UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI

Date:______

I, ______, hereby submit this work as part of the requirements for the degree of: in:

It is entitled:

This work and its defense approved by:

Chair: ______

1

A STUDY OF NATIONALISTIC EXPRESSION OF THE CHORO IN

HEITOR VILLA-LOBOS’S CHAMBER WORKS WITH BASSOON

A thesis submitted to the

Division of Research and Advanced Studies

of the University of Cincinnati

in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS

in the Performance Studies Division

of the College Conservatory of Music

2005

by

Sun Joo Lee

B.M., Seoul National University, 1996

M.M., Mannes College of Music, 1998

2

Abstract

The purpose of this document is to study how Heitor Villa-Lobos presented his

nationalistic expression of the choro within selected chamber works for mixed instrumentation

with bassoon. The use of folk and popular music was the utmost inspiration to Villa-Lobos. The

choro (a specific form of urban popular music of Rio de Janeiro) was an especially prominent source for Villa-Lobos’s chamber works and for his development of a nationalistic style.

The selected works are infused with characteristics of the choro, such as virtuosity,

improvisation, rhapsodic form, syncopation, polyrhythm, contrapuntal texture, melodic and

rhythmic ostinato, and wide melodic leaps. Although these works contain the elements of the

choro genre, Villa-Lobos composed each work in a unique nationalistic style.

Villa-Lobos mastered the lending of European musical styles based on the recognizable

and appealing qualities of the choro, which resulted in a certain hybrid character. He absorbed

musical elements from Bach, Romanticism, and French Impressionism, and used them with his

own creative representation of Brazilian folk and popular music.

For general information, chapter 2 provides a brief historical background of Brazilian

music, primarily a historical and stylistic account of the choro, and the diversity of ethnic types.

Chapter 3 focuses on how Villa-Lobos presented the characteristics of Brazilian music along

3

with other resources in creating his unique compositional style. I provide musical analyses that

demonstrate the distinct elements of Villa-Lobos’s music (harmony, melody, rhythm,

counterpoint, form texture/instrumentation, etc.). Thereafter, I summarize with comparative analysis of the main elements of the choro and their counterparts in Villa-Lobos’s works including Noneto, Choros No. 3, Quinteto em forma de choros, and Bachianas Brasileiras No. 6.

Also a discography of these works is included.

4

5

Acknowledgements

I would like to express my appreciation to my committee, family, and friends for the

support throughout this project. My advisor, Professor Robert Zierolf made suggestions that were

central to the revision process. Professor William Winstead, my bassoon teacher, his mentoring

over the years has given me valuable achievements on my playing, as well as his insightful

comments and suggestions were essential to my final revisions. I would like to thank Professor

Martin James, my bassoon teacher who inspired me to start out this project and gave suggestions and guidance. I would like to thank Professor Rodney Winther for the guidance. I would like to thank my friends, Anna and Jee for support of the process of this project.

I would like to express my deepest gratitude for my parents for supporting me

throughout my life. Without their love and support, I would not have accomplished it through

this point of my life.

1

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. List of Musical Examples 2

2. Introduction 5

3 Villa-Lobos’s Compositional Style and Analyses 20

4. Summary and Conclusion 91

5. Discography 93

6. Bibliography 95

2

LIST OF MUSICAL EXAMPLES

EXAMPLES PAGE

1. Villa-Lobos Noneto, mm. 1-12 32-34

2. Villa-Lobos Noneto, rehearsal no. 2: mm. 1-4 34

3. Villa-Lobos Quatour, first movement mm. 31-33 35

4. Villa-Lobos Noneto, rehearsal no. 8 36

5. Villa-Lobos Noneto, rehearsal no. 9: mm. 1-3 37

6. Villa-Lobos Noneto, rehearsal no. 13: mm. 1-6 37-38

7. Villa-Lobos Noneto, rehearsal no. 15: mm. 6-13 39

8. Villa-Lobos Noneto, rehearsal no. 16: mm. 1-8 40

9. Villa-Lobos Noneto, rehearsal no. 19 41

10. Villa-Lobos Noneto, rehearsal no. 20 42

11. Villa-Lobos Noneto, rehearsal no. 22; mm. 6-23: 4 43

12. Villa-Lobos Noneto, rehearsal no. 40: mm. 1- 6 45

13. Villa-Lobos Noneto, rehearsal no. 42: mm. 9-44: 3 46

14. Villa-Lobos Noneto, rehearsal no. 46: mm. 5-47: 3 47-48

15. Villa-Lobos Noneto, rehearsal no. 48: mm. 5-8 49

16. Villa-Lobos Noneto, rehearsal no. 51: mm. 1-4 50

17. Villa-Lobos Noneto, rehearsal no. 52 51-52

18. “Nozani-na” tune from Roquette Pinto’s Rondonia 55

19. Villa-Lobos Choros No. 3, mm. 1-12 55-56

3

20. Villa-Lobos Choros No. 3, mm. 17-24 57

21. Villa-Lobos Choros No. 3, mm. 33-35 58

22. Villa-Lobos Choros No. 3, mm. 39-45 60

23. Villa-Lobos Choros No. 3, mm. 77-86 61

24. Villa-Lobos Choros No. 3, mm. 100-14 63-64

25. Villa-Lobos Choros No. 3, mm. 129-33 65

26. Villa-Lobos Quinteto em Forma de Choros, mm. 1-14 67-68

27. Villa-Lobos Quinteto em Forma de Choros, mm. 40-45 69

28. Villa-Lobos Quinteto em Forma de Choros, mm. 46-56 70

29. Villa-Lobos Quinteto em forma de Choros, mm. 70-73 71

30. Villa-Lobos Quinteto em Forma de Choros, mm. 84-89 71

31. Stravinsky Rite of Spring, Dance of the Adolescent girls, mm. 1-8 and 35-42 72

32. Villa-Lobos Quinteto em Forma de Choros, mm. 96-105 73

33. Villa-Lobos Quinteto em Forma de Choros, mm. 129-31 74

34. Villa-Lobos Quinteto em Forma de Choros, mm. 163-69 75

35. Villa-Lobos Quinteto em Forma de Choros, mm. 177-81 76

36. Villa-Lobos Quinteto em Forma de Choros, mm. 200-203 77

37. Villa-Lobos Quinteto em Forma de Choros, mm. 210-15 78

38. Villa-Lobos Quinteto em Forma de Choros, mm. 248-58 79

39. Villa-Lobos Quinteto em Forma de Choros, mm. 303-308 80

40. Villa-Lobos Bachianas Brasileiras No. 6, first movement, mm. 3-4 82

41. Villa-Lobos Bachianas Brasileiras No. 6, first movement, mm. 7-8 82

42. Villa-Lobos Bachianas Brasileiras No. 6, first movement, mm. 15-16 83

4

43. Villa-Lobos Bachianas Brasileiras No. 6, first movement, mm. 29-30 83

44. Villa-Lobos Bachianas Brasileiras No. 6, second movement, mm. 1-5 84

45. Villa-Lobos Bachianas Brasileiras No. 6, second movement, mm. 16-19 85

46. Villa-Lobos Bachianas Brasileiras No. 6, second movement, mm. 28-34 86

47. Villa-Lobos Bachianas Brasileiras No. 6, second movement, mm. 61-69 87

48. Villa-Lobos Bachianas Brasileiras No. 6, second movement, mm. 100-101 88

49. Villa-Lobos Bachianas Brasileiras No. 6, second movement, mm. 122-23 89

50. Villa-Lobos Bachianas Brasileiras No. 6, second movement, mm. 129-32 90

5

Chapter 1

Introduction

Heitor Villa-Lobos (1887-1959) wrote ten chamber works for mixed instrumentation with

bassoon. Among these I have selected four that are infused with unique aspects of Villa-Lobos’s

nationalistic expression. This selection of works reveals his distinct musical language and

exhibits a blending of diverse musical styles of European and Brazilian popular music,

particularly the choro.

The Choro, a specific form of urban popular music of Rio de Janeiro, was a prominent

basis for Villa-Lobos’s chamber works and for his development of a nationalistic style. The

characteristics of the choro include virtuosity, improvisation, rhapsodic form, syncopation,

polyrhythm, and contrapuntal texture. Many of Villa-Lobos’s works show stylistic diversity

through the combination of recognizable and appealing qualities of the choro genre with other resources. Villa-Lobos was uniquely skilled in adapting folk and popular music; he used their melodies, rhythms, and traditional instruments, and occasionally composed melodies in the style of folk and popular music. Moreover, Villa-Lobos combined Brazilian and other Latin American dance rhythms in order to create his unique Brazilian style. His chamber works combine musical elements from J.S. Bach, Romanticism, and French Impressionism, all of which he had studied carefully, fuse into his own creative representation of Brazilian folk and popular music.

6

Villa-Lobos wrote about seven hundred works in various genres. Some compositions

reflect his individuality, but others do not reveal the same strength and intensity.1 This explains a

certain inconsistency and lack of natural development in some of his compositional output.2

Villa-Lobos’s compositions often show free forms, frequent shift of meters, unceasing ostinato, and lack of thematic development. Most of these elements resemble Brazilian folk and popular music.

I have studied and analyzed four of the chamber works that include bassoon: Noneto,

Choros No. 3, Quinteto em forma de choros, and Bachianas Brasileiras No. 6. All show the composer’s distinctive style based on the characteristics of the choro. I examined how Villa-

Lobos expressed the characteristics of Brazilian music, especially the choro, along with other resources used in creating his unique nationalistic style.

Methodology

To determine how Villa-Lobos created his distinctive style in selected chamber works with bassoon, I performed musical analyses that demonstrate the distinct elements of Villa-

Lobos’s music (harmony, melody, rhythm, counterpoint, form, texture/instrumentation, etc.).

Rhythm is the most important element in these works. Villa-Lobos considered rhythm the most important aspect of his compositional principles along with sonority and his own personality.3

Several aspects of Villa-Lobos’s rhythmic practice include Afro-Brazilian syncopation,

1 Lisa M. Peppercorn, Villa-Lobos: Collected Studies (England: Scholar Press, 1992), 14–16.

2 Vasco Mariz, Villa-Lobos: Life and Work (Washington D.C.: Brazilian American Cultural Institute, 1970), 46. 3 Ralph Gustafson, “Villa-Lobos and the Man-Eating Flower,” Musical Quarterly 75, no. 1 (Spring 1991): 11.

7

polyrhythm, and dance rhythms of Brazil and Latin America, rhythmic ostinato, and rhythmic variations.

Harmonies include a unique combination of modal, quartal and quintal, atonal, polytonal,

and tonal sonorities, frequently using a number of such different types of harmonies within even

a single work. In terms of melody, Villa-Lobos sometimes adapted folk melody or composed

folk-like melody by using a narrow range, tetratonic (four-note) structure, pentatonicism, or

frequently repeated notes in order to imitate indigenous melody.

The four selected works exhibit improvisatory rhapsodic form in one or two movements,

which consist of several sections. The use of this form corresponds to the characteristics of the

choro genre. Also, these works include elements of Bach’s counterpoint such as imitation and invertible counterpoint. Examples are provided to examine and demonstrate how the elements mentioned above are presented in each work.

Chapter 2 provides a brief historical background of Brazil and Brazilian music, primarily a historical and stylistic account of the choro, and the diversity of ethnic types. Chapter 3 focuses on how Villa-Lobos expressed the characteristics of Brazilian music along with other resources in creating his unique compositional style Musical analyses are provided that demonstrate the distinct elements of Villa-Lobos’s music. Thereafter, I summarize with comparative analysis of the main elements of the choro and their counterparts in Villa-Lobos's works.

Importance of the Study

To date, scholars have published on Villa-Lobos’s compositional output; however, no one has examined chamber works with bassoon. I hope to help performers

8 understand the composer’s distinct style, a stylistic diversity based on the characteristics of the choro along with other resources. Through study and analysis of his compositional style, I also hope to make Villa-Lobos's chamber works with bassoon more accessible and interesting to bassoonists and other wind players. I also want to help performers to learn more about Brazilian music.

9

Chapter 2

Brief historical background of Brazilian music

Brazilian folk and popular music are as diverse as ethnic types in Brazil. Indians,

Portuguese, and Africans have contributed to formation of Brazilian ethnic type. It is made up of

Indian in a small percentage, African to a much greater degree, and Portuguese in an overwhelmingly large number. Many different styles of Brazilian music have their roots in the

Medieval, Indian, African, and European styles.

The Portuguese brought medieval influences during the colonization of Brazil in the sixteenth century. Its priests and missionaries attempted to Christianize the Indians, primarily through the medium of music. They took the tradition of chant singing in the churches of

Portugal to Brazil.4 Sacred music predominated throughout the colonial period (to 1822)

because most music-making was related to church services.5 The influence of chant in Brazilian

folk music is evident in the narrow range of the melodies as well as by the fact that most folk

tunes are based on the church modes. The use of repeated notes and descending melodic lines

4 Claus Schreiner, Música Brasileira (New York: Marion Boyars, 1993), 7.

5 Gerard Béhague, “Brazil: Folk Music” in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2nd ed. (Washington D.C.: Grove’s Dictionaries of Music., 2001), vol. 4, 269.

10

resembles indigenous music. In addition, Spanish, French, Italian, German, and Polish

immigrants influenced many aspects of Brazilian harmony, melody, and rhythm. Instruments

came from Portugal and music literature from all over Europe. The influence of Spanish music

can be seen in dances such as the bolero, fandango, and habanera. Italian opera made a strong

impression when it came into vogue in Brazil in the nineteenth century. Among Brazilian dances

and songs, the modinha, a Brazilian sentimental urban popular song, represents the European

strain, being directly derived from a Portuguese song of that name. Another Brazilian folk song

closely related to European music is the toada (Portuguese for the Spanish tonada, a folk song of

meditative character).6

African slaves from the last quarter of the sixteenth century until 1850 played a

significant role in the formation of the ethnic type. “Religious, funeral, hunting, war and love

dances were deep-rooted among the black people from whom the slaves for the Brazilian trade were drawn.”7 Their main musical contribution is rhythm, particularly polyrhythm and syncopation, which can be found in nearly every genre of Brazilian folk and popular music.8

Afro-Brazilian music was almost exclusively dance music, accompanied by the polyrhythm of a large number and variety of percussion instruments. Stringed instruments were rarely used, and winds even more rarely. The name of these dances—the batuque, the coco, the congada, the jongo, the lundu, the maracatu, and many others—are from the African dialects rather than from any European source. The rhythmic nature of most Afro-Brazilian dances reveals syncopation, hemiola, and the repetition of short and rapid notes.

6 Nicolas Slonimsky, Music in Latin Americ (New York: Da Capo Press, 1972), 109–10.

7 Laurence Morton, “Villa-Lobos, Brazilian Pioneer,” Clavier 16 (January 1977): 29.

8 Béhague, “Brazil: Folk Music,” 224–27.

11

Rio de Janeiro became the capital of Brazil in 1773, and it was the country’s cultural

center during the nineteenth century. A patron of the arts, Dom João VI, stimulated musical

activity in Brazil, a Portuguese colony at that time. Dom Pedro II (1825-1891), Brazil’s second emperor, unlike his father Dom Pedro I (1798-1834), was an enthusiastic supporter of musical activities in the recent independence from Portugal. The arrival of the royal family encouraged high-class families to acquire musical instruments, and music publishers to edit the latest

European dances.9 The music was accessible not only to wealthy families, but also to bohemians

in Rio de Janeiro, who played in groups in the streets. These groups became known as chorões.

Villa-Lobos participated in these chorões, and they exerted a significant influence on his

compositions. Also, many other Brazilian composers wrote music based on elements of the

choro.

Throughout the colonial period (to 1822), folk music was transmitted mostly by oral

tradition; consequently, written records of popular melodies are very limited. Therefore, most

Brazilian composers of art music were generally lacking in knowledge of the folk and popular

music of their own country.10 Until the first half of the nineteenth century, most composers of

art music in Brazil followed the European models in genre, harmonic language, rhythm,

orchestration, etc.

The distinguished opera composer Carlos Gomes (1836–96) was the first Brazilian

composer to express nationalism. His librettos frequently deal with nationalistic subject matter.

Gomes wrote an opera, Il Guarany, based on a Brazilian novel by José de Alencar, which

included an Indian legend named Guarany; his other opera, Lo Schiavo, which was especially

9 Suzel Ana Reily, “Brazil: Central and Southern Areas.” in The Garland Handbook of Latin American Music, ed. Dale A. Olsen and Daniel E. Sheehy (New York: Garland, 2000), 255.

10 David Appleby, The Music of Brazil (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1983), 95.

12

popular in Europe, tells a story of slavery in colonial Brazil. These operas also present rhythmic

traits, such as syncopation and the habanera rhythm, which were to become characteristic of

urban popular dance music in the late nineteenth century.11

Most of the Brazilian composers of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries began their careers as nationalist composers who employed folk music, but more importantly,

popular music. Western art music concerts as well as popular music performances were part of

the cultural life of Brazilians, especially of those from São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. In addition,

the borderline between art and popular music became very thin: Art music composers influenced

popular genres and vice-versa.12

Alexander Levy (1864–92) and Alberto Nepomuceno (1864–1920) were the first leading

composers of the Brazilian nationalist movement, represented by the use of folk and urban

popular music. The last movement of Suite Brésilienne for orchestra (1890) by Levy was entitled

Samba, demonstrating his intention to create the character of the folk samba. This movement

draws on urban popular dance rhythms, such as maxixe and Brazilian tango, and is based on folk

tunes well known in urban areas. Nepomuceno’s Série Brasileira for orchestra (1892) was the

first attempt to depict some typical aspects of Brazilian life.13 The last movement, entitled

Batuque, emphasizes Afro-Brazilian syncopated rhythms throughout. This movement

incorporates the reco-reco, a Brazilian percussion instrument frequently used in Brazilian folk

dances. Other movements include a lullaby known throughout Brazil and urban popular dance

11 Béhague, Music in Latin America: An Introduction (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1979), 115– 16.

12 Béhague, The Beginning of Musical Nationalism in Brazil (Detroit: Information Coordinators, 1971), 41.

13 Béhague, Music in Latin America, 121.

13

rhythms such as maxixe.14 Nepomuceno’s works stimulated younger composers to create more

Brazilian nationalistic music.

Composers of the first generation of the nationalist movement received their training in

Europe, but it is noteworthy that Villa-Lobos and other nationalistic composers of his generation

either trained in Brazil or were mostly self-taught.15 These composers include Francisco

Mignone, Luciano Gallet, and Lorenzo Fernandez. Among these composers, Villa-Lobos was the

most successful Brazilian to achieve a reputation as a nationalistic composer. His music exhibits

the use of folk and urban popular music such as the modinha and lundu. Most of all, his genuine identity with the urban popular genre, particularly the choro, became a prominent source for the development of a nationalistic style. His works such as Noneto (1923), the series of Choros

(1920–29), and many others show the obvious influences of the choro genre. Camargo Guarnieri

(1907-93), was the most distinguished successor of Villa-Lobos to compose many works based on the choro genre and also entitled Choros. During the 1960s Brazilian composers began to break away from the nationalist movement and to experiment with new compositional techniques including serialism and electronic music through organizations such as the New Music Group in

São Paulo and the Brazilian Society of Contemporary Music in Rio de Janeiro.16

Genres of Folk and Popular Music

There are several genres of folk and popular music in Brazil. Most of these genres exhibit blending of elements of European, African, and indigenous music. The influence of European

14 Béhague, “Brazil: Folk Music,” 270.

15 Appleby, Music of Brazil, 120.

16 Béhague, “Brazil: Folk Music,” 270.

14

music can be found in the use of instruments, melodies, and musical forms. The cavaquinho, a

four-stringed small guitar, and the bandolim, a small mandolin-like instrument, came from

Portugal and are often used in Brazilian folk and popular music. Other European instruments

were also used in Brazilian music; examples include the Brazilian descendant of the Spanish vihuela, the viola, and flute, guitar, violin, and clarinet.17 The use of arched melodies and

symmetrical phrasing in Brazilian folk music resemble characteristics of European music. Many

of Brazilian folk and popular genres are predominantly in European musical forms such as

stanza-refrain alternation and strophic variation.18

Elements of Afro-Brazilian rhythm can be found throughout much of Brazilian folk

music. Noteworthy in this regard is duple meter with the frequent use of a duple-triple composite in performance, creating a hemiola effect. Also, the Afro-Brazilian syncopation of a sixteenth, eighth, and sixteenth notes pattern is frequently used in Brazilian folk and popular genres.19 Brazilian folk songs often exhibit descending melodies, a narrow melodic range, and

repeated notes that resemble Indian music. Brazilian popular music used some indigenous

instruments including the reco-reco scraper, the maraca shaker, and the zabumba bass drum.20

Through social migration from rural to urban areas between 1870 and 1920 stimulated by the abolition of slavery in 1888, the classification of some genres changed from folk to popular, such as the lundu and samba. Also, several hybrid genres, such as the polka-lundu and samba-

17 Reily, “Brazil: Central and Southern Areas,” 259–61.

18 Béhague, “Brazil: Folk Music,” 273–74.

19 Ibid.

20 Chris McGowan and Ricardo Pessanha, The Brazilian Sound (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1998), 9.

15

choro, were created by through the combination of existing genres.21 During this period,

Brazilian popular music developed the most varied and unique traditions in the nineteenth

century and formed the basis for the nationalistic movement of the twentieth century in Brazil.22

The most typical popular genres developed first in Rio de Janeiro, such as the maxixe, the tango

brasileiro, the choro, the samba, and the modinha.23

The toada, derived from the Spanish folk song tonada, is a romantic Brazilian folk song

of flexible form and rhythm. Characteristics of toadas are the doubling of the melody line in

parallel thirds, and amorous subjects. The text is emphasized over the melody in performance.

This particular sentimental song consists usually of four lines with stanza and refrain.24

The batuque is an Afro-Brazilian air and circle dance characterized by syncopated

rhythm in duple meter. The batuque is also known under the name batucada. The dance is

accompanied by hand-clapping, beating on drums, and making noise with pieces of wood, iron,

and glass. Generally, the term batuque is used as a synonym for a number of Brazilian dances of

African origin.25

There are two types of samba: the folk and the urban. The samba is the Afro-Brazilian

song and dance that originated in the nineteenth century as a rural circle-dance called samba de

roda. This type of samba is characterized by the major key and duple meter with a lively tempo

21 Béhague, “Brazil: Folk Music,” 291.

22 Appleby, Music of Brazil, 60.

23 Béhague, Heitor Villa-Lobos: The Search for Brazil’s Musical Soul (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994), 3.

24 Schreiner, Música Brasileira, 28.

25 Ibid., 40–41.

16

and strong accents on the upbeats.26 When migrant performers introduced the folk samba to Rio

de Janeiro in the 1920s, it quickly became a popular genre and the best-known Brazilian dance.

The importance of the folk samba has diminished because of the popularity of the urban samba

known as samba carioca. It exhibits constant syncopations, a succession of even notes in rapid

tempo, and melodic intervallic skips. The samba carioca was accompanied by the pandeiro

(tamborine), reco-reco, and other percussion instruments. The samba is essentially a vocal dance

genre with a few exclusively instrumental subgenres such as the samba-choro and samba de

gafieira. Most composers and performers of the samba were Afro-Brazilians including the

composer Pixinguinha (1898-1973).

In the eighteenth century the lundu was an Afro-Brazilian song and circle-dance in duple meter and rapid tempo cultivated in aristocratic salons in Brazil and Portugal. The lundu became

popular in Rio in the nineteenth century. When migrant performers arrived in Rio in the second

half of the century, lundu songs gained popularity. These songs were often accompanied by the

guitar and a pattern of stanza and refrain. Also, simple accompaniment, syncopated rhythm, and

large melodic skips are characteristics of the lundu songs.27

The modinha was a sentimental urban popular song that originated as an art song in

Brazil and Portugal in eighteenth-century salons. This genre was similar to the French romance songs and Italian arias of the period. Later in the century it became popular throughout urban areas of Brazil. The term modinha is the diminutive form of the Portuguese word moda, meaning

song or melody. These songs were usually in a minor key, often modulated to the subdominant,

and were accompanied by piano or guitar with syncopated rhythm. The modinha exhibits wide

26 Slonimsky, Music of Latin America, 113.

27 Appleby, Music of Brazil, 68.

17

melodic leaps and ornamentation of the melodic lines with grace notes and appoggiaturas.

Performers of modinha frequently borrowed traits from the toada. Modinhas of the nineteenth

century appeared in almost every song collection of the period.28 In the late nineteenth century

Brazilian composers wrote new modinhas with more romantic character that appeared in the

streets and cafes of Rio. These new modinhas, called modinha da rua, were accompanied by an

instrumental trio including flute, cavaquinho, and guitar, which later became the same as used

for the choro ensemble.29

Around 1870 the Brazilian tango emerged through the introduction of the habanera,

characterized by typical habanera rhythm. Also, the mazurka, polka and waltz became very

popular in Rio. Variants of the habanera pattern, the lundu, the polka, and frequent use of

syncopation (sixteenth, eighth, sixteenth notes pattern) created the maxixe.30 It is a type of

Brazilian urban popular dance in duple meter and rapid tempo with slight syncopation. The maxixe represents the first Brazilian urban dance.

The Choro

According to Gerard Béhague, the urban popular choro is the obvious source for creating nationalistic music because of the diversity of ethnic influences it represents within such a broad and complex society as Brazil.31 The choro was a popular instrumental ensemble developed in

Rio de Janeiro. It had been in vogue since the 1870s among Brazil’s salon performers such as

Joaquim Antonio da Silva Callado, Francisca Hedwiges Gonzaga, and Ernesto Nazareth.

28 Ibid.

29 Schreiner, Música Brasileira, 34-35.

30 Ibid., 88.

31 Béhague, The Beginning of Musical Nationalism in Brazil, 10.

18

Callado organized one of the earliest and the most famous choro groups. At this time the

instrumental ensemble included flute, guitar, and cavaquinho, and performed dances of European

origin, including the waltz and polka. The performers modified their musical models, especially

in terms of rhythm and tempo. The cavaquinho played the harmonies, the guitar played the

contrapuntal bass line, and the solo flute improvised the melody. The performance of Callado’s group was characterized by virtuosity, improvisation, unexpected modulation, and octave leaps

in the flute’s melody, creating the illusion of two flutes playing simultaneously an octave apart.32

The choro shares many stylistic traits with jazz, such as improvisational character. After the

abolition of slavery in 1888, European styles were transformed to suit the African rhythmic elements, particularly syncopation. In the late nineteenth century the typical instrumentation of these ensembles included flute, guitar, clarinet, ophicleide or trombone, cavaquinho, bandolim, and a few percussion instruments. In the 1920s Pixinguinha included the saxophone in his choro

ensemble. The ensemble always reserved a solo part for woodwind players, who created

dissonances through the improvisation.

The choro became very popular and widespread throughout Brazil. The term choro, derived from the Portuguese verb chorar, has multiple meanings. Such meanings include the instrumentation of the ensemble itself, in which Villa-Lobos had participated as a guitarist during

his early years, as well as the style of music. The musicians were known as chorão or chorões.

The choro became closely related with typical urban genres such as the maxixe and samba.

These genres all present the same rhythmic patterns (syncopated binary figures) but are distinguished from each other by tempo.33 Prior to the turn of the twentieth century, the choro

32 Appleby, Music of Brazil, 72

33 Béhague, Music in Latin America, 193.

19

did not exist as a separate musical form. Eventually, the term came to mean a specific Brazilian genre of music. Even the hybrid form of the choro appeared, such as choro-canção and the

samba-choro. Choro, or “weepers,” exhibit melancholic melodies, an improvisatory rhapsodic

form, polyrhythm, wide melodic leaps, improvisational character, rhythmic and melodic

ostinatos, and frequent and unexpected modulations from major to minor. Moreover, the

improvisatory style of the choro is exemplified by running figures including broken-chord

patterns with repeated notes, descending chromatic notes in the accompaniment, and an additive

rhythm of constant sixteenths, as well as use of the habanera and Afro-Brazilian syncopation

with subtle variations.34

Since Villa-Lobos wrote the series of Choros in the 1920s, the term became associated

with art music of Brazilian national character.35 Also, several Brazilian composers such as

Pixinguinha and Antonio Carlos Jobim (1927–94) entitled or subtitled their compositions Choro.

In the 1930s, commercial radio and the growing Brazilian record industry promoted the

popularity of the choro. There are numerous recordings of the choro including works by Antonio

Carlos Jobim and Chico Buarque.

34 Béhague, Heitor Villa-Lobos: The Search for Brazil’s Musical Soul, 82.

35 Appleby, Music of Brazil, 71.

20

Chapter 3

Villa-Lobos’s Compositional Style and Analyses

Heitor Villa-Lobos was the first Brazilian composer to achieve an international reputation

as a nationalistic composer in the twentieth century and played a significant role in the

development of Brazilian nationalistic music. He was one of the most prolific composers in Latin

America and composed in virtually all genres. Villa-Lobos’s output includes symphonies,

concertos, operas, ballets, string quartets, songs, piano works, and chamber works for various combinations of instruments. Many of his compositions show stylistic diversity through the blending of folk and popular elements, a synthesis of all Brazilian culture, with stylistic experimentation. Villa-Lobos used musical themes and rhythms of Afro-Brazilian and native

Brazilian folklore that he had studied and collected through travels in Brazil in order to search for his own musical identity. He once stated, “I am folklore; my melodies are just as authentic as those which originate from the souls of the people.”36 Villa-Lobos composed nationalistic music

throughout his life, mostly using sophisticated Brazilian urban popular music. Even when his use

of distinct popular genres is less obvious, unique Brazilian folk elements are present. “Musical

36 Béhague, Music in Latin America, An Introduction, 184.

21

nationalism in Latin America found in Villa-Lobos its strongest supporter and one of its most

original creators.”37

Villa-Lobos was born in 1887 into a traditional Brazilian home. He studied cello with his father, who was a librarian, writer, and amateur musician. The cello remained his favorite instrument throughout his life, but he also studied piano, guitar, and several wind instruments at a young age. He attended many classical concerts and operas by Wagner, Puccini, and many others. His father frequently took Villa-Lobos to a friend who was as authority on the folk music

of northeastern Brazil. There he met some of the most famous singers and instrumentalists of

Brazilian popular music.38 Villa-Lobos was exposed to both classical and Brazilian folk and

popular music early in life. These experiences became influences on Villa-Lobos’s compositions.

After his father’s death in 1899, he began composing and playing in the popular street

bands, despite his mother’s desire for him to become a physician. Villa-Lobos played the guitar

in choro ensembles around Rio de Janeiro between 1905 and 1919. This experience became a

prominent source for the development of his nationalistic style.

In 1907 Villa-Lobos enrolled for the study of harmony at the Instituto Nacional de

Musica in Rio. His teacher, Francisco Braga, gave him advice on the incorporation of folk

themes into his works.39 Although Villa-Lobos admired Braga, he was failed at the school for rejecting advice from other teachers. He was completely independent, distrustful of academic training, and reliant entirely on his own creativity.40 After this unsuccessful experience he taught himself through study of Vincent d’Indy’s Cours de composition musicale and from scores by

37 Ibid., 204.

38 Vasco Mariz, Villa-Lobos: Life and Works, 5.

39 Ibid., 13. 40 Eero Tarasti, Heitor Villa-Lobos: The Life and Works, 1887-1959 (Jefferson, NC: McFarland Press, 1995), 43.

22

Bach, Wagner, and French impressionists. He learned compositional principles from d’Indy’s

book, which consists of three essential parts—rhythm, melody, and harmony, with rhythm being

the most important element.41 Villa-Lobos stated his three compositional principles: “First,

rhythm. Second, sonority. Third, my own personality.”42

Villa-Lobos was the first Brazilian composer to study the musical folklore of his country.

Between 1905 and 1912 he traveled widely in the north and south of Brazil to explore his own musical identity as a Brazilian. Through these travels he learned and collected over one thousand folk and popular melodies and rhythms.43 Many of these melodies appear in Guia prático, a six- volume collection of folk and popular melodies and children’s songs compiled by Villa-Lobos.

Returning to Rio in 1913, Villa-Lobos earned his living playing cello in the theaters and cafes. Also, he began composing works incorporating thematic materials from folk music.44 As a

member of the orchestra Villa-Lobos played cello for the performances of the Ballet Russe.

They performed music by Alexander Borodin, Rimsky-Korsakov, and Claude Debussy. After the acquaintance with Debussy’s music, he composed songs to French texts and selected French titles. Later, Villa-Lobos began employing impressionistic elements such as unusual instrumentations for chamber works, which he enjoyed for his whole life. He often included voices to create color in his chamber works including Quarteto simbólico (1921), Noneto (1923), and Choros No. 3 (1925).

41 Mariz, Villa-Lobos: Life and Works, 10.

42 Ralph Gustaphoson, “Villa-Lobos and the Man-Eating Flower.” The Musical Quarterly 75, no. 1 (Spring 1991): 11.

43 Gerrit de Jong, “Music in Brazil,” International American Musical Bulletin 31 (Sept 1962): 14.

44 Béhague, Music in Latin America, An Introduction, 121.

23

By 1917 Villa-Lobos had produced over one hundred works including string quartets and

other chamber works, symphonies, and symphonic poems Amazonas and Uirapurú. These

symphonic poems contain indigenous Brazilian subjects. Villa-Lobos met two musicians, Darius

Milhaud and Arthur Rubinstein, who influenced his career. Milhaud lived in Rio as secretary to

the French Embassy from 1917 to 1918 and introduced Villa-Lobos and other Brazilians to the

compositions of Debussy, Erik Satie, and other contemporary French composers. During this

time Milhaud wrote several works, including Saudades do Brasil, based on Brazilian popular

melodies and rhythms, which may have influenced Villa-Lobos’s compositions incorporating the

elements of urban popular genre.45 In 1918 Villa-Lobos met Rubinstein, who became supporter of him and his music, and remained his friend throughout his career. Rubinstein the virtuoso performed many of Villa-Lobos’s piano works on recitals throughout the world and made several recordings of it them. Villa-Lobos dedicated one of the major piano pieces, Rudepoema (1921-

26), to Rubinstein. This work exhibits certain impressionistic character, such as numerous pedal points, glissandos, and modality.46 Later, Rubinstein introduced Villa-Lobos to the Parisian

publisher Max Eschig who published many of his works.

The year 1922 has special significance in the cultural history of Brazil: The modernist

movement arrived in Brazil. A number of literary figures, artists, and intellectuals organized the

Week of Modern Art in São Paulo during 11-18 February 1922. Mario de Andrade, a Brazilian

poet, writer, and musicologist, was one of the leaders of the modernist movement. He described

this movement, called modernismo, “the art and music of a generation of artists and musicians

who repudiated nineteenth-century European traditions and demanded freedom to establish their

45 Slonimsky, Music in Latin America, 142-43.

46 Béhague, Music in Latin America, An Introduction, 187.

24

own principles and artistic creations.”47 Villa-Lobos was chosen as the representative of modern

music in Brazil. There were the lectures and concerts. The concerts included compositions by

contemporary French composers including Debussy, Satie, and Francis Poulenc and the only

Brazilian composer, Villa-Lobos. The performances of Villa-Lobos’s chamber work Quarteto

simbólico met with objections from the press and audience, which brought attention to him. After

gaining recognition during Week of Modern Art the Brazilian government granted Villa-Lobos a

fellowship to promote Brazilian music in Paris. While he lived in Paris 1923-24, he met

enormous success with the concerts of major works including Noneto, which helped to establish

his reputation there. When he arrived back in Brazil “he renounced his past, took leave of

traditions, and broke almost completely with everything to which he had adhered previously.”48

Villa-Lobos changed his compositional styles from traditional European forms and styles to native Brazilian styles. He returned to Paris again in 1927, staying for three years. During this time he became well known and met some of the most famous musicians of the time including d’Indy, Ravel, de Falla, Stravinsky, Prokofiev, Varese, Dukas, and Schmitt.49 Although Villa-

Lobos did not formally study in Paris, some of his compositions show the influence of the

contemporary compositional techniques while he was there. He created “a style of composition

designed to create descriptive impressions by evoking moods through rich and varied harmonies and timbres.”50 Lisa M. Peppercorn described Villa-Lobos’s successful career in Paris as:

47 Appleby, Heitor Villa-Lobos: A Life, 53-54.

48 Peppercorn, Villa-Lobos: Collected Studies, 53.

49 Slonimsky, Music in Latin America, 145.

50 Donald Jay Grout, A History of Western Music (New York: W.W. Norton, 1996), 673.

25

In the Paris of the 1920s a South American composer could make his name only by supplying characteristically South American music; therefore, instead of writing in a traditional style, he had composed his Choros, Serestas and later, the Bachianas Brasileiras and pseudo-folkloristic music.51

Villa-Lobos continued to compose in his Brazilian musical style in various ways in works

of the 1920s. He began to “breach the wall between art music and popular music styles, writing music that discernibly expresses the collective voice of the nation.”52 The series of fourteen

works individually entitled Choros, written between 1920 and 1929, are generally considered his

most significant contribution of Villa-Lobos to Brazilian music. This series of compositions

reflects the various aspects of Brazilian, Indian, and popular music. Each work consists of

multiple sections in a single movement and exhibits contrapuntal textures, use of unusual

instrumental combinations, and long melodic lines. These works range in instrumentation from

guitar solo to small chamber ensemble to large works for two orchestras and military bands.

The choro genre became the primary basis for Villa-Lobos’s compositions from the

1920s. Villa-Lobos used the term broadly, not restricting its definition to works taken from

traditional Brazilian street musicians. He employed the choro as a title for the series of fourteen

works (1920-29) of various instrumental combinations that incorporate distinctive aspects of

Brazilian music. Villa-Lobos defined his choros in the foreword to Choros No. 3:

The Choros represent a new form of musical compositions in which different modalities of Brazilian Indian and popular music are synthesized, having as its principal elements rhythm and some typical melody of a popular nature, which appears in the work now and then, always modified according to the personality of the composer. The harmonic procedures, too, are almost a complete stylization of the original. The word “serenade” can give an approximate idea of what “choros” means.53

51 Peppercorn, Villa-Lobos: Collected Studies, 92.

52 Appleby, The Music of Brazil, 94.

53 Heitor Villa-Lobos, Choros No. 3 (Paris: Max Eschig).

26

“Villa-Lobos not only tried to compose in a manner that would accurately reflect the

‘soul’ of Brazil, but he also tried to give Brazilian names and Brazilian forms to his music.”54

Even though the works do not carry the title choro, some of Villa-Lobos’s works exhibit the improvisational character of the choro genre. These works include Noneto and Duo for oboe and bassoon.

During the years 1930 to 1945 Villa-Lobos composed nine Bachianas Brasileiras, which he described as homage to the great genius of J.S. Bach. “There are only two great composers in the world, namely Bach and I.”55 As a child Villa-Lobos had profound interest in Bach’s music,

and he later transcribed several pieces of The Well-Tempered Clavier for various media, which influenced the series of compositions Bachianas Brasileiras. Villa-Lobos believed that there were elements common in Bach’s music and the improvisations of Brazilian popular music.56 He composed Bachianas Brasileiras incorporating Bach’s contrapuntal techniques with

Brazilian rhythms and melodies. The elements of Brazilian music include popular rhythmic

structure, melodic sequence and variation, and timbral influences from popular

instrumentations.57 These works are in suite form, consisting of two, three, or four dance

movements. The separate movements carry two titles, one Baroque, such as prelude, fantasia,

and fugue, the other Brazilian, such as choro, modinha, and embolada.

After the revolution in Brazil in 1930, Getúlio Vargas became head of the Brazilian

government. Under the dictatorship of Vargas (1930-45), there were strong nationalistic

54 David Vassberg, “Villa-Lobos: Music as a tool of Nationalism,” Luso-Brazilian Review VI/ 2 (Dec 1969): 55.

55 Peppercorn, Villa-Lobos: Collected Studies, 14.

56 Appleby, Heitor Villa-Lobos: A Life, 120.

57 Béhague, Heitor Villa-Lobos: The Search for Brazil’s Musical Soul, 107.

27

movements throughout the country.58 Decisive changes took place in all educational systems

including the introduction of choral singing into the schools. In 1931 the government appointed

Villa-Lobos Director of Music Education. He revolutionized teaching methods and started

orpheonic (choral) groups in the major cities and founded music schools throughout the country,

both of which he believed were his greatest accomplishments. Villa-Lobos emphasized choral

singing in music education as a powerful tool for inspiring a nationalist fervor. He transcribed

many Brazilian folk tunes and children’s songs for chorus, which he used for training music teachers. Marcos Romero describes Villa-Lobos’s conception of musical education.

Music is to him is a socially collective force and experience. At first the piano and all other instruments are forbidden. Children learn the basic elements of music through the singing, sometimes in unison and sometimes in parts. They are trained to think of and to feel music as part of all life. The geographical, biological, and psychological aspects of music and all the fields of human experience in which music can exist are part of Villa-Lobos’s conception of musical education.59

About 1940 several performances of Villa-Lobos’s works took place in the United States.

The most important performances were at the New York World’s Fair concerts in 1939 and the

concerts at the Museum of Modern Art in New York in 1940. The programs included several

works from Bachianas Brasileiras and Choros, Quarteto simbólico, and Rudepoema, which

received favorable reviews. He visited the United States for the first time in 1944 and made several more tours to the United States and Europe. During this time, he conducted some of the finest orchestras in his own compositions. Villa-Lobos completed his final work, the score for the Metro Goldwyn Mayer film Green Mansions (1959), and upon returning to Rio de Janeiro, he died of cancer at the age of 72.

58 Ibid., 21.

59 Marcos Romero, Composers of the Americas, Vol. III (Washington D.C.: The Pan American Union, 1960), 11.

28

Chamber Music

Villa-Lobos’s chamber music compositions with woodwind instruments combine unusual instrumental timbres not found previously in the early twentieth-century woodwind chamber work. He explored new instrumental techniques such as flutter-tongue, pedal tones, and unusual performance instructions as well as persistent changes of timbre in the middle of a melodic phrase, which became a typical aspect of his orchestration.

Villa-Lobos wrote ten chamber works with bassoon between 1921 and 1958. Most of these works bear generic titles (e.g., Duo, Trio, Quartet, etc.). However, some of these pieces are for unusual instrumental combinations including the four works that I chose to study: Noneto

(1923) for flute, oboe, clarinet, alto saxophone, bassoon, celesta, piano, harp, numerous percussion instruments, and mixed chorus; Choros No. 3 (1925) for clarinet, bassoon, three horns, alto saxophone, trumpet, trombone, and men’s chorus; Quinteto em Forma de Choros

(1928) for flute, oboe, clarinet, English horn or horn, and bassoon; and Bachianas Brasileiras

No. 6 (1938) for flute and bassoon.

The improvisational melody and rhythm, an improvisatory rhapsodic form, as well as contrapuntal textures of the choro are clear in all four works. The use of typical Brazilian guitar

and percussion instruments as well as a great number of motives in a narrow range with small

intervals make his music more Brazilian than European in Noneto. Also, Villa-Lobos referred to

the Noneto as a “new form of composition that expresses Brazil’s sonorous atmosphere and

original rhythm.”60 Moreover, Villa-Lobos manipulated the rhythms of Brazilian popular music

which appear as various syncopations and rhythmic combinations, especially in Noneto, Choros

No. 3, and Quinteto em Forma de Choros. These derive from popular dance rhythms of Brazil

60 Béhague, Heitor Villa-Lobos: The Search for Brazil’s Musical Soul, 69.

29

and Latin America such as the habanera, Brazilian tango, maxixe, samba, and choro. Villa-

Lobos also adapted an American Indian melody, “Nozani-na,” as an element of the exoticism at the beginning of Choros No. 3.61 This work has its main idea of onomatopoetic sounds, syllables

or words without sense or meaning, imitating the Indian language.62 Bachianas Brasileiras No. 6 reveals discernible contrapuntal textures of Bach’s music such as imitation and invertible counterpoint. Also, the very selection of and special attention to certain instruments, the use of tone clusters, frequent pedal point, as well as the use of quartal and quintal harmony in the

Noneto allude to French impressionistic style.63 These pieces played a significant role in the

establishment of Villa-Lobos’s reputation as well as the reputation of Brazilian nationalistic

music in the twentieth century.

61 Ibid., 76.

62 Peppercorn. Villa-Lobos: The Music; an Analysis of His Style (White Plains, NY: Pro/Am Music Resources Inc., 1991), 58.

63 Béhague, Heitor Villa-Lobos: The Search for Brazil’s Musical; Soul, 70-72.

30

Noneto

Villa-Lobos completed this work in Paris in 1923 during the period of a fellowship from

the Brazilian government. In 1924 he organized his first concert in Paris, sponsored by the publisher Max Eschig. The program included Noneto, and the success of concert helped to establish his reputation in Paris. Its subtitle Impressão rápida de todo o Brasil (Rapid Impression of Whole Brazil) suggests Villa-Lobos’s intention to express the geographical immensity of his native land.64

This work exhibits a number of qualities of Brazilian popular music, such as an

improvisational character of melodies and rhythms, frequent use of ostinatos, and contrapuntal

textures, as well as Brazilian folk music including a use of traditional percussion instruments and

a narrow range of motives.65 Noneto deals with color, rhythms, and effects that include various

rhythmic combinations of syncopation, polyrhythmic texture, chromatic dissonances, quartal and quintal harmonies, tone clusters, glissandos, and an effective use of dynamics. Some of these elements resemble the characteristics of an impressionistic style, which can also be found in a

number of chamber works including Sextour mystique, Quarteto simbólico, and Quatour (1928).

Noneto takes approximately fifteen minutes of performance time, consisting of multiple

sections in one movement like most of Villa-Lobos’s works of the 1920s. The sections are

connected through similarities and contrasts in motives or sonorities. Most of motives move in a

narrow range with small intervals, suggesting indigenous music. It is scored for mixed chorus

and eight instruments: flute, oboe, clarinet, alto saxophone, bassoon, harp, piano,

64 Appleby, Heitor Villa-Lobos, 67.

65 Béhague, Heitor Villa-Lobos: The Search for Brazil’s Musical Soul, 69-70.

31

and celesta plus and eighteen percussion instruments. Even though this work is titled Noneto, it

needs more than nine players and consists of ten different parts. It probably means nine

instrumental parts excluding chorus.

Villa-Lobos employed a number of percussion instruments used in Brazilian folk and

popular music to accentuate the Brazilian character. He included the reco-reco (scraper), coco

(dry coconut shell), xucalho (a rattle), and the puíta (a friction drum that produces a honking

sound).

Villa-Lobos predominantly used voices to create color and timbral effects through not

only normal singing but also onomatopoetic intoning employing instrumental techniques, such as vocal glissando and muting.66 Also, the monotonous intoning of the chorus evokes the mood of

the indigenous music.

Noneto begins with the alto saxophone playing a motive that will return throughout the

piece in various manipultations. The opening motive moves in a narrow range that reveals a combination of the habanera figure and Brazilian syncopation. The improvisational and virtuoso passages (mm. 2-10) of the flute, oboe, and clarinet respond to the opening motive each with its own ornamentation. These passages resemble the choro genre. At m. 11 the bassoon provides

Brazilian sound by a variant of the opening motive with Brazilian syncopation.

66 Tarasti, Heitor Villa-Lobos: The Life and Works, 325.

32

Example 1. Noneto, mm. 1-12

33

Example 1 (continued)

34

Example 1 (continued)

At rehearsal no. 2 there are various rhythmic combinations with cross-rhythms involving piano, harp, celesta, and woodwinds to create Brazilian atmosphere. The chords in fourths with syncopations add percussive harshness to the sonority.

Example 2. Noneto, rehearsal no. 2: mm. 1-4

35

This use of quartal harmony-a characteristic of impressionistic style-can also be found in

Villa-Lobos’s other works such as Quatour for flute, oboe, clarinet, and bassoon, which

resembles the characteristics of impressionistic style.

Example 3. Quatour, first movement, mm. 31-33

At rehearsal no. 8 the clarinet, saxophone, and bassoon have a simple melodic structure of the unison motive in G-flat major. This theme exhibits asymmetry and irregularity through syncopation and the flute and oboe add the characteristics of choro in accentuated syncopations.

36

Example 4. Noneto, rehearsal no. 8

The chorus enters with onomatopoetic intoning at the rehearsal no. 9. The sopranos have passages suggestive of speech, first heard at rehearsal no. 7, while the contraltos rhythmically intone pitches on the syllables gourou, imitating Indian language in quartal harmony. Tenors and baritones join in while the piano accentuates each measure with tone cluster.

37

Example 5. Noneto, rehearsal no. 9: mm. 1-3

At rehearsal no. 13 the harp and piano begin ostinatos, the one in the piano exhibiting the habanera figure.

Example 6. Noneto, rehearsal no. 13: mm. 1-6

38

Example 6 (continued)

The oboe, clarinet, alto saxophone, and bassoon imitate the ostinato of the piano along

with rhythmic ostinato by the reco-reco (rehearsal no. 15:6). The frequent use of these ostinatos resembles the characteristics of choro.

39

Example 7. Noneto, rehearsal no. 15: mm. 6-13

At rehearsal no. 16 the harp plays an ostinato of fourths in syncopated rhythm. The

bassoon provides a different syncopated pattern in the background while the piccolo displays virtuosity as in the choro ensemble with its quick and difficult passages. Also, Villa-Lobos experiments with a new idea of sonority in the percussion section: the edge of a porcelain plate is

struck lightly with an iron rod.

40

Example 8. Noneto, rehearsal no. 16: mm. 1-8

The piano has tresillo rhythm (at rehearsal no. 19) which is a pattern of eight quick notes with accents on the first, fourth, and seventh notes (3+3+2). The tresillo rhythm is one of the most common rhythms in choro. The chorus sings the syllable La in a chromatically descending

41 triplet figure over duple meter creating hemiola, and then adds parallel descending thirds resembling the lament of Brazilian Indian music.

Example 9. Noneto, rehearsal no. 19

At rehearsal no. 20 the chorus adds parallel fifths and this section ends with glissandos and a chromatic descending line in quintal harmonies–all which are Impressionist traits.

42

Example 10. Noneto, rehearsal no. 20

At rehearsal no. 22 the chorus begins a theme in a very narrow range (four-note structure), again closely similar to the narrow range used in Brazilian folk music. The chorus continues the same melody with closed lips, a technique that Villa-Lobos used in the Bachianas Brasileiras

No.5. This technique (humming) could certainly be considered related to folk music.

43

Example 11. Noneto, rehearsal no. 22: mm. 6-23:4

The structure of this work reveals a series of melodies following each other without clear direction. However, a tensional direction begins to evolve from the rehearsal no. 40 to the end.

The soprano and alto have onomatopoetic intoning of a syllable La in syncopated sixteenth

44

notes, which is similar to the motives of saxophone and bassoon in the beginning of the work

(mm. 1-12). There is a shouting of Brazilian Indian music created by a wide melodic leap. Also,

the piano and harp have the rhythmic patterns similar to rehearsal no. 2.

45

Example 12. Noneto, rehearsal no. 40: mm. 1-6

At rehearsal no. 43 the piano has a secco rhythmic motive (without pedal), creating accents imitated by the bassoon while the piccolo imitates the same motive as a broken chord.

This is reminiscent of the choro technique of broken octaves in the upper register combined with polyrhythmic textures.

46

Example 13. Noneto, rehearsal no. 42: mm. 9-44: 3

47

The repetition of the note B in the celesta, xylophone, and piano begins at rehearsal no.

46, which appears in various syncopated pattern. The repetition of the same note is a reference to the Brazilian Batuque dance. This motive shifts to the timpani, bombo, and piano, and the chorus enters with a monotonous sound of syllables imitating a fictive African language on the repetition of a note B. The repetition motive falls through G and E.

Example 14. Noneto, rehearsal no. 46: mm. 5-47: 3

48

Example 14 (continued)

49

Example 15. Noneto, rehearsal no. 48: mm. 5-8

50

At rehearsal no. 51 voices begin to move chromatically over a motive with appoggiaturas by soprano and tenor that have the syllables gourou, imitating Indian language. The vocal parts sing two different languages at the same time.

Example 16. Noneto, rehearsal no. 51: mm. 1-4

The rising tone clusters of the piano (at rehearsal no. 52) create more tension toward the end, and help to create the harshest sonority of this work. The highest tensional point concludes in a downward glissando of the whole ensemble. There is also an unusual performance

51

instruction to the flute: [place the entire hole of the embouchure into your mouth and blow very hard.]

Example 17. Noneto, rehearsal no. 52

52

Example 17 (continued)

53

Noneto exhibits the characteristics of the choro genre with improvisational melodies and rhythm, syncopations, tresillo rhythm, ostinatos, and polyrhythm. Also, virtuosic character involving imitation is reminiscent of the choro.

This work primarily deals with rhythm, color, and effects. Villa-Lobos employed spontaneous rhythmic manipulation throughout the piece. Voices are used for creating color and timbral effects through onomatopoetic intoning in order to evoke the mood of indigenous music.

Villa-Lobos employed a number of percussion instruments used in Brazilian folk and popular music to accentuate the Brazilian character. There is an evidence of impressionistic style such as the use of frequent pedal points, tone clusters, and quartal and quintal harmonies. Also, Villa-

Lobos used instruments in a novel manner, so he provided unusual instructions to create a variety of sonority. The contrasting short motives here often create special orchestral effects, but also illustrate characteristics of the choro, along with the elements of indigenous music and impressionistic style.

54

Choros No. 3

This particular choros is one of Villa-Lobos’s most distinctive Indianist works. It is dedicated to the sonorous atmosphere of the primitive music of the aborigines of the states of

Matto Grasso and Goias.67

Choros No.3 was composed in 1925, subtitled “Pica-Pao” (“Woodpecker”), a bird of the

Brazilian rain forest. Villa-Lobos made a reference to this particular bird in several of his

Choros; this one is scored for clarinet, saxophone, bassoon, three horns, trombone, and male chorus. It can be performed separately a cappella or as a septet for wind instruments, according to the composer’s direction.

The chorus sings onomatopoetic sounds (syllables or words without sense or meaning) to imitate Indian language.

The work consists of short sections in one movement, taking approximately six minutes of performance time. The main theme is the folk tune “Nozani-na,” a feasting song of the Parecis

Indians, directly quoted from the Brazilian scientist Roquette Pinto’s collection Rondonia. Villa-

Lobos often quoted from this collection and even used the “Nozani-na” tune many other times; for instance, in Choros No. 7. “Nozani-na” became for Villa-Lobos a symbol of the whole Indian ethos.68 Another Brazilian composer, such as Oscar Lorenzo Fernandez (1907-48) incorporated

this tune in his symphonic poem Imbapara.

Choros No. 3 begins with the “Nozani-na” tune in E-flat major in canon in the chorus, each time with the doubling of the vocal line by different wind instruments. This tune returns with alterations throughout the piece.

67 Béhague, Heitor Villa-Lobos: The search for Brazil’s Musical Soul, 76.

68 Simon Wright, Villa-Lobos (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 65.

55

Example 18. “Nozani-na” tune from Roquette Pinto’s Rondonia

Example 19. Choros No. 3, mm. 1-12

56

Example 19 (continued)

At m. 17 the first tenors present a descending melodic figure (support by the clarinet) as a countermelody to the Nozani-na tune that still appears in other parts. This descending melodic line consisting of four notes in syncopation with a triplet, creates hemiola. The motive, which follows at m. 21, exhibits a narrow range in E-flat minor, and two bars later repetition of the same note (G-flat) occurs. All of these characteristics are derived from the indigenous music.

57

Example 20. Choros No. 3, mm. 17-24

58

Villa-Lobos made reference to the bird “Pica-Pao” (at m. 33), an Indianist imitation of a woodpecker, with a syncopated pattern. This theme appears in ostinato figure with varied rhythm until the end of the piece. The onomatopoetic word pica-pao imitates the pecking of the bird timbre and rhythm, producing colorful effect. The male voices sing the word pica-pao followed by various combinations of syllables, supporting the musical imitation of Indian language and also revealing the ostinato characteristics of the choro.

Example 21. Choros No.3, mm. 33-35

59

A new theme begins at m. 39 derived from the Nozani-na tune. It appears in the first tenors and clarinet with extended note values and intervallic alteration, a technique, which was very typical in the Choros, and is accompanied by the Pica-Pao ostinato. Nozani-na and Pica-Pao juxtapose long-breathed lyrical melody together with reiterated syllabic patterns imitative of

Indian incantation.

60

Example 22. Choros No. 3, mm. 39-45

61

At measure 77 the Nozani-na tune also appears with extended note values and intervallic alteration but now in canonic imitation between the baritone and bass with doubling by bassoon and trombone. This contrapuntal imitation is reminiscent of the Choros compositional techniques.

Example 23. Choros No. 3, mm. 77-86

62

In contrast to the opening, Nozani-na again returns at m. 100, which appears with an onomatopoetic glissando vuzfzfzf. The basses present the theme in A-flat minor, doubled by bassoon. Other voices shout the word eh with sforzando in the repeating the same pitch, once again creating the typical sound of indigenous music.

63

Example 24. Choros No.3, mm. 100-14

64

Example 24 (continued)

The coda (m. 129) consists of the words Papi-pao-Brasil on a pentatonic melody, sung in slow tempo by the chorus; however this work ends with an onomatopoetic glissando vuzfzfzf on

E-flat major chord. This section exhibits Impressionistic character of pentatonic melody and glissando.

65

Example 25. Choros No. 3, mm. 129-33

The chorus is predominant in this work. The doubling by wind instruments supports the melodic line of vocal parts. The use of a folk tune, narrow range of motive, and sustained notes resemble the characteristics of Indian music. Also, there are the elements of the choro, such as contrapuntal texture involving imitation, polyrhythm, ostinato, dissonances, and frequent modulation from major to minor.

Although there are sections in modality, this composition remains in E-flat major and its parallel minor, subdominant, and dominant. Also, Villa-Lobos used Impressionistic traits such as glissando and pentatonic influence.

66

Quinteto em Forma de Choros

Villa-Lobos completed this work in 1928 during a second stay in Paris from 1927 to

1930. It is originally scored for flute, oboe, clarinet, English horn, and bassoon. Later, he

transcribed it for traditional woodwind quintet instrumentation. It was premiered at the Festival

of Modern Music in Paris in 1930. Villa-Lobos originally titled this work Quinteto, but when he

signed a contract with Éditions Max Eschig he added the subtitle “em Forma de Choros” (in the

form of a choros). This suggests that Villa-Lobos added the term choros to evoke the Brazilian

nature of this work.69

Villa-Lobos composed Quinteto in sentimental moods and rhythms of his country. It is

based on the characteristics of the choro genre including improvisatory character of melodies

and rhythms, contrapuntal texture, ostinatos, syncopations, and polyrhythm. The predominant rhythmic feature here is polyrhythm in various rhythmic combinations. Villa-Lobos primarily employed atonality and extremely chromatic dissonances in this work. It takes approximately

fifteen minutes of performance time and consists of one movement with a succession of short

contrasting sections.

Quinteto begins in two-part counterpoint between groups of instruments, one of the predominant textures in this work. Then a short improvisatory passage (mm. 11-14) appears in all instruments, alluding to the choro genre reinforced by frequent meter changes.

69 Peppercorn, Heitor Villa-Lobos: The Music; an Analysis of His Style, 60.

67

Example 26. Quinteto em Forma de Choros, mm. 1-14

68

Example 26 (continued)

The next section (mm. 35-45) consists mostly of a rhythmic driving and contrapuntal accompaniment under the flute’s solo line, which resembles the choro technique.

69

Example 27. Quinteto em Forma de Choros, mm. 40-45

The bassoon solo opens a new section (mm. 46-90) with its motive in a narrow range

(four-note structure, C#-B-A#-G#). It is accompanied by trills and syncopated patterns creating the polyrhythmic texture (mm. 55-56) of the choro genre between the oboe, flute, and English horn.

70

Example 28. Quinteto em Forma de Choros, mm. 46-56

There is an extensive passage of intense dialogue between oboe and English horn (mm.

66-90). This passage contains an extremely chromatic melodic line and polyrhythmic texture

(68-74) of the choro genre.

71

Example 29. Quinteto em Forma de Choros, mm. 70-73

At m. 84 the English horn destroys the feeling of downbeat by accents. The accents result in patterns of 4 + 1 and 4 + 2. This technique can also be found in Stravinsky’s Rite of Spring.

Example 30. Quinteto em Forma de Choros, mm. 84-89

72

Example 31. Stravinsky’s Rite of Spring, Dance of the Adolescent girls, mm. 1-8 and mm. 35-42

At m. 96 the bassoon presents a motive in D-flat major in a syncopated pattern

accompanied by contrapuntal texture, which resembles the choro. Other instruments imitate the bassoon solo in succession.

73

Example 32. Quinteto em Forma de Choros, mm. 96-105

74

The English horn presents another motive (at m.129) in a narrow range accompanied by a contrapuntal texture of the choros (mm. 129-32). This motive is presented in various rhythmic combinations.

Example 33. Quinteto em Forma de Choros, mm. 129-31

At m. 163 the oboe presents a melancholic melody with contrapuntal accompaniment.

Then the flute improvises this melody in virtuosic character, which resembles its role in the choro ensemble.

75

Example 34. Quinteto em Forma de Choros, mm. 163-69

In the next section (mm. 177-90), the flute’s descending melodic line appears with accompaniment of contrapuntal texture including the bassoon’s habanera figure with an syncopation. This motive (mm. 177-78) exhibits polyrhythmic texture. The bassoon imitates the descending motive against the flute’s virtuosic ostinato. This section demonstrates the characteristics of the choro such as contrapuntal texture, syncopation, polyrhythm, and ostinato.

76

Example 35. Quinteto em Forma de Choros, mm. 177-81

77

The final section consists mostly of extensive rhythmic ostinatos and the rich

contrapuntal texture of the choro genre. The descending melodic line of the bassoon solo (m.

200) sets the tempo and rhythmic force of the entire section. This texture, a solo line with a

sparse accompaniment, can be found throughout this work.

Example 36. Quinteto em Forma de Choros, mm. 200-03

There is an instance of two-part counterpoint with a group of two or three instruments

consisting of melodic line and contrapuntal accompaniments (mm. 210-15). Villa-Lobos continually interchange the instrumentation of the accompanimental parts to create mixtures of

different instrumental color. Also, there is the use of quartal harmony (mm. 210-15) between the oboe and English horn, and flute and oboe.

78

Example 37. Quniteto em Forma de Choros, mm. 210-15

At m. 248 the bassoon presents a motive in the habanera figure with syncopations (mm.

247-48), imitated by the oboe, English horn, and clarinet with extended note values and intervallic alteration (mm. 254-58), which Villa-Lobos also used in several of his other works including Choros No. 3. Also, there is the use of intricate polyrhythmic texture (mm. 254-58) of the choro.

79

Example 38. Quinteto em forma de Choros, mm. 248-58

The oboe’s melodic line and the flute’s virtuosic chromatic line (at m. 289) continue until

the coda, accompanied by ostinatos and polyrhythmic texture. The whole ensemble creates a harsh sound in atonality toward the end. The harshest chord of this work sustains for last four measures (mm. 305-08) with a loud dynamic, reinforcing the atonality of this work.

80

Example 39. Quinteto em Forma de Choros, mm. 303-08

Villa-Lobos composed this work in a single movement with multiple contrasting sections.

Each section exhibits different materials and sonorities. Villa-Lobos gave equal importance to all

five instruments and continually interchanged the instrumentation in the middle of the melodic

line to create different timbres. The harmonies include a combination of quartal, atonal, and tonal

sonorities. However, atonality is predominant in this work.

This work contains a number of characteristics of the choro genre such as contrapuntal texture, rhapsodic improvisation, ostinato, syncopation, and polyrhythm. The improvisational melodies are reinforced by frequent meter changes. There is frequent use of Afro-Brazilian syncopation with variation and polyrhythm in various rhythmic combinations, which can also be found in Noneto.

81

Bachianas Brasileiras No. 6

Bachianas Brasileiras No. 6 was written in 1938 and is dedicated to two amateur players: flutist Alfredo Lage and bassoonist Evandro Pequeno. It was premiered in 1945 in Rio and exhibits an elaborate contrapuntal texture between only two participating instruments. There are two movements. The first is titled Aria and subtitled Choro; the second movement is Fantasia.

Villa-Lobos composed this work using some techniques of Bach’s inventions—voice exchange, imitation, and invertible counterpoint incorporated with the characteristics of the choro such as melancholic melody, wide leaps, ostinatos, and improvisatory character. Villa-Lobos made reference to the instrumentation of Bachianas Brasileiras No. 6 in relation to the choro genre:

I chose the combination of two instruments (flute and bassoon) to suggest the old Brazilian serenade for two instruments, and I substituted the ophicleide with the bassoon, because this instrument is nearer to the spirit of Bach and I wanted to give the impression of the improvisation as in serenade singing. This suite is more ‘Bachian’ in form than ‘Brazilian.’70

The first movement begins with an introduction by the flute (mm. 1-2) in D minor that accompanies the principal melody by the bassoon (m. 3) with virtuosic runs. The bassoon’s melancholic theme contains a series of melodic sequences (mm. 7-11), which is common in both

Baroque music and Brazilian popular music. Also, there are instances of polyrhythm (mm. 7-11) between triplets and thirty-second notes.

70 Heitor Villa-Lobos, Bachianas Brasileiras Nos. 2, 5, 6, 9. Sound recording liner noted written by the compeser (Angel Records 35547, 1965), LP record.

82

Example 40. Bachianas Brasileiras No. 6, first movement, mm. 3-4

Example 41. Bachianas Brasileiras No. 6, first movement, mm. 7-8

After a transition the roles are reversed in m. 15 in the manner of invertible counterpoint, and the flute has the melodic line as in the choro ensemble. However, the bassoon does not have a line as virtuosic as the earlier flute part, because the virtuosic runs are more idiomatic for the flute than for bassoon.

83

Example 42. Bachianas Brasileiras No. 6, first movement, mm. 15-16

The flute line has a series of melodic sequences (mm. 19-23), which takes over from the bassoon part (mm. 7-11). The bassoon has sequences of a syncopated descending melodic line over the flute’s improvisational melody, which exhibits polyrhythmic texture (mm. 33-35). The upward leaps of a ninth in the bassoon (mm. 29-30) establish a reference to the main theme. The use of melodic sequence, improvisational melody, and polyrhythmic texture are all characteristics of the choro.

Example 43. Bachianas Brasileiras No. 6, first movement, mm. 29-30

The coda begins in m. 37 with a sequential passage by the bassoon, which is taken from m. 1 of the flute’s introduction. A return of the main theme in the bassoon part in m. 42 closes

84

the movement. The virtuosic runs and improvisational character of the flute music, sequential

passages, and a frequent use of wide leaps (up to the eleventh) in both instruments resemble the characteristics of the choro. Also, this movement contains instances of Bach’s inventions such as imitation and invertible counterpoint.

The second movement contains a number of sections in an improvisational character (mm.

48-58 and mm. 106-08) that the title suggests. This movement begins with bassoon, which plays a rising third pattern accompanied by long syncopated notes in the flute part, and then the flute imitates the bassoon (mm. 1-5). The rising third pattern at the beginning returns later (mm. 95-99 and mm. 109-16). The opening passage reveals syncopation of the choros and use of Bach’s imitation.

Example 44. Bachianas Brasileiras No. 6, second movement, mm. 1-5

A transitional section (mm. 8-12) exhibits imitation in contrary motion. The flute

gradually moves into virtuosic sixteenth-note figures. At m. 15 the flute’s sixteenth notes repeat

85 an ostinato figure, with gradual melodic variations (mm. 15-19) that resemble the techniques of the choro. In addition there is an instance of voice exchange (mm. 28-34) that contains a syncopated melodic figure.

Example 45. Bachianas Brasileiras No. 6, second movement, mm. 16-19

86

Example 46. Bachianas Brasileiras No. 6, second movement, mm. 28-34

At m. 36 the flute begins a melodic variation of the bassoon melody in which includes wide melodic leaps in the ostinato figure (mm. 38-41). Theses features allude to the choro genre.

There is a virtuosic improvisational section (mm. 48-58) in the flute part that contains sequences of rhythmic ostinato with melodic variation of the choro genre. The bassoon’s ostinato figure

(mm. 59-65) is taken from the rising third pattern of the opening motive (mm. 1-2). The flute

(mm. 66-70) imitates the bassoon’s ostinato figure, similar to the beginning of this movement

(mm. 1-5). Also, this passage exhibits the ostinato of the choro and Bach’s type of imitation.

87

Example 47. Bachianas Brasileiras No.6, second movement, mm. 61-69

The coda section hat begins at m. 90, Meno, is in a different character. The virtuosic runs in both instruments create a transition into a new section in the tempo Allegro. The instances of the choro technique are clear from m. 100 to the end. Beginning at m. 100 both instruments have wide melodic leaps with accents on the upbeats, creating strong syncopation. In this section, the bassoon contains unusually wide leaps, at times encompassing almost two octaves and the flute

88 has virtuosic runs (mm. 106-108). The frequent use of wide melodic leaps, syncopation, and virtuosic runs allude to the choro genre.

Example 48. Bachianas Brasileiras No. 6, second movement, mm. 100-01

In the final section beginning at m. 121 there is an instance of bitonality and quartal harmonies. The flute has a sextuplet pattern based on the quartal pattern of D, G, and C, and the bassoon has a triplet pattern that includes an E-flat major triad, creating bitonality. Both instruments repeat their harmonic and rhythmic pattern until m. 128. Here Villa-Lobos combined has the characteristics of Impressionism (quartal harmony) and the choro (bitonality).

89

Eaxmple 49. Bachianas Brasileiras No. 6, second movement, mm. 122-23

At m.129 there are new harmonic implications. The quartal pattern of the flute extends a

fourth higher to include F natural implying a dominant seventh chord in C. The bassoon alters its pattern to an augmented triad, B natural, Eb, and G. Then after a French augmented sixth chord at m. 130, the flute returns to its previous quartal pattern to produce the closing cadence in C major.

90

Example 50. Bachianas Brasileiras No. 6, second movement, mm. 129-32

This movement contains very frequent use of choro techniques such as wide melodic leaps, syncopations, ostinatos, and improvisatory writing. Also, there are several instances of

Bach’s compositional techniques including imitation and voice exchange.

91

Chapter IV

Summary and Conclusion

Villa-Lobos was uniquely skilled in blending diverse musical styles and his own

representation of Brazilian folk and popular music. Many of his works exhibit stylistic diversity

based on recognizable and appealing qualities of the choro genre combined with other resources.

The choro was a prominent basis for Villa-Lobos’s chamber works and for his development of a

nationalistic style. Choro exhibits an improvisational melody and rhythm, syncopations,

melancholic melodies, improvisatory rhapsodic form, polyrhythm, and wide melodic leaps. Also, the characteristics of the choro include contrapuntal texture, melodic and rhythmic ostinato, and

frequent and unexpected modulation from major to minor.

Villa-Lobos used improvisational melody and rhythm, particularly in Noneto, Quinteto

em Forma de Choros, and Bachianas Brasileiras No. 6. Also, he composed Quinteto em Forma

de Choros and Bachianas Brasileiras No. 6 using melancholic melodies. A frequent use of

ostinato and rich contrapuntal texture appears in all four works, even between only two instruments, as in Bachianas Brasileiras No. 6. These works show a frequent use of polyrhythm

and hemiola in all four works, which is common in the choro. Noneto contains an intricate

polyrhythmic texture involving various rhythmic combinations in syncopation.

In addition to the characteristics of the choro, there are other distinct elements in Villa-

Lobos’s style in these chamber works with bassoon. The works consist of multiple sections

92

within one or two movements and the sections are connected by contrasting and diverse material,

particularly in Noneto and Quinteto em Forma de Choros. In addition, Villa-Lobos treated

motives in ways that created special or unusual orchestral effects.

Voices are used to produce color through not only normal singing but more importantly through onomatopoetic sounds, syllables or intoning in Noneto and Choros No. 3. Villa-Lobos was able to combine different harmonic systems within even a single work. Noneto and Quinteto

em Forma de Choros were predominantly composed in atonality along with quartal and quintal

harmonies. Choros No. 3 includes modality and bitonality as well as a frequent use of quartal

and quintal harmonies within a tonal center of E-flat major. The use of bitonality also occurs in

Bachianas Brasileiras No. 6. Villa-Lobos adapted folk melody and composed folk-like melody

using repeated notes or narrow range of motive such as tetratonic structure and pentatonic

melody in Noneto, Choros No. 3, and Quinteto em Forma de Choros. He gave equal importance

to instruments and constantly interchanged the instrumentation of melodic line to produce a

variety of timbres.

Through the study of Villa-Lobos’s chamber woks with bassoon, I found Villa-Lobos

combined diverse musical styles with the elements of Brazilian folk and popular music.

Although these works contain the qualities of the choro genre, Villa-Lobos composed each work

in his own unique style as a nationalistic composer.

93

Discography

Noneto

Capitol Classics P8191, Concert Arts Ensemble, Roger Wagner Chorale, R. Wagner, cond.

Tapecar Gravacoes MEC/MVL 014 (1975), Orchestra and Chorus, Teatro Municipal, Rio de Janeiro; R. Duarte, cond.

Choros No. 3

Kuarup KLB BV1-4, Villa-Lobos 100 Anos, Instrumental ensemble, M. Tavares, cond.

Le Chant Du Monde LDC 278835 (1987), Les choros de chamber, Male Chorus of the Association of Choral Singing, Rio de Janeiro

NEWP NPD85518, Sine nomine Singers, instrumental ensembles, K. Finn, cond.

Quinteto em Forma de Choros

Lyrichord LLST 7168, Soni Ventorum Wind Quintet

Nonesuch 71030E, New York Woodwind Quintet

Pan Verlag VLEUGELS OV-75004, Aulos Wind Quintet of Stuttgart

CBS MK-39558, Ensemble Wien-Berlin

Kuarup KLP BV 1-4, Villa-Lobos 100 Anos, Quinteto Villa-Lobos

Le Chant De Monde LCD 278835 (1987), Les choros de chamber

NEWP NPD85518, Quintet of the Americas

Bachianas Brasileiras No. 6

Angel 35547, F. Dufrene, flute; R. Pleisssier, bassoon

94

EMI 2 C 153-14090/9, Villa-Lobos par lui-meme, Orchestre National de la Radiodiffusion Francaise, Villa-Lobos, cond.

Nonesuch 71030, S. Baron, flute; B. Garfield, bassoon

Ravenna Rave 702, Soni Ventorum Wind Quintet

RCA Victor LM/LSC 6184, Boston Symphony Chamber Players

95

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Appleby, David P. Heitor Villa-Lobos: A Life. Lanham, Maryland, London: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2002.

______. The Music of Brazil. Austin; University of Texas Press. 1983.

Appleby, David, and Martha Appleby. “The Legend of Villa-Lobos.” Clavier 26 (1987): 19-26.

Baker, Theodore. Baker’s Biographical Dictionary of Musicians. 6th edition, ed. Nicolas Slonimsky. New York: Schirmer Books, 1978.

Béhague,Gerard. The Beginning of Musical Nationalism in Brazil, Detroit Monographs in Musicology, no. 1. Detroit: Information Coordinators, Inc., 1971.

______. “Brazil-Music.” In The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie, vol. 3, 221-44. London: Macmilan and Co., 1980.

______. Heitor Villa-Lobos: The Search for Brazil’s Musical Soul. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994.

______. Music in Latin America, An Introduction. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1979,

______, ed. Performance Practice: Ethnomusicological Perspectives. Westport, Conn: Greenwood, 1984.

Bohlman, Philip V. The Study of Folk Music in the Modern World. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988.

Butler, James Dale. “Heitor Villa-Lobos: The Compositional Use of the Saxophone in Orchestral, Chamber, and Solo Repertoire.” D.M.A. Diss, The University of Texas at Austin, 1995.

Burns, E. Bradford. A History of Brazil. New York: Columbia University Press, 1980.

Chase, Gilbert. A Guide to the Music of Latin America. 2nd ed. Washington, D.C.: Pan American Union/ Library of Congress, 1962.

Cohn, Arthur. Twentieth Century Music in the Western Hemisphere. Philadelphia, PA: J.B. Lippincott, 1961. de Jong, Gerrit. “Music in Brazil.” Inter-American Music Bulletin 31 (September 1963): 1-15.

______. “Music in Brazil.” Music Journal 21 (September 1963): 58.

96

Druesdow, John. The Chamber Works for Wind Ensembles by Heitor Villa-Lobos. Indiana University, 1963.

Grout, Donald J. A History of Western Music. New York: W.W. Norton. 1996.

Gustafson, Ralph. “Villa-Lobos and the Man-Eating Flower.” Musical Quarterly 75, no. 1 (Spring 1991): 1-11.

Hague, Eleanor. Latin American Music. California: Fine Arts Press. 1934.

Heller, Alfred. “Reflection on Heitor Villa-Lobos.” 21st Century Music 7, no. 6 (June 2000):11- 12.

______. “The One World Style of Heitor Villa-Lobos.” Review: Latin American Literature and Arts 40 (January-June 1989): 17-21.

Hoden, Brian. “The Choro.” Guitar Review 73 (Spring 1988): 31-34.

Kelsey, Vera. Seven Keys to Brazil. New York: Funk and Wagnalls Company, 1941.

Luper, Albert. The Music of Brazil. Washington, D.C.” Pan American Union. 1960.

MacGowan, Chris and Ricardo Pessanha. The Brazilian Sound: Samba, Bossa Nova, and the Popular Music of Brazil. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1998.

Mariz, Vasco. Villa-Lobos: Life and Work. Washington, D.C.: Brazilian American Cultural Institute, Inc., 1970.

Marx, Burle. “Brazilian Portrait—Villa-Lobos.” Modern Music (October-November 1939): 10- 17.

McPhee, Colin. “Jungles of Brazil.” Modern Music 19, no. 1 (November-December, 1940): 41- 43.

Meller, Wilfred. “Letters from South America.” Musical Times 138, no. 1858 (December 1997): 18-20.

Morgan, Robert P. Twentieth-Century Music: A History of Musical Style in Modern Europe and America. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1991.

Morton, Lawrence. “Villa-Lobos, Brazilian Pioneer.” Clavier 16:1 (January 1977): 29-32.

Munger-Mackay, Ailene Annette. “Certain Oboe Techniques and Ensemble Pedagogy in Selected Woodwind Chamber Music of Heitor Villa-Lobos.” D.M.A. diss., The Ohio State University, 1993.

97

Nettle, Bruno. Folk and Traditional Music of the Western Continents. 2nd ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc, 1973.

Orrego-Salas, J.A. “Heitor Villa-Lobos: Man, Work, Style,” Inter-American Music Bulletin 52 (March 1966): 1-36.

Peppercorn, Lisa M. Heitor Villa-Lobos: The Music; an Analysis of His Style. White Plains, NY: Pro/Am Music Resources Inc., 1991.

______. The Villa-Lobos Letters. London: Toccata Press, 1994.

______. The World of Villa-Lobos in Pictures and Documents. England: Scholar Press, 1996.

______. Villa-Lobos: Collected Studies by L. M. Peppercorn. England: Scholar Press, 1992.

______. Villa-Lobos in The Illustrated Lives of the Great Composers. London: Omnibus Press, 1989.

Pinto, Tiago de Oliveira. “Art is Universal”: On nationalism and Universality in the Music of Heitor Villa-Lobos. The World of Music 29, no. 2 (1987): 104-16.

Poppino, Rollie. Brazil: The Land and People. New York: Oxford University Press, 1973.

Ramos, Arthur. The Negro in Brazil. Washington, D.C.: The Associated Publishers, Inc., 1939.

Reily, Suzel Ana. Brazil: “Central and Southern Areas.” In The Garland Handbook of Latin American Music, ed. Dale A Olsen and Daniel E. Sheehy, 250-71. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc., 2000.

Romero, M. “Heitor Villa-Lobos.” Inter-American Music Bulletin 15 (1960): 4.

Round, Michael. “Bachianas in Performance.” Tempo no. 160 (June 1989): 34-41.

Santos, T. Heitor Villa-Lobos and His Guitar. Translated by V. Forde and G. Wade. Ireland, Gurtnacloona: Wise Owl Music, 1985.

Schreiner, Claus. Translated by Mark Weinstein. Musica Brasileira: A History of Popular Music and the People of Brazil. New York: Boyars, 1993.

Seeger, Charles. Music in Latin America. A Brief Survey. Washington, D.C.: Pan American Union, 1942.

Slonimsky, Nicolas. Music in Latin America. New York: Da Capo Press, 1972.

Smith, C. Sprague. “Heitor Villa-Lobos.” Inter-American Music Bulletin 15 (1960): 1-4.

98

Smith, Kristen Lia. “The Influences of Folk and Popular Music on Twentieth-Century Music of Brazil.” D.M.A. thesis, University of Cincinnati, 2000.

Tarasti, Eero. Heitor Villa-Lobos: The Life and Works, 1887-1959. Jefferson, NC: McFarland Press, 1995.

Thesen, Anita. “The Magic of Villa-Lobos: A Performance Analysis to Choros #2.” Flute Talk 20, no. 6 (February 2001): 12-14, 31.

Vassberg, David. “Villa-Lobos; Music as a Tool of Nationalism.” Luso-Brazilian Review VI/2 (December 1969): 55-65.

Villa-Lobos, Heitor. Bachianas Brasileiras Nos. 2, 5, 6, 9. Sound recording, Liner notes written by the composer. Angel Records 35547, 1965. LP record.

Weinstock, Herbert. The Book of Modern Composers. New York: Knopf, 1961.

Wright, Simon. Villa-Lobos. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.