its concen- tion which is pink at first, but rapidly changes to blue tration in the precipitation medium, the volume of on exposure to the air. The occurrence of this stain residual methanol, the time elapsing after precipita- has been correlated with anatomical features GE the tion, and the'volume of wash water used. truewood and it is now used as an indication of the (d) Lignin-carbohydrate complex.-Indirect evi- presence of truewood. Truewood formation starts at a dence, in various forms, has been obtained of the exis- very early stage in some species of EzIc(I~~~~us,trees of tence of a lignin-carbohydrate complex in which E. regnans six and a half years old having already approximately one-half of the total wood lignin is formed a considerable amount. Saplings are now being involved. The polyuronide constituent of the complex studied in order to establish at what age and under has been isolated from the final methanol extraction what conditions truewood begins to form as well as its residue (by extracting the latter with hot water followed relation to the crown and to the branching of the tree. by precipitation in alcohol. This material is now Among the Queensland timbers investigated TTere three under investigation. species of the genus Argyrodendron (tulip oaks). (ii) Carbohydrates.-(a) Influence of bleaching Starch was observed to be present in considerable and refining treatments on molecular weight frequency quantity throughout most of the so-called intermediate curves.-Samples of eucalypt pulps, taken at various eone, and small amounts were present at about 19 in. stages of the bleaching and refining process, when from the centre of the trees examined. It seems examined by the metliod of Ekenstam, have revealed probable that this genus does not complete truewood no large variation in the shape of the molecular weight formation until the trees attain considerable size, an(; frequency curves throughout the process. that most of the wood formed is of an intermediate (b) Alkaline degradaiiion of ho1ocellulose.-Earlier character. At present a new aspect of the investigation work on the molecular weight distribution in various is developing through the study of branch material. holocellulose fractions had indicated that xylose units Truewood formation appears to be the result of a may be scattered at random throughout the length of stimulus from the crown downwards and patches of the cellulose chain. Further work was carried out in truewood are formed at branch bases above the limit of this field during the year. truewood in the main stem. The significance of this is (c) Acid degradation of holocel1ulose.-When boiled not yet understood but it is possible that there is some with dilute osalic acid solution, according to the connexion between this and the shedding of old method of Haworth for hydrolysis of arabofuranose branches by some species of eucalypts. linkages in esparto grass, holocellulose breaks down (ix) Photography.-(a) Further experiments have extensively in chain length. When boiled vigorously been carried out using a high-speed movie camera for with water for some time, holocellulose has been found revealing the action during the tearing of a piece of to undergo a similar breakdown. The latter, at first, paper. This field of worl; holds promise of interesting was attributed to the release of acetyl groups in suf- results. ficient quantity to cause acid hydrolysis. EIowever, it (b) The photographic work of the Division is still has been revealed that the low pII recorded (2.6) was extensive and during the year some 60,000 enlarge- most likely dne to hydrochloric acid which had been ments and 4,000 prints were handled. retained in traceable quantities after the holocellulose 3. Wood Chemistry.-(i) Lignin.-(a) Methanol process, and that insufficient acetyl was liberated to ext~actionof E. re!/nans sawdust in bulk.-Methanol account for the obscrved $1. extraction, at 150" C., of A?.repans sawdust has been (d) Fractionation of nitration products from wood successfully undertaken on a 1 kg. scale to yield and holoce1lulose.-Since acid does not dis- approximately two-thirds of all the lignin present in solve cellulose which has a degree of polymerization in the wood. Although this lignin virtually has a constant excess of 1,200, the, use of this reagent in studying methoxyl content (26 per cent.), it is not yet regarded molecular weight distribution, according to the method as sufficiently hon~ogencousto be used for the inrestiga- of Ekenstam, is limited to materials having a rela- tion of molecular weight, constitution, and chemical tively low degree of polymerization. For instance, reactions of wood lignin. holocellulose has been shown to contain 74 per cent. of (b) nature of methanol extraction process.- material which is insoluble in phosphoric acid and Methanol extraction of wood lignin is not a simple which, therefore, could not be investigated by this extraction process. Organic acids, mainly acetic acid method. The only method by which all the wood carbo- derived from the acetyl groups of the carbohydrate hydrates may be investigated is to convert them to their fraction, are continuously liberated during the extrac- respective nitrates and to fractionate the latter by frac- tion. Although most of these liberated acids are rapidly tional dissolution uqing mixed solvents. Preparation converted to the methyl ester, there is present, at any of nitrated products from wood and holocellulose is in given time, sufficient free acid to functiorl as a cata- progress. lytic or hydrolytic agent. It is most probable that the (iii) Wood Hydrolysis.-Attempts have been made free acid causes hydrolytic fission between lignin and to determine the partition of wood hemicelluloses carbohydrates, thus freeing the lignin for extraction by between the orientated and amorphous regions, by methanol. Not all the lignin in wood is freed aid studying the time-low curves during hydrolysis of wood subsequently extracted in this way. Hence methanol with sulphuric acid and by estimating the alkali- extraction of wood at elevated temperatures, such as at solubility of tvood hydrolysis residues after these have 150" C., must be regarded as a mild methanolysis pro- been methylenated. cess in which acids derived from the wood itself play an (iv) Wood Chemistry.-(a) Tension wood.-Ten- important catalytic or hydrolytic role. sion ~oodof E. regnansr contains more cellulose, less (c) Preoipitation of methanol-extracted 1ignin.- pentosnn, and less lignin than does the corresponding Electrophoresis experiments on colloidal lignins have normal mood. shown that the particles are negatively charged and (b) Determination of free carboxyl groups in pulps. that they are readily precipitated by the addition of -The iodide-iodate mcthod, suggested by Lndtke, may inorganic salts. Considerable attention has been given be used with considerable accuracy to determine to the precipitation of lignin from its methanol solution carboxyl groups in eucalypt pulps. Values are com- with the object of establishing a reliable empirical parable with those given by the calcium acetate and method which could be employed for the estimation of silver 0-nitrophenolate methods. 49

(v) Pulp Evaluation Studies.-(a) Variables ira Pulp and Paper Research Institute. In this work, a hand-sheet making.-Properties of hand-sheets of long- wide range of beaten and unbeaten pulps has been used. fibred pulps are not significantly influenced by con- (;) . unit * for research purposes.-A tech- siderable variations in the duration of the first pressing niquehas becll developed for the preparationof '' unit or in the time taken to reach maximum pressure. The ,beets )7. ~h~~~ are han,jmaGe sheets which have a time which ljetli'een processing and sheet- thicklless equivalent to that of two fibres, and which making does not significantly influence the properties are unifornl,homogeneous in formation, with fibres in of hand-sheets made from kraft Or from long- a rand0111 arrangement. They permit trallsmission of fibred Pulps. Freeness values Of pulps increase light ;+ith the nlilzimumalnount of scattering. With sigrlificantly with the time elapsing between beating these it is hoped to open up the field of sheet structure, and the freeness test. factors affecting it, and of the fundamentals of the (6) Washing of pulp before eva~uat~on.-Removal various physical tests to which a hand sheet is applied. of pulp mill process salts from eucalypt kraft causes The sheets are comparable with the finer types of hand- significant decreases in the strength properties of hand- made tissues manufactured from kozo fibre by the sheets. Pulps washed with 0.1 N hydrochloric acid Japanese. and distilled water are affected more than pulps washed (T,i) Paper Testing.-Co7reletion of paper testing with water Washed Pulps in ogu~~men~.-Attemptshave beell made to correlate the distilled water give hand-sheets of lorcr strength than various types of paper testing instruments which are do those evaluated in a soft town rater. Eucalypt being used by the and paper industry and by the kraft pulps are more sensitive to the nature of the Division of Forest Products. This work has been evaluation process water than are eucalypt soda pulps. Where cation effects are significant, e.g., those of triva- handicapped by varying atmospheric conditionsin paper rooms, by changes in moisture lent as cerium> water-washed while paper samples were in transit, and by the greater and acid-water-washed pulps are conally sensitive to the cation effects even though they may differ initially sensitivity of some papers to changes in atmospheric conditions. in strength properties as a result of the washing treat- ment. 4. Timber Physics.-(i) General.-During the year (c) l%fiuenceof on acidluashed soda pulp. additional laboratories have been fitted out-one for -Trivalent cations significantly decrease the strength work 011 the general Physical roper ties of wood and properties of hmd-sheetc from acid..washed one for dielectric heating studies and for work on the eucalypt soda pulp proce;sed in their presence. Uni- ele"rical properties of wood. Equipment has been and di-valent cations have no effect. obtained or constructed within the Division in order to calibrate instruments for measuring length, mass, (d) Influence'f carboqz groups'-1nduced changes temperature, and certain electrical in free carboxyl content of' rc curnlppt soda pulp did not fur the Division as a Numerous calibrations of dial make it more sensitive to cation eitects. gauges, micrometers, thermometers, and electrical (e) Influence of pH pulp instruments have already been completed. Arrange- water-washed eucalypt lrraft is iiitrinsically acidic and ments have been made for a periodical check of its suspellsion in distilled water has a low pH (4.6). parison instruments by the National Stalldards Labors- The use of such a pull) tends to obscure the effects tory which has already calibrated certain items. Other when attempts are made to stlldy the influence of pH items have been calibrated by the &Iunitions Supply con pulp properties by adding ~nownamounts Of acid- Laboratories. ,4 National Bureau of Standards elec- The use of a water-wash~dsoda pulp has overcome tric hygrometer has been constructed and is being. these difficulties. Freeness valucs increase significantly calibrated with alternating current over prolonged with increa~e of acid concentration. Bursting and periods. The readings appear to be reasonably constant tensile strengths are only significantly influenced when after aging is complete. ~f satisfactory, this insiru- the acid concentration reaches 40 p.p.nl. of sulplluric merit +vill be fitted to air-conditioned cabinets for acid (pEI 2.5). Investigation beyond this point has laboratory use. not been attempted because of the corrosive action of the acid on the pulp erolnn+ion Up to this (ii) Ph~sicaz Properti@ Of Wood--DensitY and point tearingres,sfance is not afi.ected by the hydrogen shrinkage studies have been continued and several bus- ion concentration. tralian and New Guinea timbers are at present under investigation. True density determinations have been (f) Combined influence 'f ion ad triva- completed on specimens of coao nut palm wood. The lent catton on pulp prO~erties.-lt been possible results bere fairly closely grouped and were very ,qimi- to differentiate between the effects of hydrogen ion and lar in value to those obtained usingthe wood of conifers a trivalent cation when these are both present as the and ~icoty~cdons. other investigations the shrin- result of hydrolysis of a trivalent salt, e.g., alunlinium kage of reartionmood has heen with that of chloride. However, a mixture of cerium ilormal wood from the same tree. The investigation of (50 P-P.~.)and sulphuric acid (40 p.pam.) had the prodzction and properties of wood has greater effect on a eucal~~thaft pulp than had each nomy been rc.slsrted. The determination of the physical of these when they were used seParately at their respec- properties of certain building boards has been under- tive concentrations. Hence the effects are definitely taken and certain shrinkage, adsorption, and capillarity not additive. rn~asurer~~cntshave been carried out. These experi- (g) Buffering of cation effects with aluminium ments are still in progress and additional conditioning sulphate.-It is not possible to buffer or swamp cation cabinets are being constructed in order to accelerate effects by using relatively excessive amounts of ah- them. minium sulphate. Observed differences a Work on the thermal conductivity of wood has been eucalypt Pulp was evaluated in hard and soft continued and the variability of the results greatly persisted when aluminium sulphate was added. The reduceil by refinements in technique. The tests are effect of aluminium sulphate was purely additive in now being carried out in a small temperature-condi- each case. tioned cabinet (t0.1' C.), and in order to ensure (h) Calibration, of freeness plates.--Fourteen free- uniform heating the mire grid heaters have been ness plates, used as reference standards by the pulp and replaced by strip heaters of thin brass covering almost paper industry, have been checked against sub-stan- the whole area of the blocks. Improvements have also which were recently received from the Canadian been made in the method of measuriiig temperature. F.7446.--4 This has resulted in a marked decrease in the varia- the same type. The American wire contains a small tions among repeated measurements on the same percentage of manganese which may account for its specimen. superiority for strain gauge manufacture. It has been realized that a D.C. bridge is the most (iii) Studies on Creep.-Further tests on creep in suitable device for measuring the small changes in initially green beams have been carried out during the resisiance due to strain but on account of the difficulty year. Thirty-six beams, excluding controls, were sub- in obtaining a stable, robust but sensitive detector, an jected to test. Six have already failed, fourteen have A.C. met~iodhas been adopted. Some attempt has been under loads giving extreme fibre stresses of 2,000 been made to develop a suitable pseudo D.C. amplifier or 4,000 1b.Jsq. in., eleven have been unloaded and but thih was not found to be satisfactory. Since the recovery observed, five have been subjected to alternate use of so-cycle alternating current permitted inter- periods of loading and unloading. Four of the loaded ference from adjacent apparatus to affect the balance beams have been observed for change in elastic modu- point, a 1,000 cycle A.C. bridge with electron ray tube lus, some by load increments of short duration and tieteetor has been adopted. This has proved quite some by measuring the period of vibration. Certain satiifactory for calibration purposes, but on account of of the beam;; have been under load for approximately the undesirability of a separate means of obtaining a one year. ill1 which failed, with one exception, were reactiac balance, a discriminator has been developed loaded to an extreme fibre stress of 4,000 1b.Jsq. in. to replace the electron ray tube detector for general These failed at from one week to six months from the 1.-,c. ,i 1,000 cycle r1.C. bridge using an electron ray date of loading. In beams stressed to 2,000 lb./sq. in. tube detector has now been built into a perr~ianentunit the deflection increased five-fold in one year and in for use in the calibration of electrical strain gauges in hams stressctl to 4,000 lb./sq. in. even more. Inilica- the laboratory. tions that the elastic modulus is unaltered by prolonged Work on a 48-channel unit for general use in the loading are now fairly conclusive. The effect of tem- Timber Mechanics Laboratory has heen commenced. perature on the rate of increase of deflection is appa- In this equipment, uniselector switches are used for rently very marked, $as the deflection increases for switching the drt~ctorcircuit. The discriminator men- beams set up in the open many times more rapidly tioned above is used as the detector in this apparatus, in the day-tirne than it does at night. The work up to the indication being obtained on a milliammeter. the present on the unloaded beams undergoing recovery (v) Iiaifery SeParafors.-Owing to the scarcity of suggests that the increase in deflection due to elastic Port Orford cedar, Douglas fir of the required quality, after-eflect and that due to plastic flow for heanls sub- hoop pine (Araucaria cunningharnii Ait.), and Queens- jected to an extreme fibre stress of 2,000-4,000 lb./sq. land kauri (Agathis palmerstoni F.v.X.), it has br.- in. for about six months, are approximately equal. come necessary to search for suitable substitute timbers (iv) Electrical Strain Gauges.--An attempt has for use in battery separator manufactnre. A consign- been ruade to standardize the methods of gauge manu- ment of klinki 1)iiie (ilrauraria lilinkii Lauterb.), from facture and to irnprove the details of technique at the New Guinea, negrohead beech (Nothofagus moorei various stages of the manufacturing process. The Maid.) from New South Wales, and a number of p ile, hc~ilg used are ccii7~lo.e nitrate and cellulose Quecnsland rain forest species have been obtain~dfor acetate dissolved in ethyl acetate. The drying of the test. These have been sliced and grooved and scout glue has been studied and it was found possible to tests have already been carried out on negrohead beech. speed up tli~drying g1-r:~tlyby raising the temperature The dercloprnent of methods for the removal of resins to GO0 C. The use of a current through the gauge and other. deleterious substances from klinki pine and for this purpose is now being investigated, overseas negrohcad 1)eech has been commenced. Several hard- experience suggesting that this method n~illbe satis- I: oods have already been tested for resistance and factory. The effect of change in glue composition is softening in acid, and some of them have been elimi- nlso being studied with a view to ascertaining the nated as separator timbers without further test. Tests degree of constancy in this factor necessary in gauge have also been carried out to assess the possibility of n~annfacture. reducing the strength of sodium hydroxide solution used for treatment or of its replacement by other An improved method of manufacture has been de- substances. velol~ctl for 1 in. gauaes. Methods which involve the (ri) Dielectric Heating and Electrical Properties of .ilrinding of a plane wlre grid, the end loops of which Wood.-Work on this project has now been commenced. are located by needle points, have been discarded in A report on recent literature on the subject has been farour of a method in whicll the nire is ~~~oundon a prepared as well as a working plan covering the initial paper cyliilder which is snbnequently presded Bat. staqes of the work. hlaterial is at present being ob- Greatly improved results hare been obtained with this tained. The question of the measurement of the power method. It mould appear on present indications that absorbed by the test specimen has been considered and by using 1 mil wire of American manufarture a varia- a trial method decided on. tion not greater than t 2 per cent. in gauge factor 5. Tinllicr ilfechanics.-(i) Design of Confainers.- can be maintained. Gauges of this length made by Considerable assistance has been given to various State the Rn:dwin Locomotire Worlis in ilrnc1ric.a have a and Commonwealth dcpartnlents and private firms in gauge factor stated to be nrithin thew limits. An packaqing problems of various sorts. Potato crates, t.>:perimental model of a winding machine has been gelignitc. boxes, drums for the transport of liquids, built. and it appcars that with minor rnodificati~n~s cases for export of cordial, boxes for electrical cable, to 1nai1,tnin greater constancy in tl10 pitcall (3: iLiding, and cartons of corrugated paper and fibre board for it will be satisfaptory. This will greatly decrease thc shoe clcaner in tubes, show the range and variety of strain on the opi-ntor in manufactnring these small the containers which have been tested and investigated. pnqes and ill~leasetho unifora~ity,:f the ITsually recommendations have been made for improve- Attempts have been made to evolve a satisfactory tech- ments in design. A box to house a set of chemistry nique for the removal, for re-nee. of onc-inch gauges apparatns was designed for use at the Mildura branch after te~t. There appears to hc no difficulty in the of the TTniversity of Jfelbourne. manufacture of a rosette consisting of quarter-inch (ii) Xfrrnclnrd Trsts.-From the data available in gauqes for work on stress concentrations, a satisfactory the laboratory on the physical and mechanical proper- technique of manufacture having been developed. ties of Aluqtraliu~~species, an abstract of results It was found during the year that a cupro-nickel derived from at least five individual tests and a wire of American manufacture yielded gauges of much 1;;lt of species of approximate order of hardness more uniforni sensitivity tl1~11an English wire of harc been prepared. These not only make the information available for use but also show the impact investigations and also for an investigation of gaps which exist and thus enable further work hardness. Some tests were carried out on several lo be planned to the best advantage. From the ab- species in Izod machines of different capacities. With stract, too, a tentative strength grouping of a large three species a rise in Izod value with increasing number of species has been made. Strength grouping machine capacity was observed, but with mountain ash is itself under review and the relationships connecting the reverse was noted. density and the various strength properties which have A detailed study of the torsion test which was de- been available for United States species are being in- vised during the war was started. The effects of vary- vestigated for Empire timbers and for Australian ing diameter and length of parallel portion of the eucalypts, as are also correlations between bending specimen were investigated; the indications are that strength and the other mechanical properties used in neither has any significant effect on the stresses and structural design.- modulus of rigidity, but confirmation will be sought Some progress has been made with the reporting of using other species. Calibration of the testing appa- pre-war standard testing of several species, and this ratus and strain gauge has also been undertaken *re- work will be continued as the availability of staff per- liminary results indicating that the method of test is mits. Because it is expected that the milling of foot- entirely satisfactory. Torsion, as such, is a relatively hill species will increase, standard tests have been unimportant property of timber, but the test is re- carried out on green silvertop ash (E. sieberiana garded as important because of its relationship .o F.v.hl.) drawn from two areas in Victoria and one in shear which & an important prfoperty at present Tasmania. Material from New South Wales will also rvaluated by an unsatisfactory test. be included in the investigation. Some logs of white Another important property of timber is its stringy-bark (E. eugenioides Sieb.) and brown stringy- strength in compression perpendicular to the grain, bark (E. cupitellata Sm.) have also been tested. for the measurement of which different methods are (iii) Silviculturul Treatment and Strength.-This employed in Great Britain and in the United States. project, inherently of considerable importance, which For some time both tests have been used in this labora- was upset by the war, has as its objects the determina- tory. A review of the literature showed that there tion of the effects of rapid growth and of age on the were many uncertainties about the test. Consequently, properties of wood and the determination of the pro- several experiments have been designed for the investi- perties of thinnings of merchantable size. Although it gation of it. The first, testing for which has been is recognized that the work will virtually have to be completed, used green silvertop ash and included four restarted, the testing of material which was in the variables. This will be repeated on other species and laboratory has been completed and the results will be on dry material and further experiments will cover examined. Analysis of the data for black-butt (E. other variables. pilularis Sm.) has not disclosed any significant corre- lations between the various strength properties and (v) Long-time Loading Tests.-The long-time tests silvicultural treatment, nor between strength and on connector joints were designed to investigate the crown type. It is considered, however, that the test bcllaviour of split ring and shear plate joints erected specimens, which were of 2 in. by 1 in. section, should green and left to stand under a tension load for an be restricted if possible to that portion of the cross indefinite period. The load is applied by means of a section whose properties it is desired to investigate. bolt and is maintained almost constant, despite the Accordingly, an examination has been made of the movement in the joint, by means of a spring. Three effect of building up test specimens by gluing together species are being used, mountain ash (E. regnans laminations, which, in a silvicultural project, would F.V.M.), yellow stringy-bark (E. muelleriana Howitt), be obtained by tangential sawing in the particular and Douglas fir, erected in that order, the last speci- material being investigated. Dry hoop pine was used mcns being put under load early in the year. A few and a comparison was made between solid and lami- specimens of all species have failed during the year, nated specimens in static bending, compression parallel but there seems no connexion between the specimens to the grain, Izod, and tougliness. It was found that which have failed and the load they have carried or laminating had no significant effect on any of the the detail of the joint. Further, the type of failure properties examined. The problem of gluing green has heen different from that experienced in practice in material will need to be investigated. that, instcad of the legs of the joint splitting from the (iv) Fundamental Studhes of Properties of Wood connector to the end, the legs have turned out and and Investigations of Tests.-Several studies have been failed transversely at the connector. Accordingly, a continued during the year, notably those concerning few tests have been set up, firstly to try various methods the effect of moisture content on the compressive for reducing the leg spread, and secondly to try to strength and impact bending strengths of various produce end splitting. One of the latter tests involved species, and also the effect of rate of loading on com- a three-member joint, two members of which were pressive strength. The variation of the impact bend- double. The eccentric loading of the middle member, ing- strengths with moisture contents between 0 and arising from one connector being in each face, caused 20 per cent. is particularly interesting, as it does not it to twist and to split, but not down the middle: it seem to have been fully investigated elsewhere and is split from the side of the connector. different from what has been generally supposed. In- Work preliminary to setting up long-time model stead of an increase in strength ~vithdecreasing mois- column tests has continued during the year. It is pro- ture content below the intersection point, the impact posed to use dry material and green material, half of strenqths frequently have a minimum value in the the latter to be allowed to dry out and the other half vicinity of the equilibrium moisture content. As it to be maintained green by enclosing each specimen in has been proposed that an investiagtion should be a suitable wrapping. Numerous wrappings for this undertaken of the effect of repeated loading on the purpose were tried; the most satisfactory method strength of wood, a survey of the literature was made seems to be the wrapping of each specimen in a rubber and certain conclusions drawn as to the type of equip- sheet, together with occasional spraying of the speci- ment and specimen which should be used. men with water and the use of control specimens to A low-capacity Izod machine which should be of check the moisture content by weighing. Two Douglas particular value in testing small specimens such as fir columns which were set up as prototypes for the will arise from silvicultural material has been designed. project have now been standing under load in the one A hall-drop impact testing machine was designed and case for nearly three years and in the other for more made during the year. It will be used for furthering than two. Their deflections are still slowly increasing. (vi) Flooring.-Testing of floor8 of various species note that a considerable improvement in general quality has been continued, the work latterly being on standard can be effected by reconditioning, and also that veneers thickness and 9/16 in. material of black-butt, Sydney cut on, or near, the quarter by staylog equipment or by blue gum (E. saligna Sm.), tallow wood (E. microcorys slicing, behave very satisfactorily during drying and F.v.M.), brush box (Tristania conferta R.Br.), and yield a first-class veneer. At this stage the production spotted gum (E. maculata Hook.) from New South of high grade ~lywoodfrom the " ash " type eucalypts Wales. The investigation has included testing the would appear to require a combination of rotary-peeled floor panels under the proof loads of the Building Re- core stock with sliced veneer for the faces. earch Station; generally it appears that the thinner (ii) Kiln Design, and Aerodynamics.-With the material on joists at 18 in. centres is borderline as object of developing a means for improving the output regards this specification. of seasoning kilns in areas subject to extended periods (vii) Fibre Building Boards.-A comprehensive of poor air-drying (such as are found in many parts of working plan for the testing of fibre building boards Tasmania), a predrier for sorted timber, which was prepared. As the maximum loads required for operates on a progressive principle and yet avoids the the tests on these boards are very low and not con- necessity for the usual periodic movement of timber veniently obtainable on the testing machines in the stacks within the drier, was designed by the Section. laboratory, the design and manufacture of a low Incorporated in the design is a me,thod for utilizing capacity machlne which will be a most useful addition boiler exhaust flue gases as the heating medium. The to the equipment of the laboratory has been put in pre-drier is capable of taking multiple timber charges hand. each 8 feet high and 35 feet long. The specific purpose (viii) Building Materials.-Considerable assistance of the unit is to give economic initial drying, from the has been given Building JIaterials Research by carrying green concltion to a moisture content of about 25 to 30 out tests on various materials, notably tiles and bricks. per cent., for hardwoods intended for subsequent kiln Other tests on wall and roof panels have also been per- drying. The prototype is in course of installation. formed wherever it seemed desirable to give the On request, plans to cover the construction of timber assistance. seasoning kilns, veneer and plywood driers, drying 6. Timber Seasoning.-(i) Kiln Drying and rooms, and conditioning rooms to handle a wide range Chemical Seasoning.-Following work planned and in capacity, species, and thicknejsses, were prepared and initiated in the previous year, the bulk of the labora- supplied to some 40 timber seasoning and plywood pro- tory kiln schedule studies on satinay (Syncarpia hillii ducing companies; the wide scope of this service is F.M. Bail.) from Queensland, brush box from Queens- demonstrated by the fact that, not only was assistance land and New South Wales has been completed; the provided to consuItants in each of the Australian States, results are being analysed and appropriate recommen- but also to several in Kern Zealand and England. Some dations will be made after confirmation with three 350 drawings were issued. With the object of improv- further laboratory runs. Present indications are that ing the supply of seasoned timber for housing purposes, the kiln drying of selected material of 2-in. thick brush performance tests on a number of commercial kilns box is a commercial possibility for certain applications. were carried out ; where necessary appropriate recom- The extremely variable nature of the species makes mendations were made to ensure satisfactory perform- difficult the drawing of conclusions of a fully mmpre- ance. Additional detail dranings of modifications hensive nature. Hence the suitability of the drying made to the earlier design of the cross-shaft kiln, to schedule for a particular end use will require specific permit more economic and rapid construction, were consideration. The drying characteristics of satinay prepared. have much in common with those of brush box, (iii) Building Materials.-Work designed to although, in general, drying distortion is rather less, accelerate the development of low cost building boards whereas collapse and checking tend to be rather more and flooring surfaces from freely and economically severe. Quarter sawing is more important with available organic materials, and the testing of the per- satinay. formance characteristics of these materials, was con- The value of a chemical pre-treatment in reducing tinued. A fairly comprehensive appreciation of the the extent of degrade developrd during the subsequent properties of sawdust-cement has now been cl.'-:-.-4, seasoning of backsown brush box and satinay, was the studies having covered the effects of water-cement examined; very promising results were obtained. ratios, cement-sand-sawdust ratios, timber species, saw- Sodium chloride, in the form of a saturated solution at dust particle size, sawdust moisture content, neutralizers, ambient temperature, was used as the treating salt for and setting accelerators, as well as the extent of move- periods up to fifteen days. ment resulting from drying shrinkage and change in Kiln schedule work on silvertop ash, white stringy equilibrium moisture contelnt. As a rcsult of these bark, and brown stringybark has been almost com- investigations it is now possible to choose compositions, pleted; only final runs to confirm the results of the using suitably graded and dried sawdusts, that will give previous experiments remain. The experimental work a reliable product. The data developed have been has shown, however, that backsawn material of all freely availed of by constructloiial authorities, and these species is unsatisfactory for kiln drying from the several relatively large areas of sawdust-cement have green condition without special pretreatment because of now been laid. Results in service appear to be satis- the severity of drying checks, but that considerable factory. promise holds for the practicability of commercially hdzitional experimental work on woodwool-cement kiln drying quartersawn material of all three species building slabs and panels, for use as either interior from the green condition. All species were found to be partition walls or exterior sheathing over a timber susceptible to collapse, the degree of recovery obtained frame, was carried out. A number of slabs was manu- from reconditioning varying to a considerable degree. factured in the laboratory for experimental purposes; Work on the development of a drying technique for an accelerated service test, comprising a temperature- veneers of " ash" type eucalypts, which are becoming humidity cycling test, was carried out on a jointed of increasing importance to Australian timber panel rendered for external use. Investigation of the economy, was carried out in co-operation with the effects of woodwool-cement ratios, forming pressures, Veneer and Gluing Section. The results indicate that setting methods, and type of woodwool, on the weather- collapse in these species is the cause of both primary ing and physicaI characteristics of the product, is and ~e~condaryseasoning difficulties in the form of planned. In this connexion, a large scale exposure test wrinkling, corrugating, and checking. It is of value to of various constructional methods and finishes is being prepared in collaboration with the Building Materials of industrial oonsultants for whom no alternative Research Section. Several manufacturers have com- source of enquiry or investigation was available. Sub- menced production of woodwool-cement boards, and at jects, on which limited amounts of work or investiga- least one has now achieved standardized production. tion were carried out, included the drying of lawyer An examination of the value of seaweed, as the bulk cane, spaghetti, clothes pegs, veneers, timber for smok- material in the production of building slabs, was also ing pipes, and furs; drying costs; collapse and recondi- commenced: portland cement was used as the bonding tioning; moisture meters; temperature control equip- agent. A number of test panels was prepared using ment; vacuum kilns; the burning of wood waste as several types of eel grass (Zostera sp.) from Victorian fuel; timber handling; tool handles; sub-floor heating; beaches, but satisfactory boards were not obtaine)d be- wood-dust extraction, &c., cause of the low fibre strength of this particular marine (vi) Correspondence Courses. - The greatly grass. Tests of a more fibrous type of seaweed (Posi- increased activity in the correspondence courses in donia sp.) from South Australia, which has relatively timber seasoning as reported for the first post-war year high strength properties, were also made, but satisfac- was maintained di~rillgthe past twelve months. An tory bond was not achieved because of the particularly additional 51 students were enrolled. smooth surface of the fibre. As yet, a seaweed with the 7. Timber Preservation.-(i) Field Tests.-The requisite properties of good fibre strength, good bond- field testing of preservatives and of various methods of ing characteristics, and good setting qualities in an treatment represent an important aspect of wood pre- untreated state, has not been found. The value of eel servation work. The majority of these tests, which grass as a diluent for woodwool is being examined. were installed in pre-war years, have now reached the An examination of the possibilities of developng a stage where results are apparent and are of important sawdust-synthetic resin building board has also com- and immediate application. Inspection of field tests menced, and laboratory equipment is being developed. many of which were to some extent neglected during The principal variables to be examined are species, the war, has therefore constituted an important phase moisture content, particle size,. pressure, temperature, of the year's work and is being undertaken by senior resin type, and resin concentration. officers with the object of inviting the presence of tech- On behalf of a fibrous plaster board manufacturer, nical representatives of Government Departments and an electrically heated plaster board drier was timber-using authorities and of discussing the appllca- designed. The plant is operating satisfactorily and tion of the results to their particular problems. This additional installations are contemplated. policy has secured very desirable publicity and has met (iv) Sawmill Studies.-Of recent years the Bus- with an excellent response. tralian sawmilling industry has become increasingly During the year, all field tests in New South Wales aware that its industral and economic development is were inspected and reports circulated widely. Pole and considerably handicapped by the absence of h~sicdata fence post tests at Wyong, Clarencetown, and Mount covering existing practice. It is recognized that a Jamberoo were inspected in co-operation with officers proper analysis of factors affecting production would of the Ne>wSouth Wales Forestry Commission and in permit a systematic examination of the needs of the the presence of many visitors including representatives industry to be made, this later becoming manifest in from Victoria and Queensland. Results have the establishment of sa~~millsdesigned on a truly func- demonstrated the value of four different methods of tional basis and operating at greatly increased pole preservation and have shown that low durability efficiency. As the understanding of this work is, in timbers effectively treated should still be in almost per- general, certainly beyond the capacity of the industry fect condition after 11-12 years service. Inspections itself, it has approached the Division for guidance. As were also made of small specimen tests at Canberra and a result, in co-operation ~iththe Queensland Sub- of rail sleeper tests in Victoria. The latter tests which Department of Forestry and the Queensland Timber include many lower durability timbers which must be Stabilization Board, a study of the milling of cypress used in the immediate future to augment sleeper sup- pine was completed in Queensland; and, in Victoria, plies in Victoria, are yielding important results and in co-operation with Victorian Sawmillers' Associa- demonstrate the value of preservative oils in reducing tion a study of the milling of " ash " type eucalypts was both decay and mechanical deterioration. undertaken. From the studies so far completed on the (ii) The Preservative Treatment of Eucalypt True- mills handling the " ash " eucalypts, a considerable wood.-The problem of the preservative treatment of amount of information was obtained covering mill per- the truemood of eucalypts of lower durability, particu- formances; namely the inter-relationship of production larly for rail sleepers, is an urgent one. The supply of rates and sawn recovery, and their effect on manufac- naturally durable timbers is now insufficient to meet turing margin; the effect of size of sawn product on normal maintenance sleeper requirements in Victorla, production rates and recovery; the allocation of total and a similar position is developing in some other mill time with respect to operational and non-opera- States. Unfortunately eucalypt truewood is very re tional (non-productive) time,; the reasons for lost pro- fractory to penetration with preservatives, and conven- duction time; and the relation between sawn output, tional methods as used abroad for softwood timbers and the quantity of sawdust and waste wood produced cannot be applied with success. Two possible methods in the conversion of log volume. An interim report on of treatment, however, are under investigation and the this work was written. The work done on mills operat- present position may be summarized as follows. ing on cypress pine, a final report on which was issued, (a) Treatment at high pressure.-From preliminary covers the effect of girth class on production rates, per- tests satisfactory pentration of the truewood of many centage recovery, and sizes sawn in this ~pe~cies.The eucalypt timbers was obtained at pressures of approxi- results of a time study carried out concnrrently with mately 1,000 lb. per sq. in. using both oil- and water- the production study also indicate the relative propor- soluble preservatives. This very promising result was tions of operational (production) time and non-opera- obtained with small specimens and cannot be accepted tional time, and the reasons for the latter. as a solution to the problem of treating rail sleepers A minor study to determine the relationship between until repeated with speciments of larger size. It is also depth of cut and feed rate for two handsaws cutting necessary to demonstrate the practicability of the fire-killed mountain ash was carried out. method on an economic basis. During- the current year, (v) MisceZZaneous Seasoning Investigations.-A work has proceeded on the above aspects and final tests wide range of minor miscellaneous enquiries and inves- have now commenced. Although the project has been tigations was handled during the year, mostly on behalf accorded urgent status, delays have been unavoidable as it has been necessary to collect suitable materjal (b) Modification of the existing boric acid process representing a number of trees from each of the prm- for treatment of Lyctlcs-susceptible veneer.-h cipal eucalypts in the lower durability classes. It has investigation ia now procee,ling to determine nhether been further necessary to season this material before the present commercial boric acid process, which final tests can be made. Interim results have so far involvcs stripping the veneer in finger crates and confirmed the initial promise of the method, and during immersing in a tank of heated boric acid solution, can the coming year it is planned to instal a high-pressure be simplified to a process requiring only momentary cy1inric.r of ,~ufficicntc~parity to treat full sized rail immersion in cold boric acid solution followed by block- s1eepr;rs for service tc~ts. In this work, ~~~at~~-~oI~hlestacking of the veneer to permit diffusion. For this prc-crvatives have now been discarded in favour of .test freshly peeled green veneer from six timber species creosote oil in view of the increasing evidence that suit- was obtained through the co-operation of the Queens- able oil preservatives possess the very necessary attri- land and New South Wales Forest Services and sent by bute of retarding mechanical failure in sleepers as well air to Melbourne for immediate treatment. Treated as conferring lasting protection against decay. veneer m-as bonded into 3-ply sheets and inoculated (b) Treatment by diffusion.-This investigation was mith paired Lycatus beetles in 312 small insect-proof commenced with the object of developing a diffusion caCc.s. Iiesults should be available next year. For both trratment for e~xcalypttruewood as an alternative to the above tests, mass breeding of Lyctus beetles was pressure methods. A fundamental study of the diffu- neces~aryand was achieved successfully. During the sion process was undertaken and has been completed period of highest emergence, daily collections of more to a stage where it is now apparent that manipulation than 200 beetles were obtained. of treatment aariables (temperature, duration of treat- (iv) The Tozicity of ~~~etallicNaphthenate Pre- ment, type of chemical, solution concentration, and servtrtives.-Netallic naphtllenatcs have continued to pH) will not economically produce a result greatly gain favour as wood preservatives in Australia, but superior to the already thoroughly tested "fluarizing have performed soinca~hat erratically in field tests process" which has been in use in Western Australia conducted by the Diviqion. Work has therefore been for many years. As extensive field tests of sleepers commenced to examine the clicmical composition, treated by this process have not given highly satisfac- toxiritg, and permanence of lnetallir ~iaphthenateswith tory results, diffusion treatments are now considered respect to the origin of the naphtllenic crudes. The to have a limited prospect of success for eucalypt rail final object of this work is to establish a specification sleepers. for n~etallic naphthenates for wood preservation. Although the original object of the above work has Development of satisfactory fractionating methods and now proved unattainable, fundamental diffusion studies general technique of study is now proceeding and is have ccmtinued in cona~xionaitli other applications. being followed by prelinlinary tests to correlate toxicity In particular an examination has been made of the and permanence with distillation range and acid relative diffusion rates of boric acid and other salts number. through the sapwood and truewood of five of the prin- cipal Quecnsland timbers now being treated commer- (v) The Development and Test of External Coatings cially with boric acid to prevent Lyctus borer attack. for Woodstav~Pipe in Western Australia.-Following This study has shown that diffusion rate in the radial the inspection last year of woodstave pipe in the Gold- direction is significantly faster (two or three tmes) field's water supply system, Western Australia, the than that in the tangential direction and has explained assistance of the Division was sought in the develop- the practical difficulties being experienced in the treat- ment of suitable protective coatings. This work has ment of quartersawn boards. It has also demonstrated progressed to the stage \I-here solar exposure tcsts of that the diffusion rate of boric acid is faster than that 43 coatings arc in progress. Formulae for priming and of sodium fluoride and that, from this aspect, no change main coats were based mainly on horizontal tar, hori- in the preservative chemical used is desirable. zontal and vertical pitch, air-blown and stem-tliitilled During the above nork it became apparent that a bitumens, wool grease, and lanoline. Fillers included study of diffusion of electrolytes into timber offers a aslrestos, mica, limestone, and cement. A preservative possible method of approaching certain fundanlelltal (careosote oil or pentachlorphmol) was incorporated aspect? of the physical cherni~tryof wood. T5Tork is in the coats. The i\lnnitions Supply Labora- therefore being continued \tith this aclrlitional objective. tories are also co-opcrating in this ork in the develop- (iii) Lyctus 1nvestigatior~s.-A considerable amount 1nc1:t of a final light reflecting coat to be used over the tar-base paint on the upper north quadrant of the pipe of work has been undertaken 011 the Lyctus borer problem principally from the aspect of examining where the solar effect is intense. simpler niethods of preventing attack in plywood made (vi) General Survey IITor!;.-The two surveys men- from susceptible timbers. In addition a siiraeg has tioned briefly in the previous report are still continuing. been completed with the object of classifying Austra- 111 connexion with marine borer attack in harbour lian and New Guinea timbers according to suscepti- installations, data have now been obtained from the bility to Lyctus damage. Progress in these investiga- it~ajorityof ,lustralian ports ant1 will be sulnnlarized tions may be summarized as follows. shortly. The survey to determine causes of service (a) Prevention of Lyctus atfark .Ln, plywood by failure of pole crossarms throughout 12ustralia has addition of foxic chemicals to fhe glue line.-In this reached the stage where inspection of collected crosa- investigation 1,440 test ply~~oodpanels, representing arnis in all States will commenc.c almost immediately. three timbers and two veneer thicknesses, were pre- Printed cards have been prepared for recording the pared by bonding ~vithcasein and urea glues to ~rhich scrvicc history of each arm collected and 5,000 have various toxic chemicals had been added. The test was been distributed to the various depots where collection set up in 40 insect-proof cages and inoculated with is being made. It is hoped that the results of this several thousand Lyctus beetles. Results of this work survey will assist materially in planning the most will not be available until next summer when the effective utilization and treatment of lower durability number of beetles emerging from treated and untreated timbers which of necessity are now being accepted for panels a-ill dct~rminethe relative success of the various crossarms. treatments. The plywood industry has shown great (vii) Timber Mycology.-Major work in this interest in these tests. If the rnethod is successful it subject has been the testing of methods for determining will prove of immediate value in the utilization of the durability of timbers to decay by accelerated laboratory Lyctus-susceptible plywood timbers of Queensland and technique. Using various methods, approximately Scm South Wales. 3,000 test blocks have been inoculated with pure cultures of wood-destroying fungi to standardize and (iii) Development and Testing of Adhesives.-EX- improve testing icrllniyue for planned future projects. perlmc?lf,, ;i eye conipleted on the use, in the preparation Interim results indicate that further preliminary work of plywood adhesives, of potato starch produced in Bus- will be necessary before laboratory methods can Le usiJ ~ralia. Strongest joints were obtained with mixes con- accurately to colnpare the natural durability of timberb taining relatively low proportions of alkali and of and before such methods for determining the effect of n bter, but the viscosit,y of these glues is sonlewhat silvicultural treatments on dcrlbliry 04' plaiTtation higher then that of adhesives colnmonly used in the gronn and treated forest timber, may be employed. ~)!~L~ooc~industry. It 112s been reported by overseas rvorkers that soya bean glues are more suitable for 8. Veneer and Gluing.-(i) Veneer Production.- gluing softwoods than hardwoods, and an investigation During the period under review the following species is being made to determine whether similar results were peeled, with a riew to overcoming technical diffi- are obtained with Australian species, and, if so, to find culties associat~dwith the conversion from tlic log fo;.:,l the cause. ,1 neccyssry preliminary step was the into veneer: alpine ash, messmate stringybark (B. developnient of a s~~tiafactorybasic formula. It appears oblipa L'Herit.), mountain ash, and silvertop ash. that good boiids can be made with some Australian The main difficulty ~vitl~this group of eucalypts \\as to I~a~-d\vccd~,at least altllough in general the results dry the veneers without degrade due to collapse. were soriienhat inferior to tlioie for the soft~oods Several methocls of solving this problem were tried in tested. co-operation with tlls Seasoning Section, the n~oat Prelirtliilary work has hren (lone in an ill; rstigatioll satisfactory being to depart from the normal method of aiming to explore the possibilities of various lignins rotary cutting, so that the veneers were sliced at a (by-products of the pulp arid paper inclustry) as exten- large angle to the g1.omt11 ringb. Economically, this der\ for svnthetic resin adhesives. Simvle extension has the disadvantage that large sheets of veneer are of the prepared resins with lignin did not yield good not produced consistently, but this may be more than results, but there were indications that incorporation of eorripensated for by the increased recovery. Another the lignin as a step in the synthesis had possibilities. possible source of plywood is New Guinea, and cxperi- To obtaii~some familiarity with the phenol-formalde- merits have been carried out 011 the peeling and drying hyde reaction, some liquid resins have been prepared, ~rorsertiesof klilllii uine wixh rerv sa tisfactorv results. L L and a subsidiary experiment involved the preparation Other softwood spedics which are now beinff investi- of cold-setting phenolic resin5 and the ~lctcmnination gated for plywood purposes include slash pine (Pinus of the minimnm hydrogen ion concelltration compatible caribaea Morelet) and loblolly pine (Pinus tueda L.) with a reasonably short setting time. A review of thc from Qucensland. These are the southern pines of the literature on liguin and resin hai been made and equip- United #States, and the Queensland Forest Service is ment has been obtained to carry out experiments on a growing certain plots mill1 the object of producing the systematic scale. maximum volume of peeler logs; it is therefore neces- sary to have full data on their peeling, drying, and (iv) U.nrcibility of Plywood.-Plywood panels made gluing characteristics before the trees reach maturity up under a range of conditions from various species in order to determine the correct silvicu~ltural treat- and adhesives, and in some cases treated xith protective I ment. coatings, were exposed to the weather with a view to determinir~ghow deterioration may be minimized in 1 Some experimental studies have been made of the external use. Frequent examinations have been made. best heating schedules for veneer logs before peeling, particular attention being paid to the incitl~ilrcof f: c they have involved the application of the theory of heat checking and of delaruination at the glue line. Tiir transmission through wood to -1ustralian species. By relittivr rfficacy of the various treatments has been suitably varying the temperature of the heating deterr~liiicd, and it has been sllo~vnthat thc t1lickac.s~ medium, it was found possible to obtain a very small of the veneers, the method of glui~ig,and the moisture tv1:iperature gradient through the log. content at assembly exercise sigi~ificanteffects upon (ii) Gluing Investigations.-Systematic gluing the degree of face chcci,jng. -1s regards the durability tests were carried out on the following species with a of different types of glue, it appeared evident that range of adhesives : hoop pine, raciiata pine, mountain cold-setting urea-formaldehyde resins could not be ash,. yellow ~valnut (Reilschmiedia buncroftii C. T. depended upon for e~teriorme iillless well protected. Wh~te), northern silver ash (Plindersia pubescens Superior durability was shown by hot-setting adhesives. F. M. Bail.), southern silver ash (Plindersia schottiano ,icceler~ted ncatherl:ng tests are heing carrird out at F.v.M.), rose alder (Acliama quadrivalvis C. T. preccllt in a ~!eathcrorl~rterwliich has bl~elicompleted White), myrtle beech (Nothofagus czlnningkixmii recently. Oerst.), bollyu~ood (Lifserr refirulatrr Benth.), leather- (v) Deterioration of Glue Lines.-An investigation wood (Eucryphia billardieri Spach.), loblolly pinc, has comnienced illto biological factors influencing the roachr~ood (Camtopefalmm apefal~~rnD. Don), and c'eterioratio~i of gllles. Initially this experi- alpine ash. Minor investigations of the gluing cllarai- i,>rntai111~ to compare the relative effect9 of hydrolysis terIstics of several other species were made. he effects :lntl c,f micro-orgaliisrns in tllc brcnkdown of adlleires of various factors wi:hili the species, iaYludin;: locality by determining the strength of sterile and non-rterile of growth, density, and angle of gluing surface to glues at various periods after mixing. growth rings, Twre studied. Some attention has been (vi) Plnsfic Deformofion of Plywooti.-Work has paid to methods of bonding n2ateri:~ls differing from been carried out on the pla~ticdeforniation of plyvlood wood i11 pliysical and chernical properties. Xetals, subjected to cornl3ressive forces acting normal to thr fibre-boards, asbestos-cement, ceramics, and cellulose face of the panel. Initial experini~ntswere designeil plastics have been glued either to themselves or to to investigaic the effect of temperature llpon the rcsi- wood. In most cases the problem has been not merely dual deformation of panels pressed for a fixed ti1r.c to obtain satisfactory adhecion, but to do so under under ~aryingloads. It was found that, for oven-dry preccribed conditions, not ~leeessarilythe optimum. A material, the load at whicll apprecial~leresidual de- new project aiming to invcstigcte the natnre of formation took place declined rapidly with rising tem- adhesion has been put in hand, and initial experinirnts perature from 120' to 160' C., and was small above hare u,rproached tho problem ircm the chcmital stand- 160" C. The virtual disappearaiice of a yield value point. I&lrl~oughas yet inconcl~~sivc,pre1im:ilaly nark near this temperature appeared to repreqent quite 8 indicates that the role of the hydroxyl groups in the fundamental change in plastic behaviour. Elastic wood substance mag not be of major importance, after-effects were later observed, and for a ti~i'~ 56 of five minutes elastic after-effect tended to a finite peels, printers' blockb, plasterers' floats, shingles, value which mas usually about half of the correspond- krrbing, boat building, butter boxes, hat blocks, auto- ing total residual deformation at a -pressing tempera- :..obile bodies, pegs, shoe heels, smokers' pipes, stacking ture of 120' C., a proportion which declined to farms, vats, hammer beams for forging machines, the one-seventh at 200 OC. The influence of elastic after- spring arms of fruit grading machines, beehives, violin effect was such as not to alter radically the effect of bows, crossarms, and sporting goods. temperature upon yield-value. (iii) Cases.-A number of inquiries covering the Microscopic studies on the same specimens, carried suitability of ~vllitebirch (Schizomeria ovatal D. Don), out in co-operation with the bection of Wood Structure, j arrah (E~~calyptusmnrginata Sm.), karri (Eucalyp- showed that the radial pressure required to produce tus diversicolo~F.v.M.), and radiata pine as butter- fracture of the cell wall declined with temperature, the effect being linear over the range examined. On the b~xtimbers were handled. Data were prepared on the suitability of several imported softwoods for ease temperature-pressure diagram it u7as found ~ossibleto timbers, on possible supplies of veneer suitable for define three main zones of deformation; those of elasticity, flow, and fracture. The zone of flow was packaging, on species suitable for egg crate manufac- divisible further into areas of plasto-elasticity and ture, and on the availability of equipment for jointing visco-elasticity. There appeared to be some evidence box corners. A preliminary discussion was held with that the location of flow in the wood tissue the Victorian Department of Agriculture to examine was largely in the cell wall. Generally it the value of a conference between fruit growers and was concluded that rheological studies may con- case-timber millers and suppliers, on the question of tribute to the knowledge of the structure of the cell scasonal requirrments of case material. Work designed wall and that short loading times and elevated tem- to test the suitability of a number of Australian species peratures could be used with advantage to clarify the for slioing as case material was taken in hand. theory of flow in wood, particularly as it affects such (iv) Standards.-Of considerable importance to the applications as the manufacture of plywood and densi- Australian timber-using industries is the development fied wood and of plastics containing wood waste. The of Australian Standards and Codes of Practice cover- investigation was extended to determine the effects ing the production and usage of timber products. upon residual deformation, yield value, and fracture Over the past few years the work of the Section in stress of other variables. Moisture content, time of this field had to be considerably curtailed because of loading, and direction of loading relative to growth thc more immediate demands of other problems. The rings, have been studied and species and density are i~npo~tanceof the standards work was not forgotten, now receiving attention. Solid wood has also been l:owever, and a resumption of the earlier activity of compared with plywood as regards its suitability for the Section in this direction is now in progress. To basic studies. this end an attempt has been made to facilitate the 9. Utilization.-(i) General.-Requests by industry development of the further work of the Standards for assistance in the solving of a wide range of pro- Association of Australia Timber Sectional Committee. blems associated with the setting up of new processes At this stage an examination of deferred draft stan- and the operation of established industries, proved dards and past approved specifications, covering timber heavy throughout the year. This effect, no doubt, has grades and the quality of milled products, is in hand. been occasioned partly by a reconversion of the activi- Information covering the standard profiles for flooring ties of many of the timber-using industries to civilian and weatherboards adopted in Tasmania and Victoria production, and partly by the need of many plants \\as prepared at the request of industrial contacts. not only to find substitutes for previously imported Draft specifications for milled products of radiata timbers, and the means of compensating for shortages pine were submitted for the consideration of ths in Australian species, but also to develop improved pro- Victorian Timber Industry Council. The normal duction methods to give more complete and more eco- secretarial work of the Timber Sectional Committee nomic utilization than earlier considered necessary. of the Standards Association of Australia was main- The importance of this work to the timber industry tained. and dependent enterprises (including those of housing, ililanufacturing Processes. Requests from furniture manufacturing, agricultural implement (v) - making, spinning, weaving, packaging, and crating) industry for assistance in this field also remained is demonstrated by the very considerable use made of artive throughout the year; in a number of cases the facilities and experience available within the some experimental work was necessary before suitable Division by private and Governmental and seini- advice could be given. With the co-operation of a Governmental authorities. Representation was pro- company manufacturing equipment for high-frequency vided by the Section at conferences on the standardiza- Imting, attention was given to the technique of pre- tion of timber for use in building construction, on paring laminated hat blocks from several Australian saxmilling and utilization, and on the supply of timber species using a phenol-formaldehyde adhesive and for house construction. To permit acceleration of the dielectric heating, several were distributed for service industrial developments in the paper industry, the trials. Active interest was also shown in the manu- services of the Officer-in-Charge of the Section were facture of wood flour, and advice was given with regard made available to the industry for a period of eight to species availability, production method, production months. costs, and uses. Data were also supplied on the follow- (ii) Timber Uses.--Notes on the properties and uses ing subjects: vat construction to hold 15 per cent. of a wide number of species were prenared for indns- HCl at a temperature of 140' F., a method to provide trial contacts. Descriptive summaries covering the for bhe simultaneous bending and fitting of handles habit, distribution, physical and mephanical properties, to the curved sockets of shovels by the use of hot oil; durabilitv, seasoning and qluinq characteristics, nses, n method to give satisfactory staining of tool handles and availabilitv of certain other species were pre- nith the use of 1 per cent. ferrous sulphate solution; nared for distribution. manufacturing methods suitable for the production Specifir inmxiries from industry on which adoice was of venetian blind slats from Australian species; the pjven inch~dedthe s~itabjlit~of various species for destructive distillation of wood; the bleaching of hntchers' hlocks, fire plugs, special medical equipment, tempered hardboard for building purposes; equipment- - water cooling towers, wheelwri~ht work, pattern for the extraction of resin from-wood; pressure making, condenser tube plugs, electrical oontact- requirements for the manufacture of 11-inch diameter breaker arme, ehuttles, handles for mallets, floor- discs from a tempered hardboard for use in electria an ding machines, tool handles, textile rollers, bakers' meters ; the machining of stcrck for edge gluing; the use of densified wood as a component of fruit grading in insulated railway vans. It has also been possible machines, and for band-saw guides; rumbling to give more attention to several long-term chemical technique; the manufacture of skis and fislhing rods. and biological studies of a fundamental character. (vi) Waste Utilization.-An Australia-wide survey The Division provided lecturers in two special of the sawdust production of saw-millers and wood- courses of instruction. Under the auspices of the using industries (box and case manufacturers, joinery Australian Chemical Institute and the Sydney Techni- cal College a course of lectures and demonstrations manufacturers, and furniture manufacturers) was was given on the storage of fruits and vegetables. In made during the year, and an attempt made to ascer- tain availability of supplies. Analysis of the data connexion with the School of Fisheries organized for obtained is giving a valuable appreciation of the the Ministry of Post-war Reconstruction, the Division quantity and range of supplies from various potential provided lecturers and demonstrators for the section of the course dealing with the handling and preservation key centres of saw-dust utilization. of fish. (vii) Miscellaneous.-An examination of the effect Several years ago it was realized that Borne of sub-floor heating on the serviceability of a wooden co-ordination of research work in Australia on the test floor has been carried out in co-operation with storage of fresh fruit and vegetables was desirable. the Seasoning Section using low wattage tubular Bccordingly, in 1941, a speoial committee was formed electric heaters beneath the cod floor but betreen the representing the Council, the Department of Commerce floor joists. An investigation was commenced for a aiid Agriculture, and several State Departments of method of temporarily sealing the flooring of a new Agriculture. Owing to the war, its first meeting was type of pre-fabricated house, so that floors laid prior delayed until 1946. In future, meetings will probably to the erection of roofing materials would be suitably be held annually and every State Department of Agri- weather-proofed. The procurement of timber test culture will be represented. The work of this com- material for the various sections of the Division was nlittee promis~sto be very useful, as a means (a) maintained. whereby investigators in the various organizations 10. Publications.-The following papers were pub- represented can freely exchange detailed information lished during the year :- of work in progress, (b) of avoiding unnecessary over- Brims, 13. (1947).--Molecular weight distribution lapping of research work, and (c) of reviewing major curves of various holocellulose fractions. problems in the field, and, where possible, allocating J. Goun. Sci. Ind. Res. (Aust.) 20 : 276-88. studies of these problems to particular groups of Cooper, K. L. (1946).-Timber research : extract research workers. of paper presented at Adelaide meeting of It is pleasing to record that two senior research B.N.Z.A.A.S., August, 1946. Aust. Timber students selected by the Government of India have J. 12 (11): 630, 633, 635-8, 639, 641, 668. recently arrived at the Division's Homebush Dadswell, H. E., and Ingle, H. D. (1947).- laboratories and have joined the teams of investigators Wood anatomy of the Myrtaceae, I. Trop. engaged in research work on the storage and processing Woods (90) : (June 1). of fruits and vegetables. Dadswell, H. E., and Wardrop, A. B. (1946).- The Council is indebted to Professor N. A. Burge~, Cell mall deformations in wood fibres. Nature Botany Department, University of Sydney, for the 158 : 17 !. provision of laboratory accommodation for two research Dixon, C. E. (1946).-Container testing and officers working on problems of plant physiology. The design : laboratory packaging research effects close co-operation existing between the staffs of the important saving of weight and cost: Botany Department and of the Division's fruit storage Packaging organization would benefit Austra- section continues to be a source of considerable help lian industry. illfrg. and Manag. 1 (6) : and inspiration in the investigations on the storage 244-8. of fresh fruit. Greenhill, W. L. (1946). - Temperature and Close liaison is being maintained with most sections moisture contents attained by wooden aircraft of the food industry through contact with many indi- in service in Australia. Aust. Coun. Aero., vidual firms and various trade associations. At the Repork ACA-23. request of the Commonwealth Cold Storage Associa- Harris, E. E.* (1946).-Production of alcohol tjon, the Division undertook the major part of the from Australian woods. J. Coun. Sci. Ind. preparation and writing of a brochure on recommended Res. (Aust.) 19 : 303-10. procedures for the cold storage of a wide range of Higgins, IT. G. (1946).-Note on the awessrnent foodstuffs. Several firms have shown their desire to of baqh fire hazard, with a suggested design help the work of the Division by making substantial for a simple " hazardometer ". Ibid. 19: monetary grants. 293-4. 2. Physical Investigations. - (i) General. - The - (1946). - Critical temperature range in Physics and Transport Section has continued to super- the plastic deformation of plywood. Ibid. vise the maintenance and running of mechanical 19: 455-62. equipment used for controlling storage conditions and Watson, A. J. (1947).-Preparation of a wood other work in the laboratory. Collaborabion with sample for chemical analysis. J. Cown. Sci. other sections and general advisory work on various Ind. Res. (Aust.) 20: 259-96. problems together with statistical analyses of data have taken up a large part of the investigators' time. IX. FOOD PRESERVATION (ii) Cooling of a Wet Body. - The calculations INVESTIGATIONS. referred to in the previous report have been continued. 1. General. -In the last annual report, a brief Equipment constructed for the experimental work is account was given of some of the more important being modified to overcome electrical faults. changes which had taken place in the scope of food (iii) Skipping of Prozon Meat.-Many of the newer preservation investigations following the end of the refrigerated ships are cooled by the "jacket" system war. An additional major project has recently been using forced circulation of air over batteries of brine commenced by the Physics and Transport Section, pipes situated outside the cargo spaces. As the fans riz., an investigation of the transport of frozen produce cannot be run during loading, some rise of temperature - ~f the cargo may result. Measurements were made U.8. Bossst Products Laboratory, iWadlson, Wlswndn, on one vessel during the loading of frozen meat in north Qileensland and Sydney in order to estimate the (iii) Dissolved Oxygen in Orange Juice. - (with risks of " dangerous " temperature rises during the Canning Section).-A paper on the polarometric loading of frozen cargo. A report has been forwarded determination of dissolved oxygen was prepared for to the British Rr'frigeratecl Cargo Reseai-cli Council publication. The rate of oxygen-consuming reactions at whose request the work was carried out. in orange juice was found to be negligible- - below 10" C. (iv) Rail Tra~zsportof Frozen 4feat.-Observations Very complete de-aeration of orange juice (to less made durin: the nork referred to in the previous ,than .005 per cent. of dissolved oxygen) was obtained p~tragraphindicated that rail transport to the ship was by passing inert gases for 30-45 minutes. Canned often a weak link in the chain of operations. This orange juice was prepared at 5' C. both with and with- problem wai studied in two stages:- out de-aeration and samples were stored at 5", 20" (a) New Sonth Willes refrigerated rail vans were and 303 C. for subsequent examination. loaded wit11 ice to obtain data on the rate of pre-cooling (iv) Polarography.-Investigations on polarography and the heat load, the rate of heat leakage in the included the effect of viscosity on polarographic diffu- " steady" state, and the effect of open doors. sion currents and the development of a more satisfac- Dleasured ralues were con~paredwith .calculated values tory type of cell. The operating characteristics of to see whether extension of the results to other condi- automatic recording polarographs have been studied. tions ant1 handling procedures was likely to be reliable. (v) In'poid Coating of Apples.-Further investiga- (O) Mea~u~cnlentswere continued in a Queensland tions have been carried out on the fatty acids and insulated railway van. Temperatures and ice con- ~~nsaponifiablematter of the oil fraction. A prelimi- s?iinption mere measured during pre-cooling, and meat nary separation of fatty acids was made by means of and air tcnzperatures aere measnred during the trans- solvents. Separation by formation of succinic half port of frozen meat to a port of loading. The results esters or low temperature crystallization of methyl viere analysed in order to estimate the relative esters was not successful. The unsaponifiable matter importance of incomplete pre-cooling, " normal " heat was partially separated by means of solvents and dis- leakage, and " exposure " during loading and unload- tillation in vacuo. . The performances to be expected from a number The coating material was extracted from slamples of of huggested alternatire designs for new vans were Jonathan, Granny Smith, and Sturmer apples with estirr;.~tetl. Further studies on the transport of frozen carbon tetrachloride and separated into fractions. The produce are being planned. " resinous ,' fraction from Jonathan apples was harder (v) Cold-store Survey.-A survey of representative and had lower saponification and iodine values than commercial fruit stores has been undertaken in order the corresponding fraction from the other varieties. to: (a) deterrniric the magnitude of the temperature The skin of Sturmer apples was found to contain a viiriations in space and time within storage rooms, considerable quantity of white powder which was prac- (b) collect cridence on the cauqes of the variations and tically insoluble in carbon tetrachloride. The wax and possible means of improving uniformity, (c) obtain oil fractions did not differ appreciably in the three iiiformation on the relative humidity in stores, and varieties. (cl) estimate the efficiency of the cooling systems used. Changes in the natural coating of Granny Smith llcnii~:.clnents arc in progress in one store in New apples during storage at 0" C. are being studied. The South Wales and three in Victoria. effect of district and maturity is also being invrstigated, and significant differences have been obtained. The (vi) Vapour Pressure of Dried Foods.-The studies C( resinous" fraction obtained from freshly picked of the relation between vapour pressure and water contr~ntof dried egg and dricd onion hare bern con- apples differed markedly in properties from the same tinued. Both adsorption and desorption isotherms fraction obtained previously from long-stored apples. have been obtained. About .06 per cent. of lipoid material was obtained from the flesh of Granny Smith apples. In an apple (vii) Colouv iMeasurement and Grading.-Specifica- of average size about half the total lipoid material is tion of colour and measurements of colour changes in the skin. ale needed in many branches of the work of the Division. It is desirable to obtain methods which are (vi) Volatile Products of Apples.-The production inore precise arid more objectire than some of those at of volatile organic substances by Granny Smith apples present in use. The Coimcil's Physirs Division has was determined over a period of about six weeks at co-operated in the development of this work by design- 20" C. The procedure involved absorption of the ing a photoelrctric tricolorimeter which can be adapted carbon dioxide of respiration in soda lime and com- fc,r measl~rernentson foodstuffs, and by making avail- bustion of the volatile organic substances over oata- able a Eardy recording spectrophotorneter for some lysts at BOO0 C. The carbon dioxide produced by ~~~casurements.A reflectometer using balanced photo- combustion was absorbed in alkali and determined con- cells has been designed for use with narrow band light ductimetrically. The method is not quantitative, as filters. volatile esters were found to be partially absorbed by the soda lime. The production of volatiles by Granny 3. General Chemistry.-(i) Jfetals in Foods.-An Smith apples was definitely lower than that reported accurate method for determining iron in canned foods, in thr literature for other varieties. Volatile produc- using ortho-plienanthroline, has now been developed. tion in all samples tended to pass through an initial TI!- investigation.; includctl tllr determination of the maximum, then a minimum, and finally a steady in- redox potential of the iron-dipyridyl and iron-phenan- crease. These changes occurred more rapidly in later throline complexes and the instability constant of the picked fruit. Investigations have been initiated on ferrony-dipyriilyl complex. Three papers were prepared the absorption of volatile esters from an air stream for pitblication. Investigations on the polarographic and their subsequent determination by a colorimetric determination of copper have been initiated. procedure. (ii) Tinplate.-The work on the determination of (vii) Chlorophyll.-Preliminary work on the deter- tin coating weight of tinplate was completed, and a mination of chlorophyll in fruits and vegetables has paper was prepared for publication. Preliminary been carried out. The usual colorimetric determination nork on the porosity testing of tinplate was completed. in an acetone extract was found to be subject to inter- lirrangements were made for further tests to be carried ference by other pigments, and it was found desirable out at the International Tin Research Institute, to transfer the chlorophyll to ether after the initial England. extraction. (viii) Ascorbic Acid.-Work on the determination than was pasteurizing in water, although oiling re- of ascorbic acid included the investigation of " appa- sulted in other benefits including reduced evaporation rent ascorbic acid " in green walnuts. The " apparent and improved retention of yolk and albumen quality. ascorbic acid " appears to be confined to the pericarp. Two experimental shipments of shell eggs including Attempts to isolate it have not yet been successful. pasteurized and oiled treatments were forwarded from "Apparent ascorbic acid" was also obtained by heat- South Australia to England where detailed examina- ing solutions of sucrose with dilute mineral acid. No tions were made by officers of the Food Investigation conclusive results were obtained on heating fruit and Board. Under these conditions the pasteurizing treat- vegetable suspensions. A commercial malted product ments effected a substantial reduction in microbial was examined for " apparent ascorbic acid ". wastage for machine-cleaned eggs, although the effects Work is being initiated on the mechanism of the on other internal quality factors were small, metal catalysed oxidation of ascorbic acid. The effect Some preliminary comparative measurements have of various chelating substances on the copper-catalysed been made on the bacteriological quality of egg pulp oxidation has been studied. The copper-catalysed produced by hand and machine methods of breaking. oxidation was also studied in suspensions of onion tissue. Most of the " protective " effect which inhibits (ii) Clostridium botulinum Investigations.-Studies copper catalysis, was associated with the volatile sub- of the growth of this organism have been continued, stances of the tissue. particularly in relation to inhibition by tin and other metals in solution. Some time has been devoted to the The enzymic oxidation of ascorbic acid was studied development of satisfactory procedures for determining in cabbage and apple suspensions. The oxidase of cabbage was found to be mainly in the insoluble por- thiol compounds in the media used. Experiments on tion but was partially soluble in dilute salt solutions. the destruction of botulinum toxin by heat have been The enzyme was precipitated by saturated ammonium continued, and this aspect of the work is nearing com- sulphate without loss of activity. Oxidation of ascorbic pletion. acid in apple suspensions was very variable and the (iii) Exam"ination of Canned Foods.-A manual mechanism appeared to be largely indirect. giving details of methods for the bacteriological exami- The rapid loss of ascorbic acid from silver beet after nation of canned foods is being prepared for publica- picking was not found to be associated with wilting. tion. This publication will summarize the rather An attempt was made to prepare an ascorbic acid rich extensive experience gained by the Division when large concentrate from orange rind by extraction, fermenta- numbers of cans were examined during the war years. tion, filtration, and evaporation. The ascorbic acid (iv) Heat Resistance of Bacterial Spores.-The ex- was well retained, but the product was still bitter. periments have been continued with the spores of Activated carbon removed the bitterness but promoted several strains of Bacillus and Clostridium. In oxidation of ascorbic acid. Methods proposed by attempting to elucidate the role of ttarch added to Russian workers failed to reduce the pro-oxidant effect media for detecting surviving spores, special attention of the carbon. was paid to certain strains of Bacillus with simple (ix) Dehydroascorbic acid.-Investigations are now nutritive requirements. The results of these experi- in progress on the stability of dehydroascorbic acid, ments suggest, although they do not prove, that the which is obtained by the oxidation of ascorbic acid starch has a direct effect on the germinating spore. but retains antiscorbutic activity. The stability was This work has been interrupted by the resignation of studied at various pH levels (from O to 7) over a the investigator. range of temperatures (0'-100' C.). Maximum (v) Disinfection by Cationic Detergents.-A study stability was found at pH 2-3. The destruction was of the anti-bacterial properties of these surface-active not affected by the presence of oxygen or cupric ions. compounds was commenced last year. The experiments Borate appears to accelerate the destruction of dehydro- have been continued with the object of determining ascorbic acid but tends to stabilize the first product the conditions under which these compounds are most of hydrolysis (diketogulonic acid). active. The susceptibility of eight strains at several 4. Microbiology.-(i) Egg Investigations.-Experi- pH levels has now hem determined for two compounds ments on the pasteurization of shell eggs have been of this type. While previous workers had claimed continued on a considerable scale. The principal aims that these compounds are more effective under allraline have been to determine the most suitable conditions conditions, it is now clear that this is not generally of pasteurization for eggs that had been exposed to a true, and that for some strains of bacteria a reverse wide range of conditions between laying and pasteuri- relationship obtains. Explanations of the observed zation. The effects of pasteurization have been differences are now being sought. assessed on the basis of freedom from bacterial rotting (vi) Mould Growth Studies.-A detailed study has after storage, and in terms of other internal-quality been commenced of the water relations of a mould factors not associated with microbial wastage. which has been isolated in these laboratories from From the aspect 'of control of rotting, it has been spoiled food, and which is unusually well adapted to shown that a number of pasteurizing treatments are growth under dry conditions. The organism is able capable of almost completely eliminating rots when to grow in media when the activity of the water is the pasteurization is carried out up to seven days after between 0.65 and 0.95 approximately, no growth cleaning. The probability of obtaining complete con- occurring in the usual moist media in which the trol of rots is reduced, however. as the ~otential activity of the water is usually around 0.99. wastage- increases. as the'tem~eratireand duiation of 5. Meat Investi,qations (Brisbane) .-(i) General.- holding between cleaning and pasteurization are in- The continued difficulty of securing highly-trained creased, and as the temperature of the pasteurizing scientific workers is a severe handicap to the operations water is increased above 145' F. approximately. of the Division's laboratory at Cannon Hill. Con- Pasteurization, especially at relatively low tempera- sideration is now being given to the possibility of tures, resulted in significantly increased retention of securing suitable men from overseas. Recently, the thick white although the effect on yolk quality was addition of an engineer-physicist to the Cannon Rill generally insignificant. Viscosity of the thin albumen staff enabled at attack to be made on a good deal of baking quality, and the rate of water loss from stored maintenance work on plant, equipment, and other eggs, were all unaffected by pasteiirization. Pasteuri- problems which have been held in abeyance for some zation in oil was less effective for the control of rotting time. The appointment by the Division of Animal Health those which did. The differential results in retarda- and Production of a special officer to investigate beef tion of microbial proliferation which one should have cattle production in Australia, principally in Queens- expected in respect of distances of surfaces sampled land, directing attention particularly to specifying, by from the light sources, and the angle of incidence of measurement and analysis, the standard trade grades of the radiation were not consistent if ultra-violet light carcasses, and associating them with factors such as had been entirely and directly responsible. This find- age and environment, has resulted in arrangements ing, coupled with the fact that the areas which had no being made between the two Divisions concerned for direct radiation showed definite retardation of prolife- the officer doing this work to make his Brisbane head- ration, suggests that a good part of the effect may be quarters at the Cannon Hill laboratory. Its location only indirectly due to ultra-violet radiation. on the property of the Queensland Meat Industry Board In connexion with the retardation of proliferation will facilitate the carrying out of certain aspects of on areas so disposed that they received no direct radia- the work attempting to establish correlations between tion, it is impossible to say, at present, how much of the animal on the hoof-both as to its physical con- this, if any, is due to the reflection of the ultra-violet formation and as depending upon such factors as age, from the walls of the room, since no measurements of nutritional history, and environment-and the beef reflection from these surfaces, at 2,537 A.U., have so derived from it. far been made. The question as to how much of the Consultation work continues to make a aonsiderable effect, if any, is due to ozone ~roducedby the ultra- demand on the available resources of the laboratory. violet radiation is being thoroughly investigated. Assistance has been given to those associated with Investigations on ()zone.-In connexion with many phases of food preservation and transport, in several phases of the work of the Division, the estima- some cases necessitating laboratory investigation, tion of ozone is important. Studies suspended at the plant survey, and the specification or design of suitable outbreak of war are again being actively carried on. equipment. Considerable work was done on sampling procedures Following negotiations to secure additional labora- and the estimation of very low concentrations of ozone. tory space, the Queensland Meat Industry Board It has included a study of the increase in sensitivity agreed to place at the disposal of the Council a further of the potassium iodide method, as a function of pH. 6,500 square feet of floor space adjacent to that which A number of points have been studied where, in both the Council now occupies. Since that time, a further sampIing and analytical techniques, quite erroneous optional site on the property of the Queensland Meat estimations might result. Industry Board has been suggested. If the latter site Further work has included tests for the detection of is adopted, a new building could provide more modern oxides of nitrogen and hydrogen peroxide in the air and much better facilities than could be had by ex- from the ozonizer. Methods for eliminating the oxides tending from the present laboratory. of nitrogen have also been studied; they involve control (ii) Plant and Equipment.-Work on the tenderiza- at the point of production, or, when ~roduced, by tion of meat has made necessary the setting up of "bsorI'tion. One absorption method, while perfectly much special equipment, some of which had to be satisfactory, also eliminates carbon dioxide. It is fabricated. Included in this was the installa- doubtful, therefore, whether this method is practicable, tion of lamps emitting ultra-violet radiation, chiefly at least in one case where the ononized air is to be in the neigl;hbourhoo,j of 2537 A.JJ. id^^^^^ work used in bactericidal studies, since the elimination of on design, and calibration of instruments carbon dioxide might be definitely open to question on and equipment has been carried out for other council the basis of bacterial metabolism requiring it. for Scientific and Industrial Research laboratories. Concentrations of about one part per million of ozone in the atmosphere cannot, at present, be satis- (iii) Maturation, or Tenderizing of Beef.-During factorily obtained directly from the ozonizer, but work the strike in the Queensland meat industry last Year, is proceeding to get consistently constant concentrations beef of improved eating quality was supl'lied to the much lower than this. Such concentrations are at public in the Greater-Brisbane area. The meat trade present obtained on the basis of dilution of air contain- believed that a good deal of the improvement was due ;% about 250 to 300 parts per million of ozone. so to the tellderizing of the beef, brought about by the far, consistency of of ozone in air, using omission of chilling immediatel~ ~o~t~~la~g~~~~.thr dilution method, is not entirely Work While experimental work indicated definite improve- is proceeding to G~~ way and of making it so. ment in tenderness following post-slaughter holding of beef at temperatures of approximately 72O F. for 24 (v) Collagen-Gelatin. Studies.--Further work was hours, as with the usual industrial chilling done in connexion with the estimation of proline in the practice, microbial counts on the beef were so high hydrolysis products of gelatin, using the ammonium as to make such a method, under existing conditions rhodanilate method f3r its determination. Various of slaughter-floor hygiene, totally impracticable for ~0rk~1-shave given values for the ~rolinecontent of operations in the Greater-Brisbane area during- the gelatin much lower than that last reported by stein summer months. It was obvious that any tenderizing and Bergman% of 17.5 f 0.5 Per Cent., the values brought about by this means would make the control of P~CV~OUSIYobtained in this laboratory also being lower microbial proliferation essential to a degree which is than this. The Division's latest work, using a modified quite impossible at the present time. techniql.~e, gave a fiqure nearly equal to that given by Work was continued on the influence of ultra-violet Stein and Ber,mann. radiation in retarding microbial proliferation, the (vi) Insect Damage to Beef Casings by Dermestes work being carried out iq two rooms enabling the culpinus.-Rather serious losses in industry caused by beef to be held under identically similar physical con- the attack on beef casings by the insect Dermestes vul- ditions of temperature, relative humidity, air circula- pinus was referred to the Division. Previous work here ton, and time. The left quarters were stored in one had shown that the insect was particularly susceptible room where they were subject to ultra-violet radiation, to heat, subjection to temperatures of approximately the right quarters being identically disposed in a dupli- 60" C. for periods as short as twenty minutes being cate room without radiation. Microbial counts indi- apparently sufficient to kill it in all stages of its life cated a definite retardation of microbial proliferation cycle. Since heat treatment of casings was not desir- in the room where ultra-violet radiation was employed, able, the effects of low temperatures were studied. Tem- the retardation being, generally, almost as much in the peratures down to approximately - 3O 0. were not case of areas which received no direct radiation ae sufficient to destroy the iuseet in all stagas. Casinga with plentiful insect material were placed in jars and cell, with particular refemnee to organic acid meta- subjected to temperatures of approximately - 15O 0. bolism, have been continued. Some of this work has Apparently, complete kills of all stages were obtained, been carried out in collaboration with plant physiolo- certainly in 64 hours, possibly much less. Following gists in the Universities of Melbourne and Sydney. this, space-temperature surveys were made, by the use Experiments on the quantitative relation between the of thermocouples, in standard-packed cases of these beef stimulated respiration due to inorganic salts and the casings, to determine the rate of temperature reduction amounts of those salts accumulated by the tissue, have when the case was stored in a freezer at -15' C. given results suitable for publication. It has been Eased on this investigation, advice was tendered to shown that the number of molecules of salt entering the interested parties in the meat industry. cell under optimum conditions is approximately equi- (vii) Karl Fischer 1ieagent.-For the purpose of its valent to the number of electrons eliminated in the possible employment in certain laboratory procednres, stimulated respiration. particularly those involving the accurate estimation of Preliminary experiments on the tissue of ripening very small amounts of moisture, methods employing peaches showed that the rate of respiration decreases the Karl Fischer reagent mere studied, essential equip- rapidly after the tissue is cut from the fruit. Thia was ment made and set up, the reagent prepared, and ex- shown to be associated with the decreasing number of perimental work commenccd. functional cells. Simultaneously the effects of solutions (viii) General Microbiological Work.-In connexion of various osmotic pressures were examined. It was with the possible early return to export chilled beef, demonstrated that the increasing tendency for cells to further microbial surveys were made for estimation of break down in water as ripening proceeds is partly an the extent to which export-standard slaughter-floor osmotic phenomenon, associated with an initial rapid hygiene had declined in its years of disuse during the absorption of water. war. Work on apple tissue has been continued. An exp~ri- In connexion with problems of meatworks hygiene ment was designed to determine the relation of cell and the sterilization of cold-storage rooms, investiga- size, cell number, respiration of the whole fruit, respira- tions have been started on sterilizing agents and tion of the cut tissue, suction pressure of the tissue, and methods for their adequate dispersal and use. Atomiz- total and protein nitrogen to the size of fruit. For this ing equipment and special bactericidal and fungicidal purpose apples with a wide range of sizes were obtained solutions necessary for this work have been obtained from one tree and examined as soon as possible after and are now being subjected to preliminary tests before picking. This extensive experiment is the beginning of use in investigational work. an attempt by a team of physiologists to determine how Experimental work was done on methods of sampling differences in fruit size, so frequently related to differ- meat for counts of microbial populations. The method ences in storage bchavionr, are correlated with the of Garrard and Lochhead wherein dry sterile filter physiological properties of the tissue. A technique for papers, each 4 sq. cm. in area, were pressed on to meat the sampling and measurement of mean cell size in a surfaces for 20 seconds, was compared with that where fruit has been developed. definite meat samples of 1 sq. cm. each were taken The survey of the organic acid constituents of apples with a cork borer. Present indications are that there in cool storage has been continued. The fruit has now is no satisfactory proportional correspondence between been in store for more than a year and samples are still counts made by the two methods, those obtained by the being removed rejgularly. In addition to the organic filter-paper method, as a percentage of those obtained acid fractions, sugar and nitrogen fractions are being by the cork-borer method, ranging from 8 to 78 per analysed and will also be related to respiration. cent. It is quite probable that further work would Work on the physiology of cold injury begun result in decreasing this spread in proportion, but prob- with preliminary experiments on the respiration of ably not to a degree sufficiently satisfactory for our orange rind in the Warburg apparatus. work. :Some time has been spent in examining the possi- 6. Preservation of Fish by Refrigeration.-Work on bility of using a radio-frequency technique for deter- the refrigeration of fish which was suspended during mination of electrical conductivity changes in alkali the war has been resumed in some degree and the prob- solutions used to absorb the carbon dioxide produced' lem of the development of ammonia in shark flesh has by respiring fruit. This technique appears to have been investigated. Samples of shark flesh collected at considerable advantages over those at present in use, a fishing port in South Australia have been subjected particularly as it would be faster to operate. to various periods of exposure at different temperatures (iii) Fresh Fruit #torage.-(a) Ncin coatings for prior to freezing, and the production of ammonia has apples.-The results of common storage and cool been determined before, during, and after freezing and storage experiments completed in 1945, have been incor- thawing; at the same time the growth of micro- porated in a detailed report. The experiment, com- orgxnisms which may bs responsible for the breakdown menced in 1946, designed to compare the effects on stor- of urea and development of ammonia has been followed. age of the physiological conditions within the fruit Similar measurements are being made on shark flesh (particularly with regard to internal atmosphere) whicll has been cured and smoked after varying periods brought about by skin coating, with the effects brought in the frozen state. about by gas storage, was completed. The results of 7. Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Storage Investigations this experiment are being related to the earlier work (with New South Wales Department of Agriculture).- on skin coating and are to be prepared for publication. (i) General.-The staff of the Fruit and Vegetable (b) Orchard variability in relatiovi to storage.- Storage Section has been increased during the gear by Variability in storage behaviour of apples within trees, the appointment of a storage officer who will take between trees, and between orchards in the Orange charge of applied problems, and by the appointment of district is being investigated. The statistical problems a plant physiologist who will work on problems of plant raised by this type of experiment have been discussed tissue physiology. A new storage officer has been with several workers interested in the field. The rela- appointed to the New South Wales Department of tion of keeping quality in respect of certain disorders, Agriculture and is stationed permanently at the Food to fruit size and crop size is being observed. This work Preservation laboratory. will follow somewhat similar lines to that carried out (ii) Plant Physiology and Riochem-htry.-Investi- by Carne and Martin in Tasmania, since it is generally gations on the organization of the plant cell and its agreed that more data of this type should be collected relation to cell stability and on the respiration of the for varieties and districts, additional to those used in the Tasmanian work. Fruit put into cool store in 1946 Two varieties of beetroot were grown at Hawkesbury was examined in November and December, and the Agricultural College and canned in diflerent ,ize grades new season's fruit was put into store in March and at weekly intervals. Crimson Globe was inferior in April, 1947. These experiments will probably extend colour and flavour to the other variety, Detroit Dark over a period of some pears. Red. For the latter variety the most econonlical har- (c) Naturity and ripening of papaws.-In response vesting age was 68 to 75 days, at which a reasonable to a request from growers in northern New South total yield and the maximum yield of the best grade Wales, some investigations of conditions most satisfac- (1 to 2 inches) nere obtained. Size grading was found tory for ripening have been started. to bear a much closer relationship with quality as (d) Ripening of Rose pears.-Experiments on the judged orgai~olepticallpthan chemical analyses includ- ripening of Bosc pears have been continued, with the ing measurements of total solids, alcohol-insoluble object of comparing normal and late picked (hormone- solids, total sugar, reducing sugar and pH. None of sprayed) fruits. these determinations showed promise as an index of maturity. (iv) Transport.-In collaboration with the State Depa?-trr~t,ntiof Agricult~~rc~,officers of the Ilivision Three varieties of dwarf green beans (Asgrow have organized a survey of the interstate movement and Stringless Greenpod, Burpee Stringless Greenpod, and condition of vegetables. From this survey of a field in Giant Stringless Greenpod), one butter bean (Kidney which little information had previously been collected, Wax), and one pole bean (Blue Lake) were grown at it will be possible to define what problems require Hawhesbury Agricultural College. Three different size immediate investigation and what further information grades from each variety, selected visually, were canned should be collected. Experiments on the transport of to represent different maturities. Xo reliable chemical beans from the north coast of New South Wales to indices of maturity were indicated fro111 measur~~tlcnts Sydney have been organized. Frequcnt large losses in of total colids, alcohol-insoluble solids, total and reduc- commercial consignments (mostly due to sweating) ing sugars, and pH. A slight but definite improvement indicate the necessity for improved methods of in retention of green colour was noted in canned green handling, beans previously subjected to the Blair Blkali~ingpro- (v) Dm'ed Fmit Storage.-Storage experiments with cess, but the darkening of the liquor in the alkali- dried apricots, peaches, and pears, started in 1945, are treated samples was unattractive and offset to some ex- still in progress. These experiments have been directed tent the beneficial effect on the beans. to studying the effects of storage temperature, initial Cauliflower and broccoli are being canned at dif- sulphur dioxide content, and moisture content on the ferent maturities as judged by the openness of thc storage life. These experiments are now nearing com- flower head. The problem of discoloration in canned pletion. cauliflower is being studied and methods aimed at over- 8. Canning and Fruit Products Investigations.-(i) comi~gthis defect are being tried. Various procedures Vegetable Canning.-Field work similar to that carried for blanching of cauliflower prior to canning are also out during previous years on the optimum maturity at being investigated. picking of sweet corn grown at Windsor was continued (ii) Fruit Canning.-The fruit programme for and a considerable aniount of additional information 1946-47 nas carried out almost entirely In the hlur- was obtained. The relationship between refractive rumhidgee Irrigation Area with the help and co-opera- index and moisture has been set out in graphical form tion of the Leeton Co-operative Cannery and the New for the three seasons during which the work has been South Wales Department of Agriculture. carried out; some evidence of a seasonal variation in the relationship is indicated. The information con- The programme included the canning of some 22 rerning the selection of corn at optimum maturity was varieties of clingstone peaches. These peaches mature applied by the cannery with the result that a significant at different perlods. and the object of the trials is to improrement in quality of the canned product was determine whether there is a suitable variety maturing obtained. (Six varieties of sweet corn seed from the before or after the standard varieties so that the peach- United States of America and from local sources were canning season may be sprrad over a longer period. grown and then canned as mholr grain and crearn-style Preliminary examinations suggest that four or five packs. The need for growing selected varieties of this of the varieties possess possibliities in this direction. crop in isolation was made clear from the work. The freestone canning was continued with a reduced Canning maturity studies have been made on peas number of varieties some of which were canned at grown at Cowra and Bathurst and good correlations 1,ecton while the majority mere packed at Homrbnsh. obtained between alcohol-insoluble solids and tendero- These ~roductshave yet to be examined. meter and succulometer readings. Examinations of the Apricots have also been canned, several different canned product are being carried out, and the results maturities being packed in syrups of varying concen- mill shortly be available for publication. A canning tration to determine the optimal sugar concentration trial to test the effect of the Blair Allralizing process on for each maturity. Comparisons between packs made the retention of the green colour in canned peas indi- of tree-ripened and storage-ripened fruit indicated a cated a definite improvement over unheated controls definite flavour superiority with the former. canned at the same time. A slight superiority in colour Canned pears were prcpared in which varying addi- was still apparent after approximately twelve months tions of tin salts, ascorbic acid, and sulphur dioxide incubation at 37" C. were made to the lacquered cans to aqsess their respec- Carrots grown at Hawkesbury Agricultural College tive roles in controlling discolouration during storage. are being harvested at weekly intervals and the rela- Several precanning treatments to control browning of tionship between maturity and canning quality tested. peelrd pears mre also compared. The treatments com- Nine varieties of tomatoes grown at Hawkesbury prised holding, in dilute brine, 0.001 per cent. ascorbic Agricultural College and seventeen at the Experimental acid, and 0.05 per cent. sulphur, dioxide. A series of Farm, Bathurst, have been canned at Homebush; in pears packed in syrups containing different amount9 addition srven varic.ties were cai~ncdat Leeton Cannery. of citric acid showed that the addition of acid to the Severe culling was necessary with the Hawkesbury product is desirable, but the optimal concentration fruit owing to virus wilt infection, and with the Leeton may vary bet~cen0.5 and 1.0 per cent., depending fruit owing to adverse weather at harvest time. upon individual preference. Xncouraging results were obtained with four varie- noted with the use of 1.3 per cent. calcium chloride ties of rock melon subniitted by the New South Wales soak with Granny Smith apple slices, but further work Department of Agriculture. The melons were canned is planned with other varleties more liable to break- in diced fcrm in an acidified syrup and also with the do~~nduring cooking. addition of passionfruit pulp; both packs were attrac- 9. ~~,z,~d~~t~dyoods.-(i) vegetable Dehydration. tive in appearance and flavour. --The invesiigation mentioned in last year's report on (iii) E'ruit Juices.-The work for the greater part the suitabiliLv for dellydration of a range ollioll of the year was concerned with investigations on the varieties has been contillued for a third season to bitter principles in Navel and Valencia orange peel determirle whether difierellces between varieties are and juice, with a view to eliminating the objectionable consistent. &teriai from sonle of the seed lines used bitterness which develops in orange juice within 24 in the last two seasons was grown at Canberra, and at hours of processing. Fundamental work on the nature Griftith. Descriptions and chemical work were done of the bitter principle was considered necessary in on the fresh ollionsand examination of the dehydrated order to fix definitely the mechanism by which bitter- products is still in progress. In addition to this ness develops alld to provide, if practicable, chemical material, fourteen strair~sof Australian Brown, two means of control. By means of extraction of the peel of Brown Globe, alld one of Odourless were received a soxhlet apparatus with benzene, followed by fron~the Victorian Department of Agriculture. L)e- evaporation and recrystallization from alcohol, a pro- scriptions and chemical work were done on fresh and ilcct was obtained which yielded bitter aqueous dellydrated material. solution at dillition of less than 1 p.p.m. The alco- L~~~ on the dehydration of green peas holic mother liquor also contained an intensely bitter has beell extended. F~~~varieties received from substance yet to ' isolated. To obtain large aniounts canberra and lline fronl Griflitll. Chemical work and of bitter principle a large-scale soxhlet apparatus was descriptions were dolie on fresh and constructed, operating on tlie usual intermittent material. Some varietal differences were noted but siphoning orerflo~~.Using tlie lnethod of extraction the ,ieCtof maturity seemed more critical than that outlined, tiro apparently identical bitter products have A sanrple of vined peas frollr a grower at been obtained from both Navel and Valencia peels. For ~i~h~~~~dwas processed, but results were unsatisfac- rccuratr melting point determination, an electrically tory owing to the poor quality of the raw material. 'eat'' copper b"ck7 the tenlPerature of which Can be Iniormntion was oi,laine(i on 'the by peas of raised Or of a rheostat, Was sulphur dioxide fronl sulphite solutions and on the oonstnicted, and the operation of melting observed of diiferentdrying conditions on the final mois- through a microscope. ture content of the product. Arrangements for the To obtain a lvorkable yield of principle from supply of peas for ivork in the current have been canned orange juice involving extraction of twenty made with a grower at Picton, but no samples hare litres of liquid, a large-scale liquid-extractor of a con- yet reached It is proposed to study tinuous nature "as constr'ct'd which 'apable of lnlaturity efects during the harvest. extracting this volume in seven days. The product isolated fronl t21c juices has beell sllown to be identical varieties of sweet potato grown in Queensland with the product from the peels. ~~easurementsto y ere procwsed. Yellow varietieb gdve fairly satis- determine accurately the soIul,ility of the bitter prin- iactor~products, but discolouration was severe with ciple in water have not beell successful, but it appears varieties. to be of the order of 0.001 per cent. at loo0 C. Just before the period covered by this report 84 Chemical on orange peel has confirmed observa- sai~lplesof potatoes were received from the Tasmanian tions prel iously made which showed that bitterness Departnlent of iigriculture and were processed during in juice from Valencia oranges is related to the use of July, 1916. They included 36 varieties, 8 being grown fungicidal copper sprays on tl~egrowing fruit for on two soil types and five on three soil types. During control of black spot. the current season some samples of two varieties grown (iv) can L~~~~~~~.-s~~~~~~lacquers a,ere tested in different districts of New South Wales have been for their resistance to preserratized cordials. Two processed. commercial vinyl-type lacquers were found to be satis- The factorial storage experiments described in last factory. Four lacquers were tested against canned year's report have been continu~d. Some material has sausages but only one was found to give a satisfactory yet to be r~rnovedfrom storage but the bulk of the performance. The four sausage lacquers mere also eltaminalioll has been completed and the results tabu- tested against processed cheese, and it was found that lated. The data comprise liumerical scores for the tw.0 were suffic.irntly resistant to the product to he appearance of the dry rnnterial and for the colour of considered satisfactory. Two lacquers for citrus pro- the cooked reconstituted vegetables; they include also duct9 were also tested and found to give satisfactory the scores allotted for Aavour and texture in the tasting !)erformances. tests; ascorbic acid and carotene contents, where the (v) Niscellaneous.-A comparison of extraction dehydrated vegetable before storage has significant methods for passionfruit pulp demonstrated that amourlts of these constituents; and, for the nitrogen renloval of the pulp by hand was superior to reaming pack>, the carbon dioxide aud oxygen contents of the with the usual burr-type reamer, ill that settling of atmosphere in the can. All removals after six, nine, the seeds due to removal of their gelatinous covering and tuelve months and some aftcr eighteen months in was TIlc pulp also developed a St~ragehave now been made. A considerable mass of reddisll colour differing from the normal fruit colour data is available for statistical analysis and it is observed in the pulp removed by hand. hoped that this will shortly be begun in conjunction Snlall salllplea of locally gro\.rn youngberries and with the Srction of Mathematical Statistics, 11 hich also boysenberries were supplied by the New South Wales in the of LIepartnlent of Agriculture and attractive fountain (ii) Fruif Dehydration.-Investigations on the syruys al,tl cordials nrre from the fruit. 3 dehydration of al~ricots,freestone peaches, clingstone l,articularly fine flavoured attractive table jelly was peaches, and pears have been continued on lines hlso produced from the boysenberries. generally similar to those of last season. With apri- Prelinlinary inrestigation ~5 aL begun to observe the cots fro111 the Murrunibidgee Irrigation Area, sun- effect of calcium chloride in improving the texture drying was compared with dehydration and sulphuring of canned apple products. A definite improvement was by funies of burning sulphur with dipping in a solution of potassium metabisulphite. The effect of variation6 During the period under review an interstate variety in wet and dry bulb temperatures during drying was trial was carried out in co-operation with the Depart- also studied. ments of Agriculture of BPWSouth Wales, Victoria, Freestone peach varieties used were Blackburn South Australia, and Tasmania. Plots were located at Elberta and J. H. Hale grown at Bathurst. Maturity Guyra and Llangothlin in New South Wales, Ballarat, was the main factor studied, but with J. H. Hale atten- Geelong, Kinglake, and Kooweerup in Victoria, Mount tion was also given to the use of steam and lye peeling. Gambicr and Woodside in South Australia, and Shef- Clingstone peach variexies used were Golden Queen and field in Tasmania, where plantings on two soil types Pullar grown at Leeton. Maturity was again the main were included. Results of chemical and culinary tests factor studied. The effect of dipping in acidified and of descriptions of tuber characteristics have been sodium sulphite or potassium metabisulphite solution tabulated as the work progressed. Meteorological data was compared with sulphuring by fumes of burning for the stations nearest the plots have also been sulphur, and sliced fruit were compared with halves. tabulated. Fruit was also dried after diflerent periods of With the assistance of district officers of the New sulphuring. South Wales Department of Agriculture, arrangements Work on tray ooatings to prevent or lessen sticking were made with three growers in each of seven of the of the dried pieces to the trays was continued, using main potato districts of the State (Crookwell, Batlow, both fresh fruit and reconstituted dehydrated fruit. Orange, Maitland, Guyra, Ebor and Dorrigo) to grow This work is of particular interest because the sticking two varieties of potato, all using the same seed. of peach slices to untreated trays is severe enough to Examination of the material from this farm trial has make their commercial processing impracticable, in been largely completed. Records of yields, tuber spite of the great reduction in drying time compared characteristics, results of tasting tests, determinations with half fruits. Castor wax emulsions with 5, 10, and of ascorbic acid and solids content, and meteorological 15 per cent. solids have all given considerable improve- data for the localities concerned have been tabulated. ment over untreated controls, but the effect was most Samples grown by the Division of Plant Industry at lasting with trays treated with the emulsion containing Canberra in continuation of the variety trials carried 15 per cent. solids. These experiments are being out in previous seasons have been examined on the same continued. lines as for the interstate and farm trials. In the first quarter of the year dehydration experi- Work is beins continued on methods for assessing the ments were carried out with Josephine, Packham's cooking quality of potatoes, with particular reference

- Trium~h.A,and Winter Cole pears which had been cool- to texture. stored at Batlow. It was found that by using certain 10. Publications.-In addition to the food Presema- simple precautions a very satisfactory product could tion Quarterly, Vol. 6, 1946, and Vol. 7, No. 1, the be obtained. The varieties being used this season are following papers were published during the year :- Packham's Triumph from Bathurst and Winter Cole from Batlow. Studies of brine peeling are now in The ascorbic acid and carotene content of some progress and sulphite dips and different ways of sub- Australian fruits and vegetables; compiled dividing the fruit for drying are also being investigated. from data o!btained in the laboratories of Commonwealth Food Control and the Council (iii) Meat Dehydration.-During the year the for Scientific and Industrial Research. J. laboratory at Auburn was brought into operation for Coun. Sci. Ind. Res. (ilust.) 20: 1-8 (1947). investigations on meat dehydration. All the equip- Huelin, F. E., and Stephens, I. M. (1946).- ment has been installed except a meat extract concen- Catalytic oxidation of ascorbic acid. Nature trator which is still being built. The first investiga- 158: 703. tions were concerned largely with exploring the range -(1947).-The influence of ferrous iron in the of conditions which could be used and with training determination of ascorbic acid. Aust. J. the tasting panel. They also established the favorable Exp. Biol. 25 : 17-23. effect on the tenderness of cooked dried meat of holding Huelin, F. Z., and Tindale, G. B. (1947).-The the meat at 34' F. for a period before processing. A gas storage of Victorian apples. J. Dept. statistically controlled experiment, based on the pre- Agric. Vict.,45 : 74-80. liminary results and including four cooking treatments, two sizes of mince, two drying schedules, and two grades of carcass has been carried out and the results are now X. FISHERIES INVESTICATION~S. being written up. ,4 study has been begun on the changes in fiavour and tenderness of the dried product 1. Introduction.-Further progress has been made brought about by progressively increased times of in the development of the Division's post-war research precooking under various conditions. schedule. A11 sections of the freshwater estuarine, and inshore programme were extended, extra staff, equip- (iv) Egg Dehydration.-Work was continued on ment and external co-operation being secured for the the absorption of carbon dioxide by egg powder, purpose. While the central laboratory is situated at especially as affected by the moisture content of the Cronulla, New South Wales, branch stations have powder and the time of preliminary evacuation before previousIy been established in other States. In Tas- treatment with carbon dioxide. The results of this mania, improved laboratory facilities are now being work are now being written up. made available in Hobart in a building purchased ,by (v) Fresh Potato In~:estigntions.-The investiga- the Council. In Victoria, laboratory facilities are tion of the changes in the ascorbic acid and dry being made available in Melbourne by the State Depart- matter content of growing potato tnbers was r~lcntof Fisheries and Game, to replace the accommoda- continued. Samples were taken at frequent intervals tion hitherto provided by the Melbourne University, from a plot at Windsor until it was ruined by heavy Department of Zoology, and nom~ required for other rain about four weeks before the tubers were due to purposes. In Western Australia, laboratory accommo- mature. Two plots at Canberra were sampled through- dation,was obtained in Perth during the year in place out the growing period. These trials have yielded of that which has been provided since 1943 by the valuable data on the distribution of ascorbic acid and State Fisheries Department, which in addition made dry matter in the tuber as well as on their rates of available much clerical and other assistance. The Di- production. vision's chemical work has been, and will for the time being continue to be, carried out at the Institute of mostly made available by the Division, in the southern Agriculture, University of Western Australia. The waters of New South Wales. During the summer and generous provision of facilities by these various early autumn, various pelagic fish, including horse- agencies has assisted in the rapid development of mackerci, true mackerel, bonito, and striped tuna various research projects, many of them ill a col- appearcd to be qulte abundant in this area, but con- laborative capacity. Recently, at the invitation of the 8iderable difficulties were encountered with unsuitable Queensland Fisheries Department, a co-operative weather, inzdeq~latedepth of water, wildness of the arrar~gementwas entered into whereby the State will sl~oals,&c. The only catch msJe was one of two tons of prov;de living, laboratory, and boat facilities at I.onito tnlicn with a fishing-net in 'rv\-ofo!d Bay, but Dunwlch, where the Division will carry out a pro. even this was notabie as beiilg the first catch of any gramme of marine biological research. tuna species taken by surface net in Australia. It was With regard to deep-sea invc:stigations, particularlp always expecied that these difficulties would prove in connexion with pelagic fish occurrences, it was grcater in NeK South Wales than in Tasmania, but not found possible to resume operations with the M. V. ue~crtl.ri~ssit is possible that, with the experience and Warreen illltil January, 1947, owing to delays in encouragel~~entof tllc l'aslnai~ian~~ol'li, useful results refitting. The vessel is i~owengaged in surveys of the may be obtained in time. I marine resources of Western and South Australian (ii) Pilchards, Xprcrfs, etc.-Some survey work and . waters, having, prior to the Japanese war, completed 6shing trials, utilizing a ring-net made up from I a general surley of the south-eastern region. In the materials supplicd by the Division, were carried out in latter, the Dirision's policy is now to engage in mass- respect of pilcl~ards in New So~lth Wales waters catching fishery trials on a commercial scale. A fair during the spring, by private fishermen. However, the range of nets is now on hand, a good knowledge of the fish were not abundant on the whole and most of the seasonal and regional runs of pelagic fish has been shoals sighted were very mild, as a result of which only accumulated over several years of survey, and selected small catclies ivcre made. Some preliminary work was fishermen with suixahle craft are working in co-opera- done in respect of drift-netting for pilchards in tion with the Division. It is pleasing to record that Western ihiitralia, the experiments indicating that the catches on a comniercial scale were made both with method has some promise. the n~aclcereland purse-seine net and the larnpara net, A lanipara net mas made available to another private alld it is anticipated that progress in the development operator in Tasmania to use upon sprats. The catches sf the pelagic fishery will now be more rapid. The were no larger than before but were niade more fre- good trial catches made haye attracted considerable quently and with niany fewer men. These results are attention from comnlercial interests, which by their regarded as satisfactory by those concerned, who co-operation are making it feasible to conduct more propose to conduct sprat fishing as a part-time opera- intensive trials. tion in conjunction with other work. Using one of the During the year the fish-canning industry has been Division's lanluara nets.i th~- cren. of the Eden, Star extended, particularly ill Tasmania, and the general effected a catch of 5 tons of pilchards and sandy sprats adoption of the principle that adequato cold storage off Eden early in June, 1047. This is the largest catch provision is essential in order to maintain steady so far made with this net in Australian waters. supplies of fish has led to much more continuous pro- (iii) Demersal li'ishing in, Tasmania.-The Division dnction. Tlle agar industry established to supply a has pu1,lished report on the Danish-seining trials by war-time need has survited into the post-war period, the M. -Y. Liulo~neein southern Tasmanian waters over and has continued to increase, being now of a value at two and a half years. Tile evidence sho~vsthat tiger least equivalent to that of the oyster industry. How- flatliead is practically the only important species avail- ever, in the shark-oil industry, which also developed able, and that there may be periods of relative rapidly in war-time to supply vitamin A requirements, abundance or scarcity of this fish continuing for at signs were notcd that, in some locnlities at least, atten- least tno or three years. T!,e final appraisal of the tion will have to be given to the adoption of suitable ecoliomic prospects of such a fishery can best be made conservation measures. by the trade itself, from the data sapplied in the report. It is hoped during the coming year to extend the The work represented a co-operative effort with the Division's exploratory and survey work to tropical Tasmanian Depnrtnlent of Agriculture. Raters. Difficulties arose in coiinexion with the refit- (iv) Pelagic I'ish--General.- d report has been ting of the ketch Toiprrr.r, and steps are 1:cing talrcl~to completed n hich summarizes all the available informa- replace it by a vessel which is more generally suitable. tion obtained from boat surveys on the regional and 2. DevelopmenLal l'i'orli, South-east B ustra1ia.-(i) seasonal distribution, evidence of annual fluctuations, Horse-mackerel, Bonito, etc.-Thc purse-seine fishing &c. of pilchards, horse-mackerel, salmon, sprats, and work upon the horse-mackerel, nrhich has been going on other lion-scombroid pelagic species of south-eastern for several years in Tasmanian maters, was brought to Australia. The past x7ok xith different pelagic fish- a promising stage in the autumn of 1947. The in^" tec,hniaues has also been reviewed. arld tentative Di~ision'srecently imported net was made available to suggesttions have been iilade as to the lines along which a leading New South Walcs fisherman, Mr. W. Warn, succcss is most likely to be attained in future. r l to tcst out in Tasmania from his 11e~11vessel the 61-ft. L he research vessel Mrarrcen, since ,l anuary, has done Eden. S'iar. This vessel soon made two catches of 16 reconnaissance ~orkbetmuen Ereniantle and Port tons each, within the one week-a performance defi- Adelaide, including the Great ilustralisn Bight. The niteiy on a ooi~lmerciallevel, and far superior to any- prinlary objective n7as to survey the occurrence of thing achievecl in any of the previous pelagic fishing pelagic fish species, the fish being sampled by trolling work in Australia. No further catches were made, but gear and by lampara and drift nets. The only con- it seems clear that this mas chiefly due to the net being siderabIe catches of tuna were made in the South still a little too short to encircle the more active shoals Australian section of the cruise. Pilchard occurrences wliich prevail towards the end of the season; this disa- were general, and i)arracoota, an unexploited species bility should he orercome in futnre. It can at any rate in Wrstern Australia, were somewhat abundant east be said that the prospects for the emergence of a Tas- of Rspcrance in Map. manian mackerel fishery are now fairly bright. 3. Biological Investigations.-(i) Pilchards.-It For some few reeks prior. to engaging in these Tas- has now hecn demonstrated that there are three major manian trials, the same team of men attempted to use groups of thesc fish in Australian waters, namely: (a) the same equipment, and other similar nets, which were an eastern group, in New South Wales and southern Q~~eenslancl,which spawns and is most abundant at 1945-46, whereas most of the other major elements in the s~!:lat.c In winter; (b) a southern group, in Vic- the catch rose very little, and some have even declined tcria? houti~.\u~iralia, anti (lc>s~plentifuil~) in Tas- in OU~~JU~,over the same periotl. Moreover, virtually mania, ~vl~ichspawns and in most abuntlant at the all thi, barrarouta production came from Victoria and surfarc, ,n the allminer aiid early aiitnn~n;and (c) .a Tasmania only, whereas it is now known that the aesre:n group, in We~,tern,?ustralia below tile Tropic species is also plentiful throughout South Australian of Caprirorn, which spawns anti is most corispicuous in watpri and alo~i~:tllc southern coast oi TZ'rstcrn .lu3- the uinter. tralin. tbungh virtually unfished over most oi this great Of tlirie tllree, the study of the eastern group is area. 'I'l~ebai.~.acouta is a gootl, cheap, easily caught, virtually complete, that of the sonthern group ~vell and !)lentifnl s~~ecies,and coultl occupy the same ad~anred,and that of the western group beginning. relatire position in our ficheries economy as does the ?he paatern group has heen slio~vritiy vertebral counts herring ill that of northern Xurope. ,1 good deal of to be itself a series of virtually indrpendent populatiolis econon~icresearri~ has aireatiy been carri~dout upon ciis1)osed in different belts of latitntle along the coast, the subject in the Division, hilt the life-history and rlIricrc, being at lwq, three of these and possibly more. movemeilts of the species are still very little understood. In tl~isrespect, and also as regards their rate of growth Collaboration in these studies 15ith fisheries investi- and general life-history, these castern pilchards more gators in South Africa and New Zealand would be (.lo-cly re-elirble the relatcd populations of south-mest c'esirable, sinr? the distribution of the barracouta is Europe than they do those of north-west Europe, circumpolar in the southern hemisphere. Japan, or California. Since the pilchard is in 3urh a (v) School Shuvk (A~otogaleusrhinophanes).-This $1 ic'c-lmc~atlirntl vari ,hie fc 1.111 ill Australia, the fini:lied IS the most important shark used in Australia for the btutliey sliouid avsist in tlie task of the pneral appraisal production of liver oil, Laring a high titamin d con- of the .iustralian environment and the recognition of tent. (Joncern having been expressed by the fishermen diiierent geogr:rphical scxctioni thereof. with regard to maintenance of supplies, the Division Observations on annual fluctuations of pilchards on has untlcrtali-en a general biological study of the speclec. the Sen Soilth Wales south coast and in Port Phillip Since the investigation was commenced in May, 1946, Bay have bcLrl rontinuetl, iirice this nil1 bc, tE~emain a preliminary survey has been made of tlie main fihilrk point on which res~larch can as& any fisliery that fishing ports of Tictoria. 'rasnlania, and South Aus- may arise fcr this s1)ecics. tralia. The amount of work at sea has been curtailed (ii) .lnc~lzo~~i~s.-'Chepneral life-history studies are considerably because of the bad experienced in ap~)roaphingcompletion. Tli~ren-as a very great Ba~sSt1 ;lit. Ilov:r:1~rrr.,data on the food, type of fishing oc(.:ll-rcxnc+cof tl~e~c6411 in Port Phillip during the glounds, and breeding habits have been collectetl, and a \vil~tcllof 1!)46, which scxrved to dram tile attention of report on the biology of the school shark is being, pFe- SsE-paste proceFsors to the importance of utilizing this perrd. There is corrs!dcrable diversity of oplnlon resrtui.cr. Tlie llivislon was surcescful in 11c.lpiryz sorrie anlong the fish~rrr~enthenlselves about the source of the I f tllc~rnto obta;il sul~pliesby organizing contact^ with atot,k of fish a~idtheir mi~ratorvhabits. local fisher~nen:\Lo ere seeking outi~isfor the catch. In ortler to obtain accurate data on the migrations l]):r~t- were caught on handlines hy fiqllermen assisting th? ment's new boat. officei., of' tile Eirision nith this progranlme. To date (iii) mThli~brrit (of 7'usnznnbo).-The catch of this 26 tagge41 sharks, represcmting a 4 per cent. return, iperies for 1946 was a rt'cortl-about 750,000 lb. This Lave breu caught at widely scattered places in Port fiq11c1-y is l;ow one of considcrn1)lc ir11portanc.e to the hiip a.Four wcre relrased agaill aftcr the locnl cnn~lingindustry; the Division is maiiitaining a iilirriber of the tag and length measurements had been constant watch on catcli in order to detect any tciidency tahcii. to ovel.fishiilg of the resource. Elo~\~oer,there are yet It is nc-w hoped to enlarge the scope of this prc,- no clear signs that this is taking place, in spite of the g.ramme by tagging at several widely scparatcd locali- fact that tlre fi>h only spawns oilcc and is fished heavily tic. in Victorian and Tasmanian waters. :~tthat time-a practicc that has been going on for The livers of t~vo Tasnianian dogfishes, Flakeus 5erernl years. hpparcntly the stock procluces spawn in lrr egirlo/)s and Squalus fwna~idinus,were submitted for lA\ce~sof what is required to mahtain a constant level tieterrnin:itjon of the vitamin content of their oil. of rerrnl,nlent, mrhich is \vhdt most investigators have .i:thougli the male Fi~~lcezislivers rontainrtl a relatively :t!wags h~lievedwas true of fi~hg~n~~'ally, although it high putenry vitamin A oil (12,000-18,000 1.0. per g.) 1:;is hem vclly tlifficult to obtain clcar rridenre on the t1l:rt from fernales was very low (1,600 I.[-. per g.) ~)oint. Hov ewr, tl~~recan be no douht that depletiorl 11 hich also ihe cane for both male and female liver will hecome evidcnt at some stage if the fiihery bcconles o;ls of iSyualus fernandinus (1,600-3,200 T. U. per g.). furthrr i~itcll~ifi(d. With surll low potency valurs, theie sniall livers ~~ould (iv) ~nr~uroufa.--Itis proposed to conduct research not justify the labour in obtajiiing the quantity required for comn~ercialproduction. However, there !tIwn :his species on a rnm:rll larger scale than i11 the pzst, in view of the fpet that tliij species is now the most is :I possibility that these tlogfisl~es at present unused iinportant single itrin in tlle Austra'ian catcl~,ad, nrig:;t he collsidcreti as a haiis for fiqh-meal with fairly further, because it is probably the only important high vitamin A content. spc,cies alrently being utilizcd and seeming to have con- (vi) Trawl is(a) Flath etcd.-During the sidcrable pos,ibilities for still greatcr exploitation. summer, the developing egg was obtained by artificial (There are of course considerable possibilities of fertilization and froni tow-nettings. It may be dis- ~~ploitinqhitlierto neglected species of pelagic fish.) tinguiqhed only with difficulty from the eggs of several In response to the wartime and 1)o.t-war dt>manti for other sl~cciesspawning over the sarne season. Through- more fish, the ,barracouta catch rose from about out the year, sampling at the Sydney Fish Narkets and 4;500,000 111. in 1941-48 to about 14,500,000 lb. in the steam trawler wharves was continued for length, wight, gonad condition, and season of spawning in statistics has been improved in most States, but there the different localitie~,otoliths for age-determination, is probably room for further improvement particularly and raciation measurenients. This work brought in a iji to ille catch per unit of effort. In any case these :r,rge snppiy of otoiiths for the calendar year 1946, figures s21onld be clo~cly watched and cross-checked which has now been worked up on a method adai;ted :it Western Australia, Victoria, and New South Tfales. fror!. Ilodgson's (1939) luetl~odof eampiing herring There mould appear to be discrete eactern and ~honls,shon ing that 0.15 pcr ccnt. of the year's eatcl~ ~~rsterastocks of sa!mon, b~rtso far no morphometrical by numbers (0.05 per cent. by weight) were spawned in dif1erences (other than growth) have been dis- about Janucry 1945, 3.58 (1.86) per cent. in 1944, t~nguishrd; this work has get to be finalized. There 29.47 (20.34) per cent. in 1943, 45.95 (43.42) per cent. la s~l-,~~.iainglyiittle exacit record of thcl seazo~r of in 1942, 16.38 (94.35) per cel~t.in 1941, 3.45 (7.34) spanning in the differ.ent localities, nor is there an per cent. in 1940, 0.63 (1.78) per cent. in 1939, 0.08 adequate estimate of the size and age at first spawning. (0.84) per cent. in 1938, and C.O1 (0.30) per cent. in Sothing is Lnown of the c~gsand larvae in this 1937. Therefore, 88 per cm~t.of the weight of fl:~thead cuuntry, or of the locale of spanning (save frorn taken was derived from only three year groupi, and hearsay). Ttvo tagqing programmes (1939 and 1942) half of this was frorn one year group only. It is I n t 1.e cnrrietl througl~ill south-eastern Australia ; the believed that 1946 nas an unusual year (see below) but results were sufficiently satisfactory to justify a much I it seems certain that the fishery is dependent in this fullcr programme using the same tagging technique. fashion on a very few year groups, so that if one year Iieturns \\ere 6.4 aild 3.2 per ccnt. of releases, fish group " fails " the effect should be felt quite notic.eably being recovered up to 200 days after release and 150 two or three years later. miles from the place of release; the 1942 experiment It is expected that the age-analysis of the commercial rerealtd a rr~o>tn~ilrked ant1 definite migratory move- catch will be continued as a routine from now on; ~ent.,1 lar~ecollection of otoliths was examined, such work most qnicklp and surely shows up changes but discardrc? :n favoul. of the scales for age-determina- in the stock of fish cau-eil by hearier or lighter fishing, tic.11. In general, it c:~n be said that this is a fishery or hy natural fluctuations. which is probably not yet being worked to capacity The trawl fish statistics from 1942 onwards have ejther in the west or the east. bcen rnorktd up. The catch in 1939 was normal; as In Western Australia, the salmon processing indus- a result of the call-up of vessels, it fell in 1940 to try has been intensified during the year, and a nearly half, in 1941 to less than a third; from then biological programme has been condnc.ted at the main till the end of 1944 there was but one steam trawler cirtc21ing c~nt~eof the fishery, near Ilc petoun. Several aiid (later) a few seine net boats working, taking about sur:-eys have been madc, in the course of which tagging one-tenth of the nornlal catrh. The fishery was there- has revealed that shoals rewain on the beach for about fore rested for four or five years, after which tinie a fortnight or so b~folcbeing replaced hy other shoals. the numbers of srine net boats rose rapidly to a peak 'I'lrere are inte~.estil~gdiifere11c.e~ in the bellaviour of of ahout 70--80 (actually wo~*kiiigin any one month) t1:e.e shoals as corr~r~ared~ith those ill the eastern ill the sururner of 131G-1'J.27, and nine steal11 trawler8 $:ate$, ~r~ltlthus thelt, has been no e~idencethat (as conipared with tnclve to fifteen before the war) the salmon avoid an area where inteniive netting has woilring in 1947. One tl.awlcr is to-day equivalent 11ee11 carried on. 011 an aerial survey in L2~ignsttl~e to iix and a half seinrl net boats in act1l:il eatrh, so 1oc.ation of all beach shoals castward to Cape ,\rid t,herr was a miriirnunl total effort of about 135 seine was plotted. rli tter units durin? last seacon as compared with about (riii) Hlnc!; Broom.-Biological investigations 011 100 105 units before the ~iir. t1,is important estitarine fish nere eontinuetl during It has been abundantly demonstrated in Europe that the gear. u here an o~erfishcdarea is reited the catch per effort (a) Taxonomy.-A report dealing with the taxo- il~creases. T21e conrerse is presumably true: that if iionrp of Australian breams has been completed for a fihhery is restet1 end l,~I:cn fiching is resumed the i)~~blication;it inctrrporatcxs results c.f exan~inatiori cetczh per effort does not rise, then that fishery was cl brealils fom local'tics rclpresenting the entire coast- irot lloavily overfished-assuming that a severe natural line of rlnstralia. Six speyies are observed to occur fiuct~lutii,~~does not ma=k the recorery. It appears in Australia. fi~ebeing referred to the genus Acanfho- tj~atin the Ke:v Soiitl.~Wales tranl fisherg there has j,c~grusPeters and one to A ~~strospurusSmith. These been only a slight increase in catch per effort since names replace the prior incorrect use of Sp~rusLinne 1942, s;iggpst;ng that the fisll~rgbefore the war lITas and Chrysophrys Quoy and Gaimard for the Ba~,tra- not being heavily orerfishetl. The actual figures for lian spe'.ies. Bream formerly identified with ausfralis average monthly catch sl~o~vthat tlic abundance of Qiinther are shown to czon~titute a complex to two Rathead bas in the post-war period fallen alarmi~iglg. spcac.ie3; airsfrclli,s (yellowfin brvam) occu~~sonly on n hrreay the catch of other fish (not flatllrad) has the east coa~tas far ioutlr as the New South Wales- remained c80nqtani. It has been possible to show from Victorian border, and is 13eplaced on the south and length-frcquc>r~cydata for 1941, 1945, and 1916 that 11 rlst (waits of tl~r,continent by a species new to science there has almost crrtainly been a "failure" of the (so~ltl-lernIream). The species bcrdn and palmc~ris, flathead year-group s1)a~nedin the summer of 1943- tozcther nit11 Jnflcs (a nc,v record to ilnqiralian sem), 1!144. Prrsnmahly, ncxt year shollld show a recovery oci.ilr thronghont the tropical regions ol~ly. Acctnfho- of the flathcad catch. Meanwhile, the demersal fleet / agrus bcrrlo, il. Znfus, and Ausirosparus sarhn (tar- is concentrating on mornong to make np it? catches. ~rlrine) extend througllout the Tndo-Pacific region to (b) Ofhcr trawl fish.-A biological study of the A\frica end Japan, but the yellow-fin bream and rnorwong has begun. It is hold gradually to embrace PI utllcrn bream, the nlain commercial species of '111s- the other species of trawl fish into the general pro- tralia, are strictly endemic. gramme. The geog1*ap2iical distributions of the five Australian (vii) Australian Salmola. - From investigations ~periesof dcunthopuc/nrs confoim closely with the made to date, the nature and state of the fishery in recagnizcd marine faniial zones. 811 six species have the different States has now been fairly well docu- lieen illustrated and re-drst31.ibed from Australian mented, the south-east corner of Auqtralia and latterly, material, and a complete revision has been carried out south-west Australia, being the important areas. in generic limits, nomenclature, synonymy, and During the last decade the collectioii of salmon distribution. (b) Tagging.-The black bream tagging programme however, that the younger year classes, viz., 111-year has been extended considerably during the past year, class, 15-17 lb., and 11-year class, 5-6 lb., were covering principally the summer season in northern ai any time plentiful. In general the best reports of Rew South Wales and southern Queensland. Pre- tlina occ~u.rclices came from the southern portion of viously, 1,415 fish had been tagged d~lring winter ?Jew South Wales. months. The total has now been brought to 2,841. (xi) Shellfish Investigations. - (a) Scalllops.- The percentage of return tags has been small, being Shol-tl,~after the start of the present scallop season a 0.7, representing a total of eighteen tags, of which n~emorandumwas sent from the Division to the Tas- eleven have been returned from Tuggerah Lakes, two manian Secretary for ~lgricultu~eexpresing grave from Wallis Lake, and one each from Lake Macquarie, concern for the future of the D'Entrecasteaux Channel Richmond River, T~veed River, Noosa River, and scallop fisl~cry. It was pointed out that the number E'razer Island. In all cases the fish had not moved from of boats working in 1946 mas more than double that the estuary in which they were tagged, and only one mas in 1942, and that although the catch for 1946 was a taken on an ocean beach adjoining the entrance of the record, the catch per unit effort had not recovered with estuary. So far this evidence suggests that tl~especies the removal of war restrictions and, in fact, was less does not effect a seasoiial coastal migration as does thall half of that ol the pre-mar period. It was also the mullet, but only leaves the estuary temporarily pointed out that most of the smaller beds in the ~inderconditions of freshets and for spawning. Channel were quite worked out, and that the great Periods between release and recapture varied from bulk of the catch in 1946 came from one bed; reports four to 305 (lays and a few fish had shown slight tl.lis year are that this process is continuing, and that increase in growth. There is some evidence that tags virtually all boats are now working the one bed. The affect the welfare of the fish generally and that many Euro1)ean scallop beds have proved to be as vulnerable are rubbed off. The brean~recovered from the Rich- to overfishing as natural oyster beds, and it appears nlond Rirer appeared to have spax-ned during the that good fishing may be had right up to the time period between release and recapture. of estinction of a bed hecause of the necessity in (c) General.-Market measurerrients and other data these Larrlellibranchs of a dense population to achieve covering the general biology of the species have been efficient spat fertilization. An inspection of the sea- ac~curniilated over the period as a routine procedure. floor was maclc at three different places in the Channel (ix) iVullel (Mugil dobula).-Western Australia.- by means of diving operations. Analysis of the accumulated data on the Western Good returns were had from the 1946 tagging ,justralian stocks of the sea mullet lias been completed, programme, and revealed certain faults in the technique and further xork is being carried on to round off the wed that year. In 1947 a different type of tag was siudy. A similar cxamination of the yellow-eye mullet used, over 4,000 scallops were tagged, and considerable has been con~menced.An intensificd tagging programme efforts were made to obtain an efficient and even has, with occasional interruptions, been under way scattering throughout the beds covered. In the new since November, 1946. Besides sea mullet and yellow- rziethod the tag is wired to the shell instead of being eje mullet, several hundred fish of other estuarine affixed by a heated wax. The method is quicker, species hare been tagged during the operations. requires fewer personnel, and the shellfish is out of Twenty-one tagged sea mullet and eight yellow-eye water for a shorter period. Apparently the mature rt~ullet havcl been returned, all except one from the srallop, (1oc.s not move far in the natural state and so rirer system in wlrich tagging occurred. The exception, a random " sowing" must be made if tag returns are a yellow-eye mullet, travelled a minimum of 25 miles tc~show the catch percentage of the stock. Tags are from Wonnerup esturay to Biinbury Breakwater. The no~vbr~iilg returned frorn this year's work, and also period between release and recapture of these fish some from 1946. \ aried betw cen 24 hours and seven months. ,I new system of scallopers' returns was arranged The mullet conservation schenie initiated by the ~vith the State Fisheries Department for this year, Ftate Fisheries Departmeat in March, 1942, on the designed to indicate the intensity of fishing by beds. recommendation of the Division was abandoned by The Division's field officers are also making a weekly the State Government on 15th September, 1946. No count of the boats on each bed. The scallops are being proof n.as obtained that the scheme played a significant sampled weekly for length, weight, and gonad maturity. part in affecting the total population of mullet in the 'E-Iydrological and planlitological sampling was main- three w~sternestuaries. tai~ieclthrougl~out the gear, and the drift bottle returns (x) Southern Bluefin Tuna.-(a) Western Austra- are conling in satisfactorily. lia.-The Warreell during its cruises from January Wire tags were used on some scallops that were to May was able to take only the young fish (2-15 p!acrtl in a ~virecage and sunk on a scallop bed. By ib.) in Webtern Australian waters. Larger fish regular examination it is hoped to obtain precise data occur, and thc area around King George's Sound is on the rate of growth of the shellfish. the only locality in Australia where the great spawning The results of the previous two years' field collec- adults weighing several hundreds of pounds are regu- tions have been worked up and have proved not very larly observed. The migrations and seasonal distribu- helpful. The scallop apparently grows very slowly tion of this species in Western Australia are not yet in its later life and consequently distinctive modes are understood; the future cruises of the Warreen are absent from the length-frequency polygons. It was expected to throw light on the subject. aiso irnpossible to obtain consistency in the statistically (b) Souik Australia. - Restricted data were avail- significant differences of length/tvidth and length/ able for the 1946-1947 season from prirate anglers. shell-weight ratios within quite restricted areas and I-Iowever, the Wctrrcen's trolling results in April and within year groups within an area. Nay indicated a large aggregation of bluefin in the (b) O?jsters. - Spat fall observations in Port southern portion of Spencer Gulf and Western Hacking have been completed, and the results are Kangaroo Island. These fish were of the IT-year being analysed. Testing of materials in the attempt aiirl older age classes. The largest fish taken by to discover a cultch-chollecting material as an alterna- Warreen weighed 78 lb., but a 97-lb. tuna was taken tive to the dwindling supply of black mangrove sticks by private anglers. has continued. The fibro-cement slats which caught (c) Eastern Australia.-Good catches of the IV- in tlie 1945-1946 season have retained their catch. and year group (averaging 23 Ib. fish) were made at the good growth has been exhibited. Tarred batons dailed beginning of the season. No evidence was forthcoming, into frameworks and set out in nests of a dozen frames have caught well. Excellent catches have been obtained conditions along the coast are such as to make it oil urltreated sticks of the white cypress pine (Callitris . possible for larvae to enter one area from a number yluuca). Tarred cypress pine sticks gave almost as of very widely ?paced points. Such a condition would good a catch. Sticks treated with creosote, however, be of importance in the maintenance of the fishery. proved to be repellent to the oyster larvae. An extensive marking programme designed, The white cypress pine sticks fulfill the three among other things, to give information on reyuirerriei~ts of (u) being in plentiful bupply, (b) growth rates, population movements, and popu- being reasonably low in cost, (c) being of a length lation density, has been commenced in the suitable for handling. Deterioration has been very Abrolhos. Approximately 7,000 crayfish were marked slight. The New South Wales Forestry Commission up till June. In addition a test, which has been in has co-operated by supplying the sticks and in applying operation since March, has been designed to sample the nlechanical tests for deterioration. I11 view of their population present and the recruitment to a limited good catch, the cypress pine sticks will be transferred area throughout the season. Two crayfish marked in to the growing lease to test their ability to retain the the southern group were recovered at the Wallabi oysters for the required three-year period. Group, 30 miles northward. Attentioil has bcen given to the choice of areas in Tissue-darkening effects were apparent in the Western Australia and Tasmania suitable for the intro- cannery pack. Experiments showed that a good white dnc*tion of tlrp Japanese oyster (0. gigas). There is pack could be obtained by using a short cooking period no oyster industry in these States, and quite possibly (10-15 minutes) and adding hydrated aluminium an introdnced species might succeed and form the basis chloride at the rate of four in 1,000,000 parts to the of a canning industry as has happened on the west hrininn water. The cannery is now operating this Sorth American coast. technique satisfactorily. It is co~lsidered that the rock oyster occurring in Phyllosoma in early stages were obtained in tow the Abrolhos Islands. Western Australia. is suitable nettings at the Abrolhos up to the middle of April, for c-ommercial exploitation, and advice is to be given but none after that time. A bulletin "Marine cray- to the Abrolhos Islands Board of Control on suitable, fishes (spiny lobsters), family Palinuridae, of Western methods of cultivation. Australia" has been prepared, embodying the results Further observatioiis on winter mortality were made of investigations up to date. during the winter of 1946 in New South Wales. As before, a large amount of the work done during Analysis of result3 to date indicates that: ((1) mortality the year was carried out with assistance of volunteer dccreases upstream; (h) mortality reaches its maxi- labour from fishermen and others. Work on littoral mum at approximately the same tirile each year (the ecology has continued, and an Honours student of middle two weeks in September in George's River) ; the TJniversity of Western Australia is studying the (c) d~greeof crowding of oysters is not significant; zonation of the fauna and flora of a section of reefs (d) sigi~ifi,~antmortality oczcurs in transported oysters in the Cottesloe area. oidy if they are brought into tile area just before the In a charter flight over the Abrolhos in excep- winter season; (e) the mid-inter-tidal level (approxi- tionally clear conditions, shelf edge sites for marking irlately the adopted growing level) is at about the experiments were selected. Areas of live coral hitherto centre of the killing zone; (f) microscopic examina- unfished mere mapped, and a sixbmarine bank lying tion and bacterial identification reveal no pathogenic about 14 miles westward of the Easter Group and about organiqms; and (g) exposure of healthy oysters to 7 miles long was found. These areas have since been possible infection from "sick" oysters does not bring successfully exploited by fishermen. Local fl;ghts have an incitlence of the disease. These biological con- been made with private pilots and underwater reefs clusions are apparently capable of being interpreted have been located. These areas have now been along with those drrireti from hydrological studies entered by local crayfishermen. (see later). It 117ould appear that the best method With the assistance of Messrs. J. Baseden and R. for avoidance of tl~edisease would be for the o.yzter- Paqe of the fishing boat Xaori Lass a wire pot has man to remove his trays in winter from the danger been devi~ed,based on the New South Wales type but zone to a higher zone. Mid-July is recommended as spot welded and with a detachable bottom. In a test a snitable timc for this rclaying of oysters 'from the of 280 haiilq thp wire pots took 1,688 crayfish, whilst point of view of securing maxinium gro~thrate while the batten pots in general use took 765. During a arniding mortality. gale lasting 6 days none of 33 wire pots, set in exposed (xii) ~lfarineCrayfish.--(a) Panulirus longipes, P. sitnationq. were lost. The loss of cane and batten pots r,rnatus, P. r~rsicolor,P. pencil1atus.-Further surveys qet by fishermen in less exposed situations mas general in Western Australia sho\v that P. lonqip~sextends ~ndof the order of 2 to 3 per 30 pots. to North-West Cape about 250 miles north of Teqt~were made of sisal pot ropes, using wattle and Carnarron as an onshore species. The three other ~d bark tans. and copner naphthcnnte and creoqote spec.ies, the so-called " Cora1 " crayfishes or " North- (proportion 4 to I), in their resistance to sliming and West" crayfish of Wc~ternA2nstralia, also occur along underwater rotting. The tests are continuinp, but North-West Cape Peninsula. the rc~ultst~ date (on a purely utilitarian basis) show During nine months of the past year juvenile cray- a working life of three months for the copper creosote fish of a t~tallength range of from 2 to 3 inches were treated ropes as against two months for the tanned taken at Sandy Cape, north of Jurien Bay, and in ropes in the southern group of the Abrolhos. seaweed areas at the northern end of the western reef (b) Jasus 7alandii.-In conjunction with Professor of the southern group of the Abrolhos. Crayfish of V. V. Hickman, University of Tasmania, it is proposed this size have been found to moult every four to six to undertake a study of thc life history of the Tas- weeks, with a length increment of from 20 to 25 per manian crayfish, Jasus Zalandii. A locality has been cent., at least up to a total length of 4 to 5 inches. selcctcd n~herelarval stages have been obtained by tow While the presence of these small crayfish may be nctting, and it is proposed to contin~xethe investiga- due to an abnormal retardation of grox th in some speci- tion at this locality during the coming season. mens, it is perhaps more likely that it is due to the (xiii) Penacid Prawns.-A programme of investi- lodging of puerilla at these places over an extended gation on the life history of the commercial penaeid period. prawn (Iring prawns, school prawns, and greasy back Spawning periods are known to occur over a range ~rawns)has been undertaken in collaboration with the of about six months when the whole area of distribu- Department of Zootogy, Sydney University, during tion of the specim is considered, while surface drift vacations. The maxn aim is the assessment of size distribution in relation to habitat, hydrological con- coast, and some time has been devoted to the prepara- ditionb, and seasonal migrations, with a view to im- . tion of a second report for publication on the post- proving the commercial catch. Preliminary work larvae of Australian fishes. This deals with the fami- carried out principally concerned the development of lies Atherinidae, Mugilidae, and Pseudomugilidae, the suitable techniques and methods of research. A srnall representatives of which all appear to be estuarine otter trawl net was designed and built for purposes spawners. of field sampling, independently of commercial catches. Initial sampling was from market consignments, and (xvi) Hydrological Investigations.-(a) Oceanic in- some field ~vorkwas carried out in the Manning River, z~estigafions.-(i) South-east Azi~truliansector.-From Port Stephens, and Tuggerah Lakes estuary systems. the data that have been collected about onshore hydro- logical conditions in this sector, it is now possihle to (xiv) Ilfuftonbird Investigations.-(a) Morta7ity derive the seasonal cycle of changes at rarious locali- census in (.astern Australra.-This survey has been tiei tllerein. The seasonal cycle of changes at the carried out for a number of years at Bate Bay, extre1l.e sampling localities within this sector, i.e. Cronulla, and in 1946 it was extended by observations Port Stephens (New South Walcs) and Maria Island made at heaches at Narooma, Newcastle, and Southern (Tasmania), displays similar trends in respect of Queensland. In all years since 1942 there has been physical and chemical conditions. The temperature a relatively low mortality. In 1946 all the recording and density cycles have maximum and minimum stations ported similarly. Previous correlations with values at similar times of the year. The nutrient pelagic fish occurrences have suggested that low cycles are also very similar, with maximum values mortality years coincide with years of good abundance during the spring quarter and minimum to zero values of pelagic fish, and high mortality (such as occurred throughout the remainder of the year. These cycles in 1941 and 1942) with a scarcity of pelagic fish, in reveal the essential homogeneity of the onshore waters particular southern bluefin tuna. of this sector and demonstrate the lack of any cold (1,) Study of the commercial muttonbird industry in water intrusion into the east Tasmanian area during Tasrrtania.-At the request of the Tasmanian Govern- the period of observation. The findings are of con- ment, a survey was made of the biological aspects of siderable importance in relation to fish and other fauna the muttonbird industry at the Furneaux Group, north- appearances in the area. eastern Tasmania, in March, 1947. The inveitigation, which included the banding of about 700 young (2) South-west Australian sector.-During the muttonbirds, was made to ascertain the relative degree period 1944-46 a considerable number of hydrological of escapen~cntof the young from the conimercial opera- .;ampling stations have been worked in the onshore tions and to determine the effect of the intermittent region of this sector. The resulting data suggest that grazing on the bird islands. these onshore waters are isolated from thr oceanic waters in some areas, to such an extent that the pliysico- (xv) Plankton Investigations.-A limited number chemical properties of the onshore waters are prac- of hydrographical and plankton stations is being tically identioal with those of the adjoining estuarial worlrcd by the M.V. Wnrreen during her fishing waters. This isolation has a marked effect on chemical surveys. nutrients. For example in the Geraldton area during (a) During the year a paper was prepared and is the summer months. it has been found that there in press, on the volumes of the net plankton taken occurs almost complete exhausti,on of the chemical by the B.A.N.Z.A.R.E. in the Australian Antarctic nutrients of the onshore waters from the shore to the Quadrant. Abrolhos Islands. This exhaustion persists because (b) The publication of further work on Euphausia of the lack ,of mixing between these onshore waters superba in the Discovery Reports necessitated the re- and the nutrient-rich deeper waters lying offshore. checking of the larval series of Australian Euphausiids. (3) Mean sea level studies.-The mean sea level The report on this group is being modified accordingly. data from Port Racking over the period 1942-46 have (c) A section on the behaviour of fish shoals in now been prepared for publication. Although there South Australia in relation to feeding habits was is a multiple interaction between wind, ocean currents, written as a contribution to a Divisional paper on fish and mean sea level, it has not been possible to isolate shoals. these components on a quantitative basis. There is somcx evidence to suggest that mean sea level varies (d) A systematic sorting into families and genera < ,L of the collections of fish eggs and larvae obtained by some three to four months in advance of the oceano- M.V. Wnrreen during the years 1938-1942 is being graphical conditions, and efforts are being made to carried out, and sl)c.cial attention is being paid at the put this on a quantitative basis for use in prediction present stage to representatives of the orders Tniomi, stndies. Tsospondyli, Anacaizthini, Pterosornata, and families (b) Estuarine investigations.-(1) South-east Aus- Monocanthinidae, Triglidae, and Carangidae, which frallan sector.-A considerable bulk of information represent the greater percentage of the larval forms on both the hydrology and the nutrient chemistry of present in these collections. Collections made beyond the bottom deposits has now been obtained from the the 100-fathom line consist principally of larval ?so- principal estuarine systems of this sector and is being spondylid and Iniomid fishes, many of which in their summarized and plotted. The zonation and nutrient adult ~haseshave not yet been recorded from Aus- features of these estuarine systems have now been tralian waters. Plankton collections made close in- established and can be used in 'the comparative evalua- shore contain larval stages principally of Gobiidae and tion of other Auctralian estuarine systems. The percoid-like species. Those made in the vicinity of analysis of the bottom deposits has been undertaken in the Capricorn Group of the Great Barrier Reef System view of their probable role in the nutrient require- contain a large number of larval Labrid fishes. Larral ments of benthic estuarine organisms. The data so flatfiqhes, gurnards, and myctophids (lantern fishes) far obtained suggest that the fattening of the rock oyster are the commonest components of the collections is governed by the phosphorus content of these bottoni generally. deposits. This theory has been experimentally tested Current collections of plankton made in east coast at the Division's lease at Shell Point, where oysters estuaries at various stations of the New South Wales grown over a phosphate-enriched mud flat appear to coast have been sorted for fish eggs and larvae. Fur- hare conditioned better than comparable stocks on the ther attention has been given to the characterization of same flat. As an index of biological activity in these eggs and larvae occurring in the estauries of the east bottom deposits, the C/N ratio has been found most reliable, and a comparative study of the variation of at the time winter mortality is prevalent contributes this ratio in the estuarine systems so far investigated to the destructivenes of this disease, and an endeavour is now being made. is being niade during the winter of 1947 to test the (2) South-west Australian sector.-A comparative ~ffrctof added mud nutrients on the oysters' resistance study of the principal estuarine systems in this area t,o the disease. has been made from the data collected during 1944-46. (xvii) Seaweed Investigations.-(a) Taxonomic It has been found that these estuarine 6ystcms differ siudies.--During the year taxonomic studies have con- from those in the South-east Australian sector in the tinned on the Australian algae. This work is an essen- following respects :-(i) They are freshwater-domi- tlal foundation for any del-elopnient of industry in- nated. This appears to be an effect of the concmtra- volving ,Iustralian seaweeds. During these studies tion of the rainfall in the late winter and early spring certain species new to *4ustralia have been found, months. Because of their relatively small size and while the known range of other species has been con- shallowness, the huge volume of water discharged into sidcrably extended. 'Lhe results are being reported in them during the rainfall period practically eliminates a series of papers. all marine waters from them. As a consequence of the weakly developed tidal penetration of marine elements The sy,tematic study of the main Austra)ian agar- I into these estuarine systems, these fresh-water condi- produrLng geill~s,(irtrilli~r~rr, war compictrd homr time tions persist in some cases even during the summer IS(. ' IJ~!tttrntlon is n011 being dircvted p:,rticularly to- period of negligible rainfall. (ii) The nutrient level ward the l'ferociad~u-(jelidirrm complex. Tliis complex of the waters in these estuarine systems during the of species is used rxtensively overseas for agar protluc- winter months is comparatively high as a consequence I on. ,i:?tacij ch~known range has been extended, and of a higher phosphate run-off. These nutrients do tlie eco!oglca! torlditioiis coi.tlo~ll~~yreproductloll hale not persist, however, and for the greater part of thr been determined, for one of Australia's more prevalent year zero to minimal values are encountered. Milore- spe.':es of this complex. At least one speries of the over, the lack of stability of these systems reduces the com~~lcxhas been found for the first time in Australia, possibility of planktonic elements utilizing the nut- nhile it is likely that others will appear as the study rirnts and establishing then~selresin them. (iii) The l:~*oaeds. Nany identifications have been made of annual scoring of these estuarine systems by flood slx~~dlrnenssuhrnitted and overseas exchanges of named waters has led to an almost complete elimination of the I~r.rbarium material have been made in a number of silt deposits which are a recognized feature of the instances. estuarine systems of the South-east Australian sector. (b) L>'~c~~oP,P~Is~~r~~ey~.-Kecently, the chief agar- Such silt as is fonnd is fairly rich in nutrients but n!zn~~fact~iringfirm 2-18s stated that it required some does not provide a sufficiently stable sub st rat^ for thi~lnton fou!lng (2) Spatting funk.-The heating elements for in- plates du~.ingthe early ~tpgrsof f0:llilig. The sngges- stallation in the spatting tank at Shell Point have ti~nof Zobell that bactc~rialfilrns are iicLcessaryto sub- now becn tested and found satisfactory. With their s~cl11entfo~iling by harnacl(ls, 1n11rseis. Ili~ninaryuork lias 1)een the Inspection Services and at the request of ind~~s'rial started on the producton of accurately divided circular organizations. Attention is king given to the improre- scales. ment of the accuracy of calibration of various types Government Departments and industrial organiza- of physical testing machines and to the development tions continue to make frequent use of tlie Division for of in~pro\'td and simplified methods of examination. calibration of their nrorking standards, for advice relat- ing to precice or diilicult measurements and for the Instruments of various types have been received for undertaking of worlr beyond their normal facilities. examina'ion, and investigations are proceeding for An example of the lat'er is the measurement of two lmproremcnt of the accuracy of their calibration. large elertric motors in course or erection. Equipment Growing demand is being felt from industry for ad- designed and made by the Divisiotl enabled rneasure- vice and asqistance in vibration measurement. An ment of the 7-ft. diameter rotors and corresponding electromagnetic vibration pick-up uiith certain un- stators. usual feat~~reshas been designed and constructed. For the Commonwealth Surveyor-General, several Motion b,et~veen a seisn~ically mounted permanent surveying tapes were calibrated and their coefficients magnet- and coils induces electromotive forces in the of thewnal expansion determined. Further x~orkon coils. The pick-up is connected to a cathode ray the effect of friction in the use of such tapes has been oscilloscope which indicates the magnitude and wave- underlaken. form of the vibration being measured. TTnits of this Sereral measurements of coefficient of expansion 'gpe have already found considerable use, mainly in have been made including that of an invar standard to the balancing of rotating machinery such as steam be aged by the Commonwealth Fxperimental Building tnrbine~. A miniature electromagnetic vibration pick- Station, and the determination of the change in shape up is a-ell acl~anctcl. This is being developed from the of a piston corresponding to an increa'se from room type mentioned above and will have special applica- temperature to working temperatures. tions, if6 weight being less than 4-oz. XII. ELECTROTECHNOLOGY. The equipment for the calibration of current trans- 1. General.-During the last two years, the efforts of formers is now being reassCmbled, in new quarters, in the Division have been concentrated mainly on the its permanent forrn. Good progress is being made in establishment of the derived electrical standards and the design and construction of ecluipment for the test- on the facilities for making precise measurements in ing voltage tran,sformers, but it will be some months terms of them. Although there still remains a great before this is ready for use. deal to he done, it is now possible to undertake elect- alpparatus for the direct n~easnrenlentof high vol- rical measurements of most types to an order of :age is still in the design stage. The equipment for accuracy higher than that normally required by indus- the measurements of magnetic properties of iron is all tries and research establishments. ready for asaenibly in the Laboratory, but space has only recently become available for its installation and As a result of this progress, it has been posible testing. to give greater attention to research of a more funda- mental nature (although some of the work on the estah- 4. d~rdioFrequency.-There has been some delay lishment of sfandards may be considered in that in se-ting up the audio frequency measuring equip- category). Research activities are being deoeloped in ment in new quarters, owing to shortages of various two main directions, namely the electrical and mag- biti!djng materials and fitting,?. In partic~llar, the netic properties of materials, and mathematical in- estnbliqhment of a set of bridges for the main'cnance struments. In :he former of these, work has been con- of the standards of capacitance and inductance cannot fined so far to the properties of dielectrics. h separate proreed further until the air-conditioning plant is in ~ectionof the Division deals with each of these two operation. However, sufficient equipment has heen set studies, but both are very closely associated with the up to enahle most denlands for measurements to be I measurement sections. met. Much of the tvork at audio and high frequencie is The applied Electronics Section is still concerned being done in co-operation with the Materials Section: mainly with prohlerns arising within the Division, and which requires facilities for measuring permittivity this demand will continue for some time to come. and I,o\ver factor of dielectric materials over a com- However, it has been possible to undertake one major plete range of frequencies up lo 10,000 Mc/s., and external problen~in connexion with aerial surveying. possibly even higher. Initially, it will be sufficient, 2. Direct C11rrent.-'Fwo new pieces of equipment In most frequrncy bands, if measurements can be taken have been constructed in order to extend the range of at fixed frequencies arranged approximately in a D.C. measurements. One of these is a mains-operated logarithmic scale (e.g. 100, 300, 1,000, 3,000. . .Mc/s), stabili~ed D.C. supply, continuously variable from an

programme of work than has been practicable in pre- students of the TJniversity of Sydney.. . vious years. The amount of routine testing and cali- The Chief of the Division, who went overseas in bration has fallen to proportions which can be readily May, 1946, as Scientific Adviser to the Australian handled, and much of the outstanding work necessary Delegate on t41c Atomic Energy Commission, United to place the standards for which the Division is respons- Nations Or.g:inization, resumed his duties in February, ible on a sound basis has now been done. It must be 1947. ,4t the request of the Department of External I Affairs he went overseas again in April to attend consequeritly cannot 21~ 111ade to disappear completely further nieetings of the Xtonlic Energy Con~missionin again~tthe bacligrouiid I f thr~hot body on which it is the same capacity as before. sif,rhtcd. To overcome th'~trouble, the visual apcrture 2. f1caf.-(i) General.-The Heat Section, more of the instrument is often reduced, although this than any other section in the Division, is called upon to ret1:lces the accuracy of the inatruinent and restricts ~~ndertakscalibration and test work for ind~istrialand ti.(%range of temperature over which it can be used. scientific purposes. The work associated with the lnvestigatioris by the L7ght and Heat Scctions have develoy,i~~eritand maintenance of the International ~rrealetl th,:t the disal)pearance of the filament may Temperature Scale and the calibration of temperature be rnuch improved by including a suitably orientated measuring equipment in terms of this scale is consider- polari.rilig screen in the eye-piece, thus permitting the able but is, as far as possible, organized in such a way use of large aptrturcs and the attainment of improved as to leave the scientific staff ample opportunity for accilracies. research. rll 11.ing a thermocouple to measure temperatures, Investigations on humidity control and measure- LILC end of the thrrnlocouple wires, usually known as ment have been continued, and the facilities built up tlie reference junction, must be maintained at a known for this type of work, together with the extensive tc11ipe1~at1u.r. Melting ice is frequently used for this cxpericnce of officers of tlie Di~~isioni11 temperature purpose. For nlany laboratory and field applications ~ueasurement,have been applied to the investigations it nould be advantageous, ho~vc.\cr, to use some uhicll have been conimenced on the formation of ice ,-ubstance which has a rt~elting point a few degrees crybtals. These investigations are part of a joint project above ambient temperature. The possibility of using v.ith the Division of Radiophysics on the artificial d:phenyl ether, which has a freezing point of approxi- ~>roductionof rain. nratc.1~. 27" ('. is at prcSseut being iiirestigatcd and I'lnns have 1)cc.n made for the initiation of physical i~ldicationsare that this material, if pure, will give research at teniperatures approaching absolute zero- ,I reference juncation temperature which can be relied ?0.03° ('. tl rery promising field for investigation. The necessary unon to better than cc,uipnlcnt is at present nnder construction and, as The Sertion has contir~uedto provide a service in an adjunct to thk project, a liquid-air unit has been induqtrial pyrometrp similar to that rendered to the purchased. 3I;iiistry of Nimitions during tlie war, but on a much ~rtlucetlscale. This involves tlie checking of pyrometric (ii) International l'emperature Scale and Tempera- etl~1ipmerlt and furnace installations for inductrial ture ~?lenal~/*ernc.nf.-The realization of the Inter- 01 gani~ationsand the calibration of u orking standards iiational Temperxture Scale in the range of tempera- for temperature measurement for other establishments. tures for nhicli it is defined, from -190' C. upwards, 'The derrlopment of farilities for the attainment of ill volves tlle establii.hruent of equipment to realize teir~pcraturesdoan to 2" K. will extend thc range of sc\.eli fixed points, and tlie use of tliese to calibrate, tc.111peraturr.s realized within the Division to far below for their respective temperature ranges, standard tltc present louer lirnit of the International Tenipcra- resiitar1c.e thermonlc~tcrs,thermocouple pyronleters, and ture Scale. 31easuren1cats will, in this case, be made optical pyroineters. Although the lnternational Tem- on the ecnle on which the International Temperature ptrat~~reScale has been realized in the Section with Svale is basccl, tlie Thernlodynamic Scale. Techniques an accuracy which is sufficient for most purposes, for ternpcrati~rc rneasurerrlrnt nhich are new to the E;l~.ther ilnprove~nentsare neceswry if all requirements Sccation will reqnire to be developed. These techriiques for precise temperature measurement are to be met. 'nil1 later find application to measurements oil the P(lnip~tlrnt ca~ibratrd in terms of the temperature luterllatioi~alT~~ri~pvratn~~c~ Scale if, a.i is anticipated, sralek il1aintai1ic.d at the National Physical Laboratorg, I his scale is extended to lower temperaturcs. Fnglantl, and the National Bureau of Standards, T'nitt (1 States of ,lmerica, is to hand, and comparisolls (iii) Spc~ciulDeaices for l'ernper(~t?~rc.,Jfrasurrrnent I,t~t~vc.enthe scales of these laboratories and that main- ctnrl ('ontro1.-,is in previous years the Sectiori has ~ecc~irednunlrrvuq retruests for advice and assistance tained here are- nlanned.1 A\dualcalibratiol~, are rarely made directly in terms in the solution of umlsual problem in temperature of the standal-ds with zr hich the temperatilre scale is rifrasuremc.ilt or control, many of these requests arising rcali;,ed, secondary standards usually being used. In \r itlliii the Coiincil. The de3ig.n of equipment to record the range -190" C. to 500' C. these take the form of sea-water tenlperatnres at various depths automatically, liquid-in-class thermometers. Sets of thermometers methods of n~r.asuring stored energy in metals, and calibrated at tllc National I'hysicaI Lahoratory were tlevelol)ment of elenlents suitable for measuring tem- used as transfer stantlards for calibrations in this p~raturesup to 250' C., to an overall accuracy of range of temperatures until the standard s,aale had been iO.Ol°C., in a situation in \vliich only 2 cm. iiltlep~wdentlg established. Although satisfactory as immrlrsion is 13rac-ticable, are cases in ~oint. a t+~rliporarymcasure, thcse could not be relied upon Mention hap been matle in an earlier report of an i~ldcfinitelywithout re-calibration, and were in many c!t.ctronic rontrollrr dcvcllopctl in the Section which case, not calibrated to an accilracy snKcicnt for all ha. h(%cnfount1 pa~ticularlyusefnl for the accurate intlustrial needs. Most of these sub-standards, togcther c:)ntrol of temperatures in liquid or air baths and, \i ith ~ld(1itionalones, have nolv been directly calibrated in a modified form, for the control of humidity. MTith against thr standard5 of the Iliviqion. this instri~nieilttl~r temperature of a stirred water bath Equipment for the comparison of thermometers has I.LIII. 1)e rnailltaiilcd constant to better than *O.OO1° C. been augmrnted by the coizqtruction of sevcr:~l new ~\i?meroi~srclqilesty ha~ebeen received for information con~l)arisonbaths. Thcse include a ~vatcrbath snitable re,arding tllr design of this equipment, which has for the calibration of deep-sea reversing thermometers, ploved 90 nsefnl in the Section that five such units an improved salt bath, and a cryoetat for use at tem- ha{-e now been constructrtl. One of these has been pcratures down to -190° C. ~pilliedtr) the control of the temperature of the bridge For the meajurement of high temperatures, the 11sc.d for n~eas~~rciiientsnith reaistancc thermometers. disappearing filament optical pyrometer is the standard A photoelectric galvanometer amplifier for the imtrument. A new instrument of this type, incor- 1:leasuremcnt of very srriall voltages has proved par- porating numerous improvements on that previously ticular1,y nseful for the nle~suremcntof sniall tempera- used, has been designed and constructed. An optical tu1.e difrerences vith tl~ermocouples; it also has many pyrometer frequently suffers from the disfLhility that otlicr research applicationc;. It can be used to measure its filament docs not appear of uniform brightness and an e.m.f. of 10 rnicrorolts with an accuracy of k0.01 niicrovolt (corresponding in the case of a thermocouple, Ilirision of Radiophyqics; the Division of physic^ to about ~k0.0002~C.) and can be directly coupled has, frorn the oilt~t~CO-ol~eratcd ill some aspects of tu a voltage recorder when a record of its readings this work allti has coricentrated on laboratory investi- is desired. gations of the physic&] phenomena involved. The (iv) 1Iygrornetry.-Much of the work on hygrometry ~~rocessof ice crystal formation in fogs of super-cooled has, in the past, been dire,%cd towards the solution of \,ater droplets is being inteliscly ill\-mtigatcd, particu- il,~r~lediateproblims arislng in connexion with tropic- larly in relation to the ~!lcthodsof initiating crystal proofing. IViih the rirtual cessation of this work grot, t11. 'Ihe two rnetl~odsstuclied ha1 e been (a) that tile opportunitx has been taken to collate the informa- of causing minute ice crystals to form in the fog by tion gainctl and to undertake additional work to locally cool~ng regions in tlie fog with cold bodies suppicnlent this iiiforrnation, several interesting lines (e.g. small piecec of solid carbon dioxide), and (b) of investigation having ari5t.n from the earlier work. tlcai 01 introducing into the fog crystals of foreign Sporadic attenti011 continues to be given by the siihstances on which ice crystals will form. Once ice 1)ivisions of Electro-technology and Physics to the erystals have been fornied in a fog or cloud of super- queqtion of specifications for the tropictesting of tele- c*ooied droplets, they vill grow at the expense of the corni!innication equiprnenl, particularly to attempts to tircplet., and undr~rnatural contlitions nlay ultimately unify the specificatioiis of G~.eatBritain and Australia. fall to the earth as snow or rain. The electronic hmiidity controller, nhich was The investigations of the 1Ieat Section on method developed for the close control of the high humidities (0) have included observations of the effect of the used in t~opicp~oofiiigtests, has now been applicd to ternperature of t21c~ cold bo,iy and the temperature of the control of loner humidities with equally satisfac- tile fog on the nature of the ice crystal formation, tory re,ults. The equipment is \ ery versatile and aid of the rise of temperature in the fog due to the could u~ldoubtr~dlybe applirci with success to the control i,~tentheat given out in tile forrllation of ice. Investi- c,f humidities by quite different methods from those gations on various substances which might be suitable vith which it has as yet been used. It would seem for use in tl~eformation of rain by methotl (h) have to have potential industrial applications. A theoretical iiiclilded ob ervatioils on the relative efficiencies in icxe analysis, checked by experimental tests, has been nzade c~ystalformation of a number of different substances, or' the nature of the temperature or humidity control thc maximurn temperatures at which they are effective, obtained nith systems sucli as those which have been aud thf, beht rrictllotis of forming and dispersing the ~ised, particular attention haring been given to the ftreign crystal nuclei. It has been found that some fbctors which detcrrnine whether a system subject to sitbstancec are particularly effei-tive; as small a pioportional control will rnaintain steady or regularly qvantity of silver iodide as IO-lQ., dispersed as a varying conditions. snlcke, is sufficient to fill a 30 cu. ft. chamber with a Arising out of the use of thermo.couple psychro- dense fog of ice crystals. meters for the n~easilrement of humidity, a detailed 'I'he process of crystal formation is visually quite irr estigation of the basic lam governing the mode of slxLtacular, and a film of some a~pectsof the work operation of tlle psjcl.lrorrleter (wet and clry bulb has been prepared. In order to study the phenomena )~ygrc.n~eter)has been undertaken. The problem has under irloro closely ccwtrolled ronditior~s than is htlen inr~estigatcdboth thecretically and experinentally, l~c'.siblein a large chamber, a small expansioll chamber l'wticulai attention haring been given to the relation- hn~been prepared. In order to study the phenomena ship hetxevn the temperature depres-ion of a psychro- rc oms (,1' the 77irisioa of Food T'rcservation llavc also meter and both the diameter of the wet element and hr'en commenced; under these conclitions both the tile air nlovenlent pa;t it. TILeresults already obtained experimenter and his instruments are in the region czzt doubt biz th.r validity and practical usefulness of c~byctal formation and investigation of the of many of the results obtained by earlier workers. p2 encmcna of crystal gro~~rthi,s thus simplified. A\n autornetic detvpoiiit liypron~et~~ri, in course of c.on.tl.:lction. In thi,, instr:cment the formation of (rii) Lou! Temperciflsre Y?~ysics.- There are in (IFT on the tcst surface will he detected photoelec- Austraiia at present no faci1itic.s for research at very t~.;cally and the current frorr~ the photoceil nsed to Ion. trmpcratures. Illea?ui.nnc,nts made at these tern- control the temperature of the surface. Hy fitting a pt 1 atures are of considc~.able significance in relation ipccial optical system to a visual dewpoint llygronleter, to fuii~lamcntalphpical theoriez, particularly in the so tlz::t light is niultiply reficctcd frorn the surface on pliysics of the lid state, including magnetism, elec- c hich the de\t forrns, it has bee11 poscible to increase tiairal cond~~ction,and heat conduction. Determinations r~larkedlythe sensitivity of the instnlmrnt. of the therlllotlynamic propertics of certain types of clicrnical substance also reqnire rneasurements at Inm (v) 7'h e~rnul(7011 t11ccliuity.-Although requests for the rneasuremrnt of the thermal conductivity of temperatl~rcs; the=e propert;es are of importance for inslilating and other material, are receixed from time thc lvetliction of chemical reaction rates. to time, rneas~lrenic~nisof this type are of such a The pro~isionof facilities for attaining low tem- rolltine nature that th~Division has been reluctant p~ratnresand the initiating of pllysical research at to set up facilities for this work. However, it has tlleqe temperatures is a natnral development of the ulldertalrrn to assist the Council's Section of Tinilding work of the, ileat Section, and to this end equipment >laterials Re~earch, which requires to be able to i.: at present 1111der conctrnction in the laboratory measure the thermal cond~~ctivit~and thermal trnns- P( rlrsliops. The eyuiprnent being built is in the form ~lissinnc: of b11i1dir:g materials in eitnl~lishing the of a cryostat capable of maintainin:: any teml~erature ntcessary facilities; to this end there is under con- down to about 2" I<. in its workiag space. It can, qtrilction an equipment, designed in the Division, in ac1dit;on. be used for the liquefaction of any gas. which \\-ill be suitable for tests on 12 in. bv 12 ih. ? lle design is siwilar to one developed at the Masqa- specimens at low and ari~bient temperatures. The chucetts Iiistitl~te of Technolopy, and represents a design of an apparatus for the measurement of the considerable adoance over the more classical types of tilerma1 transn~ission of 4 ft. by 4 ft. wall sections low temperature equipmeat, particularly in respect of lias becn completed, this apparatus being also intended its simplicity, compactness, and low initial and running for use by the Hililding Materials Research Section. costs. (vi) Ice Crystal B'ornzirtion. - Investigations of The setting up of low temperature equipment will methods of artificially inducing moisture precipitation fnrthcr extent1 the Section's facilities for temperature (rain or snow) Irere initiated during the war by the nleasurement and standardization, and will ensure that tliere is in the Division a group knowledgeable in low Visual intercomparisons of colour temperature sub- tcmperature engineering, a field likely to become of standard lamps have also been made, and the results industrial importance. obtained indicate that the lamps agree anlong them- Partly as an adjunct to the low temperature project, selves to within about 10' K. an oxygen generator has been acquired; it is being (iii) Spectr0photometry.-In the last report men- n~odified for use as a liquid air generator and may tion was made of the installation of a General Electric loter be further modified to allom of its use for the automatic recording spectrophotometer. During the p~oductionof liquid nitrogen. It is anticipated that year conisiderzble use has been made of thc excellent t~lcunit will he capable of delivering 30 litres of liquid faciiities this instrument provides for the rapid air per hour. measurement of spectral reflectances or transmissions, 3. fight.-(i) General.--Further attention has been in all some 800 curves having been ~rod'ucedwith it. given in the Light Section to many of the projects Uses to which the instrument has been put have in- referred to in the last ilnnual Report and, in addition, chided rrleasurements of paper reflectances and of the work has been initiated on several new projects. One colours of foodstuffs and sugar-phenol complexes; a of the important functions of this Section is the main- study of the cyanide compounds of haem and t~naneeof the photometric standards. The positioil haematin; investigations into the colorimetry of vana- regarding these standards has been considerably elari- dates; and the development or oalibration of special fied by an extensive series of intercomparisons between filters for optical pyrometry, the visual colorimetry of the standard lamps held by the Division, chlorophyll, stellar photometry, and heterochromatic A knov~ledgeof the ultra-violet emission of the sun photometry. The rapidity with which a spectrophoto- 1s of importance in the fields of eolar and terrestrial metric curve on a sample can be made (3 minutes) has physica, and in view of the particularly suitable proved partinularly advantageous in several investiga- facilities and experience of the Section, work has been tions of unstable chemical substances. ct)mn~enceclon an investigation along these lines. (iv) 1Iaemoglobi1~ometry.-A photoelectric haemo- -1s in other years, the Section has been called upon globinorneter designed and constructed in the Section to advise and assist in the design and construction of has now been in routine use in the lied Cross Blood ~pccialoptical and photometric inbtruments for use in Bank for several years, and an Australian instrument- otller establishnients, particularly other Divisions of maker has undertaken commercial production of the the Council. instrunlent. The Division has agreed to calibrate these (ii) Pl~oto~~etricStanclards. - The photometric instruments, and to this end has measured the spectral stahdkrds maintained bv the Division a& those of transmissions of oxyhaemoglobin solutions, stan- horizontal candle-power, luminous flux, and oolour dardized and supplied by Dr. H. S. I-I. Wardlaw, temperature. These standards are realized by means Senior Pathologist of Sydney Hospital. At the same of sets of lamps which have been calibrated to sub- time an investigation was made of the stability of the stcndard accuracy at either the National Physical absorption properties of oxyhaemoglobin and acid Iaboratory, England, or the National Bureau of haematin solutions. Standards, United States of America. The use of (v) C'o1orimetry.-While the requests received for transfer standard lamps to establish the photometric units in Australia is necessary because the Inter- colour determinations are now fewer than they were l~ationalphotometric units have, up to now, been based during the war, there appears to be a real need in oiz actual lamps held by the main standardizing i~idustry for a satisfactory colour-measuring intru- laboratories of the world. The use of transfer rnent. To satisfy this demand a photoelectric tri- siandards will no longer be necessary after 1st colorinleter suitable for a wide range of industrial or January, 1945, when a new unit of luminous intensity scientific color measurements is being designed. The will be introduced. This unit, to be known as the design, which is nearing completion, is based on the "New Candle ", mill be defined by reference to the c>xperience already gained with two somewhat similar luminous intensity of a black body at the melting experimental instruments previously developed in the point of platinum. While the Division does not Section. propose, in the i~nmediatefuture, to depart from its (vi) Ultra-violet Spectral Energy Distribution.- practice of basing its units on sub-standard lamps Fork has been commenced on a project having as its calibrated at the National Physical Laboratory, and ultimate ohject the determination of the spectral dis- will always use such lamps for the comparison of the tribution of energy in the light radiated by the sun in units as realized here and elsewhere, preliminary the far ultra-violet, and having as its immediate consideration has been given to the acquisition of object the developnlent of facilities for n~easurerncnt some of the equipment which will be necessary for and investigation in the far ultra-violet. The long- the full realization of the unit of luminous intensity. term project involves the development and calibration The accuracy and constancy of the sub-standard of a spectrograph for the measurement of ultra-violet lamps used to establish the various photometric units spectral energies and the projection of this instrument, are checked by intercomparisons between lamps, in- in a rocket, into the upper atmosphere, where the solar cluding checks against lamps w\hich have recently n,easurcments n~ouldbr made. been calibrated at the National Physical Laboratory Attention has naturally been concentrated, in the or the National Bureau of Standards. In making first place, on the laboratory side of the investigations; such intercomparisons, may of the errors present in thcl.;cl illaoire numerous scientific and technical prob- visual photometric observations can be avoided by the lems, most important of which is that the absorption use of properly oorrected photoelectric cells, a pro- of very short wavelengths is so great for allnost all cedure which has been adopted in the measurements known substances, including air, that the source and mentioned. measuring instrument must be enclosed in the same The results of the in~tercomparisons of the lamps evacuated chamber. A one-meter grating vacuum used to establish the unit of luminous intensity are spectrograph which includes as a spectral feature the in very satisfactory agreement with the calibration facility to use a photographic plate, bolometer, figures of the National Physical Laboratory, the or photoelectric cell as the energy detec- average relative difference being less than t0.2 per tor, has been designed. It is proposed that the gratings cent. The agreement between the lamps used to estab- for use with this instrument should be ruled on the lish the unit of luminous flux does not seern to be quite Grayson ruling engine in the Division of Metrology. so satisfactory, although the measurements on these Thc calibration of the spectrograph will require the lamps are not yet complete. use of a stable ultra-violet source of high intensity, and m a first step towards the development of a suitable Itecently a, further request bas been made by the source a discharge tube giving a bright continuons National Films Board that tests should be made on 35 spectrum down to 2,000 A. has already been constructed. mm. strip firrn projectors; suitable testing specificatiom are being prepared. (vii) ilfeasurement of Radiant Energy.--Notable advances have been made overseas in recent years in (xi) Evaporation Pla~zt.-The equipment set up for techniques for the detection or measurement of very the evaporation of metals and other substances on to small quantities of radiant energy. By using a detec- surfaces has been used extensively during the year, tor of very quick response and by interrupting the priilcipaiiy for the production of aluminium refiectora beam incident on it, its output can be amplified by and semi-reflectors, although other metals, such as standard electronic methods; as a result, an assembly silver, antimony, and nickel, have also been evaporated of very high sensitivity is obtained. A number of ~ntoglass to produce reflectors. The convenience with experimental evaporated metal film resistance bolo- which aiuminlum reflectors can be produced, and their satisfactory properties, have largely eliminated the use meters, and a suitable amplifier, have been made up with a view to using these techniques in the measure- of silvered reflectors (produced by chemical means) in ment of ultra-violet energy. Results so far are the laboratory. The plant has also been used for the deposition of " non-reflecting magnesium fluoride promising, although the work is still in the develop- " mental stage. films on glass surfaces, the production of thin metal film bolometers, and the evaporation of antimony to Another technique which has been applied to the form a black absorbing surface. I measurement of small amounts of radiant energy has (xii) Opfical WorksAop.-The optical workshop, beer, the use of multiplier photo-tubes, and the im- which provides valuable facilities for the production provement in the periorrnance of these tubes at liquid- of high quality optical oomponents, flats, and filters, air temperatures is being investigated. has continued to meet all the calls made upon it, not A capacity-type evaporated metal film bolometer is only for the work of the Division but also for other being developed, in co-operation with the Division of Divisions of the Council. Radiophysics, for measurement of energies in the rnilli- During the year the facilities have been further meter wavelength band. improved by the addition of a precision lens edging (viii) l'hermal Reflectances.-Many oases arise in machine and centring attachment, both of which were which the heat transfer across a barrier is determined designed in the Division and constructed in the labora- more by the radiative properties of the materials com- tory ~vorkshops. The centring attachment incorporates ?rising the barrier than by their thermal conductivi- novel features which make for simpler and quicker ties. Tllis is so in some forms of building insulation, par- centring adjustment than is possible with the more ticularly roof insulation, where thin sheets of materials usual attachments. of low emissivity are used to reduce the low tempera- 4. Solar Ph~ysics.-It has already been reported that ture radiative heat trnnsl'er. Equipment Elas been set a possible explanation for tlic occurrence of chromo- up with which the diffuse thermal reflectance of a spheric flares on the sun has been formulated in ternls material to the black-body radiation of a source at of the influence of a growing sunspot on the solar 100" C. can be measured, aild measurements have been atmosphere surrounding the spot. The theoretical made on a number of test samples. analysis of these effects has now been developed in much greater detail, account having been taken of (ix) Disfribution of Light Intensity Across m additional factors not considered in the theory as it Optical Inla,qe.-A theoretical analysis has been com- was first outlined. In particular, consideration has pleted of the distribution of diffracted light at the been given to the manner in which the propagation image of a source of finite width when the source emits throud1 the solar atmosphere of the ma;netic field due light uniformly in all directions. This analysis has to the sunspot is affected by the anisotropic conduc- application to a number of optical problems. Dif- tivity of this atmosphrre, and to the magnitudes of the ferent conditions arise when an image is formed of an resulting electric field and currents to be expected. object illuminated by light which is restricted in direc- The theory of the origin of chromospheric flares has tion, a case which frequently occurs in optical instru- now been developed to a stage at which it has been ments. The distribution of light in the image under possible to deduce most of the important observed such conditions is now being investigated. features of these flares. (x) Film Projector Tests.-In order to provide a From a consideration of the motion of charged par- means of critically assessing the performance of 16 ticles in the sun's atmosphere in the vicinity of a nun. sound and film projectors, and tr, assist local growing sunspot, it has been shown that, in certain manufacturers of these units, the National Standards cirn~mstanccs, and in isolated locations, equal and Laboratory undertook, in 1945, to test prototype units uniform npwnrd velocities of the order of 100 km. per of local manufacture and, for comparisoll purposes, to see. can be acquired by both positive and negative make tests on some imported instruments. The co- particles. This phenomenon is proposed as the ordination of this work, which was undertaken at the nlechanism responsible for the expulsion of certain reqxest of the National Films Board, has been the re- types of prominence from the chromosphere. sponsibility of this Division; all three Divisions of 5. The Physics of Solids.-It was reported last year the National Standards Laboratory have co-operated that the nuclnis of a Section to undertake work in the in the work. Tests have nov been completed on field of the physics of the solid state had heen established machines of seven different makes, two of local and five within the Division. Progress in the development of of overseas manufacture. It is understood that two thi~Scction has not been as great as had been hoped, further instruments, one of local assembly but incor- principally because of the dificulty of obtaining porating many imported components, and the other of scientific staff experienced in tliir branch of physics, wholly local manufacture, will soon be submitted for and partly bcca~lse of unexpecterl delay in the com- test. The surrey of the locally produced machines will pletion of the X-ray diffraction equipment for use in thvil. for the time being at anp rate, be complete. The the Section. Throuqllout the first nine months of the standard attained by the locally made units is very pear, the Division hat1 the assistance of an officer of cnconraging, although in some respects it is not 1x11 to the Broken Hill I'roprietary Company Limited, 'Itat of the bcst instruments of overseas man~~factixre. ~npointcdfor work on this project, and seve~alprob- '~Yaysin which the units could hc improved bave been lerns of interest to the companv were investigatcad by aupgested. this officer, using X-ray diffraction methods. F.7446.--6 The X-ray diffraction equipment designed in the In addition to the measurements made on wool, Division and constructed in tllc laboratory workshops, measurements have also been made of the frictional is now virtually con~ylete. It makes use of a con- properties of a number of other fibers-animal, vege- tinuously evacuated X-ray tube with which four table and artificial. Included in tliese are some pre- cameras can be used sim~zltaneously. The equipment liminary measurements, made on behalf of the Flax has been assembled in a temporary form and found to Research Section, of the coefficient of static friction of operate satisfactorily, and is now in process of being flax on flax. The resultq obtained, although not con- mounted permanently in one of the laborlatorics in the chlaive, seem to suggest that there is some correlation new wing of the building. between the coefficient of friction and the grade of the 6. Wool Investigations.-(i) Geriera1.-The results flax, a low coefficient of Diction, ,permitting of a high pull-out in drafting, corresponding to a high grade of the investigatiolls on wool structure by the Section of flax. More detailed work is contemplated when the of Wool I'hysics would seem to have important impli- Flax Rmearch Section has been able to investigate cation~regarding the form of the keratin molecule. more fully the relationship between the grade of flax The Light Section has made a micropliotographic study and its spinning properties. of the migration of fibres during felting and has also given ful-ther attention to the development of special (iv) Fibre Illetro1ogy.-Attention has been given in instrulnellts for rneasurements on fibre diameters; the the Ui~isionfor some time to the development of IIeat Section has continued its study of electrica! special equipment to assist in the measurement of the methods of measuring rnoisture content. physical cliaracteristics of wool fibres, particularly fibre diameters. The light Section has d5signd an (ii) The Structure of the Wool Fibre.-It was re- instrument, operating. on photometric principles, with ported last year that two components had been dis- which the mean diameter of the fibres in a bundle may tingliished in the cortical cells of the wool fibre, one be determined without having to resort to the tedious with the longitudinally aligned fibrils and ?he other and time-conguming method of making measurements with t11r amorphous niatrix in which the fibrils are on each individual fibre. The original model was embedded. During the year tliese components have found to work very satlsfactorily and three further in- been examined in greater detail with the electron micro- strurllents, of the same ge~~eraldesig~ but better suited scope, using the gold-shadowing technique. The to routine work, are under construction for the Fleece rather surprising result has been obtained that both Arlalysis Laboratory and other laboratories of the components appear to consist of approximately iso- Council. metric particles, whose linear dimensions are of the The fibre diameter meter gives only the mean dia- order of 100 Angstrom units. The size of the par- meter of the fibres in a bundle. The coefficient of ticles is such that they may well be molecules of variation of the diameters of the fibres is another im- keratin. This new information is obviousIy of con- portant characterisiic of wool samples. It has been siderable importance and re-opens the question of the shown mathematically that if, in addition to the Inass form of the keratin molecule, which is a polypeptide and the cross-sectional projected area of a wool sample, chain and has generally been held to be long and thin, the total fibre-length is known, both the mean diameter even when regularly folded. In tllc amorphous matrix arid the coefficient of variation of the sample can be from the cortex of the fibre these particles are dis- determined. With wool, however, the accuracy with tributed at rarltlo~n;in the fibrils, they are lying like which the coefficient of variation can be measured by beads on a string, the different strings being slightly this method is not sufficiently great to be useful. The twisted around each other. This twist accounts for at above analyslr has brought to light a factor which lea~st some of the dispersioil shown on X-ray diffra- seems to have been overlooked in fibre metrology, tion photographs previously obtained. The investiga- namely that if the fibres are of non-circular cross tions have been carried out as a joint project with the sc>rtion,the roefficient of variation, as usually measured. Division of Indnstrial Chemistry. mill include a component due to the eccentricity of (iii) Frictional Properties of the Wool Fibre.-The the cross section. illthough the component is neg- measurements a!ready made on the frictional pro- ligibl~for most types of wool, it may become signifi- perties of textile fibres, particularly wool fibres under cant H hen measureme~itsare made on fibres of unusual various conditions, have been further extended and cross section. analysed. The frictional asymmetry of the wool fibre, The optical diffraction pattern produced by a uni- which is regarded as the cause of felting, has been form fibre when placed in a light. beam varies with the ascribed by different workers to tn-o tlifferent causes, fibre diameter. It follows that the diffraction pattern one school considering that it is due to an asynlmetry from a bundle of fibres of different diameters is related of the molecular fields at the surface of tl~efibre, and to the distribution of diameters of the fibres, and an in- the other that it is due to the geonletrical shape of vestigation has been made in the Light Section of the the scaly surface of the cuticle-a ratchet-like effect. possi1:ility of using this phenomenon to determine, by An analysis has been made on a semi-quantitative simple rnoasuren~ent,the coe5tient of variation in such basis of the implications of this ratchet theory, taking a case. The method shows some promise; however, the into account the actual geometrical form of the scales 'fact that thc quantiay measured is a function of the and their resistance to dcformation. Using the ex- tvhole distribution of diameters of the sample and not pressions obtaincd from this analysis, it has been of just the coefficient of variation sets a limitation to possible to explain in terms of this theory many obser- the accuracy of the method. This limitation has been vations mhicli were formerly considered to be incom- found to be significantly important with wool samples. patible with it. The equipment developed for the measurements has Tntereqting information on the process of felting has been given to the Fleece Analysis Lahoratory for a res~~ltcdfro171 some work done by the Light Section, in further investigation of its practical usefulness. which the act~xalmigration of indlvldnal wool fibres For niany measurements on wool it is important has been recorded in a wries of microphotographs to know the moisture content of the fibres. This is taken as felting proceeds. There can be no question ~~suallydetermined hg a gravimetric method, which, that the felting process is one of tanqling produced by since it involves drying the sample, is time-consuming. the rootward movement of the ilidi~'id~r?lfibres rela- The Heat Swtion has constructed an instrument with tive to the other fibres present. The different migra- which the dielec4ric properties of a sample of woo1 can tional bchaviours of normal fibres and fibres which be measin.rd, with a view to testing its applicability to have been submitted to sbrinkprodng tr~:ltnrents is the instantaneous determination of the moisture con- clearly revealed. tent of wool samples. It is somewhat similar to an instrument developed at the National Physical Labora- In this connexion, an event of particular importance tory, England, for the measurement of the moisture to the Division was the holding in London of the first content of grain. The results so far obtained have Commonwealth Aeronautical Research Conference, been promising, and it is proposed to pass :he instru- attended by delegations from the United Kingdom and rnent to the I"1eece Analysis Laboratory for a fuller Dominions. The basic aim was to set up some mecha- investigation of whether there is a !sufficiently close nism for the co-ordination of aeronautical research correspondence between the electrical properties and throughout the British Empire. It has long been the moisture content of wool to permit the use of the realized that, as aeronautical research covers such an instrument for routine mokture content measurements. extensive field and requires such large resources in 7. Btonzic Physics.-Througllout the greater part of man-power and finance, the best results within the Em- the year an officer of the Division has con'inued to pire would be achieved by co-ordinating the activities nork in the Vacuum Physics Laboratory of the Divi- of the research groups in the United Kingdom and the sion of Itadiophysics, as part of the group concerned 1)orninions. The foundation for this co-ordination with the development of equipment for the linear was laid and certain important projects were allocated acceleration of elementary particles to high velocities. to Australia. E-le has beell concerned with (a) theoretical and ex- Even with this co-ordination and the consequent perimental investigations of the operating conditions nalerolving of fields of research, it was realized that the for the linear acceleration of protons by pulse 1)ivision could not hope to cover more than a small methods; (b) the design of a proton source for use part of the potential field, and so an endeavour was with the accelerator; and (c) the design and construc- made to widen the scope of the work by interesting tion of a mass spec:rograph leak detector. o'her organizations in suitable projects. The Univer- Sonic attention has been given to the construction sity of Sydney in its Department of Lkeronautical of apparatus for the detection of single nuclear par- Engineering already has an active research team, and ticles. Boron trifluoride chambers for the detection of this has been strengthened by aditional research staff nentrons have been designed and placed under con- appointed by the Council. A small beginning has also struction, and a linear amplifier has been constructed been made with the University of Melbourne at which for use with these counters and with counters suitable a researcah student has hccn appointed to work under for detecting pro'ons and alpha-particles. Mica-min- the Professor of Mathematics on certain problems of dow Geiger-Miiller counters suitable for detecting low compressible flow. Tlle Munitions Supply Labora- energy beta-particles, and the associated electrical tories too, through the Engineering Group Committee, counting circuits have been supplied to the McMaster have undertaken work on fatig:~e which will dovetail Animal IIealth Laboratory for use in work with radio- into the structures prograrrlnie of the Division. active tracer elements. During the year the Aus ralian Council for Aero- 8. Publications.-The following papers have been nautics waq disbanded. It wa-, ronsitlered that the published during the year :- terms of reference of this Conncil were too wide and that, as an independent I.oit~~iiitteeunattached t,o any Giovanelli, (1946).-A theory of Chromo- R. G. particular Go~ernment Jepa?tn:ent, its recommenda- spheric flares. ATature 158: 81. tions were difficult to inip!emer:t. Consequently, it is -(1946).-Welding and the eyes. Accident to be succeeded k,;y a colnrnit~ecwhich by its terms of Prev. Bull. 3, Spec. Suppl., p. 5. reference will be 1irnitc.d to aeronautical research mat- Makinson, Rachel (1947.-The physical pro- K. ters on which it may be 'freely collsulted by any organi- perties of wool. Aust. 9 : 199. J. Sci. zation requiring advice, :horrgh for tlcpartmental Makinson, K. Rachel, and Mercer, E. H. procedure this committee will be attached to the (1046).-The mechanism of the frictional C'ouncil. difi'erence of wool fibres. J. Text. Inst. 37: TI80 (letter). Dificultie~continue to be met ,in regard to staff. Many attractive positions are offering in industry and Mercer, E. H., and Rees, A. L. G. (1946).-An electron microscope investigation of the in the expanding field of civil aviation, and it is diffi- cult :o retain experienced men. In addition to staff cuticle of wool. Sust. J. Exp. Riol. 24: 2. Mercer, E. IT., and Rees, A. L. G. (1946).-The ~l~ortagecaused by resignation's, the end of the war structure and elasticity of the cortex of has given an opportunity long denied to those who wish keratin fibres. Ibid. 24: 175-183. to enlarge their research experience or to undertake ad- Farrant, J. I,., Rees, A. L. G. and Mercer, E. H. vanced studies abroad. No less than ten ofEcers of the (1947) .-The structure of fibrous keratin. Division are at present overseas, the majority having been granted fellowships or studentships from Com- Nature 159 : 535. monwealth or overseas sources. 2. Xtrucfures.-(i) Theory of Strz~ctures.-In XIV. AERONAUTICAL INVESTIGATIONS. modern aircraft high structural efficiency is achieved by n:akillg the outer surfaces forming the" aerodynamic 1. Gen~ra1.-The past year has seen important shape carry a large proportion of the structural loads. developments in the field of aeronautics which affect In such stressed skin construc'ion the load-carrying fhe Division to a greater or lesser cstcnt. One of these surface is effectively divided into a number of panelis is the phenomenal growth of civil avia'ion in Austra- or plates, some flat and sonle curved in one plane. In- lia. Statietirs show that on a population basis Aus- dividual panels, or the whole shell when subjected to tralia mes air travel almost as much as the United compressive loads, usually fail by b,uckling before the Ytatcs of America and air freight even more-a truly ultimate strength of the n~a'erialis reached. remarkable record. On the scrvice side comparatively little change has T~TOmajor questions are in~olved in the design: o-currell (luring the year. This also applies to the air- firstly, the stability, i.e., the load to cause buckling and (.raft industr;y with one exception-the decision to the capacity to carry load after buckling and secondly, the structural efficiency which aims at the manufacture locally the " Vampire " jet-propelled fighter. Actually, the rather static s'ate of service optilnlun distribution of material between stiffeners aviation and the production industry is of some bece- and skin. On both these subjects a good deal of work fit to the Division. It has caused a falling-off in the has been done. amount of ad hoc work, and has thus enabled greater (a) Sfability of plates and shells.-The initial cffort to he conce~ltratedon the fundamental and long- buckling loads are given with sufficient accuracy by term research projects. " small deflection theory ", and a very exhaustive analysis of the behaviour of flat plates has been made. a$kstos cement sheets separated and stabilized by a This covers both iso ropic and orthotropic materials so light wooden grid to which the sheets are giued witb a that metal, plywood and sandwich constructions can special synthetic resin adhesive. be treated. A number of reports covering experi- The chief advantages of this type of panel are that mental and theoretical work have been published, and it can carry all structural loads without additional a comprehensive report has been prepared summariz- framing; the quantity of timber required for the grid ing all available theoretical knowledge for dealing with is relatively small, no large sizes of timber being any type of rectangular flat plate under edge forces. needcd; s'andard panels can be used for walls, roof, Tlle approximate theoretical solutions for curved and even for the floor; and it provides a good measure plates have not been satisfactory, but an extensive of heat insulation. This form of construction has been experin~entalillrestigation of curved plywood paneh taken up enthusiastically b;y a Victorian manufacturer, has provided empirical data of the greatest value. and panels for several hundred houses have already Af.er buckling, the deflections are large and the been supl~liedto a State Qovernn~entdeparment at a behaviour cannot be satisfactorily predicted by small present production rate of more than ten houses per deflection theory. Much work on large deflection week. problei~is has hen done, but the theory is extrexnely (e) Design and analysis of wooden box spars.-An difficult and progress has been disappointing. The investigation which has extended over the last eight nictllod first used involved the solution of systems of years has now been completed. After extensive ex- equations in infinitely nlany unknowns. In view of perimental investigations in which over 300 spars of the difficulties of the method a review of the literature differing proportions and materials were tested, four is Eeing made to assess the applicability of other hypotheses were advanced regarding the stress distri- me hods snch as, for example, non-linear membrane bution in box spars at failure. Xach of these was theory, or the transformation of the differential equa- examined in the light of the experimental data, and tion problem to a variational problem. the hypothesis which most nearly fitted the observed facts was accepted. Using these resuits, data for de- (b) Sfructural efficiency of stifened plates and sign purposes have been prepared in the form of semi- s1zells.-The aim of this work is to arrive at the struc- empirical curves which enable the most suitable spar ture of the smallest weight which, of given outside for any given conditions to be determined directly. dimensions and materials, will carry a specified sys- (ii) Elfect of Temperature on the Strength of Air- tem of loads. A necessary preliminary to any such craft.-An operational problem is raised by the pos- analysis is to be able to predict accurately the beha- sibility that the strength of wooden aircraft under viour of any structural element when loaded, and a tropical conditions is reduced, and at the request of comparative study has becn made of the methods of the British Alinistry of Supply an investigation on predicting the streng h of flat and curved stiffened the strength of actual compoiients was made. Tests plates in end compression. carried out at Alice Springs and in Northern Queens- A11 analysis is being made of stiffened cylinders re- land showed that when aircraft were parked out in the presentatire of fuselage construction in order to deter- open surface terlll~eratures up to 100' C. were likely mine the structure of minimum weight. d series of in summer. Laboratory tests were therefore made on cylinders in ~vliichradius, skin thickness, stiffener size, a number of wooden tailplanes in which the effect of and ring size vary has heen examined and the envelope strong sunlight was simulated by radiation from infra- of the le,ast weight curves obtained. A11 attempt is red lamps. The tailplanes were conditioned to an now being made to find a stiffener and ring spacing approximately constant moisture content and some which will give the lightest cylinder of given radius were tested at normal temperature (about 20' C.) and moment of resistance. It was found that, when while others were subjected to radiation during which tlie sheet thickness was increased and the number .of the upper surface temperature had risen to SO0 C. stiffeners reduced, different design metliods gave 111- before testing. The results showed that the effect of rreasingl~divergent results. These discrepancies are the heat was to reduce the strength to 50 per cent. of king i11ves:igated. its value at normal ten~perature. (c) Open sections in compression and bending.-The (iii) Life of Aircraft Structures.-An investigation stiffeners used in stressed skins are usually thin metal of great importance to civil aviation is the estiri~ation open sections such as channel and % sections. Their of the nlunlber of flying hours an aircraft may be design for compressive and bending loads preeents operated with reasonabIe safety. Past experience is di6c~ultI,roblems. 11 stildy of the strengtll and stability of little value as an index of future trends because a of these shapes including a comparison of design number of design factors are combining to increase methods was therefore made. The work is being writ- liability to failure by fatigue. Thus, working stresses ten up in concise form for use in an ordinary design and cruising speeds have increased while the increase office, because sections are used as structural elements in size of aircraft has reduced the resonant frequency in many engineering fields including building of the wing structure to something approaching the construcfion. gust frequency so that continuous oscillations of the wing can be expected. A solution of the problem in- (d) Grid panels and panels for housing.-During volves inrestigations in a number of related fields, the war ycars a novel form of ronstruction mas evolred and the Ilivision is making flight, laboratory, mathe- in the Division firs'ly for light-weight floors for air- matical, and fundamental material studies which are craft and later for the main structure. The theory for co-ordinatcd and directed to the main purpose. the design and analysis of grid panels in compression (a) Fllghf 1otrds.-'I'lle nature and magnitllde of the was confirmed by a series of experiments and has been fluctuating loads to which aircraft are suhjected in extended to deal with shear loads and loads normal to normal flights over civil air routes are of immediate the surface ol the panel. Preliminary work on grid importance, but the experimental data available are cylinrlers par'ially and completely covered with skin very meagre. In consequence, more vigorous opera- has commenced and analytical solutions obtained for tional research has becn recommended by the British bending actions. Coinn~onmealtllConference; in Australia a Flight and The grid panel form of construction effected appre- Ground Loads Panel has been set up by the Council ciable savings in the weight of floors in Australian to co-ordinate its efforts with those of the Royal Aus- civil aircraft converted from military transports and, tralian Air Force, the Department of Civil ArLation, proceeding from the same ideas, a form of prefabri- the air transport operators and the Meteorological cated building ane el was devised. This consists of two Bureau. Velocity load (V-G) recorders have been fitted to about 1860 in en endeavour to throw some light on civil aircraft flying on regular scheduled routes and this peculiar property of materials, much energy has to a Woyal Australian Air Force Dakota on the Aus- been expended in the study of the subject. Despite tralia-Japan run. Two series of flights were made in this considerable effort, very little real progress has a Lincoln in the Darwin area to obtain data on tropical been made in the understanding of the fundamentals flying in both summer and winter conditions. Analysis of fatigue or in the application of fatigue data to of the records showed general similarity of loads of design problems. various magnitudes to those obtained in England, but The fatigue of metals is now becoming such an im- the frequency of occurrence of loads of all magnitudes portant topic in engineering design that it was deemed was appreciably higher. Comparative results at high desirable to hold a synlposium on the subject to dis- speed were also obtained on a Meteor, but the results seminate existing knowledge and to encourage further can only be regarded as of a preliminary nature. Not thought and investigation. This symposium was con- nearly enough data have been obtained as yet for vened and organized by the Faculty of Engineering adequate statistical analysis, and the work is being of the University of Melbourne aided by a small com- 1 continued actively. mittee, and strong support was given by a number of The analysis of graphical records is a tedious pro- other organizations including the Council. Some 30 cess requiring a good deal of manpower; to obviate original papers were presented-10 from overseas this diflicticulty, a stress level counter which counts the authorities and 20 from Australia of which 6 were number of times a given stress is reachcd in the main contributed by the Division. spar of the wing during a flight has been constructed. A study of the problem of estimating the endurance This information can be used directly in life prediction, "life" of an 'aircraft structure or component when and simplifies the work enormously. A prototype has acted on by the fluctuating loads encountered in flight been constructed, having six steps which are adjustable has revealed a large number of gaps in the basic know- in va11;le. Proving tests have been made, and the in- ledge which tho more academic studies have failed to strument will be placed in operation. Recording bridge and which have rendered such studies of little accelerometers which use electric resistance strain practical value. I-Iowever, it has been possible on gauges as the recording elements have also been de- purely theoretical grounds to generalize some of the veloped for investigating the distribution of accelera- more important notions on fatigue and to devise ten- tions in various parts of the structure. tative methods for estimating the endurance of struc- (b) Dynamics of structures.-When an aeroplane tural components and mechanical details. For example, encounters a vertical current of air, or gust, the load a method of deriving S-N curves for any load range on the wings alters rapidly. This is equivalent to ratio given only the simple Wiihler curve has been applying a sudden load, and as the wing is elastic it devised, and suitable analytical functions for express- deforms and may vibrate in dissipating the effect of ing strength reduction factors in terms of the geomet- the gust. In addition to the measurement of these rical stress concentration factor and the stress vibrations by flight experiments, a mathematical concentration variable have been evolved. attack has been made on the problem. It is con- These and other significant speculations need experi- fidently expected that this attack, aided by the experi- mental confirmation, and a programme of suitable mental data, will yieltl considerably more information experiments is under discussion by the Engineering than could be obtained by a long and costly experiment. Group Committee which will review the progress of The results achieved to date enable the magnitudes and work done in a number of co-operatiny laboratories. the fluctuations in the accelerations and stresses. at An important factor frequently overlooked in fatigue selected points on the structure to be determined durlng experiments is the method of preparing the specimens a finite period of time, from the measured or assumed for test. The usual machining processes, such as turn- variations in the gust forces. The theory includes ing or grinding, deform the material at and near the flexural and torsional deformations of the wings due machined surface to such a degree that its fatigue to either symmetrical or unsymmetrical grsts and is characteristics are appreciably altered; subsequent being extended to the more complex motlons of the surface polishing by buffing or similar operations only aircraft which are possible in flight. increases the deformation by smearing the silrface. For fatigue specimens it is essential to develop a finish- (c) Repeated load tests on aircraft structures.-The ing technique which will ensure that thc surface and effect of fluctuating loads on the endurance of an air- 81th-surface regions are dist~~rbedas little as possible. craft structure is almost impossible to ~redictin the An investigation of this problem which is still in pro- present state of knowledge, and because of the large gress has revealed a number of interesting facts. For size of aircraft structures and of the high loads in- example, it is practically impossible, by purely n~echa- volved experimental work in this important field has nical means, to produce a surface which is reasonably proved very difficult. IIowerer, by a simple modification free from distortion. With metalhirqical poliqhing, in to its hydraulic testing equipment, the Division has been which the surface is wet polished by hand, usinq a very able to subject a number of h?losquito aircraft wings fin? abrasive of closely controlled particle size, dis- each to several thousands of repetitions of loads which tortion occurs to a depth of about 5 microns (about fluctuated between 25 and 90 per cent. of the failing 200 millionths of an inch). The actual surface to a l~adof the structure. depth of one or two microns appears to be somewhat The general conclusion arrived at from this work softer, as indicated bp the micro-hardness tester, than was that the static strength of wooden wings was not the regions immediately underneath it, which them- ~ppreciablyaffected by up to 5,000 repetitions of loads selves, owing to cold workinq, are appreciably harder fluctuating between 2.5 and 90 per cent. of the ultimate than the basic material of the specimen. Thece effects load. A similar series of experiments is in hand on are being investigated further. The actual surface metal wings. It is also intcncled to investigate the roughness, as measured by the technique known as effect of a much greater number of repetitions of taper sectioning, is considerably greater than that in- smaller loads which are more damaging from the dicated by standard surface measuring instruments fatigue point of view, and a technique utilizing the which give a magnified trace of the motion of a stylus resonance characteristics of the wing has been evolved drawn over the surface and which therefore are not for this purpose. snfficientlg sensitive for this particular investigation. 3. Engineering Materials.-(i) Fatigue of Metals. (ii) Internal Damping Capacit?y.-The internal -Ever since Wiilzler first recognized the phenomenon damping of a structure is of importance when vibra- of " fatigue " and performed his original experiments, l-ions near the resonant frequency occur. Practically no data on the values of the internal damping of struc- heating furnace. These alloys were found to consist tures made of several parts connected together are of a single solid solution at room temperature; further available. No systematic work has yet been com- measurements are being made to determine the com- menced at the Division, but an interesting investiga- plete binary phase diagram. The chromium-beryllium tion of the damping capacity of cold stretched steel alloys will be produced by high frequency induction was made as the result of discrepancies noted in testing melting in a vacuum furnace, but production has not specimens in an electro-magnetic fatigue machine. In yet commencrd. order to straighten some of the specimens which could (b) Grain boundaries.--The mode of failure of not be vibrated satisfactorily they were cold stretched. materials at high temperature is rery different from The damping characteristics of the stretched and un- that at room temperatures when failures under ten- stretched specimens were noticeably different, and an sile load, for example, ultiniately occur by cohesix-e investigation of the relation between damping capacity failure of the crystals themselves. With increasing and cold working was made. Besides throwing some temperatures the grain boundaries apparcntly become further light on the mechanism of the deformation of weakened until a temperature is reached above which bars under load and on the effect of plastic deforma- a failur occurs n3t by fracture through the crystals tion on damping capacity, this investigation also con- or grains but by separation of one from another at tributed to the knowledge on strain aging as it was their boundaries. An attempt to elucidate this inl- found that the damping capacity of certain of the speci- postant aspect of the metallic state has been com- mens changed appreciably over a period of months. menced by studying specimens of lead and tin consist- (iii) Properties of Alloys.-During the war a great ing of two crystals having a common plane boundary deal of work was done on the aluminium alloys and parallel to the longitudinal axis. These crystals are steels used for aircraft production. In both these grown by slow solidification from two seed srystals types of alloys some work was done on the phenomenon which give the desired orientation to the bicrystals. of the change in properties with time, known as age Care has to he taken that oxide impurities are excluded hardening, which is vital to the engineering use of from the grain boundary. aluminium alloys and is also of interest in the case Special high temperature creep testing machines of low carbon steels, where it is called strain aging. ha~ebecn obtained for evaluating ncw alloys which, It is believed that hardening occurs by the precipita- it is hoped, will be forthcoming from these funcla- tion of a second phase from a supersaturatrd solid mental studies. solution, the precipitation being helped in some cases (v) I'otrder Afeln71t~rgy.-During the war the Divi- by the effect of plastic strain. More recently, inves- sion undertook investigations in connexion with the tigations which have commenced on high ternpcrature production of porous bronze bearings for aircraft use. materials have indicated that age hardening may be Later, a thorough study of the variables affecting tlie of great benefit in resisting creep at high temperatures. sintering- process was made, and it became clear that It is clear that more fundamental hnowledge of this the process had two important aspects: diffusion of aspect of the theory of alloying would give an insight one rnetal into another and solid phase bonding of into a phenomenon which has such widely differing either like or unlike metals. The same two phenomena results of practical importance. An attack on tlie p-ob- had been encountered in the extensive work which had lem will be commenced with an investigation of the also been done on copper brazing and pressure welding strain aging- of steels. As a preliminary, the prepara- of steel. tion of pure iron is being undertaken, and the structure While powder metallurgy is a technique of wide appli- of mild steel subjected to a uniform strain and then cation, it is of particular use with high melting point given different thermal treatments which confer differ- metals where alloying by n~cltingis practically impos- ing degrees of strain aging, is being examined with the silrlc. Hence the studies of the fundamentals of aid of an electron microscope. A study of the stored powder metallurgy hare becn continued in conncsion energy in cold-worked metals will, it is hoped, contri- wit11 thr high tcl~~peraturematerials programme. bute something to our understanding; this phase is Apparatus has been constructed for the measurement being undertaken in collaboration with the Metal cf hzrdness, density, electric resistivity, and linear Physics Group of the Tribophysics Section. The dinlcnsions, the two latter at high temperati~res,and energy is to be determined from specific heat measure- various methods of determining particle size distribu- ments of both annealed and cold-worked metals. tion have been tried. On the practical side alloys con- (iv) High Temperature Alloys.-(a) Alloy systems. taining tungsten have been successfully sintered. -The future of gas turbines is assured from some (vi) Corrosion.-A report covering the investigation aircraft and industrial applications, but the field of use into corrosion in aircraft coolant ayete~i~,has been pub- would be considerably widened if higher thermal effici- lished. The cxperiinental wcrk in this field is being encies could be obtained. One of the limiting factors continurd with the measurement of electrode potentials at present is the permissible temperature of the and ci~rrentsbctween tile varions c~n~l~oncntsof an materials used in certain parts, e.g., the turbine nozzles aircmft engine cooling .patein during controlled run- and blading., and so far progrcss has been mainly due ning on a test bed. As part of the tests, air in the to commercial firms which have modified existing high header tank was replaced by nitrogen in order to detcr- temprratnre materials, such as stainless steel. It was mine the amount of oxygen required to cause corrosion clear, however, that any substantial further progress by differential aeration. could only be achieved by a more fundamental The work 011 corrosion of condenser tubes in power approach to the general problem of heat resistance in stations has a1.0 becn continned. The electrochemical metals; this approach has been made, nsing modern characteristic3 of aluminium bronze and other alloys knowledge of the physics of metals and the theory of used in the manufacture of such tubes were evaluated alloying. It has been centred mainly on the rharacteris- and tlie principles of the corrosion of tubes in salt water tics of inter-atomic cohesion and strength of the grain were drtermined. h practical result of tlie investiga- boundaries, and has resulted in the selection of several tion was that al11n:iniunl bronze was shown to be alloy systems as beinS. worthy of further study. The superior in co~roqion resistance to Admiralty brass. binary ' systems chromium-tungsten and chronlium- TrTork on the natl~reof the protective films formed is beryllium will be inrestigated in the first instance. now proceeding. Alloys of chromium-tungsten ranging from 0 to 100 T11c discussions at the Fatigue Symposium showed pc r cmt. in 10 per cent. steps have been prepared from that (lie f~~ndam~~nt:rliof -ire- ant1 frctting crrrrosion vacuum-treated electrolytic chromium and hydrogen- and c.orrosion fatigue were little understood. A steady reduced tungsten by sintering in vaclio in an indurtion stress machine has therefore been constructed to measure the effect of stress on the electrode ~otential in order to make the best use of optical methods for of various metals and alloys; a commencement has been examining the flo51- and studying the formation of the nlacle with the exanlination of films on aluniiniuin w:re. shock wave, the t~ibemust be of rectangular cross sec- Later similar measurements of specimens under fatigue tion. Moreover, the piston will travel at speeds stresses may be made. approximating to the velocity of sound. 4. Aerodynamics.-The Commonwealth Conference (ii) The Use of Suction to Increase Eficiency at drew attention to the need for aerodynamic research in -Vodcrufe Xpe~ds.-The great majority of aircraft, and certain fields, particularly in the realm of very liigh particularly large aircraft, will continue to operate at bpeed flight. The Division is working on some aspects njcdiurn speeds, and in the field of civil aviation it is of the relevant problems. important that aircraft operating at speeds of 400 (i) IIigh Speed Subsonic and Transonic Flow.-In m.p.1:. and undcr should do so as eficiently as possible. the past ten years, speeds obtained in flight have in- Thr>reare two aerodynamic requircments for efficiency. creased from about 400 to just over 600 n1.p.h. This Firstly, the drag or resistance of the aeroplane to its increase 118s bccn achirvcd by some refinenlent in aero- passage thro~igllthe air must be reduced. This allows dynamic design but rnoatly by replacing the conven- a 21 iyhci. s:~cctl 11 it11 a giren poner and a greater range tional engine and airscrew by jet propulsion. In the with a given fuel load. Secondly, the maximum useful next ten years much more powerful jet engines will be volnnre for a given resistance increases the economy built, but the achievement of another 200 m.p.h. in- of cnrrxing ~~zs~~~:~gcr~and bulky freight. crease in speed in that time will depend less on the Aeroplanes have become progressively cleaner, until po~verof the engines available than on the solution streartilining has rc~acliedsuch perfection that the drag of the aerodynamic problerris invol~~ed.The speed of of tho incdrrn airliner is largely due to surface friction. sound is about 750 m.p.h., and as this speed is A further reduction in drag can only ocmr in one of approached and passed the whole nature of the airflow two ways: by redncing the surface area, e.g., by elimi- clianges. It is probable that, when the speed of sound na~irrgthe fuselagr 3rd tnrning to an all-wing design, is greatly exceeded and full supersonic flow is estab- or by reducing the intensity of friction per unit of arca. lished, the problems of aerodynamic design will not be Recently, Dr. A. A. Griffith in En,~la~idhas sngges~ed very diffcclt, but in the transition region between sub a no st origil~alway of u~ingsuction to achieve both and supersonic flow, very little knowledge is available, ob+jecti\es. The smnllest values of skin friction are though there are indications that a very large increase ohtrincd when the flow near the surface is laminar, and in reqistance, coupled with violent changes of control the (irifith IT ing achieves laminar flow over the w2iole and stability, occur. qilrfsce by introc!iicing a discontinuity at which a A group has been formed to investigate some of the s~ic.tionslot draws oiF the boundary layer. The result- general problems of high speed subsonic and transonic ing shape iq very tiifYermt from a normal aeroplane flour. Any knowledge gained will be useful not only in !\ ing profile. Thc itlra malies possible very thick nings the design of high speed aircraft but in the design of 5i71~ich~vill have drays not appreciably greater thau the jet engines to propel them. Unless these are of the thin \I in~sno\\ cn\tc~mary. This makes tlie flying wing rocket type, air must be taken in and its supersonic type of aero1:i:lne practicable for pxssengcr-carrying in velocity conrerted to pressure at a lower speed. To do romparati~.clvsrn:dl sizes; heretofore it has been esti- this efficiently is a major problem. insted that to give the necessary h~ailroomtlle smallest So far, the main preoccupation of the group has been all-n ing aircraft v,ould weigh about 100 tons. thc compl~tionof the variable pressure tunnel-the .\t tlie Xational I'llysical Laboratory in England major item of research equipment. The tunnel itself. PX-tcnqiretliecretical :ind \I ind til-nnel studies have bcm n-ith its electrical drive, compressing, exhausting, and nlnd,.. hut th~iflea has not yzt been appli~tlto a prac- rooling systems, is complete. A very low valae of the t design. ,it t!r c ~~ecy.~estof tlr 0 (:o~n~l~onwealtb turbulence in the working section is required and has ('cnierenc~~the l)i~.isionhas llndertalicn to nlalie flight bcen achieved by an arrangement of fine wire gauze rlxi'erin~ents. To start v;ith, the qiinplcst poqsible aero- scareens, placed in the largest section of the tunnel just ~il:~?,. !us b~~ncnvicaged. This consists of' a toned ahesd rlf the contracting nozzle. Extensive oxperi- glic',t>l.so that the eolnplications of an engine and pro- merits were made to find the optimum arrangement. p~llerare avoided. T11c glider will be fitted with a Ccrtsin items of subsidiary gear are incomplete and :W per cent. thicak surtion winq, the l,ol~ndarylayer until tliey are available rezearch in the tilniiel itself 1 cling rerr~nvedby a motor-driven blower carried in the cannot go forward. One item is the air drier, since fliqe!~~~..I qreat many prohl~vi~?lave I~centhrown up rnoisture condensing in the working section after the c-rcn t~ythis cnml~aratively simj~le experiment, e.g., sudden decrease in pressure would introdlice instability owing t3 tveiyht and space limitations, tile blower could into the shock wave pattern. Means are also required not be duplicated and tho safety aspect in case of for rendering the flow visible, since the normal methods fa;hlrc> of tht. sucticn had to lor covered. l'hus, the first of exploration, snch as the introduction of pressure- cv.perin~cntsmadc in the ~ilindtunnel were to determine nleasurinr tubes, would themselves create shock waves. the characteristici of tlie wing without suctioii. Preli~iinaryexperirt~ents on a new type of interfero- -1notl:cr ~unexpectecl dificulty was that niodificatio~iof meter sliom promise, and it is planned that when the the theoretical shape of the wing in the neighbourhood pilot model has hcen proved large-scale apparatus will of the slot had to be determined before tlie power be constructed. ahsorbed in suction coultl be reduced to an acceptable While lnost of the effort has been expended in the, figure; this is being done by nind tunnel work on full- preparation of thr equipment, research has not been sized wing sections. Willing co-operation in this re- 11eqlccted. An officer ma.: sent ailroad to study the searcli has been obtained from the Hoyal illlstralian matliematical methods applicable to compressibl~flow; Sir Fol-re, ~vbichsi~pplie~l the glider and will l-~ncler- his knowledge has been imparted by a series of lectures lake the Biqht esperim~nfs,and the Aircraft Prnduc- and qerr1inar.s. The n2ture and mode of formation of tion Ilivision of th~Drpartmrnt of Munitions which is shock waves is a fundamental ol~jective,and an attrac- ronstrucating the special wing. tive. though not really ~imple,niethocl of study is the (iii ) l'urbnlence. - The immediate programme creation of qhock naves in a uniforli~ tube by the planned is rescarch into the nature of turbu!enc~behind accelerated motion of a piqton. A math~rnatical wire screens, as the use of such screens in wind tunnels analysis has bcen made of the formation of a shock for redincing turbulence is almost universal. Prelimi- wave when the piston acbcelerates uniformly, and a nary work is in hand. A review of the available infor- shock tube is being built to verify the theoreltical m~ tion has bt en made and has revealed inconsistencies results. Difficult mechanical problems are involved as, which will be investiqated. The longitudinal %nd lateral components of turbulence are being determined The other application was for frost control. Large in the u-ake of a cylindrical rod; methods of analysing low-speed fans haw been built which are mounted on the data which will be obtained in n~easurements of towers, the fan rotating in a horizontal plane. During scale, spectrum, and probability distribution of the still frosty conditions a temperature inversion occurs components of turbulence are being devised. and an immense reservoir of warm air lies above the Tl~e2-ft diameter turbulence tunnel in which the cold air which covers the ground. The frost fan draws main investigations are made has been unsatisfactory down this warm air which spreads outwards around because of velocity fluctuations. Owing to space limi- the fan along the ground, displacing the cold air and tations, the tunnel was made with a right-angled bend protecting trees and fruit from damage. I'reliminary and was placed unsymmetrically in the containing tests ,give promise that 3 acres can be protected with room. Recently, more space has become available, and each 10 h.p. fan installed, but more extensive field tests it is now possible to eliminate the bend and place the which. -. are. now under way will be needed to prove this tunnel symmetrically. At the same time the centri- ~nd~catlon. fugal fan is heing replaced. by a six-stage axial f,om fan, 5. Aircraft P~opu1sion.-The main effort in this field which is better fitted to cope with the varying resist- is now devoted to turbine engines for either jet propul- ance of the tunnel caused by the introduction of gauze sion or driving propellers. Unfortunately, little of the screens. existing reciprocating engine equipment is suitable in its present form for turbine investigations and, con- At the University of Sydney an ertperimental investi- sequently, a great deal of time has been spent in design- gztion of turbulent boundary layers and the factors ing and modifying apparatus. leading to separation is in progress. In particular, the (i) Cornbz~stzor~.-Aircraft gas turbine combustion effects of external periotlir disturbances and turbulence chambers operate with higher rates of heat release per on separation are being stcdied. unit volume than any other combustion device; at the (iv) Development of Radio-controlled Flying same time high thermal effieie~~cyand low pressure Models.-High-speed flight experiments in the present drop must be maintained over a wide range of operat- 3tate of knowledge are too dangerous to undertake with ing conditions. Reasonably satisfactory chambers have ilotcd aircraft. bloreover, a wind tunnel, nnles~of been designed using ad hoc methods, but little is linolvn ,,rodigious size and power, is not a reliable guide to about the fundamentals of their operation. lZesearch ,ne hehaviour of a eompl&e machine. Thnq a need is being undertaken to throw light on the basic prin- for free fliqht models, which can be controlled by radio, ciples of operation of high intensity combustors; it nerges. There are, however, other uses for such is cl-ar that further improvements in design can only diodc!s; for exa~np!~,thr Division of Radiophysics has result from a clear understanding of these principles. a netd for small radio-controlled aircraft carrying Combustion research in the present state of know- metrorological instruments which cam be flo~r-11under ledge cannot be carried out with small models, and to dangerous weather conditions, ~.g.,in the interior of do ncrk on an adequate scale a large supply of air is cum1111is clo~id~,in rain-mal;ii~q~n~cstigation. Further, needed at pressures equal to those used in turbines. the Division has envisag~dthc use of flying models for Tenders have been called for a 2,000 horse-power air researches in stability and aero-elasticity, and a start compressor, llsvirla a conlpression ratio of 10 : 1. This has been rrtacle to develop this useful technique. A plant will have a useful, but by no means excessive, smal! all-M-ingglider which by wind tunnel and flight capacity for combustion investigations; it will also be tests overcame the initial difficulties associated with the possible to use it for operating a supersonic tunnel. stability of the unorthodox design was first developed TJnfortunately, under present conditions it will be by the Sydney University Research Group. The aero- more than two years before such a plant will be dynamic form was then renroduced in the Division as delivered. Meanwhile conlbustion research at atmo- :j larger niodcl, po~vcrcdwit11 a small petrol engine and spheric pressure is to be done, utilizing available low launcl~edby a rocket-driven catapult. This model of pressure fans. As a preliminary, a report has been 5-ft. spxn having proved successful, the constrnction prepared summarizing the present state of knowledge of a 12-ft span poxver-driven model is now well in regard to factors aft'ecting combustion. Resulting advanced. This will be 13rge enough to carry radio from this survey, the first research will be to determine t*ontrol gear devrlopetl by the Division of Radiophysics. the effects of turbulence. A combustion chamber employing the same principles as are used in current (v) industrial Aerodynamics.--In the past, very turbine practice has been designed so that the air censiclera1)le a~si~tancehas been given to industry, admitted to the various zones can be separately con- tnainly in the direction of testing by means of wind trolled. The turbulence-produciag devices will be tnnnel models the characteristics of new types of air- altered and the effects on the chemical process, flame craft. 3 small volllme of this work is still undertaken, characteristics, pressure loss and temperature distri- two or three alternative designs of a small training bution studied. neroplane having beon submitted by the Aircraft Pro- At least two new techniques must be developed. .curtion Division. Fi~astly, turbulence-measuring apparatus which will Another direction in which industry is continuously operate at much higher speeds and measure much fequiring assistance is in the design of axial flow fans greater velocity fluctuations than the apparatus nor- ,ad hln~~ers.The theory of the design aid analysis of mally used in aerodynamic research is required; such fans was developed in connexion with wind secondly, the meawrement of gas and flame tempera- tunnels, but since then the knowledge has been used for tures up to 2,000' C. introduces a number of new many industrial applications. Two of particular in- problems. terest were developed during the year. The first was (ii) Thermodynamic Cycles and Twhine Per- undertaken at the request of a fruit-growers' associa- f,ormance. - Improvements in ga? turbines will tion which required an improved orchard sprayer. A undonbtedly entail complication in the form of prototype was constructed in which the spraying fluid compound turbines with heat exchangers, intercoolers, is injected into a high-speed air blast which carries the and other devices for improving efficiency. On the droplets to a height of 20 feet and distriltutes them ec!rice of thr Common~zr>alth Council, theoretical in a cloud over a considerable area. The coverage analysis of the efficiency, control, and stability of obtained with this form of airborne spray is very good ; various thermodynarr~ic cycles has been concentrated gr(%t intrr~sthas been sho~vnby growers' associations in England, and an officer of the Division has been In Australia and the prototype has been lent to the New seconded to the National Gas Turbine Establishment Zealand Government. - for this work. The 2,000 h.p. engine test plant is being redesigned It was demonstrated that the factors which adversely to aocornmodate jet and turbine-propeller engines. In affected lubrication were : low engine speed, especially order to study certain design features of the new dvring .larting; high cylinder pressures (full throttle), plant, a temporary jet engine test stand was con- high cylinder temperature, excessive spark advance, structed and has been in operation during the year. and low- oil circulation. It was found that in general Rolls-Eoyce, Welland and Derwent engines have been the rubbing surfaces were separated by a complete oil run, and some tests have been carried out for the film only near the centre of the stroke and the presence ICoval Australian Air Force. of detonation caused ~rolongcdbreakdown of the oil fi!m. These tests have bee; reported and a second (iii) Compressor and Turbine Blading.-(a) Aero- sc,ries conimenced in which the influence of various dynamic design.-Axial flow fan tlieory developed in iubrirating oils and diff'ering shapes of piston ring the Division postulates that the blades are sufficiently cross-section will be determined. Tests have been far apart to be considered as independent elements. carnpletcd using oils of various origins and different In compressors, in order to achieve a large pressure viscosities and are being continued to find the effect rise per stage, closely-spaced blades of high camber of additives such as detergents, anti-oxidants, and are needed. The axial flow fan theory breaks down so-called oilincss additives because of mutual interference between adjacent blades, " ". and the characteristics of blades " in cascade " must (ii) Rofary Valve Engine, - Development of the be determined in a special form of tunnel. Theory rotary valve engine has continued. The 500 cc. single is avai1,~bleto design aerofoils in cascade to give any rylinclcr e~~ginehas been modified for high speed desired pressure distribution, ancl a low speed cascade operation; with a large port area and a wide valve tunnel is being constructed to determine experimentally overlap, 20 h.p. has been obtained at 4,000 r.p.m. and the distribution for minimum losses and the effect of speeds up to 5,500 r.p.m. reached. It is expected that Iieynolcs nuinbcr on these losses. Later, it is hoped p~rformancewill be further improved when a larger to extend the work to the high Mach numbers met carburettor is fitted. in practice. The knowledge gained has been used to design a In ca3cades used in turbines, the flow is accelerating, twin cylinder rotary valve engine intended as an and the problem of efficient aerodynamic design is auxiliary power plant for aircraft and a prototype not nea*ly as difficult as for compressors. Little aork is being constructed by the Aircraft Prodilction is therefore contemplated in this field at the moment. Dirision for the Itoyal Australian Air Force. A com- A re vie.^ of the elementary theory of centrifugal com- niercial firm has also utilized the rotary valve in a pressors, axial flow compressors, and turbines has been single cylinder stationary Diesel engine for industrial writt~n. LlFe. (iii) Engines for Fl?ylling Models.-For propulsion (b) Const~uction.-The aerodynamic requirements of the larger radio-controlled flying model aircraft, for high efficiency lead to shapes which are difficult to prodJee. a summarg of blade to rcferellce has alr'nd~ lieen two pl actice has be~nwritten; it describes the special of power plant have been under consideration. A miniature pulse-jet engine, fundamentally similar to forms of machine tools which have been evolved. liic engine of tllc Ccrman flying bomb, has been tested Even with appropriate machines, production is slow and its performallce analysed; it is likely that the ar,d the wastage of costly materinl high. Casting or high fuel consurnption and mechanical unreliability plcssing the blades accurately to form is therefore of of this type will militate against tlleir attractive, and the "lost wax'' Process which for success. As an alternative, a snlall two-cylinder two- centuries has been used for casting statues has been srrolre recjproeating engille has been d,,rigned and is applied to this problem. The application of the under construction; it 1s expected to develop at least technique to materials which melt at very high tern- :$ hep. and its weight will be about 7 ]b. peratures needs moulds of an extrenlely refractory (iv) Automotive Investigations. - The design of ~ature. Exljerimental nioulding equipment has been cooling systems of automobiles and trucks appears to made and work '3 pro~eedi11g on base he capable of improvement. ~e~t~have been investments which, it is hoped, will rvithstand the made to improve particular installations show that ttwperatmes needed for the clrromium-beryllium alloys cooling fall., v,lder such ullfaT,orable condi- nhich are being developed. tions that an appreciable proportion of the engine (c) Vibration characteristics.-Fatigue of turbine power is absorbed in driving the fan. In the light blading res~xltingfrom resonant vibration is a common cf aerodynamic knonledgc, fan and duct systems of cause o: failure. Calculntion of the natural frequencies high efficiency are easy to suggest; the difficulty lies of blades must take ilzto account the complicated shape in introducing the modifications into production and the effects of centrifugal force. No general designs. solution of the mathematical problem of calculating The heat dissipation, cooling air flow, and hydraulic the resonant frequencies has yet been found, and it resistance of a series of auton~obiletype radiators have iy customary to rely on practical tests. At the sugges- been measured, the radiators differing in core material tion of the Commonwealth Council, a mathematical and dimensions. An analysis of the heat transfer analpqis is being made to find whether a simplified coefficients is proceeding, and it is hoped to correlate and workable method of computing natural frequellcies this work wit11 that carried out previously at the van be devised. Sydney University Engineering Laboratories. 6. Mechanical Engineering. - (i) Piston Ring Two versions of a tractor were tested according to Lvbrication.-The conditions of lubricatioll bet~~reenthe Nebraska code. Following the tests, further work p:ston rings and the cylillder wall, wliich determine hhich marlrctlly improretl cooling under high tern- the rate of Tear of the parts, have been examined by Ebwature conditions \\as done and lubrication under llleasuring the electrical conductivity of the oil film, certain adverse working conditions was inr~estigated. a technique developrd by the Tribophysics Section. I~oC" manufacturers value the opportunity to have ?'he tests were made with a full-sized aero engine their tractors tested according to a standard which (.ylinder under normal running conditions and the IJ~Snow become an illterrlatiunal yardstick. first series of tests covered the effects of engine speed, (v) PTant for Suction Wing Research.-In the power, cylil~der temperature, spark advance, and ultimate development, suction for boulldary layer detonation. control will be provided either by the turbines used for propulsion of thr aircraft or by blo~vcrs driven cn which are mo~~ntedmicros\ritche.s, and these are set by the turbines. For the towed glider experiment to operate at various strain ltrel~. The switches are aiready described, special plant had to be developed connected in a thyratron circ;:it which operates a to meet the stringent limitations of size and weight Postruast~r-Gcnerd counter. Thus the number of coupled mith a very high pressure difference. tinies the strain exceeds the various .train levels is -1 iingle-stage tecentrif agal blo~rc~'1; tinally chosen, csountrd, but the circuit is so intn.c~onnerted that, after and de~igned to be driven by an aritonrohilc engine a strain lerel has counted, it cannot c'o1111t :]gain nntil n~odified for flight operation. The high-ficiency {lie rtr:~irll)ns,cAs tl~i~oligl~ the zero lt.vc1. blower is of simila~*type to those uyc~d for super- Xe1us:ition ~ilethods are a powerful niathematical charging aero engines, but complicated niacl~iningwas tc.01 ~rliic.11~vould be more ~ridelyuced if thr, azsociatcd avoided by fabricating the components in IT olded steel cc~m))ntationa as not so laborious. ,\ machine for ant1 ahiminiam alloy. This plant is unrlergoing tests solri11g the basic eqilations lla; been deviqed ant1 a prior to installation in the glider. prototype, of which there mould be a niimher of (vi) Bllsi Ir~nc~stiguiions.-During the war excessive rlrriilar nnits in the complete machine, is being cl~girle\rc3ar due to di~stin the air entering aircraft c:rn\trlicatc~d for test. e~lginecylinders mas ronlillon; in extrcn~ecases the JITorlc for onrsirle Lotlies has also been dune. Thus. cylindrrs and piston rings were worn out in a fe~v a1 telbnat in: currcnt n ould have certain advantages over iiours' operation. The dcrelopment and improvement dilaest (~rr.(~ntfor the electric snpply sys.tem of aircraft, of bl)esifie types of air cleaners was undertaken, special but tlic tliffic~iltyexists of obtaining conrtnnt frequency trcllniqnes bcling crolved, but this work was tapered fl-orn tht. engine-driven alternators \rliose speed of off during the year and the effort transferred to the rotation is variable. So that the alternators can be more gener~lstudy of the factors affecting the design rim in parallel, a proposed method of obtaining of air cleaners. An in\estigation is now in progre~s c,)nqtant freqrlt,nc.y was snhmitted by the Iioyal Aus- ts detern~inethe effect of the geometry of the filtering tralian Air Force, but a theoretical investigation material on the preisure drop, which is one of the 3qho~redsrrions defects. 1Iome1-er, modifications of the irr~portantcharacteristics determining the acceptability scheme to giv.cl a practical solution hare been devised of :I cleaning qcystenl. and a laboratory rr~odel of a variable-speed constant- 7'hr filteri11,rr efficiency and pressure drop of a given f:.eq~~encygenerator is being constructed for test. clesign of cleanrr ral-y with the an~ountof du~ttrapped, ,\ rr~ctnldctcvtor was designed to detect steel wedgcs :ind it is therefore important to bc able to eetimatc the nl~icl~arc oct.a4onall,y left in logs and which ~ould amount of dust tl~reilqine is likcly to aspirate under cipuse grave darnage to paper pulping machinery. The operation~lconditions. Apparatns has heen installed at rodpnamic measuring instruments for the new wind ill a Itoyal ,li~~traliaii&\ir Force Ijeaufighter and dust ti~ancl ahich is being put into c.ornmisaion at the concentration dctrrrriinc.11 in flight. Measuremerits were Slelbourne Technical College were made, and for other ctadc in clr:~ran(! 11:ixg ~i-eatl~c~arid also in a moderate 1)ivisions of the Council special instruments, e.g., di~~tstorr~~. Rcqi~lt.: -11on. that the highest concentra- tn111~erat11recontrollcrq, a supersonic Tibrator, an tion, even in clear weather, exists at about 1,000 feet interval timer, arid several bolon~cters, were designed and that particle size decreases with increasing height. and built. It was a150 zliown tlint severe du.t concentrations ran h. f'uhlicnfions.-The following papers were pub- persist up to considerable heights during a dust storm. Ii.11ccl tinring t11r year :-- 7. Bl~cfronicsnnd Insfr~rm~n!s.-The research and Ii:ltrhelor, G. R. (1946).-Theory of axisym- c*xperimental inrestigntions which have been described metric turbulence. l'roc. Roy. Soc., A. 186: mol~ldhave heen haniprred, and in some cases quite 480. i~nl~ofiiblle,witliout the appropriate in~trumentalaids. -- (1946).-Rcrent deductions concerning the \\Tliile standard and comnlrrcially available apparatus cloiihlc velocity correlation function in tur- is often suitable, in a g~~ealniany instances special 1)ulent motion. Proc. Sixth Int. ('ongr. Appl. apparatus, togetlicr with the corresponding terhnique Jlechanics. (Also Nature 158 : 883-4, 1946.) of ~l~easurcnl~nt,must be developed. l3lectronics is l~ntclielor,G. K., and Townsend, A. A. (1946).- l)~.ohablythe n1o.t vematile rehicle, but other hrallches Vort'clty changes in i~otropic turbulence. of pliysics ha1 e played their part in enabling thc Pror. Sixth Int. Congr. Appl. Alechanics. requisite scivntific n~easurcn~rntsto be made. The C'o~\ley,J. N., and Paterson, If. S. (1947).- inst~*ilmentalaid.: ha^-r heen .-o rnany and so diverse X-ray diffraciion studips of gic!ding in mild in character that onlp a few of the more intclresting steel. iYitfzire 159 : 846. ran he recorded. C~xlnnling,Betty L. (1046).-Review of turhnlence Elrrtric rciistance wire strain gailges continue to theories. ,lust. Conn. hero. Rept. A(:,\-27. bc a most c~otivenientmethod of measuring and rrcord- Dailcy, G. J., and Dale, F. A. (1946).-Tempera- ing forces. They are nqed very frequently ir~static ture measurcnlelits on a T3c:tufort during load measurcments in tlw lahorator~and a ncw form summcr at Alice Springs and at Melbourne. of bridge wa- devi~cd. The indicating mec.hanis111 Ailst. Coml. Aero. Rept. .1C.1-26. is such that the bridge need be only roughly balanced, Edwartls, 3. Ii. (l946).-Fatigue problems in ai a n~o~ingzero malies the correct allowance for tht. the gas turbine aero engine. Paper 26 con- residual unbalance. The ease arid speed of taking tributed to the Symposium on the Fatigue readings iq thus greatly increased. Electric strain of Metalq. Unir. Mr~lbonrne. gauges form the measuring devices in a three-com- FT-eibrrger, TV., Shnn., F. S., Silberstein, J. I-'. O., ponent balance ~lmall enough to be housed inside a and Smith, R. C. T. (1947).--Plyrvood ivind tunnel model and have also been used for panels in end compression. Fiat panels with measuring the static and dynamic loads in a com- grain at various allgles to direction of loading. p~ewion-tensionfatigue n~achine. ,Is part of the flight .\uqt. Coun. Aero. Rept. ACA-30. load in~e~~tigation,.:train gauges arc8 attached bo IT,botou, F. Mr. (1946).-T~F ~neagurement of important parts of the aircraft structure. To record c1yn:ctnic strain. Paper 10 contributed to thc the rapid variations in load during flight a fiftcen- Sy~~~posiiimon the Fatigue of Metals, Unir. cdli:~nnel oscil!c)g~.aphhas been procured from America. ,1I c~lboiwnc~. h strain counter has been developed and tested in Johnstone, J'?. W. (194S).-A review of current ronnexion with work being carried out on tllr life of r~icthoil.;fcr strcngtl~testing of aircraft wing^. aircraft structnrr;i. I\ mechanical extmsometer is ~lsetl .\net. ('oiin. Aero. licpt. ,TC,l-2?. -- (1946). - Methods of investigating the This will be extended to other States ill due course. fatigue properties of materials. Paper 11 An officer has been appointed to lead the more funda- coiztributed to the Symposium on the Fatigue mental investigations to be undertaken at Fisherman's of Metals, Univ. Xelbourne. Bend. An agreement has also been reached to co- Mann, Elizabeth H. (19 16).-Theory of the op~~.ate~vith tl~c Soilth Australian State Mines Depart- Bvurdon tube. J. C'ortn. Sci. Ind. Res. (Aust.) mcnt and the School of Mines in setting up a ceramic 20: 126-35. laboratory in Adelaide, in which work of an essentially Osborn, C. J. (1946).-The fatigue of welded pracatical nature will be done. steel tnhing in aircraft stnlctures. Paper 18 Acco~nmodationhas been a. pressing problem. The contributed to the Sylnposium on the Fatigue Biocherni~tr~Section, having to vacate laboratories of Metals, Univ. Melbourne. kindly made available during the war by the Division Pat~rson,X. S. (1946).-Notch sensitivity of of -1niinaI Health and Production, has been trans- metals. Paper 19 contributed to the Sym- ferred to a temporary laboratory in the city. A new posium on the Fatigue of Metals, Univ. bnilding has been designed, and its construction is Melbourne. expected to commence early in the next financial year. Scholes, J. E. M. (1947).-Ducted fans-A It will accorrimot3ate the Biothclniitry and the nomogram method of analysis. Inst. Coun. Organic Chemictry Sections, arid provide some space hvro. Rept. L\U2i-32. to relicve over-cronrding in all Sections. In addition, Sham, E. S. (1946).-Determillation of stress sevcral ,Irrr:y "huts " have bccn acquired to afford concentration factors. Paper 12 contributed temporary relief from the congestion. to the Syrnposianl on the Fatigue of Netals, Every eBort has been made to bring the results of Cniv. Nelbourne. the researrh nork of the Division before the notice Silberstcin, J. P. 0. (1947) .-Plprood panels of those \~lroare in a position to utilize them. Pro- jn end compression. Curved p:lnrll~ with grain cesspb developed in the Division have been demon- at various angles to generators. i\ixst. (loun. rtrated to representatives of the i~zdustriesconcerned, Aero. Rept. &\CL\-31. ;ind addresses have been given in many parts of Aus- Smith, R. C. T. (1916).--The buckling of ply- tralia bcfore appropriate trade associations. wood plates in shear. Aust. Cuun. Aero. 2. Xi~~ert~ls1,'til iiuf ion Bar+!ion.--An extension of Rept. ACA-29. the inr.estigations outlined in the previous annual Smith, It. C. T. (1947).-The approximate solu- report Iiaq, for the most part, characterized the Sec- tion of equations in infinitely many un- tion's aptirities, and the importance of some Australian knowns. Quart. 18(69) : 25. J. LIIath. mineral resources of certain of the lebser-known ele- Thompson, (1946).-Corrosion of metals: P. F. ments ha~cagnin bern stressed. The diversity of 31etals in aircraft engine cooling systems. indnqtrial internlediatec: often obtainable from any one ilust, Coun. Aero. Pept. ACA-24. mineral by appropriate clieniical treatn~r~ntis some- -(1947).-Dissoluiioll of gold in cyanide times insufficiently appreciated. This factl, aniong solutions. Electrocliemica1 Society Preprint others, has dirtated a continuity of the research pro- 91-26, presented at 91st General Neeting, Louisville, l:.S.il., 9th April, 1!147. gramme aimed at secnring a lnaximum of fnndamcntal anti applied data for such tninerals as are either well Wain. (1946).-Po~~tler metallnrgy: 1%.L. In- rcf~r~wntedin i\libtralia or whi(2li merit local atten- flnence of sonlc processing variables on the tion for so111e other reason. The follol~ingheadings properties of iintcred bron~e. .Inst. Conn. intlicate the. progress made in the several fields. Aero. Rept. LIP,!-25. Tlefercrlcc sliould be made to the previous report for n more detailed statemcnt of the scope of each project ns a whole. XV. INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY. (i) C'71~omife.-The process devised for the produc- tion of cbro~iiicsiil~ydride by acid digcstioil of chro- 1. General.-The Division's small Dairy Produck mite ore has hce11 developed, in conjunction with the Src$tion has been amalgamated with the existing Chemical Kngine~ringSection, as a cyclic operation. Dairy Research Section of the Council, and, following lqor this rraqctn the satisfa~toryrerrloval of the un- the resignation of Dr. TV. J. Wiley, its leader hals nlanted snlphatcs of iron, rnagriesi~:ni, and aluminium been appointed Officer-in-Charge of the comhined Sec- to avoid their excessive concentration in the circuit tion. This is an independent Section but is tem- licruors is as es:ential 3s the mere obvious rcn1:irement pora~ilyaccommodated within the Division's buildings. of' removing the desired chromic anllydride. ' Labora- With this change, and tllr ~vindii~gup of the Section tory stiitlics on the relative solubilities of these by- of Pllysical 3fetallurpy (luring the pre~yiousyear, the ~~~od~uctsuI~)Iiaies together with rhrorniu~il s~llpllatc Division has practicallS concluded war-time activities in re-concentrated circuit liqnors have therefore been lying ontride its trne scope. i7ntIertak~n. Equilibria in such viscous soli~tionsare Several Sections of the Dirision a1.e attempting only slowly estahlishcd, and this and otheiv factors to revise their programmes so that they will he of hare required a cautious intprpretation of the data greater value to the conlmnnity. It seemed a fitting when comparing laboratory ant1 pilot plant conditions. time, therefore, to send a number of officers abroad 'The prohlcm of removal of small arnonnts of salphixric with a view to obtaining additional training and to acid contarliinant from the recrgstallizcd chromic an- becoming more familiar wit11 the recflxrch n ork being hydride by trcatrr~entwith qolehle barium compounds co~lrlucted in Great Britain, Europe, and Amrrica. llas alto been in~estigated. Twelre officers have been overseas during the year, (ii) Jfonazif~.-In tlhe current work on monazite, of ~vbomfour hold Senior Stiiclentships granted by greater cwphasis has been laid on the thorium content the Council. th:in 011 thc assoriatcd rare earths. Co~nhii~edpilot Progress has been made with the inaugration of plant and laboratory studies have enabled a quantita- ceramic resenrch. In colla1)oration with the Geology tive flotv sllect to be drawn up, indicating the relative Department of the University of I\'lelbourne and with p:utitinn of the Inany constitllcwlq of the monazite at the Department of Mines in South Anstralia. a survcg clac%hstage of the processing. Thc distrilr,~xtionof the of raw materials of value to the cer~niicindustry has irr~all iiranilxm fraction has been inclndcld. Methods been commenced, and is being vigoroilsly prosecuteil. wc.rc evolrrd for the joint and indi~ridn~alhydrolytic separation of cerium and thorium from the other com- suitably purified and if ground fine enough, gives ponents. The removal of small amounts of phosphoric results at least equal to other natural and artificial acid from the derived thorium products has proved graphites which have been examined. Investigations unexpectedly difficult and has received thorough study. 011 tlie grinding and beneficiation of graphite hare also Anhydrous chlorination of monazite has also been continued, and products of quality suitab;e for lubri- investigated as an auxiliary process to the more usual cants hare been prepared. Studies on the chemistry acid digestion. By this means the phosphoric acid ancl physical properties of manganese dioxide relevant may be completely eliminated as volatile phosphorous to the dry cell problem are still in progress. oxychloride, while the rare earths and thorium reniain (vii) Fluorides.-8 thorough study of the factors as anliydrous chlorides. Preliniinary work has shown involved in the preparation of aluminium fluoride by ti differential rate of chlorination for thorium. This ditrerent methods was made. This involved the deter- may be of advantage in effecting at least partial sepa- mination of fundamental data concerning the constitu- ration of this component. tion of related compounds of aluminium and fluorine. New methods for preparing simple and complex Projects in which an accumulated experience of thorium fluorides were evolved and the properties of fluoride chemistry has been availed of during the these compounds were investigated. cwrrcnt year incll~tle those dealing with aluniinium, (iii) Iiiiti7e.-Pilot plant production of butyl uranium, thorium, zirconium, hafnium, and graphite. titanate from titanium tetrachloride, derived from Amn~oniurn biiluoride, prepared directly from fluor- rutile, has continued with improvements and rnodi- -par, aI~pearslikely to be a very lersatile reagent in fications made in conjunction with the Chemical effecting the decomposition of many refractory Engineering Section. Considerable amounts of minerals. various titanium esters can now be produced. lnoes- 3. Cement and Ceramics Section.-(i) Cement tigations concerning the use of butyl titanate in paint Investigations.-The problem of the deterioration of formulations have been continued in collaboration with concrete through interaction of its cement and aggre- the Ifunitions Supply Laboratories, Maribyrnong. gate components has been the subject of further inves- Tests of aluminium-butpl titanate heat-resistant paints tigational work. The trend of this work suggests that hale betill lilade under various exacting coiiditions at when reactive aggregates are present, permanent im- several industrial plants and the results, to date, have munity from expansion due to cement-aggregate beer1 encouraging. Butyl titanate also appears to o3er reaction cannot be obtained even by the use of cements certain advantages when incorporated in normal paint low in the alkali metals, sodium and potassium. Experi- fornlalae. mental work has shown that alkali metals migrate for Studies on the formation of titanium nitride and si4nificant distances through hardened mortar, that the bonding of this extremely hard substance into vold-space is important with respect to expansion, and shapes snitable for lathe tools, etc.. have been continued thai tensile strength decreases aq the reaction proceeds. with encouraging results. These and other studies have shed much light on the fiv) Zircon.-For most of the gear, work on the fundamental mechanism of the reactions. Much infor- separation of zirconium and hafnium compounds from m3tion on the mineralogy of rcactire aggregates has the ~tlineral zircon was in abeyance but a consider- also been obtained, as the result of which it has been able quantity of crude anhydrous zirconium tetra- poqsible to advise certain public bodies on the choice of chloride was prepared for use in subsequellt work. Cer- agyregatcs for projects of some magnitude. tain anomalies encountered in the preliminary work These studies on cement-agqregate reaction have led hare necessitated a recasting of this programme. to a broader study of the role of the alkali metals in (v) tiraniurn Ores.-The cyclic process designed for portland cement. Initially an attempt is being made to the leavhing of the low-gradc phosphatic torhernite determine the mode of occurrence of sodium in cement ores of the Mt. Painter field in South Anstralia, was c'inkcrs by means of phase-equilibria studies and pctro- not taken to pilot plant stage or installed under field loqical work on clinker containing controlled amounts conclitions. Before doing so it was considered desirable of sodium. By these methods information is accumu- to reinvestigate the problem with a view to achieving latinq concerning the constitution of cement clinker LI maximum recovery of the available uranium rather and the effect of alkali metals on the setting time of than tlie optimum preriot~sly obtained under the cPment. limitations imposed by the field conditions. This new Analytical methods, particularly those concerned ap~roachhas nzade it necessary to view the problem with the determination of the alkali metals, have from an entirely different angle. Preliminary work nec~ssarilyreceived attention. The use of flame-photo- has been done on solvent extraction of various leach metric methods is beinq developed. liquors. In this investigation it has been neccssary The cement investigations have been assisted by the to avoid inflexible processing specifications pending co-opcratioa and financial support of the Cement and developmental work at the mines which may reveal Concrete Association of Australia. variable grades, or types, of ore. (ii) Ecfrfrarfories Investigations.-Work on refrac- Preliminary work was also undertaken on a new tories has been confined to two types of materials: methotl of treatment of the complcx titaniferou~ (a) basic refractories for cement kiln linings, and uranium ore from Radium Hill, near Olary, South (b) bricks for coal-gas retorts. Up to this early stage Australia, by a method based on fluoride processing in these investigations it has been necessary to devote instead of the alkali pyrosulphate treatment previously a good deal of time to the examination and develop- used. mcnt of laboratory methods. The National Cfes (vi) Graphite and Manganese Dioxide.-The work Association is contributing both active co-operation on these two minerals has centred on their use in the nnd financial support to the work on gas retort refrac- elrctrical dry cell and on the laboratory prepa- toric,~. ration of ex~crimentaldry cells. Particnlar attqntiqn (iii) Geramics Investi,qations.-A preliminary has been directed towards obtaining reprod~~cibilltgIn o.lrrrv of Australian ceramic materials is proceeding. performance, and determining the proportions In South Buqtralia this survey is bein? made in co- and size distributions of graphite and man- operation with the State Mines Department. As this ganese dioxide for maximum cell life. Several work develops it mill form the basis of investigations methods for the preparation of manganese dcnlinq with such mattcrs as beneficiation of raw dioxide have been shown to give very satis- materials, selection of suitable materials for specific factory procli~cts. South Australian graphite, if purposes, and other technical problems. I

1 93

The Geology School of the University of Melbourne would clearly be an advantage to be able to conduct isco-opcrating in the deve]oprncllt of facilities for the the scouriilg operations at prevailing air temperatures, study of clay mil~eralogywhich is an essential part and a method mas sougllt wherehy the viscosity of the of these investigatiolls. kipart from the usual petro- grease could be lo\vered sufficiently to enable this to graphic and lnirleralogical metl~ods,use is being made be done. Small ainounts of a solvent, added to the of the techlliques of dellydratioll analysis and thernlai scouring bath in the form of an emulsion, have roved analysis, borll of which are of in the study effective in increasing the mobility of the grease. The of natural clays. enlulsion breaks down on, and then dissolves in, the 4. FourldrySancls Investigations.-The chief work of @":tse, after which the mixture is emulsified. Small this Section is directed to the investigation of sands tests hare proved ellcouraging. and clays used in the foundg industry. In addition il:t'mpts have alao been made to use a wide range the Section has contirlued to provide an advisory ser- of surface-active agents as detergents ins:ead of soap. vioe on foundry problems. Wllen soap is used, the solution mubt be alkaline and (i) Youlding h'onds.-Surue~ of sands in this causes some damage to the wool. While some of these appear to be of ralue for special purposes their Western Australia, New South Wales, and Quoensland is not, in general, sutticient to outweigh hare been conducted in collaboration with the Mines increased with the customary Department of those States, and the results will be s procedure. published in the near future. A number of firms are a policy of decentralizing their activities and (iii) Suriace Areas of solid^.-In a wide variety of are estahiishing foundries in country districts. The reactions illvolving solids the behaviour of the system Section has been called into consul$,ltion with these is intimately related to the state of division or surface firms to select moulding sands in districts area of the solids. An understanding of processes in have s~litablc char:lctrristics and of which which this i.? important requires a rnolhod of estimat- continuity of supply for some years is assured. ing the to'al area of the particles of solid; in equip- jii) ~l~~~.-~~~~h~~work is being on "('nt built in the Section this is done by making use of @iays suggested as for lllnerican belilollite. the direct relationship between the s~~rfacearea of the onefrom the vicinity of Hobart has shown in solid its power to absorb gases. Nitrogen gas is prrlilllillary tests and is being further investigated. condensed on tha surface of the solid at tho tempera- ture of liquid air; the surface area may then be cal- (iii) core ~inders.--The world-wide shortage eulated from the amoilnt of gas removed by the Lolid. iinseed oil which is exteilsiveiy used as a core binder By this mealls have been made 'to has caused inconvenience to the foundry industry. In- for differences in behaviour of chelnically similar formation on substitute binders has been compiled and materials. The suitability of differellt preparations of distributed to those directly concerned. I'reli1llillar~ graphite and of pyrolusite for dry cell manufacture, work has also been undertaken on the physical Proper- and the effectiveness of tllorium oxide as a catalyst ties of cores in which substitutes have been used, and for certain organic rea&ions, have been extensively on methods of extending linseed oil. studied in this way. 5. Physical Chemistry Se~tion.--Surfa~e chemistry 6. Chcr,zical Physics Section.-Facilities for the continues to be the chief topic of research, with particu- application of several modern chemico-physical tech- lar reference to the priliciples governing the flotation lliqucs have been added to the Section. These include process and their application in ore-dressing. The a mass spectrometer, to be used in eonjunc:ion Ivith mechanism involved in the removal of grease and dirt isotopic tracer tecl~lliques, and for the of from ~voolby scouring methods has also been illvebti- complex mixtures of organic materials; an infra-red gated. In both the flotation and wool scourillg inves- spectrometer, to be used largely for cllaracterization tigations reagel~ts of a high degree of purity were of organic compounds, for the determination of required; many of these were synthesized and sensit;re molecular structure, and for complex organic analyses; methods mere developed for their anaiysis. a high-dispersion quartz spectrograph for the develop- (i) l~lotation Investigations.-Improvements have ment of spectrochemical analytical methods and for been effected in a flotation method for recovering topaz, spectrographic research; and a spectrophotometer for and products derived in this manner from a Tas- absorption spectroscopy. A11 X-ray spectrograph for manian ore deposit possessed properties rendering them use on pro'x~lemsconcerned with the zirconium-hafnium eminently suitable for certain uses in the ceramic separation and the rare earths has been coilstructed industry. The method, however, must be further in the Divisional workshops. improved since it is affected by the hardness of the An instrument laboratory providing facilities for water available for the flotation. This adverse effect the derelopment and construction of electronic and of permanent hardness of local water supplies also nlechaiiical iilstruments and for the conptnlction of has an important bearing on the flotation of scheelite glass apparatus, has been established. A considerable which is an important source of tungsten. Many variety of equipment for use in the investigations of attempts were made in thcse laboratories to concentrate this and o'her Sections of the Division has already scheelite from King Island ores by the conventional been constructed. flotation circ~~itsused abroad, but the recoveries were (i) SfrtLcture of the wool FihTe.-Collaboration poor becausc~ of the calcium and magncsinm salts in the Dirisioll of physics on this project has c_oll- the available water. By the use of zeolite, the colleen- tinued during the past year. Confirmation of the elec7 tration of these salts can be sufficiently reduced to tron microscopical evidence that there are three allow of the use of a sinlple reagent circuit contailling di,stinct componellts of thc wool fit,re has brcll obtained on17 sodium olc~ateand sodium silicate. It remains to from X-ray diffraction investiga+iolls and a more be determiner1 whether this process can be adopted 011 detailed study of tile matrix fibrous components the large scale. has been made. It has been established that the matrix (ii) h'co~~ringof Woo7.-The conventional method consis's of niolec~~larlydi~perscd protein and that the of scouring wool by solutions containing soap and fibrous cornpollent of the cortex is capable of fibrilla- sodium carkonate is effective only at tempera:ures tion to a protofibril consisting of a linear aggregate above 120' F. These relatively high temperatures are of approximately isome'ric protein molecules. This is necessary on account of the viscosi'y of the wool contrary to !he current riews on the structure of kera- grease; only wllen the viscosity is small can the grease tin 6brc.s and indicatrs the nrr.cssity for a review of the be emulsified and removed from the wool fibre. It structural chemistry of the wool potein. I

I - A (ii) Structure of Cellulose.-During recent years rrletallographic study of steels subjects to various age- there has been some controversy concerning the exis- hardening treatments; fiirsillations in llardwood pulps tence of a lirni'ing size of the fibrils formed when as a function of time 'of beating in processing for cellulose fibres break down by longitudinal cleavage paper making.- under various treatments. A number of types of (b) 2--ray and electron difraction studies.-Inves- cellulose derivcd from cotton, hardwood, soft~voodand tigations undertaken at request included an examina- ranlie fibre were rnecElanically beaten to disperse them tion of Liitler's lines in steel tensile test specimens, in water and subsequently examined by new electron uliich has rnablcd the relationsEliy b(>t~veenthese lines microst:opical techniques. In every instance the smallest and the regions and extent of deformation to be es- fibril obaerrerl was approximately 150 Ang~tromunit9 tablished; a study of certain manganese oxide in dianieter. Iforeover, in comnlon with a~iiliialfibres, ~lziiierals,resulting in the discovery of hydrated oxide these fibril.. appear to bc linear aggregates of approxi- phases not previously characterized; a study of the niately isometric corpuscles, possibly molecules. co-precaipitation of beryliunl and aluminium in alumi- (iii) Lwnzinescent iVtrteriab.-Theoretical and ex- nium hydroxide; an attempt to find significant perimental investigations have been conducted on structural differences between normal and tension lunlincscent materials, which are used extensively in woods. the lamp :~nd radio valve industries. Technological (c) Spectroscopic studies.-A method for the estima- advances in this field are dependent upon an under- tion of linolcnic acid in safflou-er oil, a drying oil for standing of tlie i~lechanismof the luminescent process paints, has been critically examined and estimations wllicll at pre-cnt is only jnll~erfectly uiider.;tootl. It have been made for the Munitions Supply Laboratories has beer1 established on theoretical groundis that the of the Department of Munitions. The range of various possible mechanisms for the l~xmine~scentpro- validity of a colorimetric method, involving a methy- cess in ct'rtain cla.ses of rnaterial may be differentiated lene blue complex, for the estimation of sulphonated by experimental study of their behaviour under con- wrface active agents, has also been defined. ditio~isof periodic excitation; experimental work on 7. Organic Section.-3:xperimental work ha^ been this ba.-is is in progress. Spectroscopic ~ileasurcments $ornewhat curtailed by the absence abroad of several are being used to determine the various electronic officers, but steady progress has been maintained in energy states irirolved in this process, for it is when an the investigation of waxes and plastics, and of the electron passe. from a highcr :o a lower energy state mechanism of catalysis in heterogeneous systems. that light is emitted. Wo~kprevi~usl~ described on ketone waxes and fur- (iv) Refraction Efects in Electron Diffraction.- fural production has now been completed. Some new A new effect, interpreted theoretically in tc>rms of a \'i'ork based on the concienqation products of acetone refraction olf electrons due to the inner potential of a with ammonia,. yielding a number of interesting pro- crystal, has been observed in an electron tliffraction ductr of potentla1 comnlercial significance, has reached stucls of lion-stoichion~etriccon~pounds. Through this an advanced stage. effect, which appears to be aisociatetl wit11 solids hav- (i) Sugar Cane Wax.--This is a hard wax poten- ing crystal defects, it has been possible to explain the tially available to the extent of several thousand tons existcnce of anornalona line breadths and intensities in per annuni as a by-product of the ~lixstraliansugar electron tliffraction patteri~s,a matter of fundamental intlnstry. iiltliough it is thc equal of carnauba wax in importance .in the use of electron diffraction in the polishing power, some defects will have to be elimina- s'udy of crystal structure and one which for many ted to asslire its coniniercial succeps. The initial steps years has escaped explanation. Significant differences in this improl-ement deniand a knowledge of its chemi- in the efirct obtained from stoichiometric and nou- cal co:nposition, and a considerable body of analytical stoichiometric phases of the one compound have been data has been accumulated during the year. It has established; these are valuab,le in increaqing our know- been founcl that the so-called " fat " which remains ledge of the important group of non-etoichiometric aft(,r :ti1 acid treatment to remove mineral ma'ter con- c~ompo~inc!sto which luminescent materials belong. ii~tslargely of fatty acids derived frorn the breakdown of calcium phosphatidates during the process. It is (v) Miscellaneous.--Further information concerning probable that s'cam distillation under low pressure the nature of the conlpoands occurring at varions ~villpro! icle a colircnient means of removing these stages of the processing of alunite ha,, been ob'ained acids, and improve the quality of the wax. This analy- 1)y X-ray and electron diffraction methods. Eridence tical approach should lead to the separation of the concerning tlie l.)hysical state of the silica in alunite into fractions having standard pl-opertirs. has also heen obtained. (ii) Wool Wax.-The potential commercial impor- Three Australian bentonites have been studied hy tance of ~vool wax led to its choice as a subject electron rnieroqtaopical, X-ray and electron diffraction for investigation early in 1941; pressing problems technique3 and comj~ared with Wyoming bentonite. arising out of the war, however, caused these inves- Two of the Australia minerals (frorn Queensland tipations to be abandoned later in that year. This and Western Australia) showed a preponclerance of mtirlr has now been resumed, and in the last few rnontmorilloni'e of m-llich Wyoming bentonite is almost nionths some success has met attcmpts to separa'e the entirely composed. numcrous alcohols present in the wax. The method An intcacire X-ray crystallographic study of basic ewployed was a chromatogral~hic ~eparation of aluminiiim fluorides having different ratios of oxygen coloured derivatives, but owing to the ~om~lexi:~of to fluorine was also made, and led to an unequivocal the rnixt~ir~of the alcohols this has, ap yet, met with determination of their chemical structure. A consider- only partial s1ic~ces.s. If a simple method of separation able nnntber and variefy of short term projects wc.re ran be deriqed, the pure alcohols should prove useful also investigated. in'ermediateq for the production of industrially im- portant .ilihstances. Thuq cetyl alcohol might be used (a) Electron microscopical investigalion.-Inves- for the manufacture of the wet'ing agent sodium cetyl tigations undertaken at request included tlie further sulphatc. il cyclic molecular still has been constructed examinaticn of iron oxide pi~mentsand in'ermediates for uie in this work. in relation to pilot plant prodliction of these pigments; the exarr~inationof bacteria associated with the inci- (iii) Investigation of Catalysis.-31any organic dence of caries in teeth and thc effect of these on the chemicals are now produced as the result of reactions surface of the tooth enamel; a high-magnification who.~evelocity has been speeded up by the presence of catalyst. Although the activity of these catalysts gel-like form they as~sumeduring processing; it has has been vastly improved in recent years, the lack of a been shown that this can be overcome either by the tllorough understitncling of thrir mode of action has atldition of electrolyte;. to flocculate the colloidal mas3 proved a limiting factor in the selection of the type or by heating at 140' C. for short periods. rnost suited to a particular reaction, and the predic- (b) 'l'nnn in-formaldeh yde resins.-The extract of tion of its precis13 behaviour. In these investigations Mimosa bark obtained from certain South African of some of the more fundamental aspects of hetero- sl~vcies of A\cacia and used ill the tanning industry gelleous catalysis, special cnlpl~asisha6 been placed on contains carechin which, like resorcinol, is a polyhydric the kinetics of gas reactions oler solid catalysts. The phenol, and an investigation of its condensation pro- reactions studied to obtain basis data for this purpose ducts with formaldehyde is being made with a view to were the oxidation of ethylene to ethylene oxide and their use as cold-setting adhesives. It is probable that tlie dehydration of 2, 3-butanediol to butadiene which was originally required for conversion to synthetir: this work will later be extended to investigate the use 1 of tl~e commerc.ia1 tannin extract obtained front rubber. Li:t/ca1pf 11s redurcca. In an order to measure the high rates of absorption of gas ty the solid catalysts, special equipment has been (c) Resin fil1cr.s.-During an investigation of the built and is now being calibrated. ~rodl~ctionof furfural from oat-hulls, quantities of (iv) 1)roducts of the Reaction of Acetone with ligaocellltlose residues became available. These have Brnrrtonia.-illthough acetone is one of the cheapest bec.11 used as fillers for pllenolic plastics, and their and n~ostabundant of organic chemicals, there are effects on the mechanical and physical properties of the many aspects of its chemistry which havc not yet been 111(1iil !ccl prodncts II::~cj I)c~'ncaornl~ared nril h comme1.- fully worked out. A number of compounds are produced cia1 ~voocl flour. Residues from the digestion of oat- by its contlellsatioll with ammonia, and one of these has hulls nt Ion. temperatures gale cc,rnparabln results. heen studied in some detail. Previously its preparation (vii) Testing of P1trsfics.-The water absorption of involxed a reaction time of several n cdis and the yields phenolit. plastic n~ouldings has been examined in were very poor. By conducting the reaction in a Tiquid grc'ater detail. It has been shovn that, in general, the amlnonia medium and in the presence of an ammonium ahiorption conforins to a diffusion equation, but that salt as a catalyst the Section has developed a method dcvietions occur depending on the type of filler used. whereby the yleld of this compound has been increased .Is a result of this work reco~ninendationshave been to 90 per cent. of that theoretically obtainable and the madr to the Standards dssociation of Australia to reaction time has been reduced to 18 hours. assist in setting up Australian testing methods for The structure of this conlpound has been determined plastics. and a number of its derivatives have been examined. The vapour permeability- of rnollldcd fittings in elec- These are not only of coasiderable theoretical interest trical cquipnient assumes considerable importance but of practical significance on account of their ready nntier humid atnlospherjc conditions. work is in pro- accessibility from cheap rax niaterials and their ~alue grvds to determine the vapour transmission through as intermediates for the productioxl of a number of rnoulded syc.cirnens containiilg metal inserts previously other compounds which are not otherwise easily pre- voated with resins before moulding. pared. One of these, a diamine, has interesting poqsibilities for the production of synthetic waxes and Fork on m~chanicaltests for plastics has included of polyamide resins suitable for use as moulding an inrestigation on the Izod test. powders. 'i.1:iot ktrt:isfry Scc.fion.-Fellmongery and fermm (v) Australian Allca1oids.-Investigation of the al- ration continue to be the chiof sl~hjcctsof rinscarc.11, and kaloids of the natil-e flora, undertaken in collaboration several projects connected with the former have reached with +heCouncil's Dirision of Plant Industry aid the the stage of pilot-scale investigations, and in some Ilepartrnents of Physiology of the Universities of Mel- instant e- are 1,r-ing conducted in fellmongeries. The bourne and Queensland, has been continued. It was six-nronthly distribution of circulars coninienced in erident early in the work that the number of alkaloids I!)4(i has been continued, and by this mean\ and by which might merit chemical examination (without re- visits of officers to most fellmongeries the industry h'as gard to their pharmaculog~calproperties) would be been kept informed of the trend of fellmongering large, and collaboration in this cherllical work has been research. extended to certain University Chemistry Departmelzts. (i) Fel1mongery.-The chief 1ine)sof work have been Nost of the plants under investigation are nlenibers concerned with the loosrning of wool from skins by of the family Rutaceae which appears to be a fruit- ful source of alkaloids. Several representatives of a various agencies, and with the recovery of wool from heads, shanks, and skin pieceq for which no entirely new group of alkaloids have been disco\ered and some satisfactory method has been available. progrrss made with the elucidation of their structure. The chemistry of some of these iltbstances is proving (a) W'ool loosening by chemicals.-Wool can be of considerable academic interest. loosened from the skin by treatment with certain Many of the species examined have failed to yield chemical sgcnts and the mechanism of the process is alkaloids in sigllificant quantities, but Melicope being inve>tigated. Such treatments freqtlently cause furearnn, Ra.uloolfia canescens, illun,yi7cm vielosum danlage to the ~ivooland a cheniical method involving and Atherosper~numost-hatum, which are at present thc estimation of sulphydryl groups arising from under exarninatio~,are ],roving promising sources of degradation of the keratin has bren derelopcd and is alkoids of col~sitlerableinterest. Two further species now being critically examined to determine its accuracy y-ieldjng alkaloids which appear to belong to the same jn assessing this damage, Chenrical depilatories con- irouP as those derived from iV~licopehave been for- taining lime cause appreciable damage to the wool and warded to the Universities of Xelhourne and Sydney a rnodifie(1 painting process has beer1 developed which rc~spectivel~for investigation. involves soaking in a dilute solutioll of sodium car- (vi) Plastics Investigations.-(a) Aniline-formalde- bonate and subsequently treating with sodium sulphide. hydc resins.--Fork has been continued with a view The n~ethndhas been subjected to pilot-scale tests and to eliminating some of tlie defects x-hich has restricted has pro~red a considerable advance over any previous the use of these resins, and to allow of advantage be- method in that the ~i~oolhas been effectively loosened ing taken of their superiority over phenol-formaldehyde ~ithscarcely any damage to the wool. With slight resins in electrical properties 2 their lo1.v water ab- modifications this m~tllodhas al13eady be~nadopted in sorptioll and transmission. Orc Jcfect is the bulky some fellmongeries. (6) Wool loosening by enzymes.-The depilation of During the early years of the life of the Division the sheep skins can be effected after treatment with a paint urgency of tl~edemand for pilot-scale investigations of containing certain enzymes which are produced by a processes developec! by tlie Division greatly restricted variety of biological materials. Aspergillus oryzae and thc amount of more fundamental work that could be A. parasiticus have been found to produce an active undertaken. During the year untler review, it has been enzyme; the former has been chosen for a more detailed possible to formulate plans for research of the latter study of its mode of action and of the optimum con- type on problems of heat transfer, filtration, and dis- ditions leading to ultimate depilation. tillation. During this period also a guest worker spent (c) Wool loosening by bacteria.-Further samples some six months in the laboratory studying the funda- of sheep skins have been obtained from various parts mental aspects of solvent extraction processes, and it is of the world for investigation of their bacterial flora, proposed to appoint an additional officer to the Section and recent examillations of samples from Canada and to enable this investigation to be continued. the Unitcd States of America has resulted in the isola- TWOmembers of the staff of the Section are gaining tion of another species of bacterium capable of wool experience in cheniical engineering research labora- loosening in pure culture. tories in the United States, another is carrying out (d) Recovery of wool from skin pieces.-The inves- post-graduate academic work in England; the return tigation on a pilot scale of the production of the pro- of th~seofficers should givc additional impetus to the tease derivcld from Aspergillus orysae has been con- Section's projected programme of chemical engineering tinued and the major difficulties appear to have been research. overcome. The time of growth which will give active (ii) Building for Process Equipment.-The Section extracts has been considerably reduced, and bacterial bas now accuinulated a wide range of pilot-scale chemi- contamination whiceh can lead to considerable difficul- cal engineering process equipment. Owing to limita- ties has been practically eliminated. Work has also tions of space it has been necessary in the past to store comn?enccd on the production of the enzyme in syn- this equipment and set up individual units from time thetic media. to time as required for specific pilot plant investiga- Pilot-scale tests of the recovery of wool from skin tions, the cquipmcnt Ireing dismantled at thr conclusion piece-, have becn successf~~llgconducted in collaboration of each period of operation. During the year an addi- with the Chemical Engineering Section, and the present tional buildil~gsuitable for housing chemical en,'wineer- work is designed to abc-rtain tlie optimum conditions ing equipment 113s hccn erected in which much of the for high recovery v ithout significant wool damage. pilot-scale plant will be set up permanently, so that (ii) Industrial Fermentation.-(a) Lactic acid.- each unit will be available for operation at short notice. Work on the production of lactic acid from whey by Installation of plant in this building is now under way. Lactobacillus bulgaricus has been continued, and (iii) Production of Furfural from Agricultural attempts have been made to improve the yield Wastes.-The pilot scale investigation of the produc- by supplenienting the sugar in the whe~ tion of furfural by thc acid digestion of agricultural by the addition of hydrolysed starch, unrefined cane waste materials has been completed and the data re- sugar, and molasses. In order to render production quired for the design of a commercial-scale plant have less dependent on the availability of whey, other sub- now been assembled. This work is fully described in strates which are readily available are being sought as papers which are in the press. substitutes. Considerable interest has been shown by various (1)) 2, 3-Butanedzo1.-Investigations of the produc- industrial firma in this work and in the possibility of tion of 2, 3-butanediol from wheat which were initiated unde~talringfiirfural produrtion, and there are good in connexion with synthetic rubber investigations have prospects that the $ection7s work in this field will find been continued with a view to determining the mcchan- ezpplication. ism of its production by Aerobacillus polymyxa. Dif- (iv) Production of Chromic Anhydride.-Develop- ferences in the ease with which fermented mashes can mental work on the pilot plant for production of be fiitcred hnvo been found to b~ rchted to the forma- chromium salts from chromite ore by an acid process tion of polysaccharide slimes which vary according to the strain of the organism employed. These difficulties has almost been completed. It is believed that the proccss which has been evolved oifers substnatial advan- in filtration hare now becn largely resolved. The tages over the conventional alkali fusion method. effects of sporulation of polymyxa on its nutritional In A. order to obtain data required for the design of full- requirements and the effect of using different strains scale plant and for calculation of costs the process is for the production of mashcs for fermentation have being operated on a continuous basis over a period of been.investigated in connexion with the production of several months. 2, 3-butanediol and ethanol. The liydrogcnlg-ases of A. polymyxa and Escherichia The operation of the pilot plant has been demons- coli have been shown to be composite enzyme systems trated to the representatives of a number of industrial whose nature is being further investigated. firms. (c) Xurl:ey of Australicxl~ nlicrofora.-A survey of (v) Recovery of Wool from Sheepskin Pieces by Australian micro-organisms and their products of Proteo1ysis.-The recovery of wool from heads, shanks, metabolism has been commenced with a view to explor- and skin pieces by the digestion of the skin by means of ing thc possibilities of developing new fermentations of an enzyme derived fro111 a mould has been studied in industrial interest. collaboration with the Biochemistry Section. Pilot- 9. Ch~micalEnqine~rinq Section.-(i) Rescnrch in soale production of the mould and the use of the Unit Processes.-The Chemical Engineering Section rxt~aetedenzyme for the subsequent treatme~ltof the has a twofold function; it is responsible for pilot-scale skin pieces have been continued with satisfactory development of processes originating in other sections results. Most of the work now devolves on the rcduc- of the Division, al~dit has the no less important task tion of th(1 time required for these operations, and in of carrying out investigations ainled at the advance- rcfinements of technique, ment of fundamental chemical engineering kao~vledge. (vi) Instrumentation.-The efficient operation of Such investigations involve the study of the mechanism chemical engineering plant calls for the applicstion of of unit operations with the object of determining the the btlst techniyues of instrurnentatinn; particularly precise mathematical relationships between the various diccult instrumentation problems arise in the design factors involved and ultimately of improving the effi- and operation of equipment for chemical engineering ciency with which these operations can be conducted. research. In order that the research staff may have the benefit of assistance in such matters, an experienced -- (1947).-The solubility of lead fluoride in instnlment technician has been appointed to the solutions of alunliizium fluoride. J. Coun. Section. Sri. Ind. Rcs. (ilust.) 20: 114-21. (vii) Advisory Services.-Members of the Section Sutherland, K. L. (1946).--The surface areas of have devoted a considerable proportion of their time to fine poa'ders. Bust. d. 8,i. S : 1.55. advising officers of other Sections of the 1)ivision Wylie, A. W. (1946).-Deuterium or heavy hydro- regarding the problems likely to be encountered in gen. Ibid. 9 : 43-50. transferring specific processes of potential illdustrial 7-aluc frorn laboratory operations to commercial-scale processes. Sir~lilarly, attention has been given to fins:? eying i1iquir:es from represe~ltutives of various industrial firms in connexion with the design of cherni- 1. Introduction.-During the past year the activities cal engineering plant. of the Radiophysics Laboratory have been concentrat~d on radio researches of a fundamental character, on 10. Publications.-The following papers have been radio meteol.ologica1 problems, and on development published during the year :- \,c,I!< ai111~(~::: C~ICapp!icdtion of radar techniques to Clay, J. L. (1946).-Further studies of the indus- civilian uses. Perhaps the most important resillts of trial development of the Freney-Lipson pro- this ~vorlihave l~c~eii-(i) An advance in know1ed;e of cess. J. Coun. Sci. Ind. Res. (Aust.) 19 : radiations emitted at radio frequencies from the sun 256-68. and the universe. (ii) The opening up of a promising Cowley, J. M., and Patterson, M. 8. (1947)- new avenue of research in the nletcorological field X-ray diffraction studies of yielding in mild which will provide basic inforr~latio~ion the physicss steel. ATlrture 159 : 846. of cloud for~nationand may lead to the practical possi- Cowley, J. M., and nees, A. L. G. (1946).-Re- bility of stimulating rainfall by artificial means. (iii) fraction effects in electron diffraction. Ibid. The completio~land successful demonstration of new 158: 550. radar aids to civil aviation. Con-ley, J. M., and Rees, A. L. G. (1947).-Re- The year has been a continuation of the process by fraction effects in electron diffraction. Proc. : l~iehmembers of the stail have obtained research Phys. Soc. 59 : 287. t sperience overseas. These opportunities have Dixon, P. (1946).-The solubility of silica in occurred largely throngh the Comlril's sclioiarships and alkaline ammonium fluoride. J. Coun. Sci. partlg as 3 rrsult of personal initiative. ilt present Intl. Res. (Aust.) 19 : 311-6. there are ten oificers abroad acquiring further ex- Farrant, J. L., Mercer, E. H., and Rees, 11. L. C. perience and acquainting theu~>elves with new (1947).-The structure of fibrous keratin. techniques. Nnfure 159: 535. 2. Extratcrr~sfriakNoise.-(i) Solar Noise.-Since Hanna, R. (1946).--Investigation of mrthods K. ladio waves are similar to heat and light waves but of determining the weight or average thick- of longer wavelength, it should be possible to recrive ness of tin or tin-coated copper and brass. thermal radiation from the sun in the radio spectrum. Arner. Soc. Test. Mat. 142: 35-7. Eariy at:c,~i pis to dctcct the radiation failed through Hanna, K. R., and Worner, H. W. (1946).-Pre- lack of sensitivity of the equipment, but it was de- paration of titani~lmpowder. J. Coun. Sci. tected in America in 1942. The first experiments Ind. Res. (Aust.) 19 : 449-54. were performed on wavelengths of 3 and I0 centimetres Hergt, H. F. A., Rogers, J., and Sutherland, I<. L. and showed an intensity a little greater that that cal- (1047).--Principles of flotation. Flotation culated from thc ordinary laws of radiation, assuming of cassiterite and associated m'nerals. Amer. it canie from thc sn~fxceof the sun. Liter measure- Inst. Min. Eng., Tech. Publ. 2081, Min Tech. ments here and elsewhere have brought out two in- Martin, R. J. L. (1946).-The analysis of the teresting facts : on longer wavelengths an intensity hydrocarbon gases by fractional distill a t'lon greatly in excess of the expected value is obtained from with especial reference to cracked tar gases. the "quiet" sun, and this intensity itself varies with Coun. Sci. Ind. (Aust.), Bull. 197. time over a wide range.- Mercer, E. H., and Recs, A. L. G. (1046).-The The study of radio noise is a new branch of astro- structure and elasticity of the cortex of kera- physics, and when the nature of the radiation is more tin fibres. An electron microscope study. clearly understood it is expected to yield val~lablein- Ausf. J. Zxp. Biol. 24: 175. formation about the processes occilrriilg in the sun. Murray, K. E. (1946).-The catalytic dehydration Experimental worlr undertaken to date has isolatcd a of the amyl alcohols of fuse1 oil with a kaolin number of phenomena which may be described as catalyst cf higll activity. J. Coun. Bci. Ind. follows :- IZes. (Aust.) 19: 435-41. (a) Thermal radiation.-The temperature of the Plante, E. C. (1947).-The flotation of fluorite. photosphere, or visual disc of the sun, is known to be Amcr, Inst. Min. Eng., Tech. Publ. 2163, Min. 6,903" 1%.The measurements referred to above indicate Tech. that on microwavelengfl~s the noise source has a tem- Rees, A. L. G. (1947).-Recent physico-analytical perature of the same order. At 200 Mc/s, however, the techniques. Aust. Chem. Inst. J. Proc. 14: temperature of the source of steady radiation from the 23-36. quiet sun is nearer a million degrees Absolute. These resalts suggest at once that the noise do~snot originate Rogers, J., and Sutherland, I(. L. (1947).-Prin- in the p210tospl~ercbut ill so111c other region in the sun. ciples of flotation. Activation of minerals and There is evidence from optical data that the sun's adsorption cf collectors. Anlcr. Inst. hfin. corona is at a temperature of a million dcgre~sAbso- Eng. Tech. Publ. 2082, Min. Tech. lute, and it has Lprn shonn that the 200 hPc/s radiation Scott, T. R. (1046).-The chenlical composition of does in fact colne from the coronal regions. By natural and synthetic cryolite. J. Coun. Sci. measurement of noise intensity on successively higher Tnd Res. (Aust.) 19: 442-8. radio frem~rncies,it is powible to obtain the tempera- -(1946).--Preparation of core ingredients of ture rt lower and lower levels in the corona, and an searchlight carbons. Coun. Sci. Ind. Res. cbxtensir~ series of measurements has given valuable (Anst.), Bull. 200. data about the constants of the solar atmosphere. F.7446.-7 (6) Enhanced solar noise.-If noise from the sun weather conditions which have become known to is observed continuously, it is found :hat when the sun meteoi.ologi,.ts as the " coastal front ". Some quan- is distul.bed by large sunspots, irregular incrcascs of titative l~leasurenientsof both the radio and nleteoro- radio noise can occur lasting for periods of several logical factors involved have been made in the past; days at a time. The changes of intensity are many during the current year, careful plans were laid to thousandfold, indicating that this noise must have its complete the measurements. Homerer, the season Ira? origin in an electrical and not a thermal phenomenon. abnormal, the " coastal front" did not develop in the Experiments have shown that a close correlation exists expected manner, and the work has been postponed between noise intensity and sunspot area, while precise until next summer. direction-finding methods have confirmed that the (ii) Investigation of Inland Radiation Inversion.- source coincides in position with major sunspots. On winter nights the surface of the earth loses heat (c) Bursts.-The third pllenomenon observed is the by radiation and cools thc lower levels of the atmo- occurrence of short bursts of noise of duration from 1 sphere by contact. Under calm conditions on a flat to 60 seconds and of magnitude comparable with sun- plain, the late of coolilig of the atmosphere at different spot noise. The bursts have been located as having levels gives raluable information concerning the trans- their origin in the sun, but they have not yet 'been fer processes at work in the atmosphere. Although correlated with visual phenomena. When observed on prompted by radio considerations, the problem is a series of different radio frequencies, it is folllld that essc.ntially a meteorological one and x7as attacked from in the majority of cases a burst occurs on one fre- this point of view in a series of observation at Hay quency but not on the others. This leads to the con- (New South Wales). Tlie analysis of results is near- clusion that the noise comes from isolated levels in ing completion. .[ surprising result is that even at the corona. In a few cases, honever, the same burst IIay the ground is not sufficiently flat to allow the is observed on a number of adjacent frequencies. simple conditions to develop, the slope of 1 foot in a Aln~ostirirrariably it appears first at the highest fre- mile being enough to allow horizontal movement of quency and, after an intcrval of a few seconds, at the air which upsets the determination of the transfer lower frequencies. The phenomenon is being made constants. the subject of further experimental work. 4. Ionospheric Investigations.-A detailed investiga- (d) 0uLbursts.-Outbursts differ from bursts in tion is being carried out on the fine structure of the magnitude and duration; their intensity is greater by ionosphere and the small changes wrhich occur in its several hundredfold and they last for several minutes characteristics. This is being done at vertical and at a time. They were first observed by experimenters oblique incidence, using new techniques developed overseas, and their occurrence has been associated with during the war. ,4ccurate recordings of the variations the appearance of flares on the sun's disc. Obhervation in virtual height and echo intensity at vertical inci- of outbursts over a range of frequencies has sliown that dence are already being made. This investigation will they can appear on a number of adjacent frequencies shortly be handed o17er to the Radio Research Board. but, unlike bursts, Tvith a delay of several minutes 6. ,lfirZdle -4tnzosphere Invesligations.-With the in- instead of seconds between them. This has led to the tention of further investigating phenomena observed suggestion that their origin is connected with the move- in the atmosphere on war-time radar sets, a 120 kilo- rilent of the disturbing agency outwards through the watt pulse transmitter is operating on a frequency of sun's atmosp21cre, possibly in a stream of particles such 18 hlc,/s. No middle atmosphere echoes have yet been as those which give rise to aurorae and magnetic observed, but sporadic echoes from the 100-200 km. storms when they reach the earth. and the 1,000-2,000km. region are being studied to Most of the ~~orkcarried out to date in Australia and determine the nature of the scattering ccntres and the overseas has been in the range of 1-10 rentimetres. agency producing them. Equipment is nox7 being constructed for observation of solar noise on inillimetre wavelengths where the absorp- 6. Radio il1eteorology.-Radio Meteorology is con- tion and emission spectrum of elenlents in the sun cerned with studies involving both radio and meteoro- beconics inlportant. logical phenomena, two examples of which are super- refraction and the scattering of radio waves by water (ii) Cosmic h'oise.-The arrival of radio noise from drops and ice particles. Initially, these subjects were other parts of the universe has been known for a con- studied mainly from the radio point of view, but the siderable time. Until recently it was tl~ouglltto have mctcorological problems have become so interesting in its origin in inter-stellar space rather than in stcllar thcmselres that thpy now form the principal part of bodies. hleasurcments on the constellation Cygnus, the study. however, suggest very forcibly that in this articular The Division's Droeramme is divided into two main case the acceptetl theory does not hold. It appears . " parts-experimental studies of the processes at work in that a source of noise exists in that constellation, the forn~ationof rain and a theoretical attack on the having characteristics similar to those of the sun but problcrn of cloud physics. of infinitely greater power. (i) Studies of Rain Formation.-The process by 3. hfuperrefracfiou~.-In the previous report, refer- which rain i~ formed in clouds has always been ob- ence was made to the collaboratiorl which took place scure. A number of theories exist but there is great between the Division and the armed forces in the difiiculty in obtaining quantitative data, and it may be collection of data on superrefraction o~7era wide region many years before any one of them can be substan- in Australia and New Guinea. The analysis of these tiated. data was completed during the current year; a report Following a suggestion made in America, experi- which gives an account of the places and times of ments haoe begun on the artificial stimulation of rain- ocrurrence of superrefraction and their relationsl~ip fall; they have been successful in producing rain from to general and local weather oonditiom has been towering cilmulus. This success is likely to be of great written. practical inlportance to Australia, and it has also given The work has focused attention on several meteoro- a great simulation to experimental work by allowing logical phenomena which have an important influence cloud investigations to be carried out under controlled on superrcfraction in Australia. Two of them have conditions. The experiments lend strong support to been the subject of detailed experimental investigation. one particular theory of rain formation-that of Ber- (i) Investigation of the New South Wales " Coastal geron-and therefore give a very good lead as to the Front ".-Intense superrefraction has been found to direction in which further investigation should take occur around the coast of New Soi~thWales during place. Owing to the absence of measuring instruments, no can be estimated analytically; for very large drops the quantitati~edata are available on the physics of the flow depends upon the boundary layer, and this flow process. It is expected that substantial progress in the can agxin 5e determined analytically. At intermediate understanding of rain formation will not take dace values of Reynolds numbers the flow must be estimated until instrumen~shave been built and a long series of mmierically and the relaxation process is being applied. nieasurernents completed. (iv) Scaltering of Radio Waves.-Following a pre- (ii) Cloud I'1zysics.-A summary of existing ideas vious study of scattering of waves by cylinders, spheres on the subject of cloud physics has been made and, and ribbons, an attempt is being made to calculate stimulated by the work on the artificial ~roductionof the qcattering of plane waves by discs of diameter corn- rain, a theoretical attack has begun on problems associ- parable with the wavelength. The theoretical results ated with the formation of water drops and ice par- will be conlpared with the results of the usual diffrac- ticles in clouds. A theory is being developed on the tion theory to estimate the validity of the latter. distribution of drop sizes in newly formed clouds, and (v) S'olar Noise.-Calculations are proceeding in the forecast distribution ib found to be in good agree- an effort to obtain a reliable estimate of the magnitude ment with that observed in certain overseas measure- of tllc " limb brightening " effect ; the existence of ments. Work is also being carried out on the coagula- this effect has not been established experinlentally, tion of falling drops and on the flow pattern around and there is some theoretical doubt about its existelice drops which fall with a velocity faster than that LT-hichit is hoped to clear up. represented by Stokes Law. 8. Vacuum Physics.-The work of the vacuum (iii) Buronzetric Jl ethod of Determining Height.- laboratory has been reduced by the departure of staff '1 relatively simple method of deterrniilillg the height for study overseas and, pending their return, the above sea level of an unknown station from barometer amount of experimental work in vacuum physics is readings talren at the site has been developed, and the small. The laboratory equipment and technical per- method applied to a number of stations of known sonnel are being retained and their services put at the height u.itl.1 most encouraging results. The ~~roposaldisposal of other Divisions of the Council and of de- has been placed before the survey authorities i11 order partments of the University. that they may develop it further and apply it to par- (i) Gas Discharge Work-The investigation ticular survey problems should such application prove initiated last year on the nzinimum electrical bieak- desirable. down voltage of gases at high frequencies has been 7. Mafhematical Physics.-The Nathematical completed. The results show good agreement with Physics Section is engaged on theoretical work associ- existing theories. Further work is in hand for an ated with the investigations into radio meteorology, attack on the mechanism of initiation and decay of radio propagation, the scattering of radio waves and discharges, from which it is rxpected to obtain in- solar noise. fornlation on such factors as cliffusion, recombination (i) Rtrdio Wave Propagation.-Radio propagation and attachment, as well as on the process of ionization a-orli has been niainly concerned with the theory of in a high frequency field. superrefraction and an extension of the numerical (ii) Bcceleration 01 E1~c'trons.-High energy elec- study of ground-based trapping. The use of mave trons are being obtained l,.\r acc.elrl-ation in both single optical theory has been applied to distant parts of the and multiple resonant cnvitirs. single cavity radiation field, but in addition it has been found pos- operating at a frequency of 1,220 Mc/s gives a million sible to extend the use of geometrical principles of volt electron bean1 which is being used to generate optics to include diffraction effects near foci. A basic hi~h-intensitypulqed X-rays. T1.1cse are generated in extension of the mathematical theory of foci to include a sin~plecompact equipment and are suitable for radio- condition, of spherical aberration has been completed. graphic alnd therapeutic purposes. The work has and the results are being applied to the analysis of progressed to a stage at R hich it can be taken over by a optical fields. manufacturer. Considerable intercst in the develop- Thc sol~~tionof two other problelns awaits the ment has been expressed overseas, and a useful com- arrival of a special type of ralculating machine-the mercial product may result. estimation of the characteristic waves for different re- (iii) I'rofon Acce1amtiora.--Work on proton accele- fractire index structures, and the application of r:ttioi~ proceetled to a stage at which a satisfactory gencraliced phase-integral methods. The former re- voltage was developed in the accelerating cavity and quires the solution of certain types of differential an intense ion soarce produred, based on an idea equation, while the later calls for systenlatic study and originating in the Physics Department of the Univer- tabulating of both the Gamma function for complex sity of Sydney. No actual acreleration of protons values of the argument and the parabolic cylinder ]has xet been attempted, however. functions for co~nplexvalues of the order. (ir) ,l.ssociafed 12e.scorch.-The facilities of the (ii) B~ctenna Thror?j.-Electromagnetic radiation racuilm laboratory are bcing used by other Divisions problems have been attempted, and an antenna theory hz~s~rlat Sydney, and the Division of Physics has of the properties of probes within waveguides has been assistcd in qtaffing the laboratory by making available derived. The methods developed are applicable to the 211 expert glass technician and a research officer for case of reqonant slots and to radiation frorn mave- work on tlle linear accelerator. guides and cavities into open space through such slots. The laboratory is also being used by departments (iii) IZrrin Formation,.-Studies associated with rain of the Univerbity for joint or independent research. formation are still in their early stages. Their object The Electrical Engineering Department is carrying is to ,,timate theoretically the life history of a collec- cut an investigation oil the de-ionization of gas dis- tion of drops falling through the atmosphere. The charges, and the Physics Department is planning to factors of importance are: the rate of diffusion towards engppr in a related programme of work. The Physics and away froin the drop; the flow of heat towards or Jkpartment is also using the nlultiple-gap accelerator away from it; the surface drag and conseqllent cir- for X-ray production to examine nuclear phenomena. culation within the drop; its deviation from spheri- city; and its collision cross section. As long as the 9. ~lfetrsz~reme~ztsand Stcrnd1~rds.-The collaborative critical Reynolds number is not exceeded, it is possible progralfinie agreed upon with the Diribioi~of Electro- to calculate the flow pattern around the falling drop, technology has been continued. This aims at trans- from which most other factors can be derived. ferring, ultimately for permanent retention within the The determination of the flow pattern for drops of Diviqion of Electrotechnology, such vltra high-fre- different sizes falls into three classes. For very small quency tcchniqnes developed during tl~cTTar as arc Reynolds numbers, Stokes Law holds, so that the flow npplirahlc to th~development and ~tlaintenwnce of standards in this field. Although the work has been Equipi~~entby flying with it iu passenger and freight carried out under the direction of an officer of the aircraft over this route. Thr tests have provided Radiophysics Division, the inajority of the scientific 1-aluable operatill5 data and allocved the form of the stitfi-' in this group have been made available by the Uistance Measurl~lg Equipment to be finalized for Division of Eiectrotechnology. production. The first stage of the work is complete, (i) Noise (Tene~alors.- -4 study of the errors all({ eil'ort dlnow bta concentrated on the nlorc general inherent in the use of temperatnre-limited diode as problem of using distance nieasuremcnt as part of a an absolute source of noise poner has shown that co~n~letenavigational system. the devices can be relied on up to frequencies in (ii) Jluliiple 'I'rizck Range.-The Multiple Track the region of 200 to 500 Mc/s, and several such Range is a pulse-type radial-track guide system for generators have been built and used. Extension of providing a number of accurately defined tracks which the frequency range up to 3,000 f\ic/s is anticipated a pilot can follow into, and out of, an airport by using a diode built in the form of a concentric line. means of an indicator on his instrument panel. The Thermal noise generators employins hot filaments Australian Kadar Range, unlike existing radio ranges, ale at prebent used in tl~eregion ahove 500 &/s. is nnafFectcd by moiliitainous terrain and has proved Tl~eeffective noise temperature of such a filament is quite s~cces~ful.At the requat of P.I.C.A.O., the determined by comparing its noise output at 30 Mc/s set was demonstrated by officers of the Division in wit11 a standard diode noise generator. This eliminates Ottawa ill Septelnber, 1916, in co-operation with the errors associated with optical and other methods of Canadian K:ltiorial Iiesearcll Council and the Royal determining the temperature of small filaments. Canadian Air Force. Over a hundred international (ii) Power I?Iciisi~rements.-The main effort has delegates fiew in two aircraft which \\ere fitted for been directed towards the calibration of the power tlie demonstration. Subsequently, at the Conference output of standard signal generators when feeding a itself, the continued testing and developme~itof the niatclicd load. Tlierrnistor rnou~itband bridge circuits Australian Xailar. Itange was definitely encouraged. have been developed, and equipment now exists for the At the request of the ltoyal Air Force Transport accurate measurement of pover from a few micro- C'on~mand, the equipment used i11 the demonstration watts to a few tens of milliwatts over the frequenvy at Ottnna was then nlovc~lto their Development Unit rznge 24 to 1,500 hlc/s. :it Brize Norton, England, with one of the Division's (iii) Impedunce Ncasure71:ents. - Work has been officers to supervise its installation and instruct per- carried out to improve the accuracy of impedance sonnel in its use. Transport Command, to date, have nlcasurement by means of the slotted type of coaxial carried out extensive tests of the equipment as a short line. Attention has been directed chiefly towards distance navigational aid and as an aid to final improving the concentricity of inner and outer con- approach to tl~erun;vay. The results have proved ductors and eliminating reflections caused by mismatch snccessful and a request has been received for more at tne ends 01 the llne where the diameter requires cquipnlent to be sent to the United Kingdom for more to be reduced for connexion to solid conxial cable;. txtended tests of a comp1c.te traffic handling system. A slotted line has been constructed on which a standing (iii) Airuays and Approach Control Radar.-The wave ratio of le~sthan 1.02 can be observed at any two aspects of ground supervision of air traffic of fl~eqnencyfrom 60 to 220 Illc/s. most inter~stunder hu-tralian flying conditions are (iv) E'requency il1easurements.-hlethods have been the safety of aircraft along the airways and in the devised for the accurate measurement of frequency airport approaches. Airways control involves a know- up to several tlioi~~antlmegacycles per second. Tile ledge of the position of all aircraft proceeding along technique compares the harmonics produced by a stable tllc air routes and provision for their safe separation, low freqnency oscillator n:ith the unknown high fre- while aplyoach contl-01 involves a direct and close quency signal. By successive applications of this b~pervi.

for Airways (Jontrol. In this way the control officer The following list gives the more important of the has a display of the tracks of all aircraft in the ~llternal reports which have been issurd in mimeo- immediate vicinity of the airport. yraphed form :- The method of displaying the airways and approach Beard, M., and Piddington, J. H. (1946).-A vatiirr tr::cli? is, at p:'ebcnt, illlique in Snstralia. It niilltiple track rL~~1arrange. RPIt.6. is referred to as "Daylight Display" and has a 13lackett, L. R., and Kaiser, T. R. (1946).-Field number of useful featilrc:. The tracks appear as dark distribution between sharply pointed elec- nlarlrs against a biilliantly ligllteil background, so that trodes measurrd by the ele~trolytic tank. the Controller can see under any lighting conditions RPR.30. the position and direction of movetncnt of all aircraft. Eracewell, R. N. (1946).-Step discontinuities in The tracks also fade away at a predetermined rate disc transrnissioll lines. RI'R.27. so that the display clears itself continually as aircraft - (1946).-The L-brand thermistor power leave the area or come in to land. meter. 12PR.28. 11. Rrrdar Aids to Ground and Aerial Survey.-The - (1946). - Dissipated transductors treated graphically. RPR.32. L)ivision has acquired an Amcrican equipment kno~~~n - (1946).-Disc transmission lines in micro- as " Shoran" which is being adapted for experiments on the measurement of long base lines and which can wave apparatus. RPR.33. eventually be used for the control of photographjc Durgmann, V. D. (1946).-Airways and airport survey aircraft. traffic control: Australian AWC and ATC radar. RPR.8. A Radar Trian~latiOnSub-C0mmittee has been Cooper, C., and Hindman, J. V. (Ig46).- form~clto advisc the Kational ?+lapping Council on An improved range measuring circuit. the application of radar to distance measnrement. RI'I<.20. The Sub-Committee has asked that special attention Dewsnap, G. C. (194G).-Output pulse trans- be paid to the problem of radar triangulatiolz, and formers for radar sets. RPR.36. experimente are according!y being conducted to deter- Dowries, J. G. (1047).-Interim report on opera- mine the best method of applylng Shoran to this tion of D.M.E. and hi.T.IZ. equipments- mi~asurernent. Fronz the work undertaken to date, Sydney to I2lcl'oourne trials. RPR.69. it is kno~vnthat accuracies of several parts in 104 Fraser, D. 13. (l046).-Spectrum of noise from are possible; a figure of one in 105 may be achieved temperature limited diodes. RPR.25. in the near future. Freeman, Joan M. (194F).-Investigation of elec- An investigation of the variation of velocity of trical hrealrdon.11 of gases at low pressures in radio waves in the lower atmosphere due to changing the micro~vaveregion. RPR.50. atmo-pheric conditions has shown that they will affect Fry, J. A. (1947).-The reproduction of tran- the radar results to an appreciable extent. Measure- sients in radar receivers. llE'R.61. ments of the change in temperature and pressure of IIibhard, L. TJ. (1947).-Eemote radio control. the air and water vapollr content over long paths 11PR.57. have ahown that satisfactory corrections for these - (1947).-A composite radar, remote control, effects are possible. and telemeter eyuiprnent. RPR.63. 12. Radio Control of illode1 Aircraft.-As an aid Kaiser, T. R. (191G).-An automatic polar dia- to aerona~ltical and metcrological research, the gram recorder. RPR.5. Ilivision has started to develop radio equipment for Kaiser, T. R., and Dla~lcett, L. R. (1946).- the remote control of model aircraft by radio. This Impedance of a slot dipole near a reflecti~g ~vorliis part of a joint progra~nn~ebeing undertaken surface. RPR.34. in collaboration with the Council's Division of Kerr, F. J. (1946).-A survey bf radio super- Aeronautics and with the iZerona~iticsDepartment of refraction on 200 Mc/s in the coatal region the University of Sydney. On tllr aeronautical side, of Australia. RPIi.37. it is expected to lead to techniques for the study of Kraus, E. B. (1947).-Theories of drop and aircraft in free flight under conditions which cannot crystal formation. RPR.54. be sirnilatrd in the 11-ind tunnel and with models which Mills, R. Y. (194G).-Some limitations in cathode do not have to be large or safe enough to carry a pilot. follower design. Rl'R.16. For meterology, it is expected that a flying model - czn be used for investigating detailed meterological (1946).-Circuit design details of L-band phenomena, c.g. rain clouds and also for routine thermistor power meter. PiI'H.39. rueterological measurements. Molloy, D. B. (1947).--6 method of frequency modulation of resistance capacitance oscilla- 13. Work for the Serz1ices.-The trials of the only tors. liPR.62. remaining service equipment on the Division's pro- Nulholland, E. B. (1947).-Test equipment for gramme have been completed in with collaboration multiple track range equipment Mark the Royal Australian Air Force. The equipment is I. RI'R.59. a radar set of a new high-powered type of which two prototype models were nearly complete at the end of Pearcey, T. (1946).-Modern trends in computing the war. The set has been used extelisirely as part m ehincs. PIlF.52. of the Airways Control Radar system for civil Piddington, J. H., and Cooper, B. F. C. (1946).- aviation purposes. The Australian distance indicator. RPR.7. 14. Yub7icrrfions.-In common with other labora- Piddington, J. II., and Reed, J. W. (1946).- tories, difficulty has been experirnced in getting A cornputor for dcterminii~~aircraft position material publiqhed in a proper form. The manuscript with a distance measuring radar set. RPR.l. of a text book of radar was completed in July, 1946, Treharne, R. F. (1946).-Radar aids to Austra- as a joiot work by several members of the staff. The lian airways control. RPR.18. issue of the book, however, has been delayed by Treharne, R. F., Bennett, E., and Everitt, M. printing difficulties and may not appear until next (1 946).-Air transportable centimetric ycar. Similarly, aith scientific and tecdhnical papers. heigl~tfinding radar (C7,IIZ IIk. I.) interim Ten papers have been accepted by overseas journals technical mamial. Parts I. and 11. bnt are still awaiting pnblication. RPR. 17.

+a- el*. 102

Wirsu, 0. L. (1946.).-An electromechanical 2. Lubrication, E'rtct~on and Wear.--Our know- aerial field calculator. RPR. 12. ledge of the lubrication process is still in a rery incom- -(1946).-LW/AWH Mark 11. light weight plete $ate. The nature of the force \vhich holds the air warning and height finding ground radar. l)oundary film to the lubricated surface, the influence RPR. 41. of the metal surface, and the nlcchanis~nby which the The following papers have been published in outside film is repaired during the sliding process are still not journals :- ell understood. The properties of the l~ounclary film or lubricant Bowen' E' G" Gooden' J' ") and " (1946) .-Application of pulse techniques to therefore continue to be the chief preoccupation of the acceleration of elementary particles. this group of the Sec'ion, and the parallel work on n'ature 157 : 840. wear and on the actual performance of lubricated engines and bearings must always depend 'for its Iiibbard,"7 and J. (1947)i--A precision exponential potentiometer. J. Sci. advnnees on fhe progress of the more fundanlellta! research. Instruim. 24 : 92-4. Kraus, E. B. (1947).-Earth sciences. Bust. J. (i) ~V~chnnismof Boundary fitbricationl.-The fric- Sci. 9 : 180-3. tional behariour of boundary lubricant films of fatty K~~~~,E. B., alld Squires, p. (1g47).-Experi- acids and me a1 soaps of known nlolecular thickness is merits on the s,imulation of clouds to produce being studied on the Bowden-Leben apparatus. With rain. Nature 159 : 489. films deposited by the Lnngn111ir-Ulodgett method, it ~f~~~~~d~,L. L. paWsey,J. L., and ~~~~~-fi~~~~, has been found that with increasiug temperature, (1946).-Radio frequency energy fronl changes in friction occur at temperatures corresponding the sun. Ibid. 157 :158. to known physical and chemical changes of the luhri- Pawsey, J. L. (1946).-Observation of million- cant in blllk. degree radiation from the sun at a Various metals have been shown to require different wavelength of 1.5 metres. Ibid. 158 : 633. numbers of molecular layers (from one in the case of steel to seren with platinum) to give effective boudary lubrica'ion. These results have provided valuable in- formation on the theory of the action of these boun- dary lubricants. It is propoped to continue the study XVII. TRIBOPHYSICS. of the hchavionr of molecular la^-ers of lubricant 1. IntrodqLction.-The work of .this Section now addi'ives by the use of surface potential and electron falls into three main groups: the first dealing with diffraction methods. friction, lubricatioa, and wear of solid surfaces; the (ii) silicone Lubricmts.-The low viscosity-tern- second with the structure and properties of solids, perattl~re co-efficient of silicone liquid. makes them especially of metals; and the third with the mechanism peculiarly suitable as lubricants under condition? of explosion. \x7here the temperature varies widely. Unfor(unate1y Lubrication, and in particular boundary lubrica- they hare been foulld to pcssess poor boundary lubricat- tion, is essentially a surface effect. Ang advance in ing properties and they would probably therefore re- our kllowledge of this subject will therefore dcp.cnd on quire atitiitire fol' 11~under extreme 1)re sure conditions. more exact knowledge of the physical and chemical Silicone films of molecular thicliness, however, can properties of the lubricilted surface, as well as of the be put on metal surfaces by treatment of the surface, lubricants themselves. Work in this subject has there- after conclitioning in a high humidity atmosphere, with fore been mainly confined to a study of the frictional the rapour of an alhyl chlorsilane. Films formed in properties of molecular layers of lubrirating sub- thiq manner reduce the friction he'ween metal surfaces stances. Wear is being studied by mechanical and coliiiderably, act as excellent boundary lubricants to metallurgical methods and more recently by means of a unusually high temperatures (200'-250' C.), and show radio-active tracer technique. good wear-resisting properties. Tests have been made Despite the technical importance of the mechanical with copper, cadmium, ~tcel,silver and platinum sur- properties of metals, the numerous attempts to predict faces, and all have shonn good lubrication with sili- these from principles have met with cone films. The lubrication of silver surfaces is very little success. Since me4als are crystalline, the particularly interesting, since this has not been properties of the crystals define the behaviour of the achieved previously by the normal methods of boun- metal in b~lli. -1 better knowledge of the properties dary lubrication. It appears that the greater the nuin- of crystals, especially of their mechanical properties her and six of the alkyl groups in the silane the better and the way these may be changed by heat treatment, is the lubrication, e.g. amyl silanes have been shown is therefore required. The programme of the group to be better than the e'hyl compounds and di-amyl has this grneral aim in view. silane better than mono-amyl silane. The preparation The work on explosives continues to develop in a most of such substituted silanes, however, has involved a sati~factoryway, and has made substantial contribu- great deal of inrestigational work. Cetyl silanes are tions to knowledge of the mechanism of explosion in now being examined. liquids. One of the members of the explosives group (iii) L~rbrication of Bearings and Piston Rings.- is at present studying gas kinetic0 with Professor To be of practical value any fundamental advance in Hinshelwood at Oxford Unirersity. Two officers of the knowledge of lubricants rriust b~ related to the the Section are working with the Research Group for actual performance of moving machinery. A tat the Study of Physics and Chemistry of Rubbing Sur- engine and a bearing testing machine have therefore faces a: Cambridge. Close collaboration TT-iththis I~tlendesigned, on which the performance of lubricating laboratory continues. films under normal working conditions can be Thanks to the continued generosity of Professor examined in detail. Hartnng, the Section is still mainly housed in the (a) Pislon ring lubrication.-In previous reports, Chrmistry Department of the ITniversity of &/Ielbourne. some acco~mthas heen given of a qualitative study of TIT-o temporary huts in the University grounds have piston ring lubrication by elcctrical rciistauce methods taken up the orerflonr. The Section owes a great deal in :~JIattempt to establish more rapid methods of inves- to the active co-opera'ion and help of the University, tipa4ion than thc traditional wear measurements. particularly of the Chemistry, Metallurgy, Engineer- Over the last year, work on this project has been con- ing and Phy-sirs Departn~entq,which have all allo~r-ed rentrated on electrical methods of integrating the resi.q- the S~ctionthe use of many of their facilities. tance trace obtained on the cathode ray screen, so that the method may become quantitative and be directly 3. Netal Physics.--The work in the field of metal correlated with previous wear measurement work. physics is concerned (a) with plastic deformation and This project is being carried on in collaboration with strength, and (b) with phase transformations and the Division of ileronautics. :heir mechanism. (6) Bearing testing.-Previous work in the Section (i) Pltrstic I1eformation.-In order to explain the made use of an electrical resistance method of estimat- deformation of metals satisfactorily, the mutual inter- ing running performance of sleeve bearings, but the action of the crystals and the manner in which they results were of a purely qualitative nature. An take part in the deformation have to be understood. It 1 a:tempt to correlate this m~thnlwith the Sommerfeld has become obvious from the results of investigations I variable ran into considerable experimental difficulty that neither the metal specimen as a whole nor the in the ~neasurenlentof friction. Some work has now crystals comprising it deform uniformly. Three been done on the design and construction of a friction sources of this non-uniformity have been investigated. balance incorporating relatively highly stressed flexure (a) Anisotropy of plastic properties.-Crystals with pivots. It is anticipated that thi~balance will allow different orientations of their crystallographic axes further experimental work to be carried out in terms rclatire to the direction of the applied stress show of the Sonlmerfeld variable and also provide a means different elastic limits and worli hardening charac- of quantitatirely correlating the electrical method teristics. Hence they deform to different exten:s if the with it. sperimen is deformed; the dciorlnation 01 the speci- (iv) Radio-active Tracers for Detection of Wear.- nlen being an average value of the stains suffered by Radio-active tracers have been used to measure metallic the crystals. Eten within a grain the extent of de- tran*,rr and wear during lubricated and urilubricated forniation varies when one traverses from one boun- sliding. By including a radio-active isotope in one of dary through the crystal to the other 'r)onndary, and a pair of sliding surfaces, the amount of metallic trans- the liardcess values vary correspondingly because of fer ran be measured by the activity of the previoixsly the work-hardening ?Sect. A crystal is deformed in stable surface, and the distribution of transferred the neighbourhood of its boundary to a smaller metal shown by a photographic method. or larger extent than in its centre depending This technique has hcen particularly weful in de on whether the average deformation of the tec'ing transfer between two surf aces of the same rnetal neighhour is smaller or larger. This effect of the whcre chemical methods cannot be used. The nature neighiour is still observable at a distance of inch and amount of transfer bears a definite relationship fl.or,~ the boundary. to other frictional effects. Up to the pregent, radio- aciix-e lead, cobalt and iron have been ~~hcd,but various (1)) Type of deformation.-In drawing and rolling, other metals have been ordered from America. the surfare of tlie metal is in contact with the tool and ii deformed differclitly from the cen're because of the (v) Wear Properties of Carbon Steels.--Esperi- merlts have been carried out to determine the relative frictional forces. On annealing, tlie more heavily de- wear properties of various plain carbon steols and the formed part of the specimen recrystallizes at a lower effect of various heat treatments. temperature than the les dcformed part. Experi- The procedure consisted of drawing a hemispherical ments on brass 1~7ir.ehave been completed. They have ~tpelsli(3c~ o~er a flat +-tee1plate, both slider and p!:ite shown that the surface of the wire recry-tallizcs before being of t11e same composition and in the same state the centre. The inve.3tigation is being continued with of hrat-treatment. The torn track.: thus produceti on iron. the snrface of the plate were invectigated bg means of (c) Presence of two phases in, an alloy (two-phase tapas sectioning in wl1ii.h the depth of the tracks is very alloys).-The work on the deformation and recrystal- grclntly ~rl:~gnified. By conlparison of ihe tracks on all lization of 60-40 brass reported last year is noxv com- the plates used an ind~cationof the rplatirc wear pro- l)l("e, and an accouiit is now bt1ing prepared for pub- perties of the various steels can be obtained. lica'ion. The >oft alpha-phase is dcformed at a lower The experiments are not yet complete, hut it appears stress than the beta-phase. On annealing th~recryital- that a steel m-ith about 0.7 per cent. C. after qut>nci!illg 1iz:ltion of a clue:lched alloy tarts in the alp21a-phase arid teinpering, and a 1.1 per cent. C. steel after allti of a slowly cooled alloy starts in the beta-phase. The spheroidizing, shorn better wear resistance than the n t~:.lc-harc!enirg cl~artictcrictiesof the alloy in the two other steels inx~s:igatcd. different states are apparently iliffercrlt, at least in the (vi) General Lubrication Work.-Work is buing early stages of the deformation. It is thought 'hat the carried out on the cffert of surface finish on the fric- ordrr-disorder transformation taking place ill the beta- tion of h~brirntedand unlubricated metal surfaces and pliase is responsible for this difl'r~enc.~etm thoiigh order is destroyed by ex:ensive cold working. also 011 thc rate of corrosion of metal surfaces in con4aetwith oils containing fatty acid;. A number of ( ii ) Pilase ('kanges in Solid 11leials.-(a) Diffusion. small ad hoc problem have bren investigated at the -1)iffn;;ion is the basic mechanism by which any request of various other go\-ernment departments and phase-rhsnge in the solid state occurs. In spite of its industrial firms. importance the (Idails of the process are very little (vii) Electrolytic Polishing.-E1eetrolg:ic polishing u~~rlcrstc~od.Using radio-actire isotopes of iron and has continued to he applied ext~ensivclyto various re- ccbalt the rates of self-diffusion of these elements are search problems. It has proved very usefnl as a being determined. By nleasuring theqe ratrs at tem- method of preparing surfaces free from deformation p('ratUrrs above and helow those of the allotropic trans- for frictional rneasurernc~rts. It has a150 becol~~ea row fcrn~ations,the effect of crystal structure on the heat fine m~thodfor the preparation of metal ~pecimensfor of acti~ationfor diffusion will be examined. micro,scopic investigation. Metals for which the (b) Order-disorder fransformntion in beta-brass.- method has been applied inch~dealumirriuin, cad~i~iurn. .2lthongh oery extenqive investigations of :his trans- copper, Irad, niagac~iurn,silrc.r, iron, tin and zinc and formation have been carricd out, it is not known their alloys. rrhetlier the order can be destroyed by cold working. The experience gained in this field has been valuable 'i'tie brittl~nessof the heta-phase has obviously made in applying this new method of surface prcparation to iltlpossihle an ex:cnsive deformation of the alloy. By industrial proceirses. Among the investigations which 11sing a di~plexalloy in which crystals of the beta- have been carried out for industrial firms are the phase are cmbedded in soft crystals of the ductile electrolytic poliI.hing of pres3ed aluminium articles. alpha-phnce, large dcformations of the beta-phase can At the request of industrial users, a comprehensive he obtained. 3feasurements of the electriral resistivi'y report of the method has been prepared and distribnted. of the duplex alloy after various amounts of reduction in area, tly wire drawing, have shown that the resip A Wyoming bentonite with satisfactory properties tivity increases as esl)(bctc~tlif the order in the beta- was used as a standard of con~parison. The results to phase is destroyed. date show that while none of the Australian bentonites, 4. Explosives.-The propagation of detonation as found, are equal to Wyorlling bcnionite, they can through tliin lagers of liqaid cxl~lcsiresis being studied be considerably improved by treatments involving base- by high-speed photographic methods. exclmngc reactions. It has heen ilio~~-i1that from tl~epoint of initiation a Tlic ~~or.!cis being continued on these lines and has relatively slow and gentle process spreads out involved the devrlopment of techniques for measure- for a short distance, until suddenly detona- ments of base exchange, filter cake permeability, yield tion is set up. Initiation of detonation occurs value, thixotroyg, swelling pressure, !,article size, etc. spontaneous!y ahead of the flame front of the (iii) iIIeclzanica1 Engineering E1aczlities.-The Sec- previous gentle process, probably as a re.qult of the tion lias been fortunate in still being allowed to make combined effects of shock and heat from the reaction, use of ~vorlishopand other equipment of the University and sin~ultaneonslya ('retonation " nave is sent back of Melbourne, despite the extreme pressure on the through the hot gaseous products remaining in the University facilitics caused by the greatly increased wake of the primary flame. All these processes have number of students. At the same time, it is realized their prallel in gnscous explosions, in fact the pheno- that this can only be regarded as a temporary privilege mena observed in the thin liquid films may be con- since it must disrupt University work to a certain sidered as almost exact replicas (in miniature) of extent. Therefore advantage was talien of an oppor- many of the xi-ell-known effects cllnracteristic of the tunity of obtaining surplus machine tools from the setting up of the detonation wave in gaseous mixtures. Directorate of Machine Tools and Gauges. It can now A further resemblance lies in the behaviour of hot be said that the Section morhshops are complete in so gases-" Schxvaden "-remaining in the make of the far as existing temporary acconlmodation will allow, detonation wave. These have been sho\vn to move and that only comparatively minor additions are re- rapidly after the detonation wave travelling with quired to make the Section entirely self-su8icient in decreasing vclncity in the same direction, this respect. until after a short time their motion is reversed and (iv) A1iscellaneous.-The Section has continued to they travel rather more slowly in the opposite direc- give assistance and aclrice on llibrication and bearing tion. The propaqation of explosion in a thin liquid problems to many government departments and to a film has also been shown to be an essentially discon- wide variety of industrial organizations. Some of the tinuoils process, '(detonation " appearing to consist of fundsrvlriltal work has proved to have a direct appli- a succe.;.;ioa of po~rcl.fnl but extremely localized cation to the study of bearing performance and two explosions, rapidly follo~xringone upon tlie other. papers on this aspect of the work have been published. These results r17ere mainly obtained in work using TIlemhers of the Section are acting on various technical nitroqlycerine. It has been shown, however, that other committees and in particular on the Engineering liquid explosives have the same characteristics. Group Committee through which it keeps in close At the present time events preceding tllc detonation touch with &Illnitions S11pp1y ~,abo~atnrirsand other wave are being examined by means of flach and laboratories of the Council in Sydney and Melbourne. Schlieren photography. Considerable progrecs lias been K~c~ntly,in conjunction mith the Division of Aero- made mith the construction of new high-et~w-nartificial and natural weather in^ agencies visit to the United States of America, Rnqland, and apnears to be necessary. the Continent, where he is innuiring into the organi- (v) Phofonranh.y.-Some photographic equipment zation and operation of building materials research in has been obtained, and a limited photography service is tho* countries. Tn addition, he is contartinq many being given to the laboratories. 3. Physicul and Mechanicul Testing Laboratory.- \ (d) Linear ezpnsior~apparat~~s.-Equipment has 'i) General.-The responsibi!ities of the Pllysical and been constructed for determining the movement due to %fecllanical Testing Laboratory include (a) service to cl~angein either temperature or moisture coutent of other sections in the making of physical and n~c~chani- materials of low cespansion co-efficients. This equip- cal tflsts, (b) co-operation with other sec,tions in the ment has been used for nd hoc tests on clay bricks. A planning and implementation of worh rcqiilring a back- comparator for the measurement of drying shrinkagci ground of applied n~eilllanics, (c) tl(~re101;rnrrit of ill coilcrete has also been constructcii. weathering-tcstin tccl~niclne, (d) adricc to otl~('rsev- (e) ALrasior~testing.-A flagstone abrasion machilie, tions on iilstrlin~c~ltatioii,and (e) ~pecial inrestiga- at present being n5ed by the Surfacing Jlatcrials Sec- tions, e.g. perforniance of concrele roofing tilc s. tion, has been installed. Owing to the lack of equipment, it is not yet possible (f) Fire resistance of building mnfe~ials.--Methods to make within the laboratory many of the tests of evaluating the fire resistance of building materials desireti, although atlvantage has been taken, on have beell reviewed, but no facility for ~c~akia~sucl~ occasion, of tile faciliticss offered by the Di~isionof teats has been provided. Forest l'roducts. (g) IJarf icle size deterrqkafion.-In co-op,eratlon with tlic ?vlasonry Section, an elutriator of the Some time has been devoted to problems associated Iirielibel type, for the ~smninationof the particle size with the manufacture aiid performalice of colic2rcte distribction of cement, plaster and clay, has been roofing tiles. For the most part, the approach has d csigned. been essentially practical, vr-ith the air of proriding (iv) lreoth~rinqf?tudies.-The question of develop- i~nnlediatctechnical aisisiance to incii~stry,but latterly ing we:~tI~eringtechniques has been considered in sonlc more fundamental work has been undertaken. detail. -1ltliough it is desirable to develop the well- Attention has been given to the developn~ent of linown ('weatherometry ", " freezing-and-thawing " weathering tc~stingtecliniques. and " wetting-and-drying " tests, it is intended to ob- (ii) il/lechnnical Testing and Equipment.-(a) I'est- tain basic inforniation on which to establish accelerated ing rv~ochinesand ln~chunirnlf~sting.--The b1ue;irint~ rind other laboratory weathering techniques. This will of the 1,000,000 lb. universal testing machine, ordered he done by approaching the subject of weathering from last year, have been rcccired, and the preparation of a more fundamental aspect, i.e. the examination of cletail9 for the construrtion of the machine has begun. the conditions of radiation moisture, &c., to which P;-eliminary inquiries intlicate that the machine can be materials are subjected in qervice. 1)etermination of con.;trlxcted in Australia, but its completion and erection th~duration and quantitative spectral distribution of will probably take at least two years. 60,000 Ib. solar radiation in selected localities is planncd as 21 unirc~rsal testing machine has been ordered and i.3 starting point. Concurrently, correlation of these expected in about five months time. To accomn~odate factors with the corresponding " sol-air " and black- wealicr materials, machines of 5,000 lb. and 500 lb. hody temperatures and with general meteorological capacities have been designed and the latter already data is intended. coristructed. Oln sereral occasioils dl~ringthe year, the problem of Impact testing has received some consideration. The water-proofness and weather resistance of mortars, ill Izod values of plaster, fibrous plaster, and a number the form of tiles and wall sheathing or renderings, has of other building boards have been briefly investigated arisen. Consideration has been given to the develop- to determine a suitable capacity for an Izod machine rnent of apparatus for investigating the bearing on to be used on these materials. Their exceptionally low th~wproperties of suvh factors as particle size and strength introduces difficulties, particularly as it may grading of the aggregate, water/cenlent ratio, void or be desirable to test thin sheet material in single thick- capillary dimensions, physical characteristics of aggre- neqses. The limited tests made on fibrous plaster gatc.s, sntl richness of mix, with the ultirl~ateaixn of shouled a high sensitivity to fibre density, and left determining the mode and rate of moisture transfer. little doubt that Izod tests could be of considerable Similar investigations on plaster are contemplated. importance. Other nlechanical tests, chiefly on (v) C'oncrt IP Roo/nq Ti1rs.-Attc~ntiot~ has been strength, were limited to concrete roofing tiles, con- devoted to the problems associated with portland crete building units, and a few plaster specimens. cement concrete rcofillg tiles, with the object of dircct!y (b) Press~s.--~4 small 10-ton hot plate laboratory assisting the expansion of this inclnstry and the im- press has been installed and a 150-ton hot plate press provement of the quality of its product. After exaxnin- ordered for general use. The latter will be used in iug industrial practive, a report on production methods concrete, sand-lime bricks, ceramics, and building was prepared and circulated to manufacturers and boards investigations. pltblic authorities throughout Australia. Numerous technical inquiries on this subject have also been (iii) Physical Testing Equipment and Serz>ices.- anqn-ered. Such factors as grading of sand, ~nnistnre (a) C'ondifioning rooms.--No conditioning rooms are permeability, and coloilr have been investigated ex- yet arnilahlc, al~llovehtl~e iliqtallation of a fog room perimentally, and information collected on overseas for concrete c~~ringand a cyclic room for weathering methods. studies and gen~raluse will be commenced as soon as The outstanding problem in the concrete tile in- possible. The constrnction of an additional vyclic dustry is the production of a weather-resistant surface room and two con~tanttemperature conditioning rooills finish. Work is now proceeding on the derclopment has been planned. of a water-proof, smooth surface free from fading xnd (6) W~afkerin~testing.--An " Atlas " twin-arc efflorescence. At the same time, it is hoped that thp meatheromcter, lately installed, has been used exclu- production of a glaze will be achieved and that its sivel.7, so far, in the investigation of caullcnig com- smoothnc~swill prevent the adherence of wind-borne pounds. A furthcr weatherometer, designed particu- material with a consequent reduction in the incidence larly for use tvith roofing tiles, has been constructed. of veeetation. Already an improved trowelled surface Freezing-and-thawing and wetting-and-drying tests has been produced, hut the widely-usrd spraying arc ~lndcrconsideration and salt spray equipment has i~~~thodintroilllces additional rheologiral problems been ordered. which are now receiving attention. (c) Moisfurc permenhi1ify.-Apparatus for deter- 4. Co~lcrefr Jn~~r~tigntions.-Altho~~ghmuah time mining tlw r~ermeahilityof mortars, plaster, ccranliw, 112s b~cngiven to t~chnicalinquiries and the decigli asbestos cement and other sheet rr~aterial. i~nder a and constrnetion of equi~~nlent,the nlain inrestiga- 20-rm. head, has been developed and installed. iional work has been connected with the methods of ~~ianufactureand the properties of light-weight con- lime and clays, will form an integral part of the work crete. This project can be considered as embracing of the projects. four lines of attack-(a) Investigations concerned So far as concrcte bricks and blocks are concerned, with materials. Apart from cement, the main com- preliminary work, as it relates to composition and ponents are aggregates, aerating agents, and snrface- propertieq, falls within the scope of the Concrete active agents. (b) Investigations concerned with the Section. Similarly, work on the physical and mecha- design of mixes and methods of fabrication. (c) In- nical properties of bonded masonry units falls within restigations concerned with the curing of light-weight the scopc of the Physical and Mechanical Testing concrete. The use of vacuum treatment and methods Laboratory. The Division of Soils has already estab- of autoclare curing and electro-curing are included in lished a programme of research on soils from the this work. (d) Examination of the properties of ex- foundation point of view, and, consequently, it is un- perimental products. In addition to physical proper- necessary for tlie Masonry Section to undertake any ties, such as ~~olumechange under various conditions, direct xirork in this field at present. density/strength relationships, absorption and conduc- It is not intended to develop an extended programme tivity, attention is being given to the general question of work at present on natural building stones, although of durability under service conditions. it itill be necessary, in view of the importance of these This work, which has necessarily been of an em- stones in South Australia, to pay some immediate pirical nature in its early stages, has consisted of a attention to them, particularly as regards the develop- long series of trials and tests involving variations in ment of a method for assessing weatherability. such factors as the nature and quantity of the aerating 6. Sur/acing ik1aterials.-(i) General.-During the agent, the nature and quantity of the surface-active past t~elvemonths the Section has been engaged on agent, the nature and quantity of the aggregate, the three main proj~cts,namely, the study of floor surfaces method of mixing, and the time of curing. For de- with special regard to those based on concrete, the pendable and enduring work, however, this project tlerelopmant of suitable surfacing material for bath- must be treated as a long-term one. Very little is rooms and kitchen malls, and the study of gypsum really known about the effect of surface-active agents plasters. on cement and concrete, and consequently there is a With the exception of the lastnamed, for which wide field here for fundanlental investig a t'lon. there is in existence an extensive scientific and tech- 5. dlnsonry In11estigations.-With the appointn~cnt ~licallitel ature, a conspicuous feature of these projects of the Officer-in-charge of Masonry Investigations in has heen h he almost complete absence of reliable factual January last, together with that of a seconll officer information concerning the materials at present being with a wide overseas research and practical experience used. Such published statenlent as are available con- in ceramic and masonry products', consideration has sist, with minor exceptions, of those made or inspired now been givcn to the development of a programme by l~~anufarturersof proprietary products, the composi- of research on materials which may be considered tions of which are, more often than not, unknown. under tlie gcneral heading of masonry. Lt has, therefore, become necessai y, in order to provide From an over-all survey of the problems considered background information for the planning of more initially by the Bnilding Ifaterials Research Advisory detailed fundamental studies, to make a survey of Committee, of those presented by the Commonwealth materials at present being used for such purposes, and Experimental Building Station of the Department of to cntlcavour to determine in the laboratory their Works and Housing as complementary to its investiga- cornposition and the extent to which they f~~lfilthe ticl~l-,,and of those submitted by the various hon~ing claims made for them. authorities and private interests, it has been cl( nrly (ii) Floor Surfaces.--This problem resolves itself demonstrated that the following projects should naturally into two main parts, the physiological effect receive attention :-(i) Fundamental research into the of the floor surface on those ~i-howalk and stand on it raw materials, i.e. sand, clay and lime, used in the (i.e. tlle comfort of the floor), and the physical effects manufacture of masonry units. (ii) Production and of the walker on the floor surface (i.e. the durability prop~rtiesof clay bricks and tiles. (iii) Production of the Aoor). and properties of sand-lirnr bricks. (ir) Composition (a) Comfort.-The former part of the problem is and properties of lime mortars. (v) Production and immediately susceptible to a fundamental I-iio-physical properties of concrete blocks. (vi) Properties of approach, since it is almost certain that the subjective natural building stones. (vii) Properties of soils used phenonlenon of colnfort as applied to a floor can be as building materials and foundations. (viii) Physical re~olvedinto mechanical and/or thermal effects on the and mechanical characteristics, strength, permeability, feet. rllthougll the tlistribution of pressnrc on the soles &c., of bonded masonry units. of the human feet has long been of interest to pl~ysio- An initial survey of these problems has indicated logists, little progress has been made in the measure- that much fundamental work is required on the nature mcnt of silch pressure distribution except for the bare- and compositioil of all Australian ram- materials used footed subject standing or walking on specially pre- either directly as, or in the manufacture of, maFonry pared surfaces. For the present purpose, however, it units. There is little uniformity in the quality of is desirable to measure, if possible, both the time and the man~~facturedproducts, and therr is, in conse- space distributions of pressure when a man or woman quence, a demand for research work to imp~ove with shod feet -\valks on a variety of floor surfaces. quality; this is true of common clay bricks and tiles, Since a complete pace lasts only about half a sccond, and is particularly so in the case of concrete blocks the duration of pressurc on any one portioll of the foot and tiles. Shrinkage, cracking, and mechanical failure is so short that most ordinary methods of pressure in masonry structures are common faults, and the in- recording cannot be applied. An electronic pressure vestigation of the properties and setting of mortars gauge which will respond with suffici~nt speed to and tlie bondine; of masonry units is urgently nfxeded. enable transient pressures of such duration to he re- To initiate and develop every one of the projects corded with ease, aid which can be readily fitted into listed above ~vouldinvolve a large team of workprs; an ordinary shoe without discomfort to the wearer, hence it has heen decided that the Masonry Section has now heen developed. So far, it has not been found must, for the time being, concentrate its activities on possible to make these pressnrtl gavges respond satis- two groups on1y of these projects, viz. heavy-clay pro- factorily to loads corresponding to more than about a ducts, i.e. bricks and tiles, and sand-lime products, ?uttrtor of the hod? weight of an average man. Work inelnding sand-lime bricks and lime mortars. Funda- is now proceeding on the design of these gauges with mental research into the three raw materials, sands, a view to improving their response at higher pressures. (b) Durabilit~.-(l) Abrasion resistance of con- .\ start has also been made on a critical gurney of Crete fioors.-Apart from actual usage trials, which are the voluminous technical literature on this subject. necessarily lengthy and are often difficult to evaluate when conlpleted, it serve as a basis for fundamen- because of the effects of uncontrollable variables, the tt,: cxpelilnental work 011 the chemical and physico- normal method of comparing the durability of floor cl~emical properties of gypsum and gypsum plasters. surfacing materials is by means of some type of Tn connexion with the problems of gypsum slab-wall abrasion rnacbine. Nany such machines operating on houses, sncll as are beillg erected in South Australia . various principles have been described in the technical and are proposed to be erected in Victoria, experiments literature, and some are available commercially. None have been colnmenced on the problem of decreasing of them duplicate exactly the Jyear occurring Under the mater-absoPption of slabs, and an instru- normal traflic, and the results obtained with different ment has heen devised which promises to be useful machines vary considerably. for the measurement of the adhesion of renderings to As a prelude to a study of the types of wear pro- ,,,ell wallp. duced by the different varieties of abrasion marhines, by various types of traffic on pavements, as well as the 7s Building Bourds and Insulating Materials.- effect on wear-resistance of variation in type and quan- (i) G~neral.-It mas recorded in the previous report, tity of the ingredients used for the floors, an examina- follov,ing a perusal of literature and an examination tion of tile rumbler-type machine specified in British GI some of the requirements of the industry, that the standd 368: 1936 for the testing of precast broad oilt!inc of thc investigation on building boards gagstones has been commenced. ~h~ behaviour of a and in~u1:ltingmaterials had been conceived and that series of concrete flooring mixtures with and lk~itbout I)reparatorJ' work nas starting. Since that time, the special aggregates hardening- solutions is at present lal~oratory n orking space has been organized, many being in this preliminary results itemsoof equipment obtained or ordered, and designs indicate that it may be possible, by a modification in P~~~~~~~ a number of pieces of special apparatus the design of the machine, to accelerate the test (which ~vl~ichare not :tr.ailable on the market. In addition, at present requires48 hours) considerably without Ihc Section provides the facilities for the design and appreciably altering the type of wear. ecnstruction of such electronic measuring devices as It is proposed eventually to obtain abrasion machines "'a9 be reclllir~dbJ' the labor at or^ as a whole. of types and to examine the type of wear pro- (ii) Btiildinq Botzrds. - The properties of these duced in each for correlation with the wear found in boards nhich have engaged most attention are those practical use. of stren~thand the changes of dimensions caused by (2) Mastic flooring.-~amples of ~~~li~hvariations in atmo-pheric conditions. The most mastic which had been proposed for use as surfacing important observation so far obtained is that the for concrete-floorcd domestic buildings have been c!~ergyreqnired for breaking a building board specimen examined and found to flow under loads of approxi- i: the !lest avnilablr~ criterion for measuring its mately 2; lb. per square inch at room temperature, -11itability as regards strength. A small tasting indicating that seriollsmarking could be expected by u~whinefor flexual testing (loads up to 30 Ib.) has quite light articles of furniture. Lten completed, and a machine of the universal type T~~~floors of various types of cold-laid bituminous (maximum load 5,000 lb.) is under construction. Two mastics have been installed over sub-floors in cdhinets with doublc-glazed doors have been built to several laboratories and Tvorkshops,and their behaviour perirlit i~leasurernpnt~~vithout removal of the specimens. under traffic is being continuously. staff The temperature and humidity conditions within the using- these rooms report a marked improvement in cabinets can be ~aricdas required. comfort over the original concrete surfaces. 9 ecarc.11 for a suitable fibre of Australian origin (iii) En(hroom and Kitchen Wall Surfaces.-In for use in fibrous plaster has been undertaken. Scrim this fipld, even more than in the work on floor surfaces, l"'qsian, flax tow, and " Soylux " fibre (produced in is the of previous published data felt. A New South Wales) have been proposed, but it has been literatllre search has revealed llothing bearing directly citlmonstrated that none of these is suitable. Fibre on the problem of the soap resistance of wall surfacing from a ?actus (claimed to be Agave rigida 'ivapara) and consequently a survey of the behaviour g~.o~vingin semi-wild condition in Western Australia of ar,ailab]e nlatprials is most essential to provicle a has been sh0u.n to be suitable. A number of other starting point for more detailed and fundamental fibres are being investigated- studies. (iii) Thermal (loncltitity-The following stan- A testing chamber in which suitable panels can be dard types of apparatus are being constructed for subjected to a cyclic test simulating the treatment nieasuring the thermal conductivity of building receivecl by the walls of a shower cabinet has been mzterials : -- (a) A guarded hot plate apparatus to As soon as the necessary automatic nreon-imodate a Win. by 12-in. specimen (up to control gear is available, it will be used to test, for 1:-in. thick). This is at present being constructed durability under these contlitions, representative ir! the ~\or!rshopsof the njvi.ion of Physics. (h).A samples of tllc types of material at present employed gi1arde.1 hot plate apparatus to accommodate a 48-ln. and proposed to be employed for the walls of bath- by 13-in. sperimen will be constructed in the workshops rooms and shower cabinets. From the data so obtained, :it 1Iighett. (c)A guarded hot box apparatus capable a selectiolz F~illbe made of the types of material tvhich of taking specimens about six feet square. As it will could profitably be studied in greater detail. he some time before these are completed, a temporary Some work has been carried out under gu;!rtlrd hot platr apparatus has been set up in the static conditions with regard to the soap and heat izrboratory to obtain approximate results and operating resistance of lacqurr and enamel paint types of coating. experience, and a modified hot hox has been made with It was found that while nitrocellulose lacquers will wll'ch rzpid results may be obtained. re-ist the action of soap very much better than lletliods are being investigated for simultaneously spnthctic enamels of the alkyd type, they are rather rleasuring thermal conductivity and specific heat, but, Itlss resistant to heat. up to the prcsent, WOPI~in this ronnexion has mainly (iv) G~~~~,~PZaster.-All known manufacturers of been concerned with the mathematical evaluation of plaster in New South Wales, Victoria, Sonth Australia, expected conditions and results. alld Western Australia, as well as inany of the users, (ir) Aco?cstics.-Owing to the difficulty of obtaining kLare been contacted in order to determine the problelnq adequately trained staff, it has not been possible to of the plaster industry in Australia. press forward with the work on acoustics. However, some equipment ha6 been placed on order and is house, a pneumatically-operated caulking gun has been expected to be available by the time an attack on this devised which permits caulking operations, using ~~ioblemcan be undertaken. standard knifing-grade material, to be effected with (v) Electronics.-The Section has produced small ;?creased efficie~lc;~and economy. This equipment is pieces of measuring equipment for other sections and being adopted by the Commission for use in the progress has been made in the design of other concrete house project. A full description of the apparatus of this type. apparatus lins been published in the Council's Journal. During the year a request was received from the 8. Organic ili(rLcria1s Investigationu.-(i) General. Victorian Housing Commission for assistance in the -The construction of the Organic Laboratory, which ,-pecifiration of suitable steel-sash glazing putties. The was commenced towards the close of the previous problein has been investigated in the light of the many financial year was completed in December, 1046. points of similarity between these materials and plastic Itesearch work on the properties of building mastics caulking compounds. At the time of writing the work was commenced early in the year, and several iaciden- is not complete, but a number of tests have been tai investigations of problerrz; of immediate interest devised which are believed to differentiate between to the building industry have been made. satisfactory and unsatisfactory materials. (ii) Building AIastic~ (Caulking Compounds und (iii) Protection of ilfirror Films fronz Afoisture.- Fufties).-ils previously reported, material for the Following a request by the Panel of Architects, Vicb study of the properties of caulking coinpounds has torian IIousing Coiiimissio~z, a number of cases of been collected and represents, so far as is known, all deterioration of the silver films of mirrors fitted in bath- the proprietary caulking products at present marketed -oorns in Comnli;sion houses were investigated. As a in Australia. These are now being systenlatically IPSLI~~,it was (aoncluded that the damage was due studied to determine performance under various instal- to lation conditions. Fach of the con~poundsreceived ingress of moisture, and that poor-quality mirror back- is currently undergoing tests in grooved masonry blocb ing paint and poor sil~eringtechnique were contribu- exposed to the weather at Highett. Plans have been tory csrLacs. With the co-operation of the General rnatle to extend these teits to other climatic conditions. Chemistry Section, Munitions Supply Laboratories, Wit11 the co-operation of the Victorian Housing Com- Xaribyrnong, work mas undertaken to determine the mission, it has also been possible to initiate a limited most effective protective coatinp for the silver film and n~~mberof teits undcr service conditions in the joints the relation of silvering technique to durability of the ~f several " V.I-I.C." pre-cast concrete houses. I.-1 final report is not yet available from the Xl~lnitionsSupply Laboratories, but it has been found Exposure of a, number of the mastics to artificial that silver films deposited by the Braschear process, eathering (in an '' Atlas " twin-arc weatherometer) and protected with a good-quality bitumen paint, are hith continuous light and a three-minute water spray rcasonzh.y iuiperviou~to attack by ~noisture.Attempts cycle in each twenty minutes has also been undertaken are now to be made to correlate these observations in order to determine whether accelerated testing has ~ithdata on film thicknesses and moisture-im~er- any practical value for evaluation of these products. 1.1eability n~easurementsof the paint film. Precise conclusions cannot yet be drawn fronz the (iv) Adhesives for Papering Concrete Walls. - tests performed to date, but it may be stated that a Contnrts with both public and private authorities nl~niber of the materials examined exhibited serious ccncerned with pre-cast concrete house construction deterioration of adhesive and plastic properties after indicated that some information was required on a relatively short period (approximately two months) ~ltcoratlvetreatments for tile walls of concrete houses of weathering. Such compounds can at bbt have only The usual plastering tecl~niyue occasionally gives limited use, but further uork is necessary to determine rliffici~lties in these systems on account of the smooth- their value under less rigorous conditions. neb* of the form side of the concrete slab, and, while Concurrently with the foregoing, the materials are papeiing n-a* considered a possible alteriiative, some being investigated in the laboratory for their evalua- dcubts were entertained regarding the efficacy of the tion, and to determine the relationship of their u:ual paper-hanging adhesives for this type of wall properties with the requirenlents of current foreign qllrface. standard specifications. As a prelude to the specifica- Alccordingly,a series of test specimens was prepared tion testing, it was neoessary to select a suitable 1;: which a variety of concrete surfaces were prepared. standard porous masonry material. Sydney sandstone u.ing three different types of commercially available from the Wondabyne quarry of the Hawkesbury adhesives, viz. casein (low alkali content), animal glue, Sandstone Company was finally selected on the basis and starch paste. Allowances was made for such of its availability and its uniformity as regards T ariables as v,eight and texture of paper and backing porosity. paper, and sizing tei.hnique. The specimens were It is realized, of course, that foreign specifications ,,tored indoors in the laboratory buildings. Insufficient may not be entirely suitable for local conditions, and timca has elapsed to determine whether any of the the evaluation of existing laboratory tests is as much specimens are unsatisfactory. To date, all appear a11 object of this work as the evaluation of the caulking quite satisfactory, although the animal glue was con- c.-,mpounds themselves. The value of any laboratory sidered to be less traclablc than the others and caused tests mill, of course, be checked by comparison with staining of the paper. performance under service conditions. (v) Instrumentation.-Some time has been spent in Co-nsideration has also been given to the question devising and constructing sl)ecialized items of equip- of suitable techniques for the measurement of the rrlent for use in studying the properties of mastics. fl?ndanlental rheological properties of mastic materials. ill1 electrical device has been developed to eliminate For research purposes, the various c.nlpirica1 devices, personal errors in the manual operatioil of a stantlard colnmonly used to determine " plasticity values ", etc., penetrometer. This consists of a solenoid attachment, are considered inadequate, and attention has been given which is actuated by a timv-delay circuit incorporating tc the determination of the equations of flow for these a thyratroil valve and post-office relay. It has been materials. Experimental work to date has related to found possible by this means to control a five-second the shearing effect of thin plates embedded in putties. renetration period with an accuracy of 0.02 second. As a result of contacts established with officers of :"sllotlic.r time-indicating device consisting of a relay the Victorian Housing Commission in relation to the srld condenser-discharge circuit has been devised to cfiulking of wall joints in the "V.H.C." concrete permit rapid periodic readings of rate of shear of caulking compountls and putties. A constant rate-of- institute and the Agricultural Departments of Vic- strain tensile testing nlacliine and a thermally operated toria, South Australia, Western Australia, and Tas- " eapanding .joint " are at prc-eat under consl~.uclion. niania on the agricultural aspect of the work, and with ?'lie li~ttcr instrunlc~iit ii intended to reproduce the ll~eFlax Protlucticn Con~rnitteeon the corilrriercial rt~peated small dilliensional changes which inay be side oi" the inrlustry. ~j~countercdby mastics in joints subject to expanoire g. ggricu~tUya~.-(i) surveyof ~~~t~~ Influencing aiid contracatire movemc.nt. Fibre Q1in1ity.-This project, which was begun last (vi) Hitic~i~inousJIrtle~ia1s.-It was hoped during year, has already prored of considerable value, not ~!le jc2r tht it iiiiglit be possible to commence experi- ollly ill illdicatillg the of fibre cluality of various nicntal work on the properties of bituminous roofing agricultnral factors, but also in data on materials. LI st1ld.y of tllr properties of natural alld wlliChto new investigations. P~~example, special residual bituminous building materials was originally trials are being made this year by vie- st~conzl~lc~ntlrdhy the E~xilding Xatcrials Iiescarch torian Departlnent of A4griculture as a result of reconl- Advisory Committee, and there is a ~videspreatlneed nlclldations based on data collected in this survey. :it present for ~>liablrinformation on the perforn1:iuce ~h~ survey covers at least ten growers in each of six f bitun~inou~roll roofing. An ap1)reciation n.a~iilatie, nax-gro,;,g district& in alld includes the t!lereforc, of the vor;ous aspects of this ~roblernwhich history of tile in ivhichthe is groii,n, sowing, rtquirctl alt~liltion ant1 steps xerc taken to appoint harvesting, and details, and the cllemical an oficer to untlertal tc, Can:Lcla ant1 tlle Vnited States were More recently the work has been extended to illclude nlade later by the Ogcer-ili-Chargc before his return tlw general supervision of the processing of the straw to .lustralia. Thebe visits llroved of collsiderable from the large-scale field trials being conducted by the in tIlat they colllads to be nla,Jc,nith Flax Pro(lllction Comnlittec oil rarirtics, rate of seed- flax research workers overseas and provided an oppor- ing and time of harvesting. tuliity to obtain first-hand information about the 3. Processing. - (i) Wafer Retting. - Detailed inifustry in t1lr.e coui~tl~ic~~.Wllile in Belfast. arrange- studies hax-e been made during the past seven or eight ments were made for the purcliase by the ('olincil of years of the part played by various factors such as ;ILI experimental flax spinning plant, which it is hoped tempcratnrr and dilution in water retting. This in- c ill le in ol~c,~.:~tioii earl\- in 19-18, formation has hem publiilied as a bulletin. Largely In order to enqure that the neceqsarily lirnited staff as a result of this work it has been possible to estab- r?i~deqi~ipiilent of the Section will he u5ed in the best lish 8 sound bnt simple water retting procedure, tvhich i11tere.t~ of tlrc iildustry, tllc~ F1:m ICeiearch -1rlvisory can l)c 11sc~lwith confidence. ('oninlittee, nhich consists ot reyrrsentatives of the The retting of ilustralian flax straw presents un- gt.owers, spinners, aid thc Flilx Production Committee, usual difficulties in that retting appears to cease before a,~sistsby atlvising as to the relatiTe importance of the a sufficient breakdown of the fibre-cen~e~ltinqInaterial many prol)lcms awaiting solutinn. Close liaison is has occurred. Some simple means of obtaining a n:ailitainccl \\it11 tllt Toitc~ .\griciiltural Rt.sea~ch qrcater degree of ret in a reasonable tirrle is hcing sought. The most promising line of investigation pur- to many of the problems of the industry. Both Aus- sued so far, is to control the pEI of the retting liquor, traliali 'and high-grade overseas straw and fibre are either by aeration or chemical mcxns. Both labo ,story used in lllost of the investigations so that a comparison and mill experiments are being made. can be made; where differences are detected the effect Miscellaneous retting experiments made at the re- of such differences is determined and if possible the quest of the Flax Production Committee have been to cause ascertained. determine the effect on retting of the presence in the During the past twelve months the more important straw of a weed known as "loosestrife", of the use of chemical investigations have been the study of mine~al various weed-killers during the gro~ingof the flax, and ash constituents of straw and fibre, the relatlon and of the use of " rot-proofed " binder-twine for tying of tile chemical composition of flax fibre to its quallty, the flax sheaves. Other work has been to determine the study of the properties of flax fibre cellulose, and ri~eansof accelerating the retting of some particularly tcsts of the composition of flax wax. difficult straw from one of the flax mills. (ii) Physical 1nvestiyations.-The physical proper- At the same time as these retting experiments are ties regularly inclutled in the evaluation of fibre being made, the fundamental aspect of the work is saulpl1t.s include tensile strength, fineness of hackled receiving attention by a study of the bacteria involved. fihre, and the Inore important microscopic charac- Already a considerable background of knowledge has teristics. il detailed fundamental study is now being been b~riltup to enable a more logical approacll to be made of the nlechanical ancl pllysioal properties of made to all water retting problems. It has been shown uitiinate fibres of both Australian and overseas flaxes, that, although aerobic bacteria play no part in the arid it is hoped to relate tllese to yarn tliaracteristics. rctting prccess itself, they bring about the fermenta- Further microscopic studies have also been made of tion of certain flax coiistituents and pave the way for the cell structure of straw and of the progressive dis- the subsequent development of the true retting bac- integration during retting. teria. Methods of isolation and purification of the 3. I'1iOii~ii!ior~.-T1i~ follon ing pape'r was published anaerobic retting bacteria have been developed, and cluriiig the year :- at present a study is being made of the bacterial flora of Australian and overseas flax straw. Greenhill, W. L., and Couchman, Jean I?. (1947). investigation^ incidental to tank retting are con- -The water retting of flax. li.tQsum6of in- cerned with the periodic checking of the cherrlical com- vestigations frorn 1940 to 1045. Coun. Sci. position of the water being used at the mills for this Ind. Res. (Aust.), Bull. 211. purpose and with effluent disposal problems. The use of iron in the tanks, a practice which has been shown to assist retting, unfortunately aggravates the probleln XX. OTHER INVESTIGATIONS. of effluent disposal on account of the black staining it produces. In some districts the iron also appears to 1. Dcziry Researc7~-(i) Oerrera1.-The major activ- stimulate a sulphate-reducing bacterium and results ity of the Section over this period has bcen directed to st.\-era1 problems of immediate importance in the manu- in the production of hydrogen sulphide in considerable quantities. Froin more detailed investigations of this facture of Australian butter, but it has also been pos- action it is hoped to suggest a means of overcoming sible to devote sorne time to, and to make considerable the nuisance. progrws in, experiments on tlie better utilization of ill; I I< solicls-not-fat. Staff has not been available for (ii) Straw Treatments before and after Retting.- tl~cmore fundamental work on the physical chemistry Ai study has been made of the effect of exposing flax of dairy products, nor for the study of certain engineer- straw to sunlight for various periods before retting ing aspects of dairy precesses which the Section hopes and also of the effect of storage under cover. Ex- to undertake. posure, except when unduly prolonged, had no effect, During the year the small Dairy Scction of the but storage was advalltageous as regards both retting Division of Industrial Chemistry, which has been and fibre quality. working as a joint team with the Dairy Research Prelin~inarytests have also (been completed of the Scc.tioii, mas officially transferred to it, bringing the efiert of spreading flax straw for weathering after number of research officers to five. retting. An improaelnent in fibre quality 11 as obtained, (ii) 2'he iVanufacture of Butter without M'ushing. but the results need confirmation on a larger scale Lefore any definite conclusioris can be drawn. -The economic gain to be derived from elimination of the washing of buttermilk from the butter granules, Laboratory tests on rolling wet flax straw have con- a step in butter rfianufacture norlnally regarded as firmed overseas claims that this procedure not only facilitates the drying of the straw, but also improves c1ssentia1, was dealt with in last year's report. The the cluality of fibre which would otherwise tend to experimental work up to that time indicated that while the initial of butters from the same cream made be harsh. Rollers have now been installed at one of the mills, and large-scale tests are in hand to obtain more with and without washing were essentially the same, information on tlie practicability of rolling as a some of tlie unwashed butters deteriorated a little more routine operation. ral~icllyin cold storage. With the co-operation of five Victorian butter factories and of tlie Department of (iii) Plaz illachinery Investigations.-This work is Colnmercr and Agriculture, another experiment in- carried out in co-operation with the Flax Production volviilg the preparation of 200 carefully controlled Committee, in that the machine shop staff anrl facilities cliurnings was undertaken this year. Besides seeking at the laboratory are made available from tiine to caonfirn~ationof the earlier results, this experiment was time for developmentltl work on flax processing d~signedto study the keeping quality of the butters machinery. During the last twelve month$, the work at room temperature as well as in cold storage and to has included modifications to the butter on the pick-up give some definition of the conditions under which omis- binder, the construction of a set of rotor corrlbs for sion of lashing results in more rapid deterioration. To testing on a scrutcher, the manufacture and asselnbly do this an extensive study of the bacteriological and of equipment for malring air resibtance measurer~~ents rEleniical cliaracteristics of the butters has heen under- on flax qtraiv, and the construction of an experilneiltal taken. Should last year's findings be confirmed these humidifier unit for flax straw for scrutching. chemical studies, which include measurement of heavy 4. Evaluation.-(i) Chemical 7nuestigations.-This metal contamination, serum pH, and the extent of fat work, which aims at a conlplrte understanding of the oxidation occurring during storage, may indicate the chemical aspects of flax drvelor rnent and processiap. nature of any additional deterioration which occurs is considered to be essential for :ill ;ntelligent approach n11c.n the butter is not washed. From what is know11 of the chemical changes occurring in cold-stored butter, (iv) The Utilization of ShMilk Solids.-The it would not be expected that the higher serum solids better utilization of the valuable solids-not-fat of milk, content of the unwashed butter would of itsclf cause at present mainly used by the Australian dairy indus- more rapid deterioration. This matter is also of im- try as a feed for stock, depends largely on drying the portance in relation to several of the new butter- skim milk so thxt it can be readily stored, transported, making processes which give butter with high serum and used as an ingredient in human foods. The solids content. The experiment, which is not yet com- industry has hesitated to install the expensive plant plete, is therefore expected to shed some lihgt on several ileccssary for drying the skim milk because of the aspects of butter deterioration as well as on the prac- lark of a reliable and sufficient demand. This difficulty tical problem of whether mashing of the butter granules could be overcome if the practice of adding skim milk can safely be omitted in normal manufacture. power to bread, which has been adopted so succes-fully (iii) 1Peed Taint in Butter.-The unpleasant in the Unitrd States, conld be established in Australia. flavours caused in cream and butter by dairy stock Early attempts by the baking industry to incorporate eating certain weeds in the pastures provide a serious skim milk solids in Australian bread gave a loaf of problem in butter manufacture in many of our small volume 2nd with other quality defects. The northern districts. In some of these areas maintenance investigation undertaken by this Section, with the of a good pasture cover throughout the year is difficult assistance of the William Angliss Food Trades School, and, particularly in the winter and spring months, was intentied to dctel-mine the factors responsible for weeds make rapid growth. The taints derived from these quality defects, so that they might be eliminated. some of these weeds are intensified rather than removed Early experiments dealt with the quality of the dried by the processes which the cream undergoes during milk, particularly the inclusion of a sufficient heat manufacture into butter. t!.eatment in its manufacture, but little improvement nras apparent in the bread. Increased lactic acid Investigation of the problem was commenced last content in the milk \\.as foi~ndto give some improve- year in Queensland, with the co-operation of the ment. Slcirn milk powders from the United States, Queensland Agricultural College at Lawes, the Queens- known to give results in bread there, were then tried land Department of Agriculture and Stock, and the and found to have the same depressing effect on bread Queensland Butter Boa~d. In spite of the abnormally quality as the Australian powders. Further study led dry coizditions which greatly reduced weed growth, to the finding that the difference in behaviour of some useful information was obtained. It was estab- American and Austr~lianbreads was not due to dif- lished definitely that much of the weed-taint in Queens- fvrences in the flour, but to the fact that in American land buttus is of the type caused by Coronopus bread a small percentage of fat, usually lard, is a didynzus or lesser swine cress. The plant causes standard ingredient. Whcn fat \\as addeti to the dough similar trouble in New Zealand and has been the sub- in preparing Australian bread with milk powder, very ject of study by the Dairy Research Institute there satisfactory results were obtained. Even better results for several years. Experiments in which the weed was wtre obtained when the fat nas cniulsifietl in the skim hand-fcld to milking cows confirmed New Zealand find- n;ilk before drying. Beef and mutton fats mere very ings as to its extreme tainting capacity, and the period effcctire, wit21 lard perhaps a little better. The fat which must pass after ingestion before the milk re- plus skim milk loaves showed improren~entin every turns to normal. In New Zealand there is hope that ~~hysicalquality in addition to the known improvement suitable agricultural measures may be adopted to re- ir: nutritive value. Comnlercial scale tests have con- duce the growth of Coronopus didymus, but there is no firmed that at least 12 per cent. of skim milk powder possibility of this at present in many of the dairying coiitaining 20 per cent. of cmu1,ifieil fat can be added districts which are affected in Australia. Work has to bread. The major technical difficulty in the addition therefore been directed towards possible treatments of of skim milk solids to Australian bread has thus been weed-taint cream to reduce or eliminate the taint. While overcome. Many minor problems remain in relation a fundamental attack on this problem by isolation and to details of baking practice, fermentation time, and chemical study of the flavouring substance has not yet the effect of various fiours. been undertaken, it has been shown that the intensifi- cation of the taint which takes place when cream is Attention is being given to the physical chemistry pasteurized at high temperatures is due to a reducing of the ameliorating effect of a dispersed fat phase action, probably by sulphhydryl groups formed from when skim niilk powder is added to bread. Present the protein. Oxidizing agents tend to reverse this fundamental knowledge of the structure of bread and change. Experiments are therefore being made with of tlic changes which take place in the dough does not mild oxidizing treatments of the cream, but severe provide an c:iplanation of this effect. restriction is imposed by the necessity, under health Inventive research has been undertaken in the field laws, of avoiding addition of chemicals, and by the cf new skim milk foods, including carbonated drinks, need to avoid oxidation of the fat, or conditions likely spreads for bread, and potato and skim milk wafers. to lead to it. It has also been found that up to 20 per cent. of skim milk powder may be readily incorporated in sausages C. didymus is a rather ephemeral weed and con- a~~dothcr prepared meat goods with ilnprovemellt in tinuous study would involve its cultivation in suitable quality. plots. This n-as attempted, but seeds obtained from several SOUI'CPS failed to germinate. It was finally (v) Thickening of 7Jnslueetencd Condensed Milk.- found possible to germinate the seed after dissecting it The Nn~yDcpartmcllt has experienced trouble with from the seed coat. Experiments have also been made thickening and acidity in some lots of Australian in the direct transfer of the taint from the weed to unveetened condensed milk when stored in tropical milk, a technique which if it can be successfully de- climates. At its request an investigation has been veloped will simplify much experimental work. undertaken. Incubation tests have confirmed the tendency to increased viscosity, lower pH, and higher As well as these detailed studies of didymus, C. titratable acidity in milk of the brand known to cause broad survey of other tainting weeds is being carried trouble. This milk has also shown a markedly higher out with the assistance of the Dc.pnrtments of Rgricul- Specimens of weeds suspected of initial viscosity. Preparations have been made for ture in all States. fnrther investigation. rausinq taint are submitted for identification by the dairy-field officers. The tainting capacity of s~veral (vi) DL)?' in Dairy Products.-With the develop- suspected weeds has already been tested in feeding went in the United St~tesof America of methods for trials. the determination of DDT in dairy products, it has becoqe clear that when this insecticide is assimilated Loftus Hills, G., and Wilkinson, R. (19466).- by the cow it becomes concentrated in the milk fat, Note on the effect uf phosphatide on the ferric and this has caused concern to health authorities in thiocyanate method of estimating peroxide in the United States. In some dairying districts in fats. J. Coun. Sci. Ind. Res. (flust.) 19: Queensland the milking cows are spraycd with DDT 430-1. to control buffalo fly. Diminution of DDT concentra- Morell, D. B., Conochie, J., and Loftus Hilb, G. t~onon the coats of the sprayed cows has been observed (1946).-Determination of the oxygen con- to take place mainly by licking. After discussion with tent of fats and oils. Ibid. 19: 190-4. the Division of Economic Entomology it was decided Pont, E. G. (194(i).-The washing of butter and to analyse for DDT the butter from certain parts of its effect on curd content and quality. Ibid. Queensland, preferably during the early summer when 19: 432-7. the fly is most prevalent. The Division of Animal (1947).-A self-cleaning cream separator. Health and Production has been treating cows for drist. J. Dairy Tech. 2: 9-13. cc~lsiderable periods with DDT and the milk from 2. Radio Research Board.-During the year the these will also be examined. Preparations for the Itadio Research Board continued its programme of analytical work hare been completed. iilvestigations into the ~ro~agationof radio waves via (vii) Australian butte^ Survey.-In 1940 the the ionosphere. lhis programme has been carried out Technical Sub-Committee on Dairy Produce of the under the general direction of the Australian Radio Australian Gorumittee of Animal Production organized l'ropagation C'ommittee which was set up as a Com- a survey of the properties, conditions of production, niittee of the IZadio Research Board in November, and methods of manufacture of Australian butters. 1942. Tliis Colilmittee has a membership representa- Much of the survey, including the analytical deter- tive of all the Fighting and Civil Services and all the I niinations, vas carried out by the State Departments Gorernment research org:~nizations carrying out work of Agriculture, but this Section was responsible for on radio propagation and allied phenomena. the co-ordination of the work and for assembling the The programme includes the installation and opera- rcsults. Concentration on urgent war-time problems tion of ionosl~heric~tcording r;tation; and the use of had prevented publication of the data, which is exten- the infornlation so obtained in the preparation of sive and of considerable value to the industry. Much radio propagation data for use in connexion with the time has been devoted to arranging the material in a problems of high-frequency radio communication. form suitable for publication, particnlar attention These data are published monthly as Radio Propaga- being given to the variation in fat constants with tion Bulletins, which are now aaailable to the public. conditions of production. The results of the programme of investigation and the application of the results have proved increasingly (viii) Filter Cloths in Lactose 1Manufacture.-An valuabie to the Services and to civil radio communica- early step in the manilfacture of lactose from whey tion organizations. More importaiit still arc the new is the coagulation of the albumen and its removal by discoverie- that have been 11iade regarding the nature filtration. The albumen is clried, ground, and sold as of tlle ionosphere and the neiv lines of research that poultry food. The heavy filter cloths nhich are have been opened up by the developlnental programme practically unobtainable soon become clogged with now that it has been tl~oroughly organized on a albumen and calcium phosphates and after a few co-operative world-wide basis. washings cannot again be restored to a usable condition. The Board's work has been carried out principally Experilnents with combined acid and enzyme treat- in the E!cctrical Xngineering Department of the Uni- rrlent of the used cloths has given very promising versity of Sydney as in previous years. A second results and may extend their useful life many-fold. group has been working in the Physics Department Commercial application of this method is now being of the TTniversity of Queensland for the past three undertaken. ytars, and the Commonwvealth Solar Observatory at (ix) 1J1iscellaneous.-Several projects in which the Canberra has continued its long association with the Section is particularly interested, and on which work Board's research programme. bas already commenced, could be given little attention Since December, 2945, tl~eUniversity of Tasmania dkring a year. These included study of the role of has begun to share in the work of the Board by taking axorbic acid in the deterioration of butter, the part over the supervision of the ionosphere recorder at played by pliosphatide in the deterioration of several Ezobart. dairy products, and the phenomenon of bound phospha- 3. Mineragraphic Investigations. - Twenty - four tase in flash-pasteurized cream. ii~vestigationshave been carried out into the mineral At the request of the Army Department experiments association of rocks, ores, and mill products submitted hare been conducted on the freezing of milk in small by rninir~g organizations and institutions. Each containers for transport overseas. Preliminary experi- il~restigation was directed to some specific problem ments indicate that this method, which was used lelating to the occurrence or recovery of the valuable successfully by the United States Armed Forces during mineral. Six investig:~lionswere concerned with ores the war, will also be applicable under the particular that were subjected to experimental treatment in the local conditions. PJelbburne Ore Dressing Labcratory or with the con- centrates and tailings resulting from such treatment. (9) P~~blication~,-Paperspublished by this Section during the ~eriodcovered by the report were:- Inrestigations -ere made to determine the nature of the gold lo.ses in tailings from the Great Boulder Conochie, J., and Wiley, W. J. (1946).-The mine, the Maude and 'l'ellow Girl gold mine, and a maturing of cheddar cheese in pliofilm. Aust. Harnpton Plains mine. Incidcnially7 an unusual J. Dairy Tech. 1: 87-90 association of niccolite in a gold-bearing ore was dis- Loftus Hills, G., and Conochie, J. (1946).-The cavered in the IIampton Plains mine, about five miles mechanism of the oxidant effects of commer- south-east of Coolgardie. Xxamination of the gold- cial halt and water in buttcrfat. J. Coun. antimony ore from the Blue Spec mine, Nullagine SF;. Ird. Res. (Aust.) 19: 414-29. (Western Australia), showed in addition to free gold Loftus Hills, G., and Thiel, C. C. (1948).-The and stibnite, trace* of gold and copper tellurides. ferric. thiocyanair method of wtirnating A rnicroaropjcai examinaliotl of matters and sp~'%sea peroxide in the fat of butter, milk, and dried from thc I3roken Hill Associated Smelters at Port milk. J. Dairy Res. 14: 340-53. Pirie revealed a number of striking textures. It was found that the artificial conlponents in these products there has been a mild revival of interest in gold ores could be largely determined by the properties of knom and tailing dumps. Reports on gold ores from Mount niiiierals together with inferences from equilibri1:m Todd (Northern Territory) and Taw-onga (Victoria) diagrams. A low-lead matte and a high-lead matte have been used in connexion with the design of new were found to differ essentially in the relative propor- treatment plants. Variations in operating results at tions of a copper-iron sulphide and a eutectic of the Naude and Yellow Girl Mine, Gippsland, have copper-iron sulphide and a lead sulphide. A lead been investigated with some success. spciss contained turo forms of iron arsenide, a copper 5. vath he ma tical Statistics.-The activities of the arsenide, and a terntlry eutectic, together with dissemi- Section have continued generally along the lines of nated blebs of metallic lead and copper sulphide. An the previous year, assistance being provided in most antirllony speiss consisted largely of an arsenide and sections of the Council's programme, to various go- antimonide of iron and its eutectic with a probable vernment departments and the universities in the alpha-iron, together with dis~erninatedsmall particles several States, and to commercial organizations and of the iron sulphide known in nlc.teorites as troilite. private individuals. Little improvement has occurred A study of the Miocene sediments of the Aure in the acquisition of trained staff, one appointment Trough, I'apua, was rnade for the eoir~paniesengaged only having been made within the year. This results in oil search. The composition of the gfeywackes in restrictloll of scope almost entirely to work of an among these sediments is peculiar and conslits essen- auxiliary and an advisory nature, and allows only tially of angular grains of fairly fresh plagioclase limited opportunity for independent research. aild hornblende with varying proportions of rounded In addition to the courses regularly contributed in to angular fragments of igneous and sedimentary rocks the Mathematics Department of the University of set in a clay matrix. Quartz is n~tablylacking. The Adelaide, where the Sectional head-quarters are conclusion was roached that the bulk of the sediments housed, series of lectures in statistical method, with a was probal)ly derived largely from the rapid erosion bias in certain specified subjects, have been delivered of relatively unconLolidated terrigenous andesitic tuffs. at the request of other universities and organizations An extensive petrological exaniination has been in the Commonwealth. Awareness of the statistical undertaken of the bauxite deposits of Tasmania. These approach is obviously increasing, and it is hoped that deposits are widespread and fall into two groups, the courses of lectures will give further stimulus to the according to they overlie Jurassic dolerite or subject. Tertiary basalt. The most important deposits occur The long-range project of determining- the reliability at Ouse and St. Leonards orerlying dolerite, and carry of monthly rainfall in South Australia has been con- tinued, and there remains to be conlpleted only the about 40 per cent. alumina. In profile they are analysis of rainfall records from districts west of clraracterized by a transition from a capping of iron- Spencer's Gulf. rich bauxite through a zone of earthy bauxite, relatively Investigation of the trend in yield throughout the rich in alumina and poor in ferric iron, to a lower wheat belt of South Australia has been almost finalized, zone poorer in ah~niinaand richer in iron. and a full report is in process of preparation. At These investigations hare been facilitated by contri- this juncture it is worth mentioning- that approxi- butions from a number of mining companies through mately 25 per cent.-or, in absolute terms, 600,000 the ih~stralasian111stitute of Mining and Xetallurgy. acres-of the total average annual acreage in the period The Unirersity of Melbourne has also assisted by examined, 1913-1937, shows definite evidence of de- granting laboratory accommodation in the Geology clining yields. It has been decided to proceed further School. Extcllsions to the Geologv building are now "d " with this investigation in two directions, firstly, to in progress, and increased accommodation has been follow in greater detail the trend of yield in the de- provided for the Mineragraphic Section. velopment of mallee wheat lands, and secondly, to 4. Ore-dressing Investigations.-The co-operative extend the correlation analysis to study more closely investigations being carried out with the assistance of the relationship between yield and rainfall. the Kalgoorlie School of Mines, the South Australian Below are given briefly the projects of the various School of Mines and Indubtries, and the University of Divisions with which the Section has been associated Melbourne were continued. during the year, either in designing the experiments At Kalgoorlie, most attention was given to the concerned, analysis of results, or in advice on the form cyanidation, amalgamation, &c., of gold ores and of their presentation. dumps. Materials examined came from Southern (i) Division of Animal Health and Production.- Cross, Linden, Evanston, Lockwood, Widgiemooltha, Considerable interest has centred on wool biology. ICanonna, Lawlers, Fiiniston, Kookynie, Cue, Youanmi Certain results of the progeny tests have been prepared and Kalgoorlie itself. One sample of vermiculite and for publication, and further analyses carried out. one of clay were also examined. Extensive studies have been made of the productivity At Adelaide the work was almost solely devoted to levels of sheep as affecdted by plane of nutrition, and coal. An extensive investigation was made of various of their systematic reactions and wool production as factors influencing the briquetting of fine coal from affected by atmospheric temperature, fleece increment, Leigh Creek (South Australia), particular attention &c. Effects of similar factors on water consumption being given to the size of coal, moisture content, bri- were also noted. quetlinp pressure and the tifrct of changes in moisture In addition to routine analyses of field experiments content in storage. At the request of the Secondary concerned with parasitology, a further large-scale trial Industries Division, Ministry of Post-war Reconstrue- on the results of varying dosage rates of phenothiazine tion, the laboratory is now investigating some aspects has reached a final stage. of spontaneous heating in stored coal with particular The classing trial at Gilruth Plains has proceeded, reference to coal from the Blair Athol Field in Queens- and at the hfcAIaster Field Station the effects of vary- land. ing factors on measurements of sheep have been em- In Melbourne, work on ilmenite-zircon-rutile sands bodied in a report; here also results of sampling for from beaches in New South Wales, Queensland and fibre diameter, length and density of fleece were Western Australia has continued. The appointment of analysed. a physicist to investigate the principles of electro-static (ii) Division of Bioche&try and Ger~eralNutri- separation, with special reference to beach sand treat- tion.-The progress of a large-scale experiment on the ment, has been approved, but no appointment has yet effect of trace element deficiencies on sheep in South been made. Work on copper-gold, copper-nickel, tin Australia has been followed, and some of the results and other base metal ores has been carried out, and analysed. Other work has concerned the concentration of vitamin A in the blood of sheep; the interpretation the results computed; among these was a series of of interactions in the analysis of yields of pasture analyses of ascorbic acid content and other measures treated with zinc, copper, cobalt, kc.; ant1 the con- of polato quality. Other work included physical and fidence limits for energy relationships. chemical measures of apples, and date of picking in (iii) L)airy licsearch Section.-Experiments were relation to their keeping quality, the protection of planned and some analyses carried out on the quality tomatoes allti tobactao against virus transmission, and and durability of butter. response to fertilizers in pine plantations. (iv) Biuiszon of Economic Entomology.-Co-opera- (x) Division of Soils.-Attention has been directed tion with this Division is consistent and extensive. In to thr expectation of rainfall in certain localities in addition to analysing results of regular dusting and Soutl~Australia, and the results of an experiment spraying trials against insect pests, data on the reten- showing the effect of mechanical composition and tion of D.D.T. by cattle, the field distribution of grass nitrogen on water-stable aggregation have been grubs, an on the destruction of wood by termites, were analysed. handled, trapping experiments on blowflies planned, (xi) ik1iscellaneous.-Beyond Council projects, assis- and consideration given to the general theory of host tance has been provided during the year to the follow- parasite relations. ing :-Australian Capital Territory : Institute of (v) Flax Research.-Results from a number of agri- Anatomy. New South Wales : Forestry Commission, cultural trials, including resistance of different Soil Conservation Service. Queensland : Sub-Depart- varieties to wilt, effect of fertilizers, physical charac- ment of Forestry. South Australia: Department of teristics of fibres attacked by rust, and three retting Agriculture, Department of Woods and Forests, South experiments were analysed, and those also from trials Eastern Drainage Board, Roseworthy Agricultural related to linseed oil contents, fibre percentages, tensile College, University of Adelaide, including Waite strengths and the effect of storage and exposure. ,Igricultural Research Institute. Victoria : Forestry (vi) Division of E'ood Preservation and Tranaport. Cornlnission, Department of Agriculture, Flax Produc- -Assistance was given in the designing of experiments tion Committee, University of Melbourne, Joint Ser- on the dehydration of fruit, vegetables and meat, and vice Committee on Stores and Clothing, Royal Aus- with sampling problems occnrriag in fruit picking. tralian Air Forcc Repairs and Maintenance Direc- (vii) IILIWLOTLof l'o~est Products. - An increasing torate, Ministry of Munitions, Australian Forestry number of experiments have been designed and and Timber Bureau, Australian Paper Manufacturers analysed for the Division of Forest Products, in addi- Limited. Western AusIralia : University of Western tion to constant aid of an advisory nature in the many Australia. aspects of timber research. On the chemistry side, 6. Physical Metallurgy.-(i) General.-This Sec- studies of pulp and paper have involved the effect on tion has now completed its first year of operation; it properties of various factors-method of washing pulp, is homed in the Baillieu Laboratory in the University addition of salts, buffering agents, and so on-and the of Melbourne under the direction 0;' Professor J. Neill effect of plate used in determining freeness. The Greenwood and in coqjunction mith the School of accuracy of lignin determinations has been calculated, Metallurgy Research. I3ccaube of the close co-ordina- and the effect of particle size in determinations of the tion of the work in the 1,i~horatot.yit is thought advis- chemical composition of wood samples studied. Ex- able to gire a general de?;.cril)tionrather than to periments have been planned for the Wood Structure mention just the results obtailled by members of the Section, on dimensions and shrinkage of wood fibres, Council's staff. and the variation of the fibres with height in tree and During the first year two organizational features distance from pith has been assessed. For Timber have hen most prominent, namely the selection of staff Physics, data on the reflectance of paints were analysed, and the building up of ecjr~ip~~~cnt.Both are still ant1 for M<,chanics, results of tests on floors to deter- proceeding. mine effect of test position and joist spacing were (ii) 2'rogramme.-The immediate programme of similarly treated. For this Section also, correlations the Sectic,n is concerned with the properties of metals among properties were calculated for eucalypt species and alloys at high temperatures. This involves first and certain other timbers, and the effect of locality, the technology of production of the metals and alloys, height and position in tree on the mechanical proper- and sccond the construction of equipment to enable ties of some species was resolved. The efficiencies of various physical properties to be determined at tem- various temperature and humidity conditions for dry- peratures up to 1,000° C. (in most cases in a vacuum ing wood mcre considered for the Seasoning Section, of 10 "m. of mercury). Ultimately, it is expected and the results of diffusion studies computed for that alloys will be produced which are resistant to i'lc~sc>rvation. Among other experiments conducted by atmospheric attack up to this same temperature. Pro- the Tcntcr and Gluing Section, were those on com- gress has been made in both directions. Titanium ~'arisonof glues and gluing nlethods, and the effect of lnctal in powder form has been produced by the reduc- exposure and other treatments on plywood. Output tion of titanium tetrachloride with magnesium-the arid recovery results from a study of Victorian saw- r~actiontaking place at about 900" C. This process mills have been analysed for the Utilization Section i~ being operated on a semi-commercial scale by the of th~Diviqion, and investigations included also box United Statcs Bureau of Mines at Salt Lake City, and and immersion tests, the relation between sawdust and this organization, through the Washington Liaison quantity and type of production, and the treatment of Ofice: has offered to supply titanium powder, the spade handles. first hatch of which has already been received. (viii) Division of Industrial Chemistry.-Assistance Although this metal is of a sufficient order of purity provided to the Division of Industrial Chemistry has to form the basis for much exploratory work, it is included the analysis of comparative cement tests with hoped to develop a process which has been proved varying types of sand. huccesaful overseas, namely the conversion of the metal (ix) Biuision of Plant Industry.-The field design into the tetra iodide and the thermal decomposition of and analysis of several grazing trials were undertaken, this. Preliminary experiments have been carrid r~qt and techniques for measurement of pasture characters along these lines. developed for the Agrostology Section of the Division. Experience has also been gained in the technique of Similar assistance, in respect of numerous species, sintering the pressed powder and the susbequent mecha- cultivation and fertilizer trials, was given to Irrigation nical working of the pellets. It has been shown that Centres and Plant Introdnction. Experiments, involv- even in a vacuum of mm. I-Ig contamination may drixg plant.< and hortirultural c2ropsJi7ere designed, and occur. From the high melting point transition elements, titanium has been selected because of its 'I'o test this effect plots in the Murray Valley are low specific gravity (4.5) and the existence of two supplied with a variable number of irrigations-five, allotropic forms with a transition at 880° C. three, two and nil-in the summer. A high temperature vacuum dilatometer has been At the present stage ir~teresling comparisons can designed and is in course of construction and equip- bu made between plants grown from seed produced ment for the thermal analysis of alloys in the solid from plants established at Canberra a considerable state has been set up. Various types of equipment for number of years ago and plants raised fro111 seed of sintering these alloys in vacuum have also been con- selected strains of guayule obtained from the United structed, namely (a) a water-cooled sintering bell States during the early part of World War 11. One under which a bar up to 6 inches long by 8 inch square of the main differences is the much larger size of the can be heated by passage of a low voltage current Canberra strain as against the smaller plants from the through the bar as a resistor; (b) an evacuated silica United States strain. This results in lower percentages tube heated by a resistance wound tube furnace; (c) a 91 rubber from the larger plants than from the smaller high frequency induction heater of 2 kw. capacity. oues but the yields expressed as total rubber per plant It is proposed to make an exploratory survey of the may approach one another more closely. However, influence of other elements on the properties of in general, the Cnited States strain appears to have titanium. the advantage and in addition it is possible to grow The work of the laboratory involves some complex more plants per acre if closer spacings are used. It analytical problems and the co-operation of the spectro- urould seer11 that the development of a small, stocky, graphic section of the Munitions Supply Laboratories high-yielding strain of plant is desirable. h~ been freely used. 'l'he intervals between samplings, are fixed at three, Since most- of the high melting point transition six, or tnelve months according to the importance of metals are highly reactive to atmospheric gases, it will the plots and the information desired. Where the be essential to develop a method for determining the plants grow relatively slowly it was only necessary to gas content of alloys such as has been done overseas. obtain data on the ultimate rubber content over a period of years, mainly for comparative purposes and (iii) Co-operation with other Laboratories.-In the such plots are being sampled once yearly. Other plots field of properties of metals the Section is co-operating are sampled six-monthly to obtain information at an with the Division of Aeronautics in designing, con- intermediate stage. It had been observed, however, structing and operating an X-ray crystal analysis set that the growth of the plant and accumulation of to study the nature of fatigue and creep in metals- rubber in its tissues did not follow a curre having a both features being important in the failure of metals smooth upward trend but at intermediate stages there in aircraft and in gas turbines. Ultimately this work nas a tendency for the curve to flatten out or even to will link up with our high temperature alloy investiga- fall before again rising. This is recognized as due tions. Co-ordinating conferences in the field of X-ray to variations in environmental conditions, the ultimate crystal analysis are being arranged with these general trend, however, being to rise with timc. In laboratories interested in this work. i111port:lnt areas therefore the sampling periods have 7. Rubber (Gncayule) Investigations.-The study of been reduced to intervals of three months in order the growth and rubber content of the guayule plant to obtain more fundamental information. Plants have nnder Australian conditions began five years ago at been in certain important cases separated into leaves, the Waite Institute, Adelaide. A series of plots were stems pli~sheads, and roots, for analysis to study the laid down in various localities in South Australia, and distribution of the rubber within the plant. Progres- analytical work has been continuously carried out in sive weight increase, howerer, can only be estimated the laboratory. The continuance of this work has pro- from the stem weights, since guayule is extremely ceeded satisfactorily under the conditions outlined in prone to leaf fall, especially under dry conditions of the previous report of 1945-46 and the time is growth; roots are not fully recoverable but results approaching when it will be possible to make interest- are valuable in assessing possible reco~~eriesof rubber iilg and important comparisons betn-een results from ali a large scale. the various plots. It is intended that as the plants The best results came from plots containing plants in each area reach an age of five years from the date grown from the United States strain of seed at Loxton of sowing special samplings will be made to determine a~idLoveday in the light soils and warm climate of those cases in which further investigation would be the Murray Valley. Plants of four to four and a half profitable. This stage of the work will be completed years of age receiving three irrigations per summer by the end of 1948. showed 7 to 8 per cent. of rubber corresponding to At present, plots are being maintained at seven 77 grams of rubber per plant. Those receiving no different localities in South Australia, under widely irrigation for the past two summers yielded 9 per cent. dirergent soil and climatic conditions. In some cases rubber and a total of 50 grams per plant. By com- the plants are growing under entirely natural condi- parison, plants from Canberra-grown seed, under the tions of environment while in others varying numbers same conditions, yielded comitferably less. Controlled of irrigations are applied in the summer period. irrigation to enable growth of the plant but to place +iceording to certain work carried oixt in the United it periodically under conditions of stress yields the States of America guayule produces its rubber during best figures. The results from the illorphett Vale periods of dormancy which msy be induced either by planting, where conditiom vary from wet cold winters moderately low temperatures or periods of drought. to dr.7 warm summers, are superior to those from the These periods must not be too short. The whole lfurray Valley, both being without irrigation. There tc~haviour of the plant appears to be influenced by are, however, considerable variations in plant weights soil conditions, temperatures of both soil and surround- from different strains of seed. Calculated on a basis ing air and water supply, the latter having very ~f one plant per sqnare yard, which is a conservative considerable bearing on the rate and amount of rubber estimate, tlie 77 grams obtained at Loxton corresponds deposition. It has been shown that, depending on to 830 lb. of rubber per acre. environmental conditions, the plant makes periodic la addition to the purely South Australian work, flushes of growth during whirh the accumulation of analyses have been carried out at the Waite Institute dry matter outstrips the rate of deposition of ruhber, on material grown at Lawes, Queensland, and at particularly in the newer tissues. Lack of water slows C'tlnbelra under the control of the Plant Introduction clown the growth and induces accumulation of rubber. Section of the Division 04 Plant Industry. The results from Lawes compare favourably with those from the Agricultural Bureaux Conference in London in 1946, irrigated Loxton and Loreday plants in South Aus- as a member of, and Secretary to, the Australian tralia but, the plants being larger, both percentage Delegation. Subsequently, he visited Canada and the rubber (5.31 per cent.) and total rubber per plant Unitetl States of America for consultations with (69.1 grams) are less. Since the plants do not yet prominent worlters in Information Services, and to appear to have reached their maximum rubber content chtain first-hand knowledge of the peace-time develop- the work is procccding for a further period. tr!cnt of the British Commonwealth Scientific Office, 8. Oenological Research.-(i) Sherry Investigations. TVashington. A report was submitted, and recom- -During the year, the investigation of factors which mendations made, to the Executive Committee of the influenre the growth and metabolism of the film-forrn- Connril, to implement certain recornmendations of the ilig sherry yeasts has been continued. Particular British Commonwealth Official Scientific Conference. attention has been given to the study of the accumula- The Officer-in-Charge has been appointed Australian tion of acetaldehpd~ in wines and artificial media Liaison Officer for the Imperial Agricultural Bureaux, under the influence of the yeasts, for this has been and is respolisible for all matters relating to the duties found to be closely related to the characteristic flavour cf official correspondents and for the distribution of and aroma of " fino" sherry. Imperial Agricultural Bureaux publications and In artificial media, the course of aldehyde accumula- rr:ports. tion has been found to be influenced by the type and Information work requires the closest co-operation amounts of the substances supplied as sources of carbon betvcen the scientific and non-scientific staff and the and nitrogen for the yeast film. This aspect of the team work of the staff has been most gratifying. subject is being studied further with wines and artificial media. 2. Information Section.-(i) Head-quarters, Mel- bourne.-(~) General.-While the prime function of (ii) Sweet Wine In~~esti,gations.-Commencement of t11c Section is the handling of inquirie~,its activities the full programme of investigations again had to be have extended to cover related aspects of the general postponed this year. Owing to thc abnormal weather problem of dissemination of scientific and technical experienced just prior to, and during the vintage information. This is a natural development arising season, the wine-makers who had agreed to co-operate from the nature of the work and is in step with the in this work were unable to undertake the making of gcneral trend of overseas practice. the experimental wines. (b) Inquiries (including Sydney Ofice).-During (iii) Collection of Yeast Cultures.-At the request the past year about 2,900 inquiries have been handled. of the Australian Wine Board, the Committee has Approximately 1,100 of these were of a minor nature extended its research programme to include the snch as could be suinmarily dealt with by telephone. establishment of a collection of tested strains of wine A simple statistical record has been kept of the yeasts, selected for Australian conditions and require- remainder, some 1,800, which may be termed major ments. As a preliminary step to the establishment of inquiries, and analysis of these for the period shows: such a collection, twelve strains of wine yeasts have (a) 6 per cent. from various Divisions and Sections been obtained from overseas collections and twenty of the Council, 16 per cent. from government depart- have been isolated from local sources. ments, 30 per cent. from private individuals, and 43 (iv) Publication. - The following paper was pub- per cent. from industry; (b) 74 per cent. received lished during the year :- by Melbourne office and 26 per cent. by Sydney office; Foynachon, J. C. M. (1946).-The pH of wines: (c) 49 per cent. came from Victoria, 33 per cent. examination of glass and auinhvdrone elec- from New South Wales, and only 18 per cent. from trode values. I&. Eng. 6hem.Y Anal. Ed. the other States; (d) slightly less than 20 per cent. 18: 790-3. were referred to other appropriate authorities for reply direct; (e) the range of subjects is extensive but 34 per cent. of the major inquiries were associated XXI. INFORMATION SERVICE AND with chemistry and rhemical industries and 26 per LIBRARY. cent. were related to agriculture and biology. The procedure folliwed by the Section in the handling of inquiries has been crystallized in a 1. General. - Pending the provision of permanent production Notes for tlze Guidance of Information office space at Head Ofice, the work of Information (Ificers. Although produced primarily for internal Service has been continued in temporary accommoda- use, there has been a demand for copies on the part tion at 425 St. Kilda-road. In consequence, some additional duties have been incurred in general office of external bodies interested in information work. routine, and in maintaining the flow of current (c) Technical reports.-This work has been handi- journals and other library material to and from Head capped severely bg shortage of staff, and it was thus Office and other technical reference libraries. These deemed more important to maintain as far as possible, additional duties have encroached considerably on the the standard of service given in dealing with inquiries normal work of the staff. Also, although the principal tllan to attempt to produce reports (T-series). This abstracting, indexing, and reference books were brought is reflected in the fact that only one report (T4, Dingo with us on loan from Head Office Library, the separa- Control in Australia, Jan., 1947) has been produced tion from full library facilities has been a considerable during the period. Rowever, a comprehensive report handicap in dealing with certain types of inquiries. on silicones is almost ready for reproduction. The work has follo~ved the general trend of the (d) Bibliographies and summaries of information. previous year with increasing emphasis on subjects -Late in 1946 it was decided that something should relatecl to secondary industry. Certain factors have be done to permit the maximum advantage to be gained prevented the implementation of some of the projects from the work involved in the production of biblio- planned and it has been necessary to defer some of the gl-aphies and summaries of information. Although more important worlr. Although some additional staff rtormally prepared in the course of dealing with a has been obtained, the demand for information has specific inquir.?, this material mould, in many cases, been greater than our capacity to deal with it, be of quite wide interest. Accordingly, lists of subjects The Oscer-in-Charge attended the Royal Society dcalt with are now regularly published in a number Empiro Scientific (lonference, the British Common- of scientific, trade, and technical journals, with an wealth Scientific Official Conference, and the Imperial intimation that aopies are available. So far 146 items have been so publicized, and the above, tc) inake available for iriclusion in the United resulting requests have totalled 620. The range of States Department of Conllnerce Bibliography of subjects covered was wide, and requests were fairly Scientific and Industrial Reports (referred to as the well distributed. 0:fire of Terhnical Services Bibliography), the results (e) P3~otostats.-Where an inquirer is so situated of such ilustralian war-time resedrch activities as that he does not have access to a library, or when jt v.ould not otllermise be published widely. These is desired to refer to inaccessible library material, lt rr-1lorts were Ilitherto unpltblis2icd bccause of security is usually necessary to send a photo copy of the classifications. reference. In the case of inquiries from private (ii) Sydney Oflice.-By comparison with the pre- persons, it is now the custoni to send this material vious year, hen the office was established in its pre~ent on loan only. During the past year, a total of about form, the work of the Sydney Oflice has increased con- 4,000 pages has been sent out. sidelably. This is in part a natural development. (f) Trade 1iteratlrre.-There is a wide and still I-Towcr~er, it has been somewhat accelerated by the growing realization by technical information servlces appoint~nentof the Information Officer as Secretary of of the value of trade literature. It is of special value the New South Wales State Committee (in addition to to an information service, because this type of material hi,%~iol*mal duties), and the consequent fusion of ofice is usually set out in readily assil~iilableform, and also because it is usually "live and up to date. During facilities and certain of the activities involved. Thus " there has been a marked increase, twelvefold, in the the past year the Service has been accumulating such distribution of the Council's publications from this literature, in various forms, and so far over 600 pieces have been indexed and filed. office. Compared with last year, the number of enquiries (g ) A bstrrrctinq of cl~~nzicakliterature.-During the for information has more than trebled. In all, more past year, the Service has prepared a total of 350 abstracts, covering everything of importance which has than 500 enquiries whicih necessitated written replies appeared in a wide range of Australian journals. The have been handled. abctracts so prepared are ~~blishedin supplement form 3. Translafion Secfion.-The work of this Section bg thc Australian Chemical Tiistitute in its Journal can be considered under three main headingr- and Proceedings. (i) Foreign Journal Service.- This is a carry-over (h) Disspmination of informadion from overseas.- from the war years. Until recently the section has been As mentioned in the previous report, the Service under- receiving from London, on microfilm, some of the tock to arrange for the extension to Australla of the back is.;ucs of the foreign scientific and technical facilities for access to results of war-time research journals in most demand. Translated contents sheets afforded by the TTnited States through the medium of of these have been circulated, and photostats have been the Department of Commerce. Minimum staff only prepared on request. With the cessation of the flow of hes been used for this, but the volume of work has material, this work has been reduced to the handling of ached considerable proportions. Thus a total of ra~ldomrequests for material in the possession of the 7,146 abstracts have been sent to journals for ~ublica- Section. When it is known what published material of tion resulting in requests by industry and scientific such war-time issues of theie journals has becn obtained e!stablishnients for 1,586 copies of complete reports, by the libraries of the Council, the film rsequences of vhich have been either provided from local facihtles or ordered overseas. In this work the Service has some more irnportant jour~~alsnot so held will be com- pleted. cr,llaborated ~iththe Secondary Industries Divislon cf the Ministry of Post-war Reconstructlon, and with (ii) 'I'ransla,tion.-The demand for translation work tho Munitions Supplp Laboratories, Technical Infor- has bccn heavy. The Section has met the position by mation Section. The Indllrtrial Information Advisory scrutiny of material where posiible, with the officer Cjommittee set up to co-ordinate such activities of all requiring the translation. Some material has been three bodies, has held twenty metings during the year rejected as not meriting translation, some elected as and has developed into a body of actual, and great ineritinq only translation in part, and in some cases potential value in its work for Australian industry. oral translation has been sufficient, the officer concerned A booklet TVar-time Developments in Science and taking notes. During the year a translator was sent T~chnology,describing these activities, was ~roduced to Sydney to deal in this way with mate~ialaccumu- during the year on behalf of the Ministry of Post-war lated by Divisions located there. Rcconstrnction. Steps have also been taken to ensure An important development has been in the amount of that war-time research being published in Great Sn7ed;sh material for translation, particularly in the R~itainis afforded adequate publicity in Australia. building, timber, and paper-making industries. As a A further development in this field of act~vityhas result, has been made for the appointment of bren the organizilig of a scl~emefor the inter-change another translator, ~x-ith Swedish as an essential of information concerning current metallurgical 18 nguage. research between the British Ministry of Supply on In ~piteof the amount of oral translat;on, and the the one hand, and Australian Clovernment departments other duties of the Section, the number of written and industrial undertakings on the other. Great translations made, of various lengths, has been about illterest had been sho~vnin the project by tho.-r who SO for the year. Tl~alangnages involved have been propose to participate. A few British specimen German. Russian, French. Sn-edish, Italian, Spanish, reports harp already arrived, and have been sent out. and Portuguese. Tllere are indications that inter-change of material of this kind on an intra-Empire basis will inereace. The (iii) Ru.v.cicrn Scientific Litercrt7lre.- development past pear has seen the creation by the Serrice of at of the last year has bren the commencement of a cer- lcast the nucleus of an organization to hantllc it, and, vice designed to meet the difficulty of dealing with what is more important, the Service has obtained the scientific and technical pel.iodicals in the ltussian PI)-operation and confidence of the scientific and langnage. Besides the language difficulty, there is also technical press which har previded the means of the problem of obtaining access to the material. Of thr dimmination. This activity is now widely knoan Kiissian journals that are rcceived by the Counc;l, a and appreciated acd can bc deTeloped flirther as the totnl of nineteen remain in the cul-tody of IIead Office volume of incoming material increases. Libr~ry. Comniencing with these, a proposal mas made (i) Decln.~sificcrfton of the resu7ts of Australiun to Divisions of the Council and approi)r*inte Common- ~vr-tim~rew:arch.-The Scrvice has also taken action, cvcnlth and State hodie.; that tr:tllslated contents sheets to some extent complementary to that decrribed briefly be distrihl~tedwith a view to those interested making requests for specific articlw. The response was en- separate units scattered throughout the Commonwealth. couraging and the scheme was adopted. In addition to Eacih of the Divisions, Sections, and Research Stations titles and authors, the contents sheets include sum- has iis individual collection of books, periodicals, and maries, sub-headings, and also the number of references, other library material, and, in fact, carries out figures, tables, etc. Within the Council trallslations of all activities connected with the working of specified articles are made on request, subject to the a research library. The work of these individual preliminary scrutiny as mentioned under paragraph libraries is, however, co-ordinated in the Head (ii). The service has been well received outside the Oliice library, where the main connecting link, Council, and there are now 41 on the external mailing the Union Catalogue, is maintained. In this list for the contents sheets. On request photostats Catalogue a record is kept of the holdings of all of articles are supplied (at cosfj) but translations are the other libraries no matter how large or how small. undertaken only within the Council. The maintenance of this Catalogue is becoming an ever 4. Cine-Photographic Section.-Several requests and increasing problem as each new sectional library is suggestions have been received from the Divisions and established, and the past year has seen a notabie in- Sections of the Council for cinematograph work to be crease in the number of these libraries. undertaken. It has been established that there is con- The Union Catalogue has proved its worth many siderable scope for this work within the Council, as a tines as it enables enquiries at Head Office library as recording method for certain research experiments, in to the ausilability in any of our libraries of books, addition to its better known applications in the produc- periodicals, articles, serials, and certain typw of pam- tion of films of an educational, documentary, or tech- phlet literature, to be answcred in a few minutes. This nical nature covering approplaiate rewarch projects. service is readily available not only to all officers of the Proposals for the organization of this work are under Council but to scientific research worlrers throughout consideration. the Commonwealth. The film "Research Facilities of C.S.J.R." which TnLing ihc Council for Scientific and Industrial was hurriedly produced last pnr for screening at the Ilesearch library as a whole, the subject matter covered Royal Society and Official Conferences in London, \voidd embrace with the exception of medical acience has been shown to selected audiencw in Great Britain, prac~tic:~llj~the rrhcle .field of purr and applied science, Canadn, and United States of America. bnt certain subjects are, of course, more adequately At the request of the Chief, Division of Aeronaiitics, rovered than others. During the last year efforts have and in collalboration with his staff, a 25-minute 16 mni. b(.en lrlade to improve holdings in the subjects of b1ac.k and white sound film entitled " Wings Under textile technology, meteorological physjos, and nuclear Test " has been produced. The film descrilm, the eqnip- phy~ics. In this work a special effort is made to obtnin merit used and shoa~sthe methods of t~stingaircraft scxt:: of bulletins, copies of monograpkls, and other ~~ingsfor conformation to airivorthinciq requirements, imp01tant research material issued by Institlitions and deterioration due to fatigue and, finally, the ultimate other world organizations doing similar 51-o:lr. static strength by loading to clextrnction. For the l'nion Catalogue to be a qnccaeis it is neces- 5. l'zihlirr~fions.-The following pnpprs were pnb- sary for the catalogue in all libraries to be uniform lished during the year :- and according to accepted library rules. For this Gillespie, D. T. C, (1946).-Tapour-liquid

XXII. FINANCIAL MATTERS, STAFF, AND PUBLICATIONS. Finance.--The statement of expenditure from 1st ,Tniy, 1946, follows :-

Salaries and contingencies ...... Rtmuneration of Chairman and Members of Council . . . . Jnvestigations- (i)Animal Health and Production Prohlems . . Less contributions from- \T7001 Realization Flmd . . . . Wool Recearch Fund . . Cnrnmon~~ealthBank . . Depart~centof Agriculture and Stoclr, Hrisbane Ccorgc Aitkcn Pastort1 Research Trnqt Australian Cattle Rc.e,lrch A~qociation .4u%tralian TVool nod1 d Australian Ifrat Bor:rd . . Alexander Fraqer Memorial Fund . . Ian hlcMaster Estate, Revenue Fur~ds- Vaccine . . Pleuro Pneumonia Ma~titi~ . . Toxaemic Jann6ice-Barooga F.D. ATcI~Iastcr Field St:~tion . . " Gilrnth planes " National Field Station . Parkville . . . .

* The main itpms of espenditnre under this h~nding:Ire salaries of th? Admlni\tr:~tiv~s~:~ff :~t the Coun~iI''; Hend Oflicc; snlnri~s alld rxpc'nsps of o%r<,rs ~t huqtr llia Ho~lsr T.ontlnn ancl at 1,i~cnt'on, W?shir~rt~%~~: ~tlff>XII~ llnl..,, ...... mcmhprs.- .- ..-. . - th6 C~nncil, and p~lntingand general office exoenditure. t Provided frnm Connolidaterl Rerenun Fund. (ii) Biochemistry and General Nutrition Problems ...... Less contributions from- Commonwealth Bank ...... George Aitkcn Pastoral Research Trust ...... Wool Research Yund ...... Wool Realization Fuud ......

(iii) Plant Problems-Division of Plant Industry . . . . Less contributions from- Department of Supply and Shipping ...... Department of Com~licrceand iigriculture ...... TVool Research Fund ...... hIedicina1 Piants Donations Fund ...... Medicinal Plants Revenue Fund ......

(iv) Entomology Problems-Division of Economic Entomologg ...... Less contributions from- United Graziers Association ......

(w) Horticultural Problems of the Irrigation Settlements- (a) Citricultural-Research Station, GritEth ...... Less contributions ...... New South Wales Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission New South Wales Department of Agriculture ...... Yenda Produrers Co-operative Society Limited ...... Leeton Fruit Growers Co-operative Company Limited . . . . Griffith Producers Co-opnative Company Limited . . . . Rural n~nkof xew South Wales ...... Leeton Co-operative Canlleries Limited ...... Griffith Revenue Fund ...... (b) Viticultural-Research Station, Merbein . . Less contributions ......

Dried Fruits Control Board . . . . Irymple Packing Proprietary Limited Mildura Co-operative Fruit Company. Red Cliffs Co-operative Fruit Company Aurora Packir:~Proprietary Limited Merbein Research Station, Revenue Fund

(vi) Soil Problems ...... Less contributions from- Commonwealth Bank ......

(vii) Food Preservation and Transport Problems ...... Less contributions from- Conin~onwealthBank ...... &ew South Wales Department of Agriculture . . . . Qneer~slandAleat Industry Board ...... Anstralian Aleat Bonrd ...... Metropolitan Meat Ir~clnstry Commission ...... Egg l'roducers' Council ...... Department of Commerce and Agriculture ...... Apple and Pear Grant-Department of Commerce and Agriculture Food Preservation Revenue Fund . . . . .

(viii) Forest Products Problems ...... Less contributions from- . . Commonwealth Bank ...... Australian l'aper Manufacturers Ltd...... Associated Pulp and l'aj~er l\ll!ls Ltd...... Australian Xewsprint l\Iills Ltd...... New Zealand Forest Products ...... Miscellaneus contrib~itions ......

(ix) Mining and Metallur~ ...... Less contributions from- Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy . . .

(x) Radio Research ...... Less contributions froln- Postniaster-General's Department ...... Departments of Army, Navy and Air . . . . , . . .

(xi) Information Service, including Library .

(xii ) Industrial Chemistry . . . Less contributions from- Australian Cemerit Manufacturers ilssociation Wool Research Fund . . (xiii) Fisheries Investigations . . . . Less contributions from- h'ew South Wales Government . . Oyster Revenue Fun6 . . W/T Equipment Warreen . . . .

(xiv) Aeronautical 'Re~ea~rch . . . . (XV) National Standards Laboratory . . Less contributions from- C.A. Corporation ...... Wool liesearch Fund . . . .

(xvi) Building Materials Research . . . . (xvii) Flax Research ...... Less contributions from- Department of Supply and Shipping

(xviii) Radiophysics Laboratory . . . . (xix) Triboy~hysics ...... (XX) Miscellaneous- (a) Dairy Research . . . . 6,512 (b) RIatliematical Research . . . . 11,628 (c) Various ...... 1,131 Cr. (d) Wool Use Promotion . . . . 675 (e) Oenological Research . . . . -710 18,394 Less contribntions- Wool Research Fund . . Australian Wine Board . .

(xxi) Nuclear Ener,~ Research . . . . (sxii) Metallurgical Research . . . . (xsiii) Meteorology Research . . . . (xxiv) Overseas Studentships . . . . Less contributions from- Wool Research Fund

(xxq) [Coal Dust Investigations . . . . (XYVI)Unforeseen ...... (xxvii) Wool Textile Research . . . . Less contributions from- Wool Research Fund . . . .

Total of Item 3-Investigations

Receipts 1948-41 2. Contribution8 and Donations.-The following and balances Expenditute statement shows the receipts and disbursements during brouaht forward 1946-47. 'rob 1945.46. the year 1946-47 of the flliids provided by outside bodies f and recorded in the special account established in 1931, Brought forward . . 69,990 entitled " The Specific Purposes Trust Account ":- Australian Meat Board (Caseous Receipts 1946-47 Lymphadenitis Investigations- and b;rlancrs Expenditure #nimal Health and Production) brouglrt forward 1946-47. from 1945-46. Alexander Fraser Memorial Fund f £ C.P.P. Fairbairn (Animal Health Wool Industry Fund Account 50,000 . . 46,448' and Production Investigations- Commonwea!th Bdnk (Animal Foot-rot control) . . . . Health and Production, Horticul- Estate of the late Captain Ian tural, Food Presertntion and McMaster (Animal Health and Transport, and Foreet Products Production Investigations) . . Investigations) . . . 10,091 10,000 Australian Wool Board (Animal University of Sydney-Provision of Health and Production Investi- Laboratory Facilities (Animal gations-Sheep Researrh) . . 2,514 36 Health and Production Investi- Australian Cattle Research Asso- gations) . . . . ,. . ciation (Mastitis Investigations) 3,750 3,750 Victorian Central Citrus Associa- George Aitken Pastoral Research tion-Citrus Problems (Plant Trust (Animal Health and Pro Industry Investigations) . . dnction Investigations) 2,500 2,000 West Australian Golf Association Queensland Governnlent Cattle (Plant Industry Investigations) Research (Animal Health and Tobacco Trust Fund-Prime Minis- Production 'Investigatiorru-Sheep ter's Department and Department Researrh) ...... 1,000 . . 1,000 of Commerce-Tobacco Problems Anstralian Meat Board (Toxaemic (Plant Industry Investigations) Jaundice Investigations, Barooga. Department of Supply and Ship- Xeu- South Wales) 135 135 pin<-Medioinal Plants (Plan6 - - Indnstry Investigations) Carried forward 69,990 63,369 Commonwealth Bank-Bee Research * Expended as follows :-Capital impr;vemeuts " Saumares " (Entomological Invertigations) Field Station- £ 381. Purchase cost Saumarea " property, Preparation of si te-Sherp Biology Labore Armidale- & 26,872. Carried forward . . to1.y. Prospect -- f: 14. Erection of store and garage-O'I-Ialloran -. - Hill- & 1,261). Purrhasp of O'Hall~rnn Hill Itrmount Parm- Preliminarr rostn---R!.~ctic>nof Yntrition T,:~Rorwtnry- A. include^ £250 on account of 1943-46 expenditure. f.17,831 R. &7 1945-46 E 90. Inrllld~~ on account of expenditure. Hrcripts 1946-47 Iteceipts 1546-47 and balances Exprnditurv and balancru B;xptwiitur~a hronrl~tforward 1946-47 broufil~tfor~v:rrd 1946-47 from 1946-46.

Brought forward . . Brought forward United Graziers Association of Horitz Fruit Drillbb (D~visionof Queensland-Buffalo Fly and Food Preservation and Transport Cattle Tivk I~ivestigations (Eco- -Fru~t Juice Investlg~tions) . nomic I?ntomology) . . . . Egg l'roducers' Council (Diviiion Australian Whrat Board-Wheat of Food Prcsc~rcdt~onant1 Tr'tns Infestation (Kntomological Jnves- l~ort--Egq In! cstigatiuns) tigations) ...... I)el)arri~~rr!tof Conlnierce and Agri- New South \Vales Water Conserva- culture (Division of Food Prc. tion and Irrigation Com~nission sen at~onand Transport-Dchy- (Maintenance of Griflith Research dr,~tion Investigations) . . Station ) ...... \ustr,llian l'aper Jlanufacturers Murrun~bidgee Irrigation Area Lim~ted (Paper Pulp Inuestiga- Executive Committee Proiect tions ) ...... Farm (Griffith Rcsearch ~tatihn) .A$\ociated Pnlp and Paper Mills Department of *\io11erof Kew South Wales Cheiiricals ( IndnstriaI Cliemi\try) (Meat In! eht~gations) National Gas Association (Gas Queensland Meat Industry Board In\e~tigations-Indllstrial Che- (Meat Investigations) mist~y i . . . . New South Wales Department of Anstralian Cement Ilan~~factnrers Agriculture (Food Investigations) ( Cement Investigations-Indus- A. Lawrence and Co. (Division of tridl Chemistry, National Stan- Food Preservation and Transport ) dards) ...... W. Angliss Ltd. (Division of Food Dept tnlent of Commerce (Apple Preservation and Transport) . . and Pear Investigations) . . L. Berger ancl Sons (Di\ision of Ministry of Munitions . . . . Food Preseivation ntld Trans- Department of Navy port) ...... 25 Snndry Contributors (co'uncil fo; Batlow Packine House Co-OD. Ltd. Srientific and Industrial Research (Di~isionor Food ~resrkvation -Publications) . . . . and Transport-Fruit Juice In- An~algamatrdTextiles (Anst.) Ltd. vestig'ltions) . . 210 (Dil iqion of Industrial Cheniis- Ungars Peanut? Pty. ~td:(Dibision try) ...... of Food l'rewrvation and Tr'lns- Am:~lgamated. Wireless ( A/asia) port-Canning Investigations) . . 10 . . Ltd. (Div~sion of Industrial Lewis Berger and Sons Ltd. Chen~istrv) ...... (Division of Food Prrservation P. Kalton and Co. (Division of and TransporGFruit ,Tuire Industrial Chemistry) . . Investigations) 25 Pope Prodllrth (Division of Indus- trial Ch~nli5trvl Carried forward . 96,653 78.037 Acsori;~ted n'oolfrb and. ~orqted - --- Tevtile Vnni~fnct~~rersof Aus- C. Includcxs 8 17 on acrount of 1945-46 t.up~nt1itni-e. tralia (Division of Ind~~qtrial D. Incluill s 6' 69 OII nccount of 1945 4f; ~luprntliturt, ('11emi~try) E. Inrluclr.; £41 on account of 194.7 46 cuppntllturt. . . By. In(-lnd~s£24 on ncronrlt of 10431fi cbxprnd~t~~re. - G. Inc.lntl~~st'h2 on :IVI-~IIIJ~of 194.7 46 13\~~cntllturP Carried forward . 311! . . 106,399 H. Inclntl~~~£S on ;icroont of 1!)43-16 ~~upen~liture ------I. Inclntlf% e7 on account of 1P4.;46 e\ryt~n(litnr~ 1,. Inr~lu(1~8£ l.;l(i on account of 1945-46 expendittl~t.- J. Includes f 40 on account of [!)XI4G r\rpc.ntlitnrr 11. Inrlndcs S250 on accollnt fo 1945-16 r~r~md'turt~. K. III~~~~I~PRBS on nrcount of 1945-46 rup~nditure. N ITII~~I~~PRE 3.41 X on :Irrnnrlt nf 1915-46 ~~<~or~dittlre Itrcripts 1946-47 ltecclpts 1940-47 and b;~l;~nceu E and balancrs Bxgenditure brought forward brought foru ,rrd 1946 47. from 19-16-46. froul 1943-46. f f f Brought forward . 131,419 . Brought forward .. 159,971 . 117,839 Wool ,Scoureis, Carborli~ers and Revenue Fund-Infertility, F. D. Fellmongers Federation of Aue- Mchfdster Field Station (Animal tralia (Division of Industrial Health and I'roduction 111vc~ii Chtmistry) ...... 2.500 gation.. I . . . 1,882 . . 300 Re\ rnue Fund-Toxaemic Jaundice Kelcsll and Kemp (Tas.) LM. Incestigations, Barooga, New (I)i\ iqion of Industrial Clien~is- South Wales (Animal Health try) ...... 50 . . and l'rod~iction Investigations) 631 253 Alfred Lawrence and CO. Ltd. Relenue Fund-Nutrition Labora- Division of Industrial Chemis- tory (Biocheniistry arid Gencral try) ...... 105 . . Xutrition Inveitigations) . 1,167 . . .. British Industrial Plastirs Revenue Fund-l'lar~t Industry In- (Plastics Research-Division of ve~tig~~tion~. . . 2,954 . . Indnstrial Chemistry) . . 50 Revenue Fund-hledicinal Plants R. Birch (Foundry Sands Investi- (Plant lndustry Investigations) 6 2 qation5-Dil ision of Industrial Re\ enue Fund-Entomologlral In Chemihtry ) . . . . 3 ~estigations . 767 . . Common\vealth Aircraft Coruora- R~renuc Fund-Grifith '~esearch tion (Division of ~etrhogy, Statiol~ (Citricultural Investi- N.S.L.) ...... 1,519 . . gation,) . . . . . 5,731 .. .5,093 Australian Wine Board-Oenolo- Revenue Fund-Iferbein Research gical Research . . . . Station (Viticnltural Inveitrga- Revenue Fund-Toxaemic Jai~ndice tions) ...... 9,371 . . 1,710 tnvestigations (Animal Health Revenue Fund-Division of Food and Pi odnrtion Investigations) Preserrd tion :nid Transport . . I95 . 75 Revenue Fund-Contagious Pleuro- Re~enueFund-Egg Inbestigations, pneumonia Investi,rrations Egg Praducers' Council ( l)i\ ision (Animal Health and Production of Fotni Prehervation and Trans- Jnveqtigations ) . . . . port) . . . . 147 Revenue Fund-Helenslee Field Re~enueFund-Mining and Metal- Station (811irrial Heal.th and Pro- lurgy ...... 14 . . . . Revenue Fund-Ore-dressing Inveu- duction In1citig~tions ) . . tigatjons ...... 85.3 .. . . Rerenue Fund-Oeetrus Experiment Rerenue Fund-Fisheries lnvestiga- (Animal Health and Production tions ...... 103 . . . . In\ rit iqations) . . . . Revenue Fund-Oyster Investiga- Itig,ztions . . 2,948 vestigations (Animal Health and McMastc~rLaboratory-Dipping Produotion Invc\tigations) . . and External Paraqites . 1,563 Revenue Fund-Parasitological In- 11clIaster 1;ahora torv-Wool vestigations (Animal Health and Biology ...... 4,806 Prod~~ctionTrtvestigation~) Mchlaster Laboratory-Bio- chrmiral Section . . . . 1,054 lievemle Fund-&IclI:xster Labora- Mrhfaster 1,ahoratorv-Phvsio- tory Regional Pasture Research loyp and ~eprorlurtion . . 1.831 Station (Animal Health and Pro- McMaster Laboratory--Bio- ch~rtion Inrestigations) rhemiqtry anct Parasitologi- Carried forward 159,971 cal . . . . 1,674 . . Villawood-Fleece Analysis T~ahoratorp . 7,503 Executive O5cer-I. Clunies Ross, D.V.Sc. Prospect-Sheep Biology Laboratory . . Secretary-G. A. Cook, M.C., M.Sc., B.M.E. Armidale-l'arasitology ~ieid Assistant Secretary-F. G. Nicholls, M.Sc. Il~vestigations . . . . Assistant Secretary-H. C. Forster, M.Agr.Sc., Ph.D. ~aun~arezField Station . . Assistant Secretary-G. B. Gresford, B.Sc. McMaster Field Station . . Animal Breeding Investigations Assistant Secretary (Finance and Supplies)-M. G. Gilruth Plains-Capital . . Grace, A.I.C.A. Gilruth Plains-Ani~ual . . Consultant-G. Lightfoot, M.A. Toxaenlic Jaundice Investiga-- Library- tions ...... Chief Librarian-Miss E. Archer, M.Sc. Survey of Wool Production . . Fellowship in Genetics and Librarian-Miss A. L. Kent. Snirnal Breeding . . . . Librarian-Miss F. V. Murray, M.Sc. Survey of Pastoral Problems in Assistant Librarian-Miss J. Philip, B.Sc. North-west of Australia . . Accounts, Stores- Overseas Training for Officer Accountant-D. J. Bryant, A.F.I.A. Division of Plant Industry- Orders and Transport- Agrostology Investigations . J. M. Derum. Staff- Division of Industrial Chemistry &aff and Industrial Officer-H. E. Waterman, Division of Physics- A.F.I.A. Wool Research . . . . R. D. Elder. Records- Division of Biochenlistry slid General Nutrition- P. Domec-Carre. Biochen~ical and Nutritional P. Knuckey. Investigations . . . . Clerical Assistant to Chairman-Miss A. Slattery, B.A. Architect-W. R. Fergueon, B.E. Miscellaneous- Overseas Studentships . . Engineer-R. N. Morse, B.Sc., B.$. Textile Research . . Liaison Ocersem- Economic Survey of wodi- London- growing in IBooth, A.S.T.C. Purchase of Wool and Wool Top Research Officer-Mrs. B. V. Major, B.Sc. (part- Sainples ...... time). Trnnslafion Section- Wool Consultative Council- Senior Translator-A. L. Gunn. Members fees and travelling expenses . . . . Translator-X. Feigl, Ph.D. (Graz.). Translator-Mi~s E. D. Armstrong. R.A. (Hons.) Miscellaneous Translator-Mrs. E. Notkin, M.D. (Prague) (part-time). Edifomal S~cfion- Editor of Piihlications-Miss M. E. H~miltan, B.Sc. * Includes el41 exprnd~dby the Department of the Treasury, Film S~cfion- Canberra. Research Officer-S. T. Evans, B.Sc. Lib,rary- Librarian-Miss J. Philip (on loan from H.O. 4. #tap.-The following is a list of the staff of the Library). Council as at 30th June, 1947. The list does not Sydney Oqice- include clerical staff, typists, laboratory assistants, and Research Officer-A. M. Andrews, B.Sc. miscellaneone workers. 2. SECRETARIESOF STATECOMMTTTEZB. New South Wales- A. M. Andrews, B.Sc., Phillip House, 119 Phillip- (Head-quarters : 314 Albert-street, East Melbourne.) street, 8ydney. Chief Executive Officer-A. E. V. Richardson, C.M.G., Victoria- M.A., D.Sc. F. G. Nicholls, M.Sc.. 314 Albert-street, Eani Executive Officer-3'. W. G. White, M.Sc., Ph.D. Me1 bourne. &uee7~slar~& Agrostology, Pasture Chemistry- Miss LI. F. Todd, 118 Eagle-street, Brisbane, Research Officer-E. 11. Kipps, B.Sc. South Australia- Technical Officer-F. K. Mayer, Q.D.A. J. Ward Walters, Division of Biochemistry and Tobacco Investigations- General Nutrition, University of Adelaide. Senior Research Officer-A. V. Hill, M.Agr.Sc. Western Australia- Vegetable Investigations- R. P. Roberts, M.Sc. (Agric.), Department of Agri- Senior Research Officer-E. M. Hutton, M.Sc., culture, l'erth, Western Australia. B.Agr.Sc. \ Tasmania- Research Officer-D. C. Wark, M.Agr.Sc. 1 F. J. Carter, c/o Premier's Office, Hobart. Research OAicer-R. D. Brock, B.Agr.Sc. Technical Officer-A. R. Peak, H.D.A. Technical Officer-Miss J. A. Demaine, B.Agr.Sc. Technical Officer-C. D. Mathews, R.D.A. I (Head-quarters : Canberra, A.C.T.) At Dickson Experiment Station, Canberra, A.0.T.- B t Canberra--- Manager-L. Sharp, Dip.dgr.D. Administration- At Cooper Laboratory, Queensland Agricultural High Chief-B. T. Dicksvn, B.A., Ph.D. School and College, Lawes- Technical Secretary-W. Ives, M.Ec., A.I.C.A. Senior Iiesearch Officer (agrosto1ogy)-T. 13. Librarian (half time)-Miss A. Nicholson Paltridee. B.Sc. (acting). Research- " officer (agrosto1ogy)-N. H. Bhaw, Senior Clerical Officer (half time).-I(. J. Prowse. l3.Agr.S~. Accountant (half time)-D. W. Banyard. Research Officer (plant introduction)--S. G. Gray, P6ant l-'uthology- 4 B.Sc.Aer. Principal Research Officer-H. R. Angell, O.B.E., Research " Officer (agrosto1ogy)-W. J. Bissett, Ph.D. B.Agr.Sc. Senior Research Officer-J. G. Bald, M.Agr.Sc., Beseaxkh Officer (agrosto1ogy)-Miss H. Barford, Ph.D. B.Sc. Senior Research Officer-W. V. Ludbrook, Technical Officer (plant introduction)--E. B. M.S., B.Ag.Sc., Ph.D. Anderssen, Q.D.A. Research Officer-D. 0. Norris, M.Sc. (Agric.). Technical Officer (plant introduction)-W. Q. Research Officer-Miss M. Mills, B.Sc. Robertson, Q.D.A. (on study leave). Research Officer-J. H. E. Mackay, B.Sc.Agr. Technical Officer (agrosto1ogy)-H. J. Wyndham, Research Officer-Miss K. Helms, B.Sc. Q.D.D.H. Plant Introduction- < Technical Officer (agrosto1ogy)-R. Milford, Senior Besearch Officer-W. Hartley, B.A., Dip. 8.D.A. Agr. Tecliiiical Officer (agrosto1ogy)-J. G. Downing, Research Officer-C. A. N. Smith, B.Ag.So., Q.D.A.H. R.D.A. TeAnical--. Officer (agrosto1ogy)-R. J. Pack, lTorticulturnl Investigations- Q.U.A. Principal Research Officer-C. Barnard, D.Sc. Technical Officer (agrosto1ogy)-T. W. Elich, Medicinal and Drug Plant Investigations- Dip. Col. Ag. (Holland).

Senior Besearch Officer-K. L. Hills, M.Ag.Sc. At " Gilruth Plains". Cunnamulla.," Queensland- (seconded). Technical Officer (agrosto1ogy)-G. H. Allen, Research Oficer-Miss C. Rodwell, B.Sc. G.D.A. Plant Physiology- Technical Officer (agrosto1ogy)-C. I. Robertson, Research Officer-J. Cahert, D.Sc. Q.D.H. Research Officer-R. F. Williams (seconded). ~eclhnical Officer (agrosto1ogy)-A. Callender, Aerbarium- H.D.A. Research Officer-Hiss N. T. Burbidge, M.Sc. Ayrostology- d t Stanthorpe, Queensland- Senior Priilcipal Research Officer-J. Griffiths Senior Research Officer (horticultural investiga- Davies, B.Sc., Ph.D. tions)-L. A. Thomas, M.Sc. Senior Research Officer-C. S. Christian, M.Sc. At Nambour, QueensZancL Senior Research Officer-C. M. Donald, M.Agr.Sc. Technical Officer (horticultural investigations)- Senior Research Officer-A. B. Cashmore, hi.S.o. G. P. Kelenyi, Dip.Agr.D. (seconded). At Brisbane, Queensland- Research Officer-A. J. Anderson, B.Sc. (Agric.). Senior Research Officer (plant introduction)-J. B. Research Officer-C. W. E. Moore, B.Agr.Sc. Miles. l3.Agr.S~. Research Officer-K. D. McLachlan, B.Sc.Agr. ~echniklOfficer (native plants investigation)- Research Officer-Miss H. R. Browne, B.Sc. L. J. Webb. Research Officer-D. Spencer, B.Sc. Research Officer-E. F. Biddiscombe, B.Sc. At the University of Western Australia, Perth, Western (Agric.) Australia- Technical Officer-R. T. Milligan, Dip.Agr.D. Research Officer (plant ilatroduction)-E. T. Tecl~nicalOfficer-R. E. Herrington, Q.D.H. Bailey, B.Sc. Technical Officer-D. V. hfoye, H.D.A. Research Officer (agrosto1ogy)-R. 0. Rossiter, Technical Officer-G. R. Thomas, Q.D.A.R. B.Sc. (A~rir.). Technical Officer-L. J. Phillips, Q.D.D.M. ~es~srch'~&ce~'(a~rostolo~~)-~.L. Pennington, Technical Officer-C. S. McEay, Dip.Agr.D. B.Sc. (Agric.). Ay~ostology,Weeds Physiology- Ab Falkiner Memorial Fidd &ation, Deniliquim, New Senior Research Officer-C. G. Greenham, M.Sc. South Wal~s- Research Officer-P. Goldacre, B.Sc. Senior Research Officer (agrosto1ogy)-R. W. Agrostology, Weeds Ecology- Prunster, B.Se. (Agric.). Research Officer-R. 11. Moore, B.Sc.Agr. Research Officer (agrosto1ogy)-A. L. Tisdall, Technical Officer-J. A. Robertson, Q.D.D.M. M.Agr.So. Research Officer (agrostologg) - W. N. Bt State Aninzal Health Station, Yeerongpilly, Willoughby, B.Sc.Bgr. Quoensland-- Research Officer (agrosto1ogy)-0. B. Williams, Vete,rinary Entomology (including Cattle l'icb, B.Agr.Sc. Buj~alo Fly, Sheep Blowfly, and Sandfly Technical Officer (agrosto1ogy)-E. R. Brown, In vcsf?gufr 0n.s)- Dip.Agr.l). Senior Reqearch Officer-L. F. Hitchcock. Station Manager-G. A. Vasey. N.Sc. Clerical Officer-S. J. Cossar. Senior liesearch Officer-I(. R. Norris, M.Sc. At Regional Pasforal Laboratory, Armidale, New Iteirarch Officer-Jlrs. M. J. Mackerras, South Wabes- M.Sc., M.B. Research Officer (agrosto1ogy)-R. Roe, B.Sc. Kescarc.ll Officer-W. J. Roulston, B.,Sc. (8gric.). Researcll Officcr-G. J. Snowball, B.Sc. Rwnrch Officer (agrosto1ogy)-E. J. Hilder, Technical Oficew-R. A. J. Meyers, Q.D.A.H., B.Sc. (Agric.). tj.n.u. Technical Officer (agrosto1ogy)-R. G. Wilson, In Western Australia- Q.D.D.M. Earth-mite Investigations- At Huonville, Tusmania- Research Officer-M. If. H. Wallace, B.Sc. Senior Itesearch Officer (horticultural investigations) At 'l'rungie, New South Wales- -D. Nartin, B.Sc. (seconded). Locust Tnvesfignt ions- B t Ka therine Experiment Farm. North ern Territory-- Technical Officer-L. J. Chinnick, Dip. Agr. Farrri Jl an:lg?r-F. Kent, H.D.A. At State Ezperimerbt Pa,rm, Trangie, New South Wales- Technical Officer (agrosto1ogy)-R. J. IIutchings, Dip.Agr.D. ( Head-quarters : Cr. Flemington-road and Park-street, Parkville, 31el bourne.) At Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Adelaide, South Alrsfraliac dt Animal Health Research Laborutory and Research Officer (gummosis investigations)--Miu~ Divisional Head-quarters, Melbourne- J. Grace, B.Sc.Agr. ('hief-L. B. Bull, D.V.Sc. Northern A~istralic~Regional Survey- 1)ivisional Secretary-A. J. Vasey, B.Agr.Sc. Research Officer-W. drndt, B.Agr.Sc. Officer-in-Charge-A.- W. Turner, O.B.E., D.Sc., Supply and Transport Officer-H. J. Mason. D.V.Sc. Principal Research Officer (bacteriology)--T. S. Gregory, B.V.Sc., Dip. Bact. Priaripal Kt,.c$a~ch Ofher (pathology, bacteriology, dairy cattle)-D. Murnane, B.V.Sr. (Head-quarters : Canberra, A.C.T.) Senior liesearch Officer (serological investiga- tio~ls)-~l. D. Campbell, L.V.Sr. At Canberra- Senior Research Offirer (physiology)-It. H. Administration- Watson, D.Sc.Agr. Chief-A. J. Nicholson, D.Sc. Sr~l~itr Jle.;enr.c.l~ Offirer (iri~~l~uno-chen1istry)-A. Principal Research Officer-F. N. Ratcliffe, B.A. T. I)ann, 31.S~. Librarian (half time)-Miss A. Nicholson. Senior Itc~-c~arcliOfficer (chemical pathology and Senior Clerical Officer (half time)-K. J. Prowse. l~actcrioIogy)-A. T. I>ic.lr, M.Sc. (abroad). bccountant (half time)-I). W. Banyard. Re.*earch Officer (bacteriology, dairy cattle)--E. Biological Control and Museum- 3Xnnc.li- I'ptcrsen, M.Sc., Ph.l{. Senior Researrh Officer-F. Wilson. Rrqearch Olficer (poultry breeding investiga- Kejcarch Officer-T. G. Campbell. tions)--F. Skaller, B.Agr.Sc. Itesearc.11 Officer-S. J. Paramollov, D.Sc. Reccbarch Officer (bncteriology, anaerobic infec- Research Officer-E. F. Riek, 3f.S~. ti~ns)--~l. JY. &oil wcil, M.Bc. (abroad). Research OfFiccr-D. R. Colless, B.Sc.Agr. Rest~arch Officer (chen~ical pathology and Rescarch Officer-Miss 91. Crust, B.Sc. analytical cberrlistry)-J. 73. Bingley, D.A.C. - - Itcwarch Offir(>r--&fibs ('. 13. E:tlrs, B.Sc. t'hysiology and Toxicology- Ec.uc~nreElOfficer-Aliw 31. J. Monsbowgh, R.Sc. Senior Research Officer-D. F. Waterhouse, M.Sc. Rrsc~ar.c*hOfficer-H. (2. 'I'iu.ner, E.hgr.Sc. Research Offirer-Y. F. Day, B.Sc., Ph.D. Rcac~archOfficer-G. ,llcsander, B.*\gr.Sc. Research Officer-D. Gilmour, M.Sc. 'I'ecshnical Officer-31. W. Mules. Besear*cl~Officer-R. 11. IIackman, M.Sc. (abroad ; 'L'ccl~nicalOfficer-E. Wold. seconded from Division of Industrial Chemistry). Technical Officer--Ll. E. Wright. Researcll Officer-11. JV. Kerr, B.Sc. Technical Officer-J. J. Spencer. Research Officer-R. F. Pomning, 1I.S.T.C. Terllnical Officer (animal h1~yhandry)-L. C. Technical Officer-J. H. Calaby. Gamble. Lorust rtnd Pasture Pests ClerL-J. J. Foley. Senior Research Officer-E. H. L. Key, M.Sc., Librarian-Mihs F. V. Murray, M.Sc. (part-time). Ph.D., D.Sc., D.T.C. Research Officer-Id. R. Clark, M.Sc. .,I f F. 11. JlcMnster Animal Hcnlfh T,nhornfory. Research Officer-P. 13. Carne, B.Agr.Sc. S!jd u ey- Technical Officer-D. L. Hall, Dip.Agr. (on re- 0ifirt.~-in-Charge-D. A. Gill, M.R.C.V.S.. habilitation study leave). T).V.S.M. Vegefable Pests and Virus Vector hvestiga).ationr.?-- Scnior Research Officer (parasitology)-H. McL. Researcah Officer-G. A. H. Helson, M.SC. Gordon, B.V.Sc. Research Officer-T. Greaves. Senior R~searcl~Officer (biocE~emistry)--M. C. Technical Oficer-N. E. Grylls, Dip.&r.D. Fr:lnklin, &l.Sc., P1i.D. 1'~1.miteInrrstigations- Senior Revarch Officer (field investigations, ecto- Rchearrll Officer-F. J. Gap, R.Sc., D.1.C'. parasit~~j--XP. IT. Graham, B.V.Sc.. Senior Research Officer (parasitology)-W. P. fi. D~vrsro~OF BIOUHEMISTBYAND GZNERAL ltogerq, JI.Sr., P11.1). NUTRITION. Seiiior Rclcarch Officer (bactc:riology)-D. F. (Head-quarters : at Tyniversity of Adelaide.) Stewart, B.V.Sc., Dip. Bact. Research Officer (biochemistry)-C. R. Austin, C'hief-11. R. Bfarston. ;SI.Sc., B.V.Sc. (iihoad). L)i\ isional Secretary-J. Ward Walters. Research OfEcer (physielogy) -TT. I(. Whitten, Pl.ineipal Research Officer-,I. W. Peirce, D.Sc. B.V.Si+. Sri~iorResearch Officer-E. W. Lines, B.Sc. Research Officer (biochemistry)-R. L. Reid, Smior Research Officer-H. J. Lee, B.Sc. B.n, 13.S~. Research Officer (parasitology)-A. C. Jennings, Resear.cli Oficer-Miss P. Mncbeth, B.Sc. C.Sc. Itc3searcli OBic>cr--A. F. Pilgrinl, 13.S~. Rt5srarch Officer (biochemistry) -Mrs. V. C. Technical Officer-D. W. Dewey. McClyx~ont,IMc. Techniral Officer-G. W. Bussell. Techni~alOfficer-E. A. Parrish. Tr.cllnica1 Officer-J. 0. Wilson. Technical Officer-H. A. Offord. 'I'echnical Officer-C. E. Sleigh. Technical Officer-F. J. Hamilton. Tecllrlical Offircr-R. F. Trowbridge. Techniral Offiver-11. V. Whitlock. 'I'echnical Officer-D. F. Graham. Clerk-11. 11. TITilson. Techniral Officer-V. A. Stephen. Librarian-Niss A. G. Culey, M.Sc. 'I'echnical Officer-T. M. Rilstone. Farrn Mzlnrgrr--It. H. Jones, R.D..9. At Wool Biology liubo~atory.Syd)re?p-- .2ssistant Librarian-Miss T. Sanders, B.A. Officer-in-Charge (wool biology)-H. B. Carter, 13.V.8~. Jiesearoll- Officer (wool biology)-Miss Id. Hardy, 7. DIVISIONOF SOILS. M.Sc. (Head-quarters : at Waite Agricult~~ralResearch ltr,~rarch Officer (wool biology)-K. Ferguson, Institute, ddelnide.) n.v.sp.- ..ld~niraisfration- Reica~ch Offircr (~ool biology)-Mis; P. Chief-J. A. Prescott, C.B.E., D.Sc. (part-time). 1)avidso11, I%.Sc. Deputy Chief-J. K. Taylor, B.A., hS.Sc., .At Fleece Analysis Laboratory, Villawood, Neur Soufh B.Sc.Agr.* Vi'ales- Soil S'uruey Section- Officer-in-Charge (wool u~etrology)-R'. F. Senior Research Officer-C. G. Stephens, M.Sc. Iioberts, Bl.Sc. PCeiearidi~ Oiiicc.1--1l. Rrexl cr, RSc. Research 0fEc.c r (wool metrology)-L. T. Wilson, Rr~earchOff~cer-E. J. Johnstoil, B.Sc.Sgr. 13.8~. Kesearch Officer-T. Langford Smith, M.Sc. Resoarch Officer (fleece analysis)-,I. J. Low, (seconcled) . R.Sc. Rta.enr~1~Officer-I<. H. Xorthcote, B.Agr.Sc. Teclrnical Officcr-Mi~s L. E'olley. H(~Yc1archOfKcer-G. 9.Ste~vart, B.Agr.Sc. Techlri~alOfficer-3li5s R. Cornforth. Rrficarcl~OfEcc>r--K. I). Kicholls, B.Sc., H.Agr.1S.c. A t Regional Pasf oral Labnrafory. il rrtt idalc, A-etc. doufh Research Officer-G. Blackburn, B.,Igr.Sc. Ilrales-- Z?c~~~archOfficer-It. A. Pwry, 13.S~. Officer-in-Charge (parasitology, field studies)- Research Officer-'G. W. Coc.llra~le,M.Sc. I. L. Johnstone, l3.v.S~. Research Officer-E. W. Boehnl, B.Sc. (,lgric.). Research Officer-H. T. Hughes, B.Ag.Sc. At P. D. Il.lci2laster Field Station, Budger,y's Creek, D~.auglltsinan--P. D. 1Ioogc.r.. iVpu9 "Youth Wales- Tr~lillicalOficer-L. W. l'earch Officer-R. W. Erie, B.Sc. (on study leave). Research Officer-F. R. Hartley, 3f.S~. Research Officer--J. F. Pearse, B.Sc. (Hons.) (on Research Officer-A. D. Wadsley, M.Sc. study leave). Itesearrll Officer-I. C. Kraitzer. Rcsearch Officer-B. W. Wilson, M.Sc. Itescarch Officer-E. S. Pilkington, A.S.T.C. Technical Officer-J. L. Clay, A.M.T.C. Iiesearch Officer-R. C. Croft, B.Sc. 'I'echnical Officer-D. IT. Trethewey, A.M.T.C. Tt~chnicalOfficer--11. R. Skewrs. 'J'eclmical Officer-K. A. Opl.icl. Technical Officer-J. F. Moresby, A.M.T.C. Smior Draughtsman-C. Simpson. Draugl~tsman-L. R. Bull. Cement and Ceramics Section- D~.aaghtsrnan--M. R. Blackwell. Principal Research Officer-A. R. Alderman, D.Sc., Ph.D. .4f University of Western Ausfmlia-Alunife Investi- liesearch Oficer-A. J. Gaskin, M.Sc. (part-time). gafions- Research Officer-R. H. Jones, B.Sc. (Holm.). Research Officer-G. H. Payne, M.Sc. Iiesearch Officer-11. E. Vivian, B.Sc.Agr. Rercnrcli 0ffirc.r--R. TI. TAee,B.Sc. (Hons.). Research Officer-E. R. Segnit, M.Sc. Research Officer-C. E. S. Davis, B.Sc. (Hons.). it Canberra, Division of Economic Entomology- Research Officer-H. R. Samson, M.Sc. Research Officer-R. H. Hackman, M.Sc. (on study Technical Officer-J. Coutts, A.M.T.C. leave). At Sydney, Division of Electrotechnology- Survey- Research Officer-R. R. Meakins, B.Sc., Ph.D. Research Officer-J. Warner, B.Sc., B.E, Research Officer-8. A. Gibson, M.Sc. Research Officer-A. B. Thomas, B.A. Research Oficer-H. L. Humphries, B.Sc., B.E. Iibrary- Research Officer-F. Gardner, B.Sc., B.E. Librarian-Miss H. P. Meggs (part-time). Technical Officer-R. C. Baker. Librarian-Miss B. M. Brown, B.Sc. (part-time). Technical Officer-D. C. Dunn. Engineering 8ervices- Works Supervisor-H. Byers. Chief Draughtsman-F. C. Carter. Assistant Technical Secretary-J. P. Eagles. (Head-quarters: at University of Sydney.) Publications- Research Officer-Miss L. F. Plunkett, B.Sc., Dip.Ed. Chief-E. G. Bowen, O.B.E., M.Sc., Ph.D. 0fice.r~Overseas- Technical Secretary-A. J. Eggs, B.Sc. Research OfIicer-B. F. C. Cooper, B.Sc., R.E. Research- Research Officer-Miss J. M. Freeman, M.Sc. Principal Research Officer-J. L. Pawsey, M.Sc., Research Officer-R. N. Bracewell, B.Sc., B.E. Ph.L). Research Officer-J. S. Gooden, B.Sc. Research Officer-J. L. Symonds, B.Sc. Solar Noise- T~rhnicalOfficer-I<. Sheridan. Principal Research Officer-J. H. Piddington, M.Sc., B.E., Ph.D. Senior Research Officer-L. L. McCready, B.Sc., B.E. 19. SECTIONOF TRIBOPIIYSICS. Research Officer-H. C. Minnett, B.Sc., B.E. (Hcad-quarters : at University of Melbourne.) Research Officer-Miss R. Payne Scott, M.Sc. Research Officer-S. F. Smerd, U.Sc. Officer-in-Charge-S. H. Bastow, D.S.O., B.Sc., Ph.D. Research Officer-D. E. Yabsley, B.Sc., B.E. Principal Reeearch Officer-W. Boas, D.Iag., M.Sc. Research Officer, J. G. Bolton, 13.A. Research Officer-J. N. Gregory, M.Sc. Technical Officer-K. R. Mcdlister. Research Officer-R. W. K. IIoneycombe, M.Sc. Technical Officer-J. V. Hindman. Xesearch Officer-T. V. Krok, B.E. Technical Officer-G. J. Stanley, A.S.T.C. Research Officer-M. F. R. Mulcahy, Y.Sc., AliJdle Atmosphere- A.G.Inst.Tech. (abroad). liesearch Officer-F. J. Kerr, M.Sc. Research Officer-R. G. Vines, M.Sc. Research Officer-C. A. Shain, B.Sc. Research Officer-E. B. Greenhill, M.Sc. (abroad). Tecl.~ilicalOfficer-C. S. I-Iiggins. Research Officcr-A. J. W. Moore, B.Sc. (abroad). Ionosphere- liesearch Officer-E, R. Uallantyne, B.Sc. Principal Reeearch Officer-G. H. Nunro, M.Sc. Research OAiccr-M. E. liargreaves, B.Met.E. Technical Officer-0. C. Turner. Research Officer-D. Michell, B.E.E. Radar Neteorology- Research Officer-Mis., M. J. Newiny, B.Sc. Senior Research Officer.-E. B. Kraus, Ph.D. Re.,earch Officer-G. J. Ogilvie, B.Met.E., M.Eng.Sc. Senior Rehearch Officrr-P. Squires, M.A. Rezearch Officer-J. V. Sanders, B.Sc. (II07ij.). - Research Officer-G. J. Parker, B.Sc., B.E. Research Officer-J. A. Spink, B.Sc. Research Officer-N. R. Labrum, B.Sc. Xesearch Officer-G. W. West, B.E.E. Research Officer-Miss B. Lippman, B.Sc. Technical Officer-Nisq J. Collins. Mathemntica7 Physics- Technical Officer-H. F. Eggington, A.Sw.T.0. Research Officer-T. Pearcey, B.Sc. Technical Officer-F. 11. Hay. Research Ofilcer-Ii. C. TVestfold. M.A.. B.Sc. Technical Officer-D. S. Kemsley, F.1f.T.C. Reeearch Officer-Miss M. A. '~damion, B.A., Technical Officer-R. G. Sherwood, A.iVf.T.0. Din.Ed. ~eseirchOfficer-Miss II. Taylor, B.A., DipEd. 2lleasurements and Standards- Senior Research Officer-F. J. Lehany, M.Sc. Research Officer-J. P. Wild, B.A. (Head-quarters : Graham-road, Highett, Victoria.) Vacuum Physics- Adminstration-- Research Officer-B. Y. Mills, B.Sc., B.E. Officer-in-charge-I. Langlands, B.E.E., M.3fech.E. Rcs:.arch Officer-T. R. Kaiser, M.Sc. Acting Officer-in-charge-J. S. IIosking, AI.Sc., Technical Officer-F. C. James. Ph.D. Technical Officer-R. Lorimer. Technical Secretary-W. F. Evans, B.Sc. Development- Infor~nrrtzot~nnd Lihrclry- Senio:. Research Officer-V. D. Burgmann, B.Sc., Research Officer-J. R. Rarned, B.Sc. B.E. Research Officer-R. C. McTaggart, B.Sc. Librarian-Miss A. G. Raldw in, B.A. Civil Auiation-Air- Research Officer-M. Beard, B.Sc., B.E. ~Mechnnicaland Physical Testing Laboratory- Research Officer-J. G. Domnes, B.Sc. 'IZ~s~nrrhOfficer-P. R. Snlnherper. B.Sc. Re.cearch Officer-E. B, Mulholland, B.Sc., B.E. Research Officer-A. J. Wilkins, B.E. Civil Aviation-Ground- Tcchiiical Officer-A. R. 1,ltdbrook. Research Officer-11. N. Edwards, B.Sc., B.E. Technical Officer-I. McLachlan. Research Officer-R. B. Co~~lqon,B.Sc,, B.E. Ponrrrfc Tnr~~~tigafions- Technical Officer-G. A. Wells. Principal Research O$cer-A. R. Alderman, D.Sc., Technical Officer-P. T. Hedges. Ph.D. (part-time). Technical Officer-T. D. Newnham. Res~archOfficer-W. H. Taylor, M.C.E. Technjcrl Officer-J. Algie. ,Masonry Investi,qafions- Rndio Confrol and Telemeterinq- Senior Research Officer-J. S. Ho.akina, M.Sc., Ph.D. Senior I'echnical Officer-G. T. Miles. Research Officer-H. V. Hueber, Dr. Phil. Surf acing Materials Investigations- 25. SECTIONOF PHYSICALMETALLURGY. Senior Research Officer-E. II. Waters, M.Sc. (Head-quarters: At University of Melbourne.) Research Officer-J. E. Bright, B.Sc. Officer-in-Charge (honorary)-Professor J. N. Qreen- Research Officer-T. S. Holden, B.Sc. wood, D.Sc., M.Met.E. Building Boards and Insulating Materiab- Senior Research Officer-D. W. Davison, B.Sc., Ph.D. Research Officer-R. W. Muncey, B.E.E. (Hons.). (abroad). Research Officer-P. E. Hands, B.Sc. (Hons.). Research Officer-H. W. Worner, M.Sc. Technical Officer-A. IT. Wilson. Technical Officer-Niss R. I. Shoebridge, 13.S~. Technical Officer-J. J. Russell. Organic Jlaterials Investi.qations-- Research Officer-B. M. Holmes, M.Sc. 26. ORE-DRESSINGINVESTIUATIONS. Technical Officer-Q. Chew, B.Sc. At University of Melbourne- Drawing Ofice- Officer-in-Charge-H. H. Dunkin, B.Met.E. (part- I Draughtsrnan-G. T. Stephens. time). Senior Research Officer-K. S. Blaskett, B. E. 21. FLAXRESEARCH. Technical Officer-F. D. Drews. i2f S,-/~~cjlL,f (Head-quarters : Graham-road, Highett, Victoria.) Mines, Adrlaide, South Australia- 1 Research Officer--D. R. Dlaskett, B.E. Officer-in-Charge-W. L. Greenhill, M.E. At School of *$fines, Ii'algoorlie, Vresiern Bustraliai Senior Research Officer-Miss J. F. Couchman, B.Sc. Officer-in-Charge--R. A. Hobson, B.Sc. (part-time). Research Officer-G. W. Lanigar~,M.Sc. Research Officer-A. 51. Munro, 31.h.(Oxon.). Research Officer-W. Shepherd, R.Sc., B.Agr.Sc. 27. OTHERINVESTIGATIONS. Technical Officer-M. Tisdall. Minerngrnphic Investigations- Senior Principal Research Officer-F. L. Stillwell, 22. SECTION OF MATHEMATICALSTATISTICS. D.Sc. Senior Research Officer-A. B. Edwards, D.So., (Head-quarters: at University of Adelaide.) Ph.D. At Sectional Head-quarters- llrleteoralogical Physics Resenrch- Officer-in-Charge-E. A. Cornish, M.Sc., B.Agr.Sc. Oficer-in-Charpe-C. H. B. Priestley, M.A. Research Officer-R. Birtwistle, B.Sc. Te.ctile Technology- Research Officer-G. G. Coote, B.A., B.Sc. Principal Research Officer-E. J. Drake. Research Officer-G. E. Ferris, B.Sc. Oenological Research- Research Officer-A. T. James, B.Sc. (Hons.). Research Officer-J. C. M. Fornachon, M.Sc., Sectional Secretary-Miss E. M. G. Goodale. B.Agr.lSc. At Division of Animal Health and Production, Syd- n e Y- Research Officer-Miss H. A. Newton Turner, 5. Publications of the Council.-The following B.Arch. publications were issued by the Council during the Research Officer-Miss V. M. Botham, B.Sc. year :- At Division of Forest Products, Melbourne- (i) Bulletins. Research Officer-E. J. Williams, B.Com. No. 197.-The Analysis of the Hydrocarbon Cases Research Officer-R. T. Leslie, B.A. (Hons.), B.Sc. by Fractional Distillation with Especial At Divisions of Plant Industry and Economic Ento- Reference to Cracked Tar Gases, by R. mology, Canberra- J. L. Martin, 1l.S~. Senior Research Officer-G. A. McIntyre, B.Sc., No. 198.-Plant Responses to Molybdenum as a DipEd. Fertilizer. 1. Molybdenum and Sym- biotic Nitrogen Fixation, by A. J. 23. RADIORESEARCH. Anderson, B.Sc. (Agric.), and Mar- garet P. Thomas, B.Sc. 2. Factors (Read-quarters : c/o Electrical Engineering Depart- ment, University of Sydney.) Affecting the Response of Plants to 1 Molybdenum, by A. J. Anderson, B.Sc. -4 t Sydney- (Agric.), and A. C. Oertel, 1l.S~. Principal Research Officer-G. H. Munro, M.Sc. No. 199.-The Use of Mineral Dusts for the Control Research Officer-L. S. Prior, B.So. of Wheat Pests, by Frank Wilson. Technical Officer-Mrs. M. Harrison, B.Sc. No. 200.-Pre~aration of Core Ingredients for Technical Officer-G. C. Morrison. Searchlight Carbons, by T. R. Scott, Technical Officer-Miss R. Hardwick, B.A. M.SC., B.Ra. Technical Officer-Miss B. A. Longworth, B.A. No. 201.-Grazing Management: Continuous and Draughtsman-R. de C. Wark. Rotational Grazing by Merino Sheep. At Mt. Stromlo, Canberra-- 1. Study of the Production of a So\vn k Senior Prineilsal Research Officer-D. F. Martyn, Pasture in the dustralian Capital - D.Sc., ~11.~: Territory under Three Systems of Research Officer-L. H. Heisler, B.So. Grazing Management, by R. M. Technical Officer-R. 0. Errey. Moore, B.Sc.Agr., Nancy Barrie, B.Sc.Agr., and E. H. Kipps, B.Sc. 24. DAIRYRESEARCH SECTION. Appendix, The Measurement of Pasture Yield under Grazing, by G. A. (Head-quarters : Lorimer-street, Fisherman's Bend, McIntyre, B.Sc. 2. The Effect of Con- Melbourne.) tinuous and Rotational Grazing on the Ufficer-in-Charge-G. Loftus Hills, B.Agr.Sc. Infestation of Sheep with Internal Senior Research Officer-E. G. Pont, M.Agr.Sc. Parasites, by H. McL. Gordon, B.V.Sc., Senior Research Officer-R. C. Hutchinson, D.Sc. and Helen Newton Turner, R.Arch. Research Officer-J. Conochie, B.Sc. (Agric.) . 3. Note on Pasture Management, by Research Officer-A. J. Lawrence, B.Sc. J. Griffiths Davies, B.Sc., Ph.D. F.7446.-10 No. 202.-The Strain Complex and Symptom Vari- APPENDIX. ability of Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus, by D. 0. Norris, M.Sc. (Agric.). No. 203.-Agar in Australia, by E. J. Ferguson PERSONNEL OF THE COUNCIL AND COMMITTEES ADVISIKG ON THE COUKCIL'S OWN WORK OR ON Wood, B.A., M.Sc. CO-OI'ITRATIVE WORK IN WHICH THE COUNCIL IS No. 204.-A Soil Survey of Part of Waterhonse ASSISTING. Estate, County of Dorset, Korth-East Coast, Tasmania, by G. Hubble, D. COUNCIL (AS AT 30m JUKTCJ 1947). l3.hgr.S~. No. 205.-Studies on the Breeding Performance of Ewes, by R. B. Kelley, D.V.Sc. Sir David Rivett, K.C.M.G., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Chairman). No. 206.-Pcdozenesis Follo\~inathe Dissection of A. E. V. Richardson, C.M.G., M.A., D.Sc. (Chief Executive Officer ) . ~GeriticRegions -in Southern Aus- F. W. G. White, M.Sc., Ph.D. tralia, by C. G. Stephens, M.Sc. I. Clunies Ross, D.V.Sc. No. 207.-The Fumigation of Wlleat in Bag Stacks, D. A. Llountjoy. bv Frank Wilson nntl F. J. Gay. B.Sc., 33.1.~. ", No. 208.-Surface Fumigation of Insect Infestations in Bulk-Wheat Depots, by Frank A. J. Gibson, M.E. (New South Wales). Wilson and A. T. Mills. Professor E. ,I. Hartung, D.Sc. (Victoria). R. J. Donaldson, D.S.O., B.C.E. (Queensland). No. 209.-Intcraction of Insect Infestation, Tem- Professor Sir Kerr Grant, M.Sc. (South Australia). perature, and Moisture Content in P. H. Harper, B.A. (Western Australia). Bulk-Depot Wheat, by Frank Wilson. F. H. Foster, B.C.E. (Tasmania). No. 211.-The Water Retting of Flax, by W. L. Greenhill, M.E., Dip.Se., and Jean I?. Couchman, B.Sc. N. K. S. Brodribb, C.B.E., F.R.I.C. No. 217.-The Relative Importance of Live Sheep Sir Harry Brown, C.M.G., M.B.E. and of Carrion as Breeding Grounds I'rofcssor \V. J. Dakin, D.Sc. for the Australian Sheep Blowfly M. T. W. Eady. Lucilia cuprina, by D. F. Waterhouse, W. S. Kelly. E. R. B. Lefroy. hl.Sc. G. Llghtfoot, M.A. No. 218.-Studies of the Physiology and Toxicology Professor Sir John Madsen, B.E., D.8c. of Blowflies. 12. The Toxicity of DDT .J. P. Ti~ey,B.A., B.Sc., B.E. as a Contact and Stomach Poison for Professor 8. M. Wadham. M.A., Dip.Agr. Larvae of Lucilia cuprina. 13. Insec- tary Tests of Repellents for the Aus- tralian Sheep Blowfly, by D. F. Water- STATE CORSRfITTEES (AS AT 30m JUNEJ 1947). house, M.Sc. NEW SOUTHWALES. No. 224.-Nechanical Composition of Soil in Rela- A. J. Gibson, M. E. (Chairman). tion to Firld Descriptions of Texture, Professor Sir Henry E. Barralough, K.B.E., V.D., B.E., by T. J. Marshall, M.Ag.Sc., Ph.D. M.M.E. J. N. Britoa. B.Sc.. B.E. (ii) Quarterly Journal. Sir Harry ~iown,C.M.G., M.B.E. Vol. 19, No. 3, August, 1946. Professor W. J. Dakin, D.Sc. Professor J. C. Earl. D.Sr., Ph.D., F.R.I.C. Vol. 19, No. 4, November, 1946. W. R. Hebblewhite, B.E. Vol. 20, No. 1, February, 1947. L. J. Jones. Vol. 20, No. 2, May, 1947. Bon. Sir Norman W. Rater, M.B., Ch.M., M.L.C. Sir Frederick McMaster. (iii) Annual Report for the year ending ProEe-qor Sir John Madsen, B.E., D.Sc. 30th June, 1946. J. Merrett. R. J. Noble, B.Sc.Agr., M.Sc., Ph.D. ( iv) Miscellaneous. R. G. C. Parry Okeden. J. G. Peake. " The Commercial Timbers of Australia-Their A. R. Penfold. F.R.I.C. Properties and Uses", by I. H. Boas, Profrssor J. D. Stewart. F.R.C.V.S.. B.V.Sc. M.Sc. E. H. F. Swain, Dip.For. J. P. Tivey, B.A., B.Sc., B.E. W. L. VCTaterhouse,M.C., D.Se.Agr., D.I.C. XXIII. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. Emeritus-Professor R. D. Watt. M.A.. B.Sc. C. M, Williams. In various sections of this Report reference has been made as in previous years to the valuable assistance afforded by many ,State Departments, Universities, and VICTOBL~ other organizations and individuals. The Council de- Professor E. J. Hartung, D.Sc. (Chairmm). sires to express its gratitude for the help given by these R. S. Andrews, B.Sc. W. Baragwanath. bodies and persons in providing laboratory accommoda- N. K. S. Brodribb, C.B.E.,F.R.I.C., tion and other facilities and in many other ways. The Professor F. M. Burnet, M.D., Ph.D., F.R.6. Council also wishes to acknowledge the assistance it has M. T. W. Eady. received from its State Committees and other Commit- Sir Herbert W. Gepp. . Professor J. N. Greenwood, D.Sc., M.Met.E. tees, the members of which have placed their knowledge Rn-sell Grimwade, C.B.E., B.Pc. and experience so freely at its disposal. H. Herman, D.Sc., M.M.E., B.C.E. Sir Dalziel Kelly, LL.R. DAVID RIVETT, Chairman. G. Lightfoot, M.A. A. E. V. RICHARDSON H. A. Mullett, B.Agr.Sc. F. W. G. WHITE X. Taylor, B.Sc., F.R.I.C. Committ~e. Professor J. S. Turner, M.A., M.Sc., W.D. I. CLUNTRS ROSS Professor S. M. Wadham, M.A., Dip.Agr. D. A. MOUNTJOY W. E. Wainwrirht. A.S.A.S.M. J L. J. ~eatherlf,M.A. Q. A. COOK, Secretary. Professor H. A. Woodruff, R.Sc., L.R.C.P., M.R.C.S., 11th November, 1947, M.R.C.V.S. IRRIGATION RESEARCH STATION, GRIFFITH- CONSULTATIVE C0313IITTEE. Professor Sir Kerr Grant, M.Sc. (Chairma%). A. J. Allen. El. T. Dicl Ir~ig~~tiollTrnst. Professor T. Parnell, M.A. R. Stevens, Nyall-Woorinen Enquiry Committee. C. R. Paterson, B.E. A. G Strickland, nl.Agr.Sc., Depaltment of Agriculture, South R. P. hl. Short. Australia. H. C. Urquhart, M.Sc. 6. P. Taylor, Curlwan, New South Wales. R. Veitrl~.R,Sc.Agr., B.Sc.For 0. Wcqtc, Itenmarl<, South Au~tralia. J. L. Wilson. r). C. \TTintcrbottom, 3Zlldura Packers' Association. C. E. Young, D.S.O. A. V. Lyon, LT.Agr.Sc., Commonwealth Research Station, Merbein (Secretary). WESTERNAUSTRALIA. P. H. Harper, B.A. (Chairman). G. K. Baron-Hay, M.C., B.Sc. (Agric.). IRRIGATION RESEARCH STATION, GMFFITH- Professor N. S. Bayliss, B.A., B.Sc., Ph.D. ilDVISORY COMMITTEE. IT. Bowlcy. V. C. Williams, Griflith Producers' Co-op. Ltd. (Chairman). F. G. Brinsden W. G. Burges. G' Sa'agclDepartment of Agriculture, New South Wales. Professor E. deCourcy Clarke, M.A. R. G. ICt bhv f Professor G. A. Currie, D.Sc., B.Ap.Sc. :: F; Rural Bank of New South Wales. A. L. B. Lefroy. ::$kk} 3:. H. B. Lefroy. H. N. E~~~~lz~nd.B.Sc., Water Conservation and Irrigation B. Meechsm. Comm*ission, New South Wales. Professor G. E. Nicholls, l3.S~. T. T. &Iorley, Crifith Producers' Co-op. Co. Ltd. I,. W. Phillips, MAC., M.Ed. 0. J. Longhurstixrl'ood ) Yerida Producers' Co-op. Society Ltd. Professor A. D. Ross, nl.A., D.Sc. A, B, T. N. Stoate, JZ.Sc., Dip.For. J' } Leeton Froitgrowersy Co-op. Society Ltd. G. L. Sutton, D.Sc.Agr. LV. Jacka Professor E. J. Underwood, B.Sc.(Agric.), Ph.D. A. G. ~nticltna~,,M.L.A 1 Leeton Co-op. Cannery Ltd. R. B. Williamson. FI. J. IVilliams L' jtfarchant R1.I.A. Vegetable Growersy Association. W. S. Jones 1 TABMANIA. A. G. Knbank, 51.1.~.pastoral interests. F. H. Foster, B.C.E. (Chairmm). E. S. Wwt, B.Sc., 3t.S. / Irrigation Research Station, I,. R. 8. Benjamin. R. R. Pennefnther, B.Agr.Sc. j Griffith. N. P. Booth, F.R.I.C. Professor A. Burn, M.Sc., B.E. F. IV. Hicks. S. L. Kessell, M.Sc., Dip.For. DENILIQTTIN RESEARCH STATION-TECHNICAL A. W. Knight, B.Sc., M.E., R.Com. C011111IITTEE. Professor A. L. McAulay, M.A., B.Sc., Ph.D. B. T. Dichson, B.A., Ph.D., Division of Plank Industry, D. 0. Meredith nnT- F. H. Peacock. b.U.L.fi. F. B. Richardson, M.A. Professor J. A. Prescott, D.Sa., Division of Soils, C.S.I.R. Ron. Sir Rnpcrt Shoobridge, M.L.C. L. 13. Bull, D.V.Sc., Division of Animal Health and Pro- H. B. Sorncrset, M.Sc. duction, C.S.I.R. S. W. Steane, B.A. H. R. AIarston, Division of Biochemistry and General Nutri- tion, C.S.T.R. ,T. G. Davies, B.Sc., Ph.D., Division of Plant Industry, C.S.I.R. T. J. Marshall, M.Ag.Sr., Ph D., Division of Soils, C.S.I.R. COMMONWEALTH RESEARCH STATION, MERBEIN- A. J. Va~cy,R.hqr.Sc., Division of Animal Health and Pro- CONSULTATIVE COIDTITTEE. duction, C.S.I.R. B. T. Dickson, B.-4., Ph.D., Division of Plant Industry, R. R. Per~nefatl~er,B.Agr.Sc., Irrigation Research Station, G.S.I.R. (Ckairmalz). Griflith. Professor J. A. Prescott, D.Sc., Waite Agricultural Research A. V. Lyon, M.Agr.Sc., Gommon~vealth Research Station, Institute. University of Adelaide. JIerhe~n. P. hfalloch, Common~vealtll Dried Fruits Control Board. 0. ;llcT,. Falkiner, Boonoke Station, Conargo. E. J. Casey, Common~vealthDried Fruits Control Board. J. N. Whittet, H.D.A., Department of Agriculture, New South A. E. Cameron, representing Advisory Committee. W~IPS A. V. Lyon, M.Sgr.Sc., Commonwealth Research Station. R. \f:-~runster. B.Sc. (Agric.), Division of Plant Industry, Mcrbein (Secretary). C.S.I.R. (Secretary). VEGETABLE PROBLEMS COMMITTEE. BTINERAGRAPHIC COMMITTEE. B. T. Diekson, B.A., Ph.D., Division of Plant Industry, Emeritus-Profe.sor E. W. Skeats, D.Sc., Melbourne. C.S.I.R. (Chairman). W. E. Wainsright, A.S.A.S.M., Australasian Institute of A. V. Lyon, M.Agr.Sc., Commonwealth Research Station, Mining and Metallurgy. hferbci~~.Victoria. E. S. Nrcst, B.Sr., M.S., Irrigation Research Station, Griffith, Nev So~~tli\\ale>. K. Spcl~cer,B.ScAgr., Irrigation Research Station, Griffith, RADIO RESEARCH BOARD. New Sor~tl~Walei. Professor Sir John Madsen, B.E., D.Sc., University of Sydney L. J. Lynch, B.Agr.Sc., Division of Food Preservation and (("~1~27ltLU?l). Tranir~olt, C.S 1.11. Comrr~ancler 9. A. MacKinnon, Director of Naval Communi- E. &I. IIutton, B.Ag.Sc., M.Sc., Division of Plant Industry, cations, R.A.N. C.G.I.X. (Secretary). C'olol~el A. D. Jlolloy, Director of Signals, A.M.F. Wing-Cdr. J. W. lteeddrop, Director of Telecommunications and Radar, R.A.A.F. R, v.4. It. Woolley, X.A., M.Se., Ph.D., Mt. Stromlo Obser- DRIED FRUITS PROCESSING COMMITTEE. \. ~tol'y. C. G. Ravage, Department of Agriculture, New South Wales 1'1oEcs5or T. Parnell, M.A., University of Queensland. ( CI~airman) . E. -G. - --Bowen, O.B.E., hI.Sc., Ph.D., Division of Radiophysics, R'. R. tl(~\rcll,bI.Sc., B.Met., F.R.I.C., Department of Agricul- C.S.I.K. ture, Victoria. F. W. G. \\;bite, M.Sc., Ph.D., C.S.I.R. W. 1RI. Carne, Department of Commerce and Agriculture, F. G. Sicliolls, M.Sc., C.S.I.R. (Secretary). AIeiboi~me. A. V. IJvon, M.Agr.Sc.. Commonwealth Research Station, stel bt~ill. A G. fitrickland, M.Agr.Sc., Department of Agriculture, ELECTRICAL RESEARCH BOARD. South 4uqtralia. Professor Sir John Madsen, B.E., D.Sc.. Universitv of Svd- E. ('. Orion. B.Pc . Commonwealth Research Station, Merbein. liey ( Chuirmat~) . *T. 11. Tirltely, hl Sc., Ph.D., Division of Food Preservation R. Lidtielon, Electricity Supply Association of Australia. a- 4 '1 I :vv,port, C.S.1 r\. V. J. F. Brain, I-lertricity Supply Bssociation of dustralia. D G. Quinn, Department of Agriculture, Victoria. D. M. Myers, B.Sc., D.Sc.Eng., Division of Electrotechnology, R. R. Withers, ;SI Sc., Diyr.Ed., Division of Food Preservation ('Sl- . . -.-.li . and Transport, C.S.I.R. (Secreta.ry). F. W. G. White, M.Sc., Ph.D., C.S.I.R. F. G. Nicholls, M.Sc., C.S.I.R. (Conjoint Secretary). R. C. Richardson, B.E., Division of Electrotechnology, C.S.I.R. (Conjoint Hecretary) . FLAX RESEARCH ADVISORY COMMITTEE. J. .4. Stevenson, Flax Production Committee (Chairman). I. H. Rons, 31 Sc., hlelbourne. BUILDING MATERIALS RESEARCH ADVlSORY R. B. T-Iozg, re11rt"enting the Australian flax spinners. COJIMITTEE. A'b. TYeizall, repre?entinz the groxvcrs. T. J. Cavanagh, Sydney (Chairman). D. V. Istlacs, M.C.IS., Experinrental Building Station, Depart- ment of Post-war Recor~rtruction. FISHJd:RIES ADVISORY COMMITTEE. A. C. Leith, X.C.E., Rlelbourne. G. E. Junck. Jlclbourne. I'rofessor W. J. Daltin, D.Sc., Department of Zoology, Uni- H. W. Knight, Sydney. vcrsitv of Svdnev (Chairman). L. J. P~ic>cx.N.C., ALE., Department of Works and Housing, T. C. ~crugl~le~,I?.sc., Chief Secretary's Department, New Blelboul ne. Po11ill W~.'~leq. 0. IIcCutclieon, Dip.Srch, Melbourne. H. 'Thonipson, M.A., D.Sc., Division of Fisheries, C.S.I.R. P. TITT. G. White, Bl.Sc., Ph.D., C.S.I.R. I. Lz~nplands,R.E.E., M.hIech.E., Building Materials Research, C.8.I.R.

B. Gresfordj B'Sc', C'S'l.R' (8ecretar~). ADVI$'OnY COMMITTEE ON RED-LEGGED EARTH MIT&I '. INYES? IG.lTlOh'S, WES1 ERN AUSTRALIA. E. H. B. Lefroy (Chairman). C. F. .Tclch.ns, B.A., Dr~~artn~entof Agrienlture, Western CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL Alhtr,, li:~. PERIODICALS-EDITORIAL COMAIITTEF. Professor G. A. Currie, B.Agr.Sc., D.Sc., University of Wes- Lriyh Scott, 3l.A.. Librarian, Uni~ersityof blelbourne. tei 11 Australia. John %Ictcnlfe, B.A., Principal Librarian, Public Library of I. Tl~om,rq, Dipartment of Agriculture, Western Australia. New South Walcs. A J. Xit~holson, I).Sc., Division of Economic Entomology, C. A. ASrCallum, B.A., Chief Librarian, Public Library, Mel- C S T.T<. bourne. L. \TT. Phillips, M.Sc., M.Ed. (Becretaw). Ellinor Archer, M.Sc., Chief Librarian, C.S.I.R.

VETERINARY ENTOI\IOLOGICAL COBtMITTEE. TNDC'STIIIAL INFORIIATION ADVIS.ORY COMMITTEE. (Pormerlg the Interdivisional Blozcfiy Committee; its funo- F. H. Canrphell, D.Sc., Secondary Industries Division, Depart- ti011 is to t'o orrli,iate cerlaia artivitirs of the Divzsions of rnc~itof I'ost-war Reconstruction. K. W. Bennett, B.Sc., A.M.T.C., Secondary Industries Division, Economic Erztomology and of Animal ITeallI~ and I'roduction.) Ministry of Post-war Reconstruction. L. B. null, D.T7.Sc., Division of Anirnal Health and Produe- E. A. GoocIe, hI.Sc., 'Iechnical Information Section, Munitions tion, C.P.T.R. Sni~plyLaboratories. A. J. Sic.?~olson,D.Sc., Division of Economic Entomolo,gy, BI. I. Homewood, B.Fc., Technical Information Section, Muni- C.S.T.Jt. tioil.; Snpply Laboratories. A, TI7. Turner, O.B.E., D.Sc., D.V.Sc., Division of Animal C. hl. Gray, &I.Sc., information Service, C.S.I.R. Ft

TRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE CO3IMIT'l'EE FOR SOUTH SEW SOUTH WALES MEAT RESEARCH ADVISORY AUSTRALIA. COMMl TTEE. C'. M. Fowles, Lands Department, South Australia (Chair- L. J. Ashcroft, Liverpool. Ne% Soi~thWales. man). E. J. Bowatcr, Nesqrs. Arly1is.r aud Co. Pty. Ltd., Sydney. 4. G. Strickland, M.Agr.Sc., Department of Agriculture, J. 31. D,1\il1ion. (7umrl~or~\vealthVeterinary Officer, Sydney, 8011th Australia. represe~itir~gthe Department of Co~nmerce. A. T'. I~yon,BI.Agr.Sc., Commonwealth Research Station, Mep J. Xcri e't, Meti opolitan Meat Industry Commissioner, Syd- bcir~,Victoria. ney. .4. C. Gorrlon, Lands Department, South Australia. J. R. Vickery, M.Sc., Ph.D., Division of Food Preservation H. G. Tolley, Engineering and Water Supply Department, and Transport, C.S.I.R. South Australia. CURLWAA AND COOMEALLA HORTICULTURAL D. W. Cockcroft, Woorinen Fruit Growers. ADVISORY COMMITTEE. H. Willoughby, Nyah Fruit Growers. A. V. Lyon, M.Agr.Sc., Commonwealth Research Station, G. D. Willoughby, Nyah Fruit Growers. Merbein (Chairman). R. Stevens, Nyah Fruit Growers. F. H. Bxrrett, Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission, L. M. Byrnes, Koraleigh Fruit Growers. New South Wales. R. C. Polkinghorue (Seoretary). C. T. Lasscock, lZural Bank of New South Wales. S. Heaysman, representing Coomealla Producers. J. Bailey, representir~g Coomealla Producers. IRRIGATION ENGINEERING COMMITTEE. S. P. Taylor, representing Curlwaa Producers. A. V. Lyon, M.Agr.Sc., Commonwealth Research Station, Mer- W. Reeves, representing Curlwaa Producers. bein chairm ma?^) . F. S. Oldham, Department of Agriculture, New South Wales J. A. Aird, B.Sc., B.Agr.Sc., State Rivers and Water Supply (Secretary). Commission, Victoria. T. A. Lang, State Rivers and Water Supply Commission, WAKOOL LAND-USE COMMITTEE. Victoria. F. H. Barrctt, Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission, A. V. Lyon, M.Agr.Sc., Commonwealth Research Station, Ncu So~~thWales. Merbein ( Ohairman \. I". B. Haigh, First Mildura Irriqation Trust. G. B. ~:ibbsi Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission, J G. Baldwin, B Sc., B.Agr.Sc., Commonwealth Research New South Wales. Station. Zllerbein. F. I. Bolton, Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission, G. V. F. ~lewett,B.E., Commonwealth Research Station, Mer- New South Wales. bein (Secretary). F. Matthews, Rural Bank of New South Wales. M. St.C. McIlmes, Rural Bank of New South Wales. F. Autry-Hall, Department of Agriculture, New South Wales. B. Savayc, Department of Agriculture, New South Wales. COMMITTEE ON OENOLOGICAL RESEARCH. A. Varcoe-Cocks, Wakool Shire Council. Professor J. A. Prescott, D.Sc., representing the Council for H. J. Robinson scientific and Industrial Research (Chairman). L. Jcffers repr~senting Wakool Dietrict Landowners' C. Haselgrove, representing the Federal Viticultural Council. W. R. A. Smith 1 Executive. Professor J. B. Cleland, M.D., Ch.M., reprasenting the Uni. E. E. Toll 1 versity of Adelaide. R. W. Prunster. B.Sc.fAaric.). Council for Soicntific and In- \ .- ,> L N. Salter, representing the Australian Wine Board. dustrid Research. K. Jackson, representing Wakool District Landowners' Execu- tive (Secretary ) . ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON FRUIT COOL STORAGE INVESTIGATIONS IN NEW SOUTH WALES. IRRIGATION RESEARCH EXTENSION COMMITTEE C. G. Savage, Department of Agriculture, New South Wales (MURRUMBIDGEE IRRIGATION AREAS ) . (Chawman). C. G. Savage, Department of Agriculture, New South Wales H. Broadfoot, Department of Agriculture, New South Wales. (Chairman). Professor N. A. Burges, M.Sc., Ph.D., Department of Botany, R. G. S. Kebby, Department of Agriculture, New South Wales. University of Sydney. B. 0. French, Department of Agriculture, New South Wales. J. R. Vickery, M.Sc., Ph.D., Division of Food Preservation H. Mallaby, Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission, and Transnort. C.S.I.R. Wew South Wales. R. N. ~obert'son,'B.Sc., Ph.D., Divisioh of Food Preservation H. N. England, B.Sc., Water Conservation and Irrigation and Transport, C.S.I.R. Conlmission, New South Wales. R. B. Witl~crs,M.Sc., Dip.Ed., Division of Food Preservation E. R. Iredale, Rural Bank of New South Wales. and Transport, C.S.I.R. (Secretary). C. T. 12::sr,cock, Iiural Bank of New South Wales. G. F. B. Good, Rural Bank of New South Wales. E. S. West. B.Sc., M.S., Irrigation Research Station, Griffith. ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON FRUIT COOL STORAGE R. R. Pennefather, B.Agr.Sc., Irrigation Research Station, INVESTIGATIONS. Grifith. (Established in connemion with the co-operative investigations D. V. Walters, M.Agr.Sc., Irrigation Research Station, of the Coumcil and the Victorian Department of Agriculture Griffith. on the cool storage of non-tropical fruits.) V. C. Williams, M.I.A. Co-operatives Executive, Griffith. S. Fish, M.Agr.Sc., Department of Agriculture, Victoria. 0. J. Longhurst, M.I.A. Co-operatives Executive, Yenda. F. 31. Read, M.Agr.Sc., Department of Agriculture, Victoria. W. Jacka, M.I.A. Co-operatives Executive, Leeton. J. R. Vickery, M.Sc., Ph.D., Division of Food Preservation J. H. Carter, Rural Bank, New South Wales (Becretary). and Transport, C.S.I.R.

TYNTL'NDER INVESTIGATION COMMITTEE, SIWAN COMMITTEE FOR CO-ORDINATION OF FRUIT AND HILL. VEGETABLE STORAGE RESEARCH. J. D. Wallis, State Rivera and Water Supply Commission, W. M. Carne, Department of Commerce, Melbourne Victoria (Chairman). (Chairman). J. A. Aird, B.Sc., B.Agr.Sc., State Rivers and Water Supply R. N. Robertson, B.Sc., Ph.D., Division of Food Preservation b Commission. Victoria. and Transport, C.S.I.R. F. Rogerson, State Rivers and Water Supply Commission, S. &I. Syk&, B.Sc.Agr., Department of Agriculture, New Victoria. South Wales. A. V. Lyon, M.Agr.Sc., Commonwealth Irrigation Station, F. M. Read, M.Agr.Sc., Department of Agriculture, Victoria. Merbein. A. G. Strickland, M.Agr.Sc.,- .- Department of Agriculture.- South F. Penman, M.Sc., Department of Agriculture, Victoria. Australia. E. Pearce. Swan Hill Advisory Board. T. I). Raphael, M.A., Dip.Hort. (Cambridge), Department of L. M. Barrett, Tyntynder Progress Association. Agriculture, Tasmania. S. A. Trout, M.Sc., Ph.D., Department of Agriculture and NYAH-WOORINEN INQUIRY COMMITTEE. Stock, Queensland. T. C. Dunne, B.Sc. (Agric.) Ph.D., Department of Agricul- Hon. P. T. Byrnes, M.L.C. (Chairman). ture, Western Australia. . V. Lyon, M.Agr.Sc., Commonwealth Research Station, D. Martin, B.Sc., Division of Plant Industry, C.S.I.R. hferbein. R. B. Withers, M.Sc., Dip. Ed., Division of Food Preservation B.Agr.Sc., State Rivers and Water Supply and Transport, C!S.I.R. (Secretarg ) . Commission, Victoria. J. D. Wallis, State Rivera and Water Supply Commission, Victoria. W. Bentley, State Rivers and Watcr Supply Commission, ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON ORIENTAL PEACH MOTH Victoria. INVESTIGATIONS. F. Penman, M.Sc., Department of Agriculture, Victoria. A. J. Nicholson, D.Sc., Division of Economic Entomology, F. 14. Read, M.Agr.Sc., Department of Agriculture, Victoria. C.S.I.R. (Ohahan). D. D. Brown, Department of Agriculture, Victoria. F M. Read, M.Agr.Sc., Department of Agriculture, Victoria. D. A. Cockcroft, Dried Fruits Board, Victoria. H. J. Williams, Leeton Co-op. Cannery Ltd., New South Wales. A. McQueen, Department of Commerce. G. A. H. Helson, M.Sc., Division of Economic Entomology, A. S. P. Basey, Packers' Association. bx3.l.n.n"T- A. Westcott, Woorinen Fruit Growers. S. Fish, M.Agr.Sc., Department of Agriculture, Victoria A. E,.Jude, Woorinen Fruit Growers. . ( Neoretary ) . 138

JOINT BLOWFLY CONTROL COMMITTEE. Melbourne Sub-Committee. (Appohted as a means of co-ordznating the activities of the H. Hey, Electrolytic Zinc Co. of A'sia Ltd., Melbourne (Ohah- New South Wales Department of Agriculture, the Queemland man). Llepartment of Agriculture and Stock, and of the Council for W. Baragwanath, Director, Geological Survey, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.) Mines, Victoria. L. B. ~~11,D.v.s~., ~i~i~i~~of ~~i~~l~~~lthand Produc- W. J. Rose, B.M.E., Com~nonwealthTariff Board. tion, C.S.I.R. (Chazrman) . G. B. O'Malley, B.Met.E., Melbourne. A. J. ~i~h~l~~~,D.s~., ~i~i~i~~of ~~~~~~i~ ~~t~~~l~~, H. H. Dunkin, B.Net.E., School of Metallurgy, University of C.S.I.R. Melbourne. W. L. Hindmarsh, McR.C.V.S., B.V.Sc., D.V.H., Glenfield R. B. fiIills, B.Sc., Electrolytic Zinc Co. La., ~elkourne. i Veterinary Research Station, New South Wales. M. Mawby, Zinc Corp. Ltd., Melbourne. T. McCarthy, Department of Agriculture, New South Wales. H. a. Belschner, D.V.Sc., Department of Agriculture, New Adelaide Sub-committee. South Wales. - F. Queensland.H. S. Roberts, D.Sc., Department of Agriculture and Stock, ~r~~~~~r~~~~e;~,l~.~$;,s>e~,"~~~~,"t(~~~~~; oni- D. A. Gill, M.R.C.V.S., D.V.S.M., Division of Animal Health verpity of Adelaide. Dickinson,.31.Sc., Department of Mines, South and Production, C.S.I.R. (Secretary). S, H. T. 31. Angwln, C.M.G., B.E., F.S.A.S.M., Engineering and Water Supply Department, South Australia. R. W. Parsons, Boriython Laboratory, South Australian School PUEENSLAND PRmcERS, of Mines and Industries (Secretarv) . COMMITTEE. P. B. Newcornen, Queensland United Graziers' Association ( Chairman). Ratgoorlie Sub-committee. N. Bourke, Queensland United Graziers' Association. ,I. S. Foxall, B.E., Department of Bl~nes,Western Australia. F. M. Bell, Queensland United Graziers' Association. R. A. Hobson, B.Sc., School of Mines, Kalgoorlie, Western P. A. Brown, Queensland United Graziers' Associat~on. Alustralia. P. A. Elliot, Queensland United Grazicrs' Association. P. C*'. Brinsdeii, Australasian Institute of Mining and Metal- G. A. Fairbairn, Qneensland United G'raziers' Association. lurgy, Western Australia. J. F. Meynink, Queensland United Graziers' Association. J. R. Hylton, Great Boulder Pty. Gold Mines Ltd., Fimiston, R. C. Philp, Queensland United Graziers' Association. Western Australia. J. L. Wilson, Queensland United Graziers' Association. L. J. Lnndsberg, Queensland United Graziers' Association. Professor D. H. K. Lee, M.Sc., M.B., B.S., D.T.M., University of Queensland. CORROSION ADVISORY COMMITTEE. J. Legg, D.~.sc.,Department of and Stock, Queens- land. 1. C.S.I.R.W. Wark, ph.D., D.Sc., Division of Industrial Chemistry, F. H. S. Roberts, D.Sc., Department of Agriculture and Stock, C. M. Longfield, State Electricity victoria. Queensland. R. J. Bennie, Metropolltan Gas Company, Melbourne. M. White, M.Sc., Ph.D., Department of Agriculture and Stock, C. G. N. ;~~~~~~ld,~~~~~t~~~tof ~~il,,,~~~, victoria. Queensland. C. J. Grifiths, Postmaster-General's Department, Melbourne. G' R. "oule, B'V'Sc', Department of agriculture and S. g. Robel tsoi~,Melbourne and Metropolitan Tramways Board. Queensland. L. Lewis, B.Met.E., Division of Industrial Chemistry, C.S.I.R. L. F. Hitchcock, M.Sc., Division of Economic Entomology, (secretary,. C.S.1.R. T. B. Paltridge, B.Sc., Division of Plant Industry, C.S.I.R. I 9.R. Riddle, A.B., M.S., Division of Food Preservation and Transport, C.S.I.R. - C H. Jamieson, Queensland Dairymen's State Council. AVlATION RLll)IO DSEARCH COMMITTEE. Miss H. F. Todd, C.S.I.R. (Secnetary). E. G. Bowen, O.B.E., M.Sc., Ph.D., 'Division of Radiophysics. C.S.I.R. (Chatman). R. M. X:ldenach, Department of Civil Aviation. TECHNICAL COMMITTEE ON CATTLE TICK C. R. TViyqiils, Department of Civil Aviation. INVESTIGATIONS. Wing-Commander J. W. Reddrop, Director of Telecommnnica- J. Legg, D.V.Sc., Department of Agriculture and Stock, tiom and of Air, QueensIand (Chaiman). S. H. Witt, Postmaster-General's Department. M. White, M.Sc., Ph.lD., Department of Agriculture and Stock, M. H. Ileyers, Qantas Enipire Airnays litd. Qnecnsland. 0. L. Wirsu, B.Sc., B.E., Australian National Airways Pty. J. L. Wilson, Queensland United Graziers' Association. Ltd. A. w. T~~~~~,o.B.E., D.s~., D.v.&., ~i~i~i~~of ~~i~~lJ. H. Gerrand. Australian National Airlines Commission. Health and Production, C.S.I.R. Captain A. C. Lovell, Australian Air Pilots' Association. A. J. Nicholson, D.%., (Division of Economic Entomology, P. G. Nicholls, M.%., C.S.1.R. (secretary). C.S.I.R. L. F. Hitchcock, M.Sc., iDivision of Economic Entomology, C.S.I.R. F. H. S. Roberts, D.Sc., Department of Agriculture and AERONAUTICAL RESEARCH CONSULTATmE Stock, Queensland. COMMITTEE. Professor A. V. Stephens, M.A., Sydney (Ohairman). Professor T. M. Cherry, B.A., Ph.D., BZelbourne. TECHNICAL COMMITTEE ON BUFFALO FLY W. A. S. Buteinent, O.B.E., Long-range IVeapons Organization. INVESTIGATIONS. Air Vice-Marshall E. C. 'CVackett, O.B.E., R.A.A.F. J. Legg, D.V.Sc., Department of Agriculture and Stock. M. B. Woodfull, Division of Aircraft Production, Munitions Queensland (Chairman). G. Bo\ven, 0.B.G M.Sc., Ph.D., Division of RadiophpicS, L. D. Carey, Department of Agriculture and stock, Quwna- E. - land. C.S.I.R. A. J. Nicholson, D.Sc., Division of Economic Entomology, L. P. Coonibes, D.F.C., B.Sc. (Eng.), Division of Aeronautics, C.S.I.R. C.S.I.R. W. G. White, M.Sc.j Ph.D.2 C'S'*'R. K. R. Norris, M.Sc., Division of Economic Entomology, G. B. Gresford, B.Sc., C.S.I.R. (Secretary). C.S.I.R. A. W. Turner, O.B.E., D.Sc., D.V.Sc., Division of Animal Health and Production, C.S.I.R. METEOROLOGICAL RESEARCH CONSULTATIVE COMMITTEE. MINING ADVISORY COMMITTEE. R. v. d. R. Woolley, M.A., M.Sc., Ph.D., Mt. Stmmlo Oher- Sir David Rivett, K.C.M.G., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., C.jS.1.R. vatory (Chairman). (Chairman). Profe-sor Sir John Madsen, B.E., D.Sc., University of Sydney. H. Herman, D.Sc., MALE., B.C.E., Melbourne. F. Loewe, Ph.D., Uni~ersityof Blelbonrne. H. St. J. Somerset, Electrolytic Zinr Co. of Australasia Ltd.. E. G Bowen, O.B.E., M.Sc., Ph.D., Division of Radiophysics, Melbourne. C.S.I.R. W. E. Wainwright, A.S.A.S.M., Melbourne. C. H. B. Priestley, M.A., C.S.I.R. Q A. Cook, M.C., M.So., B.M.E. (Reoretary). G. B. Gresford, B.Sc., C.S.I.R. (Secreta~y). 139

ATOMIC ENERGY RESEARCH ADVISORY COMMITTEE. COAL DUST RESEARCH ADVISORY OOMMITTEE. F. W. G. White, M.Sc., Ph.D., C.S.I.R. (Chairman). Professor F. A. Eastaugh, A.R.S.M., F.R.I.C., Sydney Major-Gcneral L. E. Beavis, C.B.E., D.S.O., Department of (Chairman). Defence. G. C. Smith, M.B., B.S., Department of Health, New South A. P. Rowr, C.B.E., Department of Defence. Wales. 6. B. Dickinson, M.S2., Department of Mines, South Australia. H. M. Whaite, Department of Health, New South Wales. Professor L. H. Martin, Ph.D., University of Melbourne. C. D. 1111rharn. Department of Mines, New South Wales. H. G. Razqatt, D.Sc., Department of Supply and Shipping. J. C. Webb, Education Department, New South Wales. G. H. Briggs, D.Sc., Ph.D., C.S.I.R. A. T. R. Emery, Anstralian Coal and Shale Employees' 1. W. Warli, D.Sc., Ph.D., C.S.I.R. Federation, New South Wales. G. B. Gresford, B.Sc., C.S.I.R. (Secretary). J. Sneddon, Australian Coal and Shale Employees' Federation, New South Wales. F. M. Jefferson, Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy. G. M. Hindmarsh, New South Wales. S. McHensey, New South Wales. -- C. 0. Newey, New South Wales. TRACER ELEMENT RESEARCH COMMITTEE. H. L. Pearce, New South Wales. C. E. Eddy, D.Sc., Department of Health. 0. G. Vickery, New South Wales. F. W. G. White, M.Sc., Ph.D., C.S.I.R. L. F, D. Cane, New South Walw. I F. G. Nicholls, M.Sc., C.S.I.R. (Secretary). G. B. Gresford, B.Sc., C.S.I.R. (Secretary).

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