Debussy's Impressionism and the Music of Beethoven and Messiaen

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ATMOSPHERES OF SOUND:

DEBUSSY'S IMPRESSIONISM AND THE MUSIC OF

BEETHOVEN AND MESSIAEN

DANIEL SCHREINER

MARJORIE HIRSCH, FACULTY ADVISOR

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT

OF THE REQ\JIREMENTS FOR THE

DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ARTS WITH HONORS

IN MUSIC

WILLIAMS COLLEGE

WILLIAMSTOWN, MASSACHUSETTS

MAY 22, 2014

I By the time Claude Debussy completed his Images, Deuxieme Serie for piano in 1907, he had already established his reputation as an avant-garde, anti establishment composer with a unique harmonic language. The Images, Set II is a consummation of pianistic refinement and an embodiment of Debussy's impressionistic musical style. The three pieces feature highly evocative, descriptive titles: "Cloches a travers les feuilles" ("Bells through the leaves"), "Et Ia June descend sur le temple qui fut" ("And the moon sets over the temple that was"), and "Poissons d' or" ("Fish of gold"). Debussy employs similar treatments of sonority, harmony, and form to lend these

Images cohesive power. Nonetheless, each of these pieces presents remarkably distinct palettes of layered sound, enveloping the listener in different atmospheres.

What musical characteristics make the Images, Set II quintessentially

"impressionistic"? Complexity arises as soon as this loaded term is invoked, namely, the subtle but substantial difference in signification between the capitalized "Impressionism" and the lower-case "impressionism." The former term connotes a specific aesthetic movement in painting, and later music, in late nineteenth-century France, whereas the latter suggests, by its lack of pointed contextual meaning, a more generalized descriptor for certain aesthetic characteristics. Of the two terms, "Impressionism" readily appears the more specific and useful, applicable to a clearly defined nationality and historical epoch; by comparison, "impressionism" appears formless, with too broad an implication.

As soon as we try to define the musical characteristics of "Impressionism," however, we are restricted to an analysis of only those works that fall within that specific period. The lower-case "impressionism," then, has the potential to distill "Impressionism" to essential, concrete musical characteristics, which can be applied to music outside of late

2 nineteenth-century France. This lower-case term can help identify and describe aspects of

music before Debussy's time, by composers not commonly associated with Debussy's

style.

"Impressionism" originated in 1873 as a pejorative term for the bright colors and

indistinct forms of Claude Monet's Impression, Sunrise. Almost fifteen years later, the label was first applied to music, in a negative critical review of Debussy's symphonic suite Envois du Rome: Printemps of 1887. 1 A critic from the Academie des Beaux-Arts appraised the piece in the following words:

Monsieur Debussy does not lapse into banality nor is he platitudinous. On the contrary, he has a pronounced tendency-too pronounced-toward an exploration of the strange. One has the feeling of musical color exaggerated to the point where it causes the composer to forget the importance of precise construction and form. It is to be strongly hoped that he will guard against this vague impressionism, which is one of the most dangerous enemies of truth in works of art 2

Despite conservative responses such as this, Debussy was destined to push the

"exploration of the strange" far beyond what any critic could have imagined. Debussy's disregard for "precise construction and form" became more and more pronounced over the next two decades, as he gradually realized the textural, harmonic, and formal possibilities of this "vague impressionism."

From early on, Debussy strove to free himself from the pedantic restraints of

"Impressionism" as a label for his own music. He was vocal about his dislike for the

1 Christopher Palmer, Impressionism in Music (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1973), 14, 25. 2 Richard Langham Smith, u·ans. and ed., Debussy on Music (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1977), 50.

3 term. In a letter to his publisher, Durand, in 1908, he explains: "I'm trying to do

'something else'-in a way realities-what imbeciles call 'impressionism,' a term as misused as it could possibly be."3 Debussy is certainly referring to "Impressionism," with all of its contextual baggage, as limiting, preferring to separate himself from all such historical labels.

Neither does the term "Impressionism," emphasizing above all else the effects of light and atmosphere on objects in the visible world, accurately and holistically describe

Debussy's music. The programmatic titles of the Images, Set II certainly reflect an emphasis on pictorial representations of the natural world, yet they demonstrate equally strongly the subjective, poetic, and mystical products of Debussy's imagination. Debussy prided himself on deriving the majority of his musical ideas from sensory perceptions of the natural world:

All the noises we hear around ourselves can be re-created. Every sound perceived by the acute ear in the rhythm of the world about us can be represented musically. Some people above all wish to conform to the rules; for myself I wish to render only what I hear 4

Of course, Debussy's claim does not correspond exactly to his musical practice, where extraneous aesthetic and compositional considerations inevitably affect his aural observations. Yet the truth of his statement lies in the sheer importance he placed on proceeding musically from an initial sound or image. Debussy's compositional process often began with an aural or visual experience that he would then contemplate and

3 Claude Debussy, as quoted in Paul Roberts, "Images: 1905-12," Claude Debussy (Singapore: Phaidon Press, Inc., 2008), 189; Debussy's emphasis. 4 Ibid., 173.

4 ultimately "divest and transform" into art. 5 Paul Roberts states that Debussy would mull

extensively over creating a central musical line or idea that reflected the core of such

audio-visual "pictures," completing entire works relatively quickly once the primary

musical idea finally materialized. 6 In fact, the Images, Set II was originally part of

Debussy's large-scale design to compose two sets of six Images, conceived as early as

1901, revealing that Debussy's ideas-or, in this case, images-were in existence long before they were set to music. 7

The titles "Cloches a travers les feuilles" and "Poissons d'or," accordingly, reflect the vivid pictorial effect of the music; however, these titles are only a starting point for musical experiences extending beyond the image itself. Debussy's friend and later biographer Louis Laloy piqued Debussy's imagination when describing church bells ringing through the atmospheric woods of the Jura region of France, leading him to create a piece evoking "bells through the leaves," featuring rustling textures, scintillating webs of polyphonic, intersecting musical lines, and lush, resounding chordal harmonies 8

Likewise, "Poissons d' or," although inspired by Debussy's own "Chinese lacquer panel... depicting two golden fish against a black background," was spun into a vibrant account of goldfish existence and movement from Debussy's imagination9 These two titles are descriptive of observed images, yet Debussy's imagination energizes and translates them into larger-than-life musical entities.

5 Ibid. 6 Ibid., 173, 183. 7 Ibid., 170, 172. The first three Images of the first set became the Images, Set I for solo piano (1905), while the last three were eventually orchestrated and published as Images, Set Ill for Orchestra ( 1913). The Images, Set II were originally the first three of the second set of six, the last three of which were never written. This project does not relate to the Images oubliies of 1894 for solo piano. 'Ibid., 187. 9 Ibid., 188.

5 Unlike "Cloches" and "Poissons," the middle piece of Images, Set 11 contains a title that matches the more esoteric, fantastical quality of the music: "Et Ia June descend sur le temple qui fut." Such a mystical title refers less to a specific image than it evokes a supernatural, dreamlike fantasy, remote from the perceived world and containing a vague, mysterious story of its own. The title was actually formulated in 1903, long before the music was written, corresponding to Debussy's aforementioned tendency to proceed musically from the image. 10 Nevertheless, his preoccupation with the wording of the title is reflected in a letter to his publisher of 1908, where he mentions that "Et Ia June" forms a "perfect alexandrine," or line of twelve syllables. 11 The combination of strange, mysterious subject matter, a vague, decontextualized setting, and refinement of language reflects the influence of the French Symbolist movement in poetry during the late 1880s and 1890s; in fact, many Symbolist poets, like Stephen Mallarme, were friends of

Debussy. 12 "Et Ia June" suggests that Debussy not only used his imagination to travel beyond the objective image, but that he also reached the very threshold between descriptive and supernatural phenomena: the sense of dream, distance, and fragment attempts to express the inexpressible through the power of suggestion.

Debussy's Images, Set II is the result of disparate but related layers of influences; the work cannot be fully described by the term "Impressionism." What term, then, can be used to encapsulate the vibrant, multi· faceted nature of these three pieces, and the musical style they represent in general? That term is lower-case "impressionism," which applies to specific musical devices and characteristics of Debussy's pianistic style yet is also applicable to piano writing across nationalities and time periods. Under this umbrella

10 Paul Roberts, Images: The Piano Music of Claude Debussy (Oregon: Amadeus Press, 1996), 169. II Ibid., 170. 12 Ibid.

6 term, various idiosyncrasies can be reconciled, uniting veiled restraint with emotive expression, pictorial objectivity with unmediated subjectivity, and the natural with the supernatural world. If we acknowledge but ultimately disregard the baggage that comes

with the label "Impressionism," we can better approach the essence of Debussy's music that he so desired to impart to us. This purely musical definition of impressionism is encapsulated by three broad characteristics: an emphasis on sound and resonance, the use of textural motion within harmonic stasis, and the confounding of goal-oriented linearity in favor of more fragmented musical forms. These musical characteristics can also be found in such diverse works as Ludwig van Beethoven's Piano Sonata No. 17 in D minor, Op. 31, No.2 ("Tempest"), and Olivier Messiaen's piano Preludes and Petit

Esquisses d'Oiseaux.

DEBUSSY'S IMAGES, SET II

The exploration of sound for its own sake did not emerge with Debussy: writing idiomatically for particular instruments and exploring the timbral effects unique to those instruments have factored into Western music since the Baroque era and the rise of instrumental music. Throughout the nineteenth century, composers increasingly reveled in the sonic variety of the pianoforte, expanding the register between voices, using the sustain and una corda pedals, and exploiting the orchestral power of the instrument. Interestingly, composers like Frederic Chopin and Franz Liszt, while discovering sonorities unique to the piano, often strove to evoke other instruments or gemes through the medium of the piano. For example, the soaring melodic lines of

7 Chopin's Nocturnes approximate bel canto singing, while the lofty drama of Liszt's

Piano Sonata in B minor is positively symphonic. 13

What is new and "impressionistic" about Debussy's pianism is the way it constantly calls attention to the sound of the piano as a piano. Delicate textural filigree, specific articulation markings, and complex pedal choreography combine in the Images,

Set lJ to provide a veritable overview of the sonic devices of which the piano is capable.

In addition, Debussy elevates resonance from a merely accompanying effect to a musical element as important and autonomous as harmony, form, melody, or rhythm. In fact,

Debussy's treatment of resonance often dictates the timing of musical sequences and larger formal structures. Roberts defines Debussy's use of resonance as "the exploration ... ofharmonic color independent of harmonic function." 14 In other words,

Debussy combines evocative harmonies with arresting, pianistic timbral effects in order to create something integral to impressionistic music: atmosphere. 15

It is important here to mention the decisive influence traditional musics of Eastern origin-especially, the Indonesian game/an tradition--exercised on Debussy and the

Images, Set II with regard to sound and resonance. Debussy first encountered the sounds of the Javanese game/an at the Paris Universal Exposition of 1889 and was enthralled by

16 the "rounded, luminous resonance" of different-sized gongs and percussion instruments.

This influential encounter led Debussy to reference gamelan in compositions for the rest of his career. Earlier pieces like "Pagodes," from the Estampes of 1903, manifest these influences in a more generalized, stereotypical "Oriental" manner: despite the beautiful,

11 Roberts, Images: The Piano Music of Claude Debussy, I 57. 14 Ibid. 15 Palmer, Impressionism in Music, 20. 16 Roberts, Images: The Piano Music of Claude Debussy, I 54.

8 refined pianism of "Pagodes," the piece is rife with pentatonic scales and picturesque imitations of Eastern scales. 17 With the Images, Set II, however, the influence of game/an is integrated with greater subtlety and understanding, contributing significantly to the original sound of these pieces.

There are many similarities between Indonesian game/an music and Debussyan pianism. The game/an ensemble, comprised of instruments struck by mallets, is fundamentally percussive. Debussy's piano style is also percussive, in that he frequently emphasizes the initial attack and long decay of struck notes via specific articulation and pedal markings. 18 The wide variety of articulations throughout Images, Set 11-tenuto, staccato, martellato, marcato, and combinations of two or more articulations for a single note-helps define each pitch within an overall web of polyphony (Ex. 1). Such a breadth of articulation helps the piano approximate the different timbres of the game/an, which

19 distinguishes each individual strand within the overall swath of sound. In addition, natural resonance and overtones play an integral role in the harmonic structuring and diffused atmosphere of both game/an and Debussy's music. The gong ageng, largest and deepest of the game/an gongs, produces a vast number of audible overtones when struck, which contributes to the resulting sound aura; similarly, many of Debussy's melodies complement the natural overtones of low fundamental notes, creating deep, resonant

'0 layers of sound.~

Indonesian and other Eastern influences inform much of the Images, Set II' s originality. With inspiration from the Orient, Debussy makes the music more evocative

17 Ibid .. 159. 18 Ibid., 157. 19 Ibid., !58. 20 Ibid., 162.

9 by using non-Western pentatonic and whole-tone scales, wide-register resonant sound complexes, and contrary perceptions of time and space. Paradoxically, it can be argued

that, despite Debussy's emphasis of the piano as a piano, the pieces both try to imitate the sound of the game/an and recall the images and sounds of the East. Debussy's Images,

Set II, nevertheless, remains loyal to the piano despite these instances of imitation. In fact, it is the power of suggestion through sound and atmosphere that makes these pieces resolutely impressionistic, compelling listeners to "reach for metaphors or comparisons,"

21 yet simultaneously exemplifying the piano as a medium.

Debussy uses sound and resonance in the Images, Set II to establish tonal areas and sustain structurally important sonorities. "Cloches a travers les feuilles," for example, features carefully structured hierarchies of note lengths and articulations as indicators of each note's importance within a web of sonorities. The opening measures of "Cloches" feature a descending whole tone scale germinating from the first struck G and changing direction at the first struck C-flat (Ex. I). This tonally ambiguous scale would give the listener little idea of the tonal orientation of the piece, were it not for Debussy's markings. The fact that the G is sustained for the duration of measures 1-2 underscores its function as an indicator of pitch centricity; the articulation of this G (accent and tenuto) also clues us in on the note's primary importance in this section. The C-flat midway through each of measures I and 2 also contains a tenuto marking underneath, yet no value larger than an eighth note, which gives the note more emphasis than the other whole-tone scale degrees, but less emphasis than the held G. Thus, Debussy uses the length and quality of certain sonorities, rather than functional tonic-dominant relationships, to dictate

21 Ibid., 173.

10 the tonal orientations of the first measures of "Cloches." Not only do Debussy's choices of note length and articulation give us a sense of which tones are to be emphasized over others, but they also lend each of the Images, Set II pieces a sonic clarity that is palpably spatial: like a musical kaleidoscope, tones emerge in foreground, middle-ground, and background out of a hazy mist of resonant sound.

Debussy's use of piano sonority for its own sake in Images, Set II underscores the structural importance of sound in these pieces. Christopher Palmer states that "one of

I Debussy's I most significant achievements was his raising the status of harmony to a level as high ... las] melody."22 Debussy certainly does revel in tones and sonorities as if they were beautiful and lingering "melodies," which are often not subservient to the functional tonal progressions of the Common Practice Era. For example, "Cloches" initiates a sudden shift in mood, texture, and harmony at measure 13: the steadily toggling sixteenth notes of the piece's "exposition" suddenly dissolve into a disorienting, harmonically ambiguous tone cluster, over which the second theme plaintively stretches

(Ex. 2). Measures 13-19 feel as if they are "progressing," yet only in the sense that lush, contrasting sonorities succeed one another over a static melody centered on enharmonic reinterpretations of A-sharp and B-flat.

"Et Ia June" contains the least tonal mooring of the three pieces: tone clusters and harmonies built around a number of melodic themes result in unprepared dissonances and musical shifts. As such, the sonorities themselves, and the aesthetic effect of their combination, assume even greater importance. The piece is texturally less linear than

"Cloches" or "Po is sons," often containing sequences of large, slow-moving block chords, allowing dense sonorities ample time to hover and resonate in the air before moving on.

22 Palmer, Impressionism in Music, 21.

11 The first chord of the piece, for example, hangs in space indeterminately and is struck twice before progressing; the ambiguous suspended harmonies of this chord (made up of tones E, A, and B) create a languid, unresolved effect (Ex. 3). Throughout the piece, musical lines expand and contract, coming to a sudden standstill after more involved movement (e.g., mm. 16-17). In these examples, harmony and rubato combine to create successions of lingering resonances that help structure the piece.

Indonesian game/an influences permeate the sonorities of "Et Ia June." The most obvious reference to the reverberating vibrations of the gong occurs in quickly descending four-note figures in the bass range throughout the piece. Measures 6-9, in particular, adhere to the natural overtones that would have emanated from the gong ageng: perfect octaves and fifths (Ex. 4 ). The first struck B is given a tenuto marking, and

Debussy includes a slur that extends over the next three staccato notes, as if these latter three tones are literally radiating out of the initial note. Finally, in a couple of instances, wide! y spaced fundamental chords provide resonant backgrounds for dense Ia yers of harmony, like the natural resonances and registral range of the game/an (mm. 12-13,41-

42). Resonance certainly informs a great deal of the harmonic structure of "Et Ia June," contributing to the piece's lush, haunting sonic effect.

The second important quality of impressionistic music in Debussy's Images, Set II involves the larger-scale effects of sound and resonance: the phenomenon of textural motion within harmonic stasis. This idea of "stillness within motion" is inherently paradoxical because the energy of Debussy's textures is not translated into goal-oriented progression. Instead, each animated moment lingers within a single frame before being

12 succeeded by another, without warning, giving the music a "fleeting" quality very similar

to Impressionist art. 21 The impermanence of these moments and the fi'equent contrasts between moods and energy levels contributes to the atmospheric, non-linear temporality of the Images, Set II.

Textural motion within harmonic stasis is conveyed in each of the Images, Set II despite their vastly different textures. The opening of "Cloches" is both still, containing a struck G that is held the whole measure, and active, featuring eighth notes moving down and back up the whole-tone scale (mm. 1-4). The majority of the piece's opening section

(mm. 3-12) maintains a steady sixteenth-note texture, moving from middle to lower registers, yet at certain points these notes simply toggle back and forth over stagnant harmonies (mm. 7-8). The sudden shift between measures 12 and 13 is largely textural and atmospheric: the registral range shrinks and fast-moving quintuplets spin dizzyingly to the point where each individual note is lost in a sea of filigree. Yet, ironically, the increased animation of the textures in this section makes it feel more "still" than the section before it; this is due to a bare, single-note "melody" in the right hand, which seems constricted between C-sharp and A-sharp/B-flat much of the time, and the incessant repetition of quintuplet figures, which obscures all sense of rhythmic continuity. A similarly unprepared sequence leads dramatically to an exuberant, bell-like section in E major (mm. 24-28), propelling the piece to its fortissimo climax on measure

31. This section reflects the animated textures of measures 13-19, yet is much more clear, open, resounding, and diatonic, with involved high-register filigree and sensuous, revelatory harmonies underneath. Despite the excitement of these measures, however, a

23 Palmer, Impressionism in Music, 20.

13 static harmony is once again maintained, evidenced by three lowE's that sound for the duration of each measure (rnrn. 26-28).

The next two pieces in Images, Set II reflect paradoxes reminiscent of "Cloches."

"Et Ia lune" does not contain the same high level of animated textures as "Cloches" and

"Poissons," yet the buildup to its climactic moment (rnrn. 31-34) begins with dramatic ascending chromatic chords, only to stall between two toggling chords based on C double-sharp and D-sharp, receding beneath the impassioned melody that enters at measure 32. The intensity is short-lived, as measure 33 echoes the same melody softer and down a minor third, aurally deflating. Thus, the most dramatic moment of "Et Ia lune" is marked by repeating, static chords.

"Poissons," the most brilliant and virtuosic of the three Images, nevertheless opens with harmonic stasis. Measures 1-2 establish a stable F-sharp major tonality despite frenetic, toggling 32"d-notes in the bottom and middle staves; the next four measures add a sensuous, leisurely melody of parallel thirds, producing a serene overall effect, despite the continuity of 32"d notes (Ex. 5). Because the purpose of these 32"d-note passages is to provide an indeterminate, harmonically static background atmosphere,

Debussy achieves a feeling of stillness and relaxed freedom. Throughout Images, Set II, texture is used to help establish and enliven sonorities that do not "progress" in the

Western, goal-oriented sense.

Debussy recreates the paradigm of motion within stasis on a larger structural scale with his alternative treatments of musical "time"-the third and final main characteristic of his impressionistic style. The organic forms and non-functional harmonic progressions

14 of Images, Set II result in the confounding of linearly-progressing time in favor of fragmented, cyclic, and even suspended temporality. 24 This characteristic is more of an overall effect of the aforementioned features of Debussy's style than a specific technique; however, the way Debussy links successive sections via reiteration and fragmentation directly impacts the way we perceive the pieces temporally.

"Et Ia June" assumes a cyclic formal structure due to the frequent repetition and recontexualization of three core melodic themes. The form can be loosely described as

ABA', although ternary form is an antiquated and incomplete way of classifying the piece. It is more fruitful to define each of the three primary themes and then trace the various ways they reappear, overlap, and otherwise interrelate, as explained in Figure I.

mm. 1-3 12-13 14-15 25-26 29-30 41-42 47-50 51-52 56-57 Theme 1: X X "'moon" theme Theme 2: X X X "temple" theme Theme 3: X X X X X ''intermediary'' theme , Figure" 1. Om gram of thematic melodies m "Et Ia June descend sur le temple qUI fut.

Theme one, or what I call the "moon" theme, bookends "Et Ia June," first appearing in measures 1-3 and not reappearing until measures 48-49, with an echo in measures 50-51

(Ex. 3 ). This theme is monolithic and austere, marked by parallel chromatic suspension chords, and serves as an indicator of the piece's large, circular narrative. Because it reappears at the end virtually unchanged, the "moon" theme symbolizes the eternal

24 The ensuing analysis omits "Cloches" from discussion because of its more linearly-conceived structure compared to "Et Ia lune" and "Poissons."

15 quality of time. Theme two, or the "temple" theme, is the most melodic of the three, first appearing in the upper stave in measures 14-15 with repeated F-sharps moving around and up to A (Ex. 6). It appears three times at key structural moments, in a different context each time; as such, this theme represents the "temple" of the piece's title and its impermanence over time. In measures 14-15 it is introduced tentatively, generating from the primal B chord of measure I 1; then, in measures 25-26, it asserts itself in a slower, statelier tempo, with a wide, spacious register and diatonic alternating B major and F sharp minor chords, initiating the piece's "development" section. It appears a final time in measures 52-53, in a quiet, pared-down manner above wrenchingly chromatic, desolate chords, as if past its "prime" and nostalgic, facing ultimate crumbling ruin.

Theme three, or the "intermediary" theme, exists somewhere between the "moon" and "temple" themes in melodic content, and helps link these two ideas together. It first appears in measures 12-13 in the middle stave, tracing an interval of a perfect fourth above and below B in straightforward eighth notes, over which the "temple" theme first enters in measures 14-15 (Ex. 7). The "intermediary" theme then reappears frequently: in measures 29-30, where it helps to generate the chromatic developmental textures after it; in measures 41-42, where it functions as a "break out" moment of clarity from the opaque, murky tonalities of the piece's closing section; and in measures 55-end, as a last, dying iteration. Like the "temple" theme and unlike the "moon" theme, the

"intermediary" theme is recontextualized in order to signify the progression of time, yet through cyclic, rather than linear, means.

In fact, time is treated as the fragmentary product of memory in "Et Ia June." The word "fut" in the title suggests that the musical perspective is one of looking back to the

16 past, to what "was." The process ofremembering rarely occurs in a regular, logical sequence, but rather out of order and context, often half-remembered and vague; therefore, the three themes of "Et Ia June" appear as drifting currents of narratives, repeating themselves in different guises and bleeding into one another. Debussy structures the entire piece around the relationship of these themes, adapting each to a different harmonic and formal context. Interestingly, "Et Ia June" still contains a feeling of overall "progression," despite its cyclical nature, due to the "temple" theme, whose different iterations impart some kind of narrative of birth, rise, and fall. However, as many memories do, this narrative unfolds in fragmentary form, meandering illogically, and as Roberts writes, "indue! ing] acquiescence in the listener, like the acceptance of half-remembered images in a dream."25

Linear time is manipulated in a more jarringly fragmented manner in "Poissons."

Once again, the piece can be interpreted as ABA', with A spanning measures 1-25 as an exposition of sorts, B occurring in measures 26-83 as a development that also introduces new melodic material, and A' occurring in measures 84-end. Yet this description once again does not encapsulate the fascinating, radical changes that characterize the piece.

Although measures 26-29 shift toE-flat major in tonality, there is little to prepare the drastic shift in mood and texture in measure 30: labeled "capricieux et souple"

("capricious and flexible"), the ensuing measures become erratic, marked by sudden, frequent starts and stops, clunky and then sprightly chord progressions, and rapid, brilliant grace-note cascades, in stark contrast to the first section's steady toggling 32"d_ note texture. Throughout the ensuing "development" section, the musical structure becomes increasingly fragmented, as unprecedented musical effects interrupt the main

" Roberts, Images: The Piano Music of Claude Debussy, 171.

17 body of the piece: the ascending figure of measure 45 and the comically bouncing dotted-

32nd notes of measures 48-50 serve as quasi-transitions, yet seem to disrupt rather than link together material. Finally, the entire structure is suddenly upended by an alarming trip up and down the piano in measures 55-58, beginning anew and gradually bringing the piece to its climax during measures 72-83. This fragmentation of linear narrative is different from the cyclic repetition of "Et la lune" because there is a general feeling of forward motion. However, the path of this motion is not so much linear as convoluted and completely unpredictable, mimicking the idiosyncratic travel of a goldfish itself.

Sound and resonance, motion within harmonic stasis, and non-linear treatments of time help to define Debussy's impressionistic piano style, as evidenced by his Images,

Set I!. These technical, theoretical musical descriptors combine to form works of extraordinary, vibrant, and colorful beauty. The Images, Set II are indicative of a large portion of Debussy's compositional style, yet also represent a departure from his earlier output; as Roberts states, in Images, Set II, Debussy "explored the immaterial and improvisatory-seeking refinements of piano sonority and eastern-influenced tonalities far removed from his previous piano pieces. "26 Indeed, this work stands out as a consummation of Debussy's impressionistic pianism. However, the aforementioned impressionistic musical characteristics are not applicable only to Debussy, but are also traceable within music history. Before examining the direction Debussy's impressionism took after his time, we must address one of the first known manifestations of impressionism in piano music, in a work by Ludwig van Beethoven.

26 Roberts, "Images: 1905-12," Claude Debussy, 186.

18 BEETHOVEN'S "TEMPEST" SONATA

Despite the gulf of nationality and historical epoch that separates

Beethoven and Debussy, links exist between the two composers. It would be difficult to prove that Debussy was directly influenced by Beethoven; however, Debussy often references Beethoven's Pastoral and Choral Symphonies in his critical writings and concert reviews. 27 These writings reflect ambivalence on Debussy's part, as he is often reluctant to criticize the work of a "genius" he respects. Nonetheless, he is skeptical of what he sees as the indirectness and inauthenticity of "the romantic cloak"28 when portraying nature; he finds fault with the sentimental, illustrative imitations of the natural world in early nineteenth-century works like Beethoven's Pastoral Symphony. Yet if we look beyond historical context to the music of the two composers, distinct similarities in the use of piano sonority, textural movement, and form become apparent. In particular,

Beethoven's Piano Sonata No. 17 in D minor, Op. 31, No.2, popularly and posthumously labeled "the Tempest," is a pivotal work both in its significance as a radically transitional, and therefore revolutionary piece in Beethoven's compositional development, and its precocious demonstration of pianistic effects directly comparable with Debussy's Images,

Set ll, composed a century later.

Beethoven's Piano Sonata No. 17 in D minor originated in a period of flux and transition. Written around the summer of 1802, the piece emerged at the turning point between Beethoven's Early and Middle periods, when he began to push the limits of

~ 7 Claude Debussy, quoted in Debussy on Music, Fran9ois Leisure and Richard Langham Smith, trans. and ed. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1977). 28 Ibid., 117.

19 traditional tonality, form, and dramatic expression29 A letter from Beethoven to publishers Breitkopf and Hartel, dated October 18, 1802, announces that his variations for piano, Op. 34 and 35, are "worked out in quite a new manner, and each in a separate and different way .. .! myself can assure you that in both these works the method is quite new so far as I am concerned. "30 These works were most likely being composed concurrently with the Op. 31 sonatas, and in a similar spirit; one can reasonably assume that he applied this same "new manner" to the Piano Sonata in D minor. It is uncertain what specifically Beethoven meant to convey in this announcement to his editors; what is clear, however, is Beethoven's desire for the public to recognize that his current compositional innovations were intentional, and his belief that the public would receive this change positively.

What could these musical changes be? Evidence of the D minor Sonata's critical reception shortly after its publication is sparse; however, Barry Cooper's analysis of the compositional process behind the "Tempest" Sonata can begin to elucidate what is new and different about this piece, not to mention how it might have been received critically.

Cooper examines the formulation and development of Beethoven's ideas for the sonata mainly by interpreting sketches from his "Kessler" sketchbook, in use during the first half of the year 1802.31 Although the three Op. 31 piano sonatas were written in response to a specific request by Hans Georg Nageli in ZUrich, initial ideas had appeared in

Beethoven's sketches long before, waiting for the next available commission to be

"Barry Cooper, Beethoven and the Creative Process (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990), 178. 30 Emily Anderson, ed., The Letters of Beethoven, Vol. I (New York: W.W. Norton and Co, 1961), 76-77; Beethoven's emphasis. 31 Cooper, Beethoven and the Creative Process, 178.

20 realized. 12 In fact, multiple recognizable motives from all three movements of the sonata

are visible, albeit fragmented and in different keys, throughout the sketchbook at this

early stage. 11 This multiplicity of short melodic and motivic ideas suggests that, when

composing, Beethoven conceived of musical ideas sporadically and out of context, to be

accessed later for elaboration and transformation into a unified, yet multi-faceted, work.

Like that of Debussy, Beethoven's compositional process involved honing initial core musical ideas before expounding upon them, although Beethoven's ideas are not necessarily pictorial and experiential in the way that Debussy's often are.

Following Beethoven's initial sketches, the "Kessler" notebook begins to show longer musical fragments, mostly of the D minor Sonata's first movement, that bear some resemblance to the work's final form and harmonic structure. From these sketches we gain insight into the extraordinary contrasts Beethoven tried to reconcile in this particular sonata. In a curtailed "skeleton" sketch of the first movement, the seeds are sown for an arpeggiated "Mannheim rocket" main theme in D minor, a lyrical second theme in the distant key ofB-flat major, breathless repeated chords recalling the final version's recapitulation, a dolce, recitative-like line in 3/4 time, and a lengthy 6/8 coda34 These drastic contrasts in texture, key, harmony, and mood were absolutely unprecedented; such oppositional elements require extensive ingenuity and creativity to reconcile with one another in one movement. And Beethoven achieved just that with the final version of the first movement of the "Tempest": the B-flat second theme is omitted, morphed instead into an entire B- flat second movement; the largo recitative idea is anticipated by fragments earlier in the sonata, which also feature a transfigured, slowed-down iteration

32 Ibid. 33 Ibid., 179-180. 34 Ibid .. 181-184.

21 of the "Mannheim rocket" theme; and differing time signatures are eliminated in favor of

35 fermatas and freely-conceived metrical rhythm

What emerges is a completely coherent sonata-allegro form comprised of sharply conflicting Largo and Allegro sections, whose dialectical relationship yields a first movement full of abrupt starts and stops. The Allegro sections constitute the main body of the movement due to their recognizably standard sonata-form content and longer overall length; as such, the Largo sections act as tranquil yet persistent "interruptions," fracturing the sonata-form structure and introducing radically new atmospheric, coloristic material. The Largo sections, therefore, subvert the conventions of the Classical era and introduce new approaches to sound that are, in effect, impressionistic.

The "Tempest" Sonata's first movement relates to issues ofpianistic sound and resonance in ways similar to Debussy's Images, Set II; the atmospheric Largo sections compete with the Allegro sonata form, ultimately merging into a resolved whole. A

Largo section initiates the movement, featuring atmospheric, low-register, rolled dominant chords in first inversion (mm. 1-2). The right hand arpeggiation alludes to the

D minor theme in measures 21-24, yet here simply spins out the sonority of the initial chord, conjuring resonance out of the piano. Measures 42-43 of "Cloches" contain similar contemplative, improvisatory-sounding rolled chords; likewise, measures 47-48 of

"Cloches" mirror the Largo sections' murky sonorities, lingered upon in order to let their resonances expand and transform aurally (Ex. 8).

The elaboration of Largo material gradually infiltrates the body of the "Tempest"

Sonata's first movement, obstructing the goal-oriented sonata-allegro form with

35 Ibid .. l87.

22 experimental explorations of sound. The initiation of the movement's development brings the preceding turbulence of the exposition to a sudden standstill with three upwards- rolling chords. Next, the extended recitative Largo sections (mm. 143-48 and 153-58) present the first full iterations of the sections' thematic material, to which Beethoven has been alluding via fragments up until this point. These monophonic lines contain the instruction "con espressione e semplice" underneath them, indicating an expressive, almost vocal quality, yet in a quiet and restrained manner. The recitative-like lines continue in the dreamy, formless mood of the initial rolled arpeggiated chords, and a general feeling of distance is established, as if a lone voice is calling out from the depths of the sea. Beethoven specifies to hold the sustain pedal down without break until the end of the phrase, submerging the whole section in a modern-sounding sonic blur. 36 Debussy, interestingly, includes not one pedal marking in the Images, Set II. Perhaps he took it for granted that players would interpret his music with pedal based on the manner of writing, for example, holding down the sustain pedal for as long as one harmony was elaborated, or engaging the sostenuto pedal if it was impossible to execute a held bass note. By comparison, Beethoven's pedal indication in measures 143-148 and 153-158 is very deliberate and progressive for his time, exemplifying his innovations at the fortepiano.

Do the Largo sections of the "Tempest" first movement function structurally, or serve solely as an atmospheric hiatus from the main action? On one hand, the motives of the Largo sections consist more of coloristic evocations than articulated melodies: the organic, improvisatory way each chord is arpeggiated up the piano lends it an almost anti-melodic quality. However, this same Largo arpeggiation theme reappears five times

36 To be fair, this specification of Beethoven's was probably Jess dramatic then than it is today, due to the lessened general sustain of the fortepiano he wrote for, compared to today's richly sonorous modern piano.

23 at critical moments throughout the sonata, implying that such fragments are central to the

thematic and structural content of the piece. Extending itself with every elaboration, the

Largo theme grows throughout the movement and, by the end, appears to have merged with the breathless Allegro theme in measures 219-228: anxious turbulence in D minor arpeggiation is maintained in the left hand, yet it statically remains on the tonic, distantly rumbling, as the pianissimo dynamic and pedal sustain indicate. Even the last two chords remain in the murky world of the Largo sections, receding mournfully instead of banging to a ferocious close. Whether Beethoven uses the sonorities of this theme structurally or decoratively, resonance and pianistic effects factor importantly into this movement.

In fact, the case can be made that the "Tempest" Sonata, favoring pianistic effects over melodic content, is one of the first pieces to feature idiomatic writing for the piano that exploits the sound-evoking possibilities of the instrument. Everywhere in the first movement we hear fast repeated-note slurs, toggling triplets, and bombastic, fast arpeggiations (mm. 159-171 in particular), nearly impossible for the human voice to imitate. Likewise, Beethoven's fascination with the resonances and capabilities of sound color is evident in the Largo sections' tendency to linger statically on one chord, reveling in the sound itself instead of overtly "progressing" somewhere. Beethoven himself makes illuminating statements about idiomatic writing in a letter to Breitkopf and Hartel of July

1802. Referring to the current trend of arranging piano works for string and chamber compositions, he claims that only "great men" like Mozart and Haydn are capable of such arrangements; with regard to his own writing, "not only would whole passages have to be entirely omitted or altered, but some would have to ... be added."37 Such a statement implies that, unlike his contemporaries, Beethoven truly treated the piano as a piano, in

37 Anderson, ed., The Letters of Beethoven, 74-75.

24 the sense that he wrote specifically for the unique qualities and capabilities of that particular instrument. For all intents and purposes, Beethoven was the first composer to truly discover a new, wider range of sounds the piano was capable of producing-a characteristic shared by the piano writing of Claude Debussy.

Textural motion within harmonic stasis is evident in the vigorous textures of the

"Tempest" Sonata; in Beethoven's pursuit of tempestuous, "storm-like" effects, he often exploits texture for atmospheric purposes. The Allegro theme of the first movement, conveying extreme anxiety and extroversion, first appears in measure 21 with alternating low and high-register voices over a vigorously toggling triplet line. The theatricality of this theme is underscored by low, ominous ascending arpeggios (e.g., mm. 21, 25) answered by lyrically mournful, half-step melodies (mm. 22-24), accelerating into painful high-register, single-note jabs (e.g, mm. 30, 32); one can almost picture this sequence as a devilish man chasing a distraught damsel crying "help!" in increasing desperation. Yet this image is not a "real" image: the sequence is melodramatic and illustrative, telling a fictional narrative drama in early Romantic, Germanic fashion. From a purely musical standpoint, however, these triplets create an atmospheric effect in much the same way as the toggling 32"d notes that characterize the beginning of "Poissons d'or." Both examples prolong a sonority via extreme motion that is nevertheless harmonically static, thus providing an energetic background for the main thematic action (Ex. 9). Seen in this light, Beethoven's triplet texture in the first movement of the "Tempest" Sonata, while differing from the atmosphere of the Largo sections, creates a distinct and more vigorous

"atmosphere"; the variety of calm and vigorous atmospheres, differentiated mainly by

25 texture, similarly characterizes Debussy's Images, Set II.

Movements two and three of Beethoven's "Tempest" Sonata also exhibit textures for atmospheric effect. The second movement (Adagio) includes rumbling, low register, octave triplets, separated by staccato eighth notes and sixteenth-note rests. The steadily growing repetition of these figures, and their expansion to the piano's high-register above the melodic line (mm. 65-70), increase the feeling of drama and tension while functioning mainly as ornaments to the melodic line above or below. Similarly, the dramatic perpetual motion of the sonata's third movement (Allegretto) is often punctuated by sixteenth notes in the right hand that toggle indeterminately in half-step intervals, most notably in measures 199-214, a dramatic moment before the recapitulation of the main theme.

Like Debussy's Images, Set II, Beethoven's "Tempest" Sonata exhibits examples of both cyclic and fragmentary treatments of time. The abrupt transitions between the

Largo and Allegro sections of the first movement resemble many of those found in

"Poissons d 'or," producing a similar multiplicity of musical "perspectives." The aforementioned theatricality of the Allegro section confronts the listener head-on, with loud dynamics, accented articulation, little pedaling, and overt dramatic gestures. These sections propel themselves forward erratically, as evidenced by pervasive two-note slur passages (e.g., mm. 2-6), yet with irresistible fervor, as if tripping over themselves to reach some goal or stopping point. Yet these motions are continually thwarted by the imposition of Largo sections, marked by piano dynamics and sonorities with edges softened by pedal, which act to extract us from the action, surveying it as if from across a

26 watery expanse. The "Mannheim" rocket theme of the Allegro section is here taken apart

and leisurely examined; likewise, the recitatives of measures 143-148 and 153-158 seem

to reference the same lyrical voice that is so impassioned in the Allegro sections, albeit from a distance, ethereal and emotionally-removed. Like the sections of "Poissons d'or" which alternate between observing and being the goldfish described, the first movement consists of objective, distant musings and subjective, immediate representations of the same subject, fragmenting perceptions of linear time.

The Allegretto movement of Beethoven's sonata resembles Debussy's "Et la lune" in exemplifying a cyclic treatment of time. Both pieces include sequences of chords or arpeggiations that churn around in circular motion, arriving nowhere. Measures 1-4 of the Allegretto feature a sequence of repeated two-note slurs in the right hand, which is itself repeated three times before moving on, stuck in a repetitive backwater. 38 Similarly, measures 20-21 and 23-24 feature chords that literally trace the arc of a circle in their positions on the piano, re-starting once the initial chord arrives again (Ex. 10). On a larger scale, the return of similar themes in different contexts characterizes both pieces.

Beethoven's Allegretto, in addition to the expected repetition of material as dictated by sonata-allegro form, references the theme of measures 1-8 in the piece's development

(mm. 95-199) and coda (323-399). During the development, this theme appears unexpectedly in measures 151-158 after a long, frequently modulating section. The passage begins in B minor, a distant key from D minor; as such, it functions as a "false" recapitulation in the "wrong" key. Furthermore, the main theme surprises us again in the coda, this time in the "right" key, but at an abrasive fortissimo dynamic and containing

38 · This repetitive, re-starting motivic motion permeates the rest of this movement, as in rnm. 5-8, 31-33, and 39-41.

27 ;forzando A's ringing over the line in the right hand (mm. 351-358), before recapping the section as it originally appears in measures 1-30. These restatements of the main theme are not as drastically re-contextualized as they are in "Et Ia June," yet the same idea of revisiting material in different guises and from different perspectives is evident. If the central characteristics of musical impressionism include the structural use of sound and resonance, harmonically static textures for atmospheric effect, and non-linear treatments of time, then Beethoven's "Tempest" Sonata is truly an impressionist work.

MESSIAEN'S PRELUDES AND PETIT ESQJJ!SSES

D'OJSEAUX

Unlike Beethoven, Olivier Messiaen came from the same national style and historical epoch as Debussy. Messiaen was born in 1908, one year after Debussy published the Images, Set II and two years before he completed his first book of

Preludes. When Messiaen was ten years old, he received a score of Debussy's Pelleas et

Melisande as a gift, initiating a love for the opera that proved to be decisive in

Messiaen's musical awakening: he played and sang from the score until he knew the opera by heart.39 Also enamored with the music of Bach and Beethoven, Messiaen remembered avidly learning recent works of Debussy, such as the Estampes of 1903.40

As a synesthetic, Messiaen felt an affinity with the coloristic, atmospheric qualities of

Debussy's writing, as well as the uncanny way his music seems to evoke images from the natural world, as he states below:

39Christopher Dingle, The Life of Messiaen (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 9-10. 40 Ibid., 7.

28 It is odd for a composer to explain the sources of his language by speaking first of all about color. .. Debussy was a composer who understood the sound-color relationship which I myself feel so intensely, and he understood it by contemplating nature 41

Messiaen describes here an important link between his and Debussy's musical interests, which are both largely dictated by atmospheric sonorities and contrasts in color and texture that correspond to something pictorial. In fact, Messiaen's music often echoes

Debussyan, impressionistic qualities in its emphasis of sound and resonance, textural motion within harmonic stasis, and confounding of linear time.

Despite these similarities, Messiaen's music differs significantly from Debussy's in two chief aspects: form and rhythm. The two elements are intimately related in

Messiaen's compositional approach. One of his most important innovations and distinctive compositional characteristics is the way he uses rhythmic patterns structurally as a determinant of large-scale forms. 42 Regarding the similarity between his and

Debussy's musical styles, Messiaen notes that, in pieces like his Preludes pour piano, he was "rhythmically very far from Debussy's divine freedom."43 Debussy often masks rhythmic rigor under the blur of the sustain pedal, or under delicate pianistic filigree textures that seem to arise organically, almost as if they are improvised on the spot. In addition, he creates musical forms that encourage unprepared shifts and expressive spontaneity, rather than regularity and strict logic. Messiaen's music, by contrast, is

41 Olivier Messiaen, quoted by Madeleine Hsu in Olivier Messiaen, the Musical Mediator: A Study of the Influence of Liszt, Debussy, and Bartok (Cranbury, NJ: Associated University Presses, Inc., 1996), 23. 42 Paul Grittiths, Olivier Messiaen and the Music of Time (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1985), 33. 43 Olivier Messiaen, quoted by Claude Samuel in Olivier Messiaen, Music and Color: Conversations with Claude Samuel, trans. E. Thomas Glasow (Singapore: Amadeus Press, 1994 ). Ill.

29 governed by obvious, sometimes percussive rhythmic patterns and sharply delineated, sectional forms. Coupled with his tightly organized, highly individual harmonic language, Messiaen's treatments of form and rhythm re-inscribe Debussy's impressionism within a new, resolutely twentieth-century framework.

To gain a more specific sense of the relation of Messiaen's music to Debussy's, it is fruitful to consider excerpts from two of his works for solo piano: the Preludes pour piano and the Petit esquisses d'oiseaux. The two works serve as bookends of Messiaen's career, thus giving us a strong sense of the span and range of his compositional styles.

The eight Preludes, written in the summer of 1929 at Messiaen's family's farm in

Fuligny, were Messiaen's first published works.44 At that time, Messiaen was 20 years old and still in school at the Paris Conservatoire. As such, the Preludes reflect a more apparent influence of Debussy than later works: with programmatic titles like "La colombe" ("The dove") and "Les sons impalpables du reve" ("The ethereal sounds of a dream") that recall those of Debussy's Preludes, the eight pieces demonstrate lush sonorities, contrasts in register and timbre, and evocative textures. Nonetheless, the

Preludes contain highly developed, if still relatively nascent, forms and harmonies characteristic of Messiaen's mature style: his use of modes of limited transposition is evident, as is some level of rhythmic rigor and tight, repetitive formal structures.

The Petit esquisses d'oiseaux, on the other hand, were written in 1985, almost sixty years after the Preludes, and therefore represent a kind of consummation of

Messiaen's style. In some ways, the six pieces are atypical: the overall brevity (only fifteen minutes in their entirety) amongst colossal works like his piano cycle Vingt regards sur le enfant Jesus or the opera St. Francois is uncharacteristic, as is the more

44 Dingle, The Life of Messiaen, 20.

30 spare and succinct evocations of birdsong and habitat compared to his extensive

Catalogued' oiseaux.45 In fact, Messiaen composed the pieces following a period of depression and writer's block; they were supposedly inspired by a request from his wife,

Yvonne Loriod, to write sketches of her favorite bird, the robin or rouge-gorge46 He remained unconfident of the pieces' quality until his death in 1992. Whatever Messiaen may have thought, the Petit esquisses are highly sophisticated studies featuring his mature harmonic language, ability to evoke sound-pictures of nature, and experimentation with rhythm and reiterative forms. Like the Preludes, they reflect elements of Debussy's impressionism, yet within a resolutely Messiaenic context.

Messiaen's treatment ofpianistic sound and resonance is the first major facet of

Debussyan impressionism that merits deeper analysis. Like Debussy, Messiaen exploits natural resonances and timbral effects of the piano and uses them as compositional elements, equal in importance to harmony and rhythm. "La colombe," the first of the eight Preludes, contains interesting articulation markings that suggest Messiaen's attention to resonance. In measures 1-2, 11-12, and 22-23, Messiaen includes slur or tie markings that are truncated instead of connected to other pitches (Ex. II). Such markings are curiously ambiguous: the slur lines hang indeterminately in space, suggesting that the pitches connected to the line should hover in a similar way. However, if Messiaen wanted to specify duration of sound, why are note values insufficient? Perhaps Messiaen was after a very particular sonic effect: that of prolonging pitch beyond the specifications of note value and via different means than physically depressing the piano key.

45 Ibid., 225. 46 Ibid.

31 If this is indeed Messiaen's intention, then why does he indicate it by means of truncated slurs, rather than pedal markings? Debussy also includes truncated slurs selectively in the Images, Set II: "Et !a June" features them in measures 6, 7, 9, and 52-53

(Ex. II). In measures 6, 7, and 9, Debussy indicates that the four "reverberating" tones in the bass should be prolonged underneath block chords that are highly chromatic.

Similarly, measure 53 uses six truncated slurs to prolong six tones struck in measure 52, as a background for the two enigmatic single C tones that are struck in measure 53. In both cases, pedaling must be used delicately in order to prolong certain sonorities while preventing a confusing bleed of chromatically changing tones that follow. The solution to this problem is to "flutter" the sustain pedal so that pitches are maintained but do not clash with one another. Messiaen may have desired a similar resonant sound in measures

1-2 of "La colombe," wherein sonorities decay naturally and incompletely underneath the melody outlined in the middle stave. As suggested by the instructions "Lent, express if, d'une sonorite tres enveloppee" ("slow, expressive, with an enveloped sound"), located above the first system, the first two measures lend themselves to little decisive pedal motion, instead favoring an ever-present sonic atmosphere with fluttered pedal motion. In other words, the markings may indicate that the pedal be lifted partway for the sake of clarity, yet not completely, thus preserving some of the sustained or "enveloped" sound

Messiaen is after. The relatively static E tonality of these measures allows such

"bleeding" to occur. If this interpretation is correct, Messiaen uses resonance in a similar vein to Debussy, whereby resonance itself is an entity separate from pitch duration, subject to its own system of amount and duration that contributes to the overall sound of the piece.

32 But the truncated slur is not the only kind of marking Messiaen uses to specify resonance. "Lessons impalpables du reve," for example, uses almost exclusively traditional pedal markings ("Ped." for engaging motion and "*" for releasing motion).

The only marking that approximates the truncated slurs in "La colombe" occurs in measures 67-68, in the second-stave and third-stave A' s-an anomaly that perhaps suggests that only the first A's sonority should be sustained underneath the ensuing glissando. Otherwise, traditional pedal markings permeate "Les sons," appearing as many as six times in one measure (e.g., m. 58). Because "Lessons" is a sprightlier, more extroverted piece than "La colombe," these more traditional markings are used to convey the need to change sonorities more frequently and thoroughly, rather than sustaining a subtle aura of sonority. The variety of indications concerning sound in these preludes reveals their compositional importance to Messiaen, even at this early stage in his career.

The issue of resonance becomes, predictably, more complex in "Le merle noir" of the Petit esquisses d'oiseaux. Messiaen not only includes both traditional pedal markings and forms of the truncated slur in this short piece, but he also elaborates and expands upon them, becoming ever more fastidious and specific in the process. First, in the repeating chordal passages (e.g, mm. 1-4), every chord contains a "Ped." marking, indicating that each chord should stand out clearly as its own sonically independent unit.

By contrast, the sections headed "Merle noir" (e.g., mm. 5-8) contain truncated slurs, here below the staff lines and extending a uniformly short length, ranging from two to four stacked slurs. The result of these highly particular markings is a complex choreography of pedal manipulation, no doubt requiring the middle sostenuto pedal. We see here the consummation of the marking system begun in the Preludes, with

33 specifications for resonant effects permeating the piece down to each rhythmic pulse.

Messiaen utilizes a broad vocabulary of markings to address the compositional issue of

sound quality and resonance, revealing their importance in the overall fabric of the music.

Such an attention to sonority presupposes an interest in harnessing and evoking the myriad sonic qualities of the piano as an instrument. Messiaen's treatment of resonance is his greatest point of similarity to Debussy, and his closest link to the impressionistic compositional style.

Messiaen's use of naturally resonant harmonies leads us to the next important characteristic of Debussyan impressionism: textural motion within harmonic stasis. Paul

Griffiths states that Messiaen confounds goal-oriented tonal movement partly through his choice of "pitch structures that invite permanence rather than progression. "47 Instead of adapting harmonically dynamic systems like the tonic-dominant dialectic, Messiaen writes entire pieces largely within single scale systems. The natural overtone system constitutes a kind of "scale" in this manner. More obvious, however, is Messiaen's

"modes of limited transposition." Early on in Messiaen's compositional career, he developed several scales based on different combinations of semitones and whole tones: whereas Modes I and II are simply the whole tone and octatonic scales, respectively, succeeding Modes feature more complex combinations, like Mode III's alternation of two semitones and one whole tone.

47 Griffiths, Olivier Messiaen and the Music of Time, 34.

34 Messiaen's Preludes feature usually one predominant Mode throughout, which helps unify each piece harmonically and intimate some amount of harmonic stasis. 48 For example, "La colombe" makes use of Mode II, transposed to E, thus containing the following scale tones: E-natural, F-natural, G-natural, G-sharp, A-sharp, B-natural, C- sharp, and D-natural. The high-register chord progressions in measures 1-2 and 11-12, when analyzed, contain every scale degree of Mode II, with no extraneous tones, which helps these measures remain in one general tonality, despite the quickly changing, chromatic chords. Like Debussy's energized but harmonically static filigree, this passage gives the illusion of dynamic movement without "arriving" anywhere.

Like "La colombe," "Lessons impalpables du reve" features select use of modes of limited transposition, yet the prelude's brilliant and animated textures combine in repetitive, cyclical ways that stagnate rather than engender harmonic forward motion.

The main thematic material in measures 1-6 features a great deal of "movement": a high- register overlay of chromatic sixteenth-note chords spiral dizzyingly over syncopated, idiosyncratic left-hand chords (Ex. 12). These textures are far from sedate; however, the high-register chords constitute an almost monotonous pattern of descending and ascending scales that return to the same spot at the beginning of every subsequent measure. Likewise, the syncopated chordal succession underneath frequently returns to the same A-major pentatonic chord as if stuck: the same E-F-sharp-A-C-sharp chord is struck no less than ten times within these six measures. Such movement is restless and emphatic, yet on a larger formal scale, completely static. This phenomenon is a hallmark

48 Modal analysis of"Les sons" is not included here because of its more complex mix of Mode II and III and frequent instances where no apparent Mode is used; likewise, "Le merle noir" is largely organized outside of one predominant mode. Even "La col om be" includes sections that progress outside of Mode II; for example, mm. 6-10.

35 of Debussy's impressionism, governing all three of his Images, Set II, which similarly exhibit a wide creative range of highly energized textures which do not "progress" in the traditional sense. For example, animated triplets lead us repetitively up and down in the span of one octave in measures 3-4 of "Cloches," while dizzyingly virtuosic chords trace the progress of a goldfish's frantic, circular motion in measures 94i-iv of "Poissons" (Ex.

12). Yet Messiaen once again adapts this impressionistic compositional device to his own manner of writing: his modes of limited transposition impose harmonic symmetry and stasis by governing the large majority of harmonic material in "La colombe," while repetitive toggling textural patterns assume the chordal density and rigorous rhythms of

Messiaen's signature style. Despite these differences in approach, Debussy and

Messiaen's music both feature textures that amplify atmospheres rather than harmonic progressions.

The discussion of stagnantly oscillating chord patterns in "Les sons" relates to the final characteristic of Messiaen's version of Debussyan impressionism: cyclic, or non linear, time.49 Dingle claims that "the representation of the eternal coexisting with the

50 temporal is a basic objective, and achievement, of much of Messiaen's art." When goal oriented progression is disregarded in favor of stasis or repetition, this stasis can result in meditative serenity and an overall feel of unending time. Messiaen adapts this principle to music largely via fragmented, sectional, and reiterative formal structures, which revisit the same thematic material from different perspectives. This topic relates intimately to harmonic stasis as the formal result of avoiding tonal progression. The aforementioned

50 Dingle, The Life of Messiaen, 22.

36 pieces relate closely to the cyclic thematic repetition of Debussy's "Et Ia June" (and, consequently, the third movement of Beethoven's "Tempest" Sonata) orthe fragmented sectional form of "Poissons." Whereas Debussy reiterates the same motives over drastically different textures and harmonic structures, Messiaen's concept of cyclical time deals more with repetitive musical forms and rigorously animated rhythms that literally cycle away and back through perpetual motion.

"La colombe" best exemplifies this small-to-large-scale repetition. The overall form of the piece can be described as AA', with measures 11-18 repeating A section material exactly. Within each of the two sections are instances of internal repetition: measures 2 and 12 repeat the material stated in measures I and II, respectively. More complexly repetitive, however, are the sentence structures of measures 6-9 and 16-19

(Ex. 13). Harmonic rhythm accelerates extensively, with harmonic changes once per measure in measures 6 and 7, twice per measure in measure 8, and three times per measure in measure 9 (and similarly in the mirrored progression of measures 16-19). The motivic right-hand figure first iterated in measure 6, consisting of a three-note appoggiatura and four-note neighbor motion, is also reduced and fragmented, with two three-note appoggiaturas in measure 8 and two four-note neighbor motion figures in measure 9.

Messiaen also fragments musical perspectives in "Le merle noir" in much the same way that Debussy does in "Poissons." The four sections of "Le merle noir" resemble a patchwork quilt of chordal and "Merle noir" sections, with no "transitional" material to speak of. Like "Poissons," the continuity of linear narrative is greatly tampered with by way of musical fragmentation. Furthermore, the perspective of "Les

37 sons" changes in measures 65-68, reiterating similar thematic material to measures 7-9

and 49-51, except this time much more slowly, quietly, and contemplatively, effecting a

more distant, observing perspective, as if the narrator has "woken up" from his or her

"dream" and can now reflect on it from outside his or her subconscious. This progression of subjective to objective is the opposite of the transition from objective to subjective in

Debussy's "Poissons," interestingly.

Olivier Messiaen's piano music, as evidenced in his Preludes and Petit esquisses d'oiseaux, contains many elements of Debussy's impressionistic musical style, such as an emphasis on the compositional implications of sound and resonance, the use of texture to convey animated, yet static, harmonies, and different approaches to musical temporality.

Debussy's influence on Messiaen can be traced with much more certainty than

Beethoven's influence on Debussy; however, the ways Messiaen departs from Debussy are just as evident. For example, Messiaen approaches repetition more directly and uncompromisingly: like the paradoxical harmonic stasis within textural motion, "La colombe," as well as the other pieces under discussion, exhibit emphatic, often intense rises and falls, yet are strictly inscribed within large sections. Messiaen remains a singularly innovative figure within twentieth century music for his highly unique, easily recognizable musical style, where sound, harmony, rhythm, and form are transformed to fit particular organizational systems. Gradually pulling away from Debussy's influence,

Messiaen represents one of many composers who adapted Debussy's music to the new frontiers of the twentieth century.

The particular musical qualities that encapsulate the style of Claude Debussy are all too often restricted to the parameters of the capitalized term "Impressionism," which

38 neither describes Debussy's music specifically nor accounts for similar music created outside of late nineteenth-century and early twentieth-century France. While it is important to recognize the affinities between Debussy's music and the French

Impressionist movement in art, extracting Debussy's music from the contradictory connotations and contextual mire of "Impressionism" helps us assess what specifically is transpiring musically and what techniques Debussy is employing to produce such musical effects. The lower-case "impressionism" accomplishes just that, distilling Debussy's music to purely musical qualities, like the treatment of sound and resonance or the use of textures and atmospheres. Furthermore, and most fruitfully, "impressionism" can be extended beyond national boundaries and historical periods to link together music of a similar sound and spirit. Identifying certain aspects of Beethoven's music as

"impressionistic" emphasizes just how ahead of his time Beethoven was as a composer.

Likewise, describing Messiaen's music as containing "impressionistic" qualities underscores the debt Messiaen owed to Debussy and the extent to which he adapted

Debussy to the post-tonal era. Ultimately, "impressionism" helps to prove the timeless beauty and original genius of Debussy's music and trace its reverberations through the history of Western music.

39 WORKS CITED

Anderson, Emily, ed. The Letters of Beethoven. Vol. I. New York: W.W. Norton and Co, 1961.

Cooper, Barry. Beethoven and the Creative Process. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990.

Debussy, Claude. Debussy on Music. Fran~ois Leisure and Richard Langham Smith, trans. and ed. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1977.

Dingle, Christopher. The Life of Messiaen. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.

__.Messiaen's Final Works. Surrey: Ashgate Publishing Ltd., 2013.

Griffiths, Paul. Olivier Messiaen and the Music of Time. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1985.

Hsu, Madeleine. Olivier Messiaen, the Musical Mediator: A Study of the lfl:fluence of Liszt, Debussy, and Bartok. Cranbury, NJ: Associated University Presses, Inc., 1996.

Palmer, Christopher. Impressionism in Music. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1973.

Roberts, Paul. "Images: 1905-12." Claude Debussy. Singapore: Phaidon Press, Inc., 2008.

__.Images: The Piano Music of Claude Debussy. Oregon: Amadeus Press, 1996.

Samuel, Claude. Olivier Messiaen, Music and Color: Conversations with Claude Samuel. Trans. E. Thomas Glasow. Singapore: Amadeus Press, 1994.

40 MUSICAL EXAMPLES

Example 1. Claude Debussy, Images, Set II: I. "Cloches a travers les feuilles," mm. 1-2.

Lent ( !>UI. 92 =i) I

tloucenH•nt sonorf' I

. ~ • u I'r~ IlJ u _r_~rTrl PP - = - =

-~---

Example 2. Claude Debussy, Images, Set II: I. "Cloches a travers les feuilles," mm. 12- 14.

marqu~ m.J{.

,, dOi.i('f'tlll"l>f (IPJ'Ii!J~" f'Xprr'M;i ' ----·- - -~ -- - ·- -- -· - _____... _____ -· /~--- _:o- -- - - : ------·--- - -==r::: ! i ) ~=-:.:if=~: :;!- .. ) . ;rr;p··., 'F~1f1JI :ltif/d~!j~ rL~ tr.iJ 1 .._J lJL . r \ . ---- c:: ~-- -

41 Example 3. Claude Debussy, Images, Set II: II. "Et Ia June descend sur le temple qui fut," mm. 1-3.

4<- ..,JL '#: -• ,.. -~. I • I ! p pp == PP.. ~ ;- I I. '-' i ... - --~''·• ~ ) ., l!~' ~ "---= -:r·· .. . '4 .. -/ \ '"'

Example 4. Claude Debussy, Images, Set II: II. "Et Ia June descend sur le temple qui fut," mm. 7-9.

-~ '· ~~::----- ~...... '::: -~ ~tt #~'-: .. ------I ·------~-~ ' ' v pp P-=::: d#£ 1: ... ~ .... u :~J ..---... ~.- ~ - ' .. --- ~· !-"· - -- ) __./ • . #• ''----. '?;'~ pp m _4 .:::=:....-, [...... __- Pf!.--.. \ ..... ---F'~--- -··· ~- - - - -·-- . : ... ..J.,..- 1" ~

42 Example 5. Claude Debussy, Images, Set//: III. "Poissons d'or," mm. 1-4.

/'/.1/10

43 Example 6. Claude Debussy, Images, Set//: II. "Et Ia June descend sur le temple qui fut," nun. 14-15, upper stave.

3 3 l 3 3 t . C:.•1 m.d. I \

Example 7. Claude Debussy, Images, Set//: II. "Et Ia June descend sur le temple qui fut," nun. 10-13.

-- • - ~: ~=.:~: =.n. ~ - ;~f:c~~i- _t -- ~· ·-- .. r-r· ~ :" tp;.; p pp p~ \ '\ , 'f'.ct-O ·• ... - - .. ~- --- ~- -- --· = .., . ) • -=::..- lr!"' ,.. __ ~ m.g. -~ 'i ' :..--r· f~ I f ~. i ' i 3J..t=· ------\ ,.,...

Example 8. Comparison: (a) Ludwig van Beethoven, Piano Sonata No. 17 in D minor, Op. 31, no. 2, "Tempest": I. Largo-Allegro, nun. 1-2; and (b) Claude Debussy, Images, Set II: I. "Cloches a travers les feuilles," nun. 42 and (c) 47.

(a) (b) (c)

~ I~ ~ Lar-go. ' ~ - I ., - . ~ v trrs ~ffi!i A pp pp .. < Rl;; . • .. r ' ~ \~:- ~

- ppi r J •_/

44 Example 9. Comparison: (a) Ludwig van Beethoven, Piano Sonata No. 17 in D minor, Op. 31, no. 2, "Tempest": I. Largo-Allegro, mm. 21-24; and (b) Claude Debussy, Images, Set//: Ill. "Poissons d'or," mm. 3-4.

(a)

3 i

(b)

45 Example 10. Comparison: (a) Ludwig van Beethoven, Piano Sonata No. 17 in D minor, Op. 31, no. 2, "Tempest": Ill. Allegretto, mm. 1-4; and (b) Claude Debussy, Images, Set II: ll. "Et Ia June descend sur le temple qui fut," mm. 20-22.

(a) Allegretto. , . -~---~-- ~- . /. ::r:c- i' p iJd .....1/Z ...l!r II" J[.IL Ill'7.11. I[! . - . ""' ·-•. • r ~ ~ - ~

(b) ( )f.ll. 60 = .I ) -~

PPP

46 Example 11. Comparison, truncated slurs: (a) Olivier Messiaen, Preludes pour piano, I. "La Colombe," mm. 1-2; and (b) Claude Debussy, Images, Set II: II. "Et Ia June descend sur le temple qui fut," mm. 4-6, and (c) mm. 52-53.

(a)

(b) _,_: ' .. ~ i ~;. i ::t;;.;=. -·-'"*~· ·- - . - ., --··-"t·· I.. [ c ...... p _-----:.. ..r c ::::::::- pp< h~ ~ .¢~j ... ~ 'J.-: n • i _ _. ) -tiiiii ? '- - ll:!:!.~ \ ...,...... 1'" ~ ~ -..:... r i-= ·~

(c)

,, ~ .... - - ~_;;:,.....E I "' - , ~ piu p ""'·

"-! -~. ... ~-- .____...... PP faites vibrer J

47 Example 12. Comparison: (a) Olivier Messiaen, Preludes pour piano, V. "Les sons impalpables du reve," mm. 1-4; (b) Claude Debussy, Images, Set//: I. "Cloches a travers les feuilles," m. 4; and (c) III. "Poissons d'or," mm. 94i-ii.

(a)

·;; ' l1J .~

,,• C:Wivn• liJ J#lrlil •~~JHrt•wrY) ' . . . 'fa. 8· ...... ------'· -~---. :. -. ~ ...'!-- .:·... , ____ ., ... :•..• \ .. -.... -...... ---... '£ .. •'\ ••• '---. , .; , S I •\ '> ·I J ' .,~

.. ·' (b)

111-- 5~. -

I ~3"' 1"'7 ~ '<::: 3"' F"3 ~ f,

'OJ l I r -~ ~i '-_· r ./ < -- - '2::_ ~- -- "---·~ ------=-

48 (c)

.; pp srlrazando .,

- ; . .... 1!-' ' 1- ' .. :- I ••

L "La Colombe," mm. 8-9. Example 13. Olivier Messiaen, Preludes pour piano,

(~ cresc. ~~·~g-- .. --.. --~------·~~~-