ESTABLISHMENT of ENGLISH EAST INDIA COMPANY Unit Structure

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UNIT 2: ESTABLISHMENT OF ENGLISH EAST INDIA COMPANY

Unit Structure

2.1 Learning Objectives 2.2 Introduction 2.3 Battle of Plessey 2.3.1 Causes 2.3.2 Events 2.3.3 Significances 2.4 Battle of Baxur 2.4.1 Causes 2.4.2 Events 2.4.3 Significances 2.5 Let Us Sum Up 2.6 Further Reading 2.7 Answers to Check Your Progress 2.8 Model Questions

2.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

After going through this unit, you will be able to-  Know the causes of the battle of Plessey,  Analyse the events and results of battle of Plessey,  Trace the origin of the battle of Baxur,  Analyse the events and results of the battle of Baxur.

2.2 INTRODUCTION

India had close commercial relations with European countries from very early times. In 1453 when the Ottoman Empire conquered Asia-Minor and captured Constantinople, the old trading routes between the East and

2 4 History (Block 1) Establishment of English East India Company Unit 2 the West came under Turkish control. Therefore by the later part of the fifteenth century and the beginning of the sixteenth century, the European countries began the search for new trade route to establish trade relations with the East. As a result, the Portuguese navigator Vasco-da-Gama discovered a new sea route to India. By using this route many European powers entered into India. They tried to establish their commercial as well as political control over India. In this race the British ultimately became successful. They established their empire over India and continued their rule for the next two hundred years. How the British East India Company converted itself from a mere trading company to a political power makes an interesting study. In this unit we are going to discuss about the establishment of East India Company in India. We will focus on their occupation of Bengal in this unit.

Coming of the East India Company In 1599, a group of English merchants, known as the ‘Merchant Adventurer’ formed a commercial organization called the East India Company, to trade with the Eastern countries. On December 31, 1600, Elizabeth, the Queen of England, granted to this company the monopoly of trade in the East for fifteen years by a charter. In 1608 the first British ship reached India and sent Captain Hawkins and Sir Thomas Roe to the court of the Mughal Emperor Jahangir to obtain royal favours. Consequently, the Company was given permission to open factories at several places in India. From the very beginning they tried to establish their political control over the territory where their factories were situated. Conditions in South India were more favourable to the Company, because they did not have to face a strong local government there. The English opened their first factory in the South at Masaulipatam. Then they got Madras on lease from a local ruler. Now they shifted their activities here. The island of Bombay was acquired by the East India Company from Portugal in 1668 as part of the dowry of Catherine of Bragenze who became the Queen of king Charles II.

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In eastern India the East India Company had opened its first factories in Orissa in 1633.In 1651 it was given permission to trade at Hughli in Bengal. Now the Company desired an independent settlement in Bengal. So in 1686, the English declared a war on the Mughal Emperor, Aurangzeb. The English were defeated and were driven out of their factories in Bengal. Their factories at Surat, Masaulipatam and Vishakhapatam were besieged. They now expressed their willingness to trade under the protection of the Indian rulers. The Mughal authority readily agreed. In 1698, the Company acquired the Zamindari of the three villages Farman: Invitation Sutanati, Kolkota and Govindapur, where it built Fort William. The villages to report to soon grew into a city, known as Calcutta (Modern Kolkata). In 1717 the someone. Mughal Emperor Farrukhsiyar issued a Farman granting old privileges of carrying on duty free trade in Bengal. Similar permission was also received in Hyderabad and Surat.

2.3 BATTLE OF PLASSEY Dastaks: Special certificates, by 2.3 1 CAUSES using which Bengal was a very fertile and rich province of India. The East India commercial goods Company and its servants had highly profitable trading interests in the could be province. The Farman of 1717 by the Mughal Emperor granted them freedom transported from to export and import their goods in Bengal without paying taxes and the one place to right to issue dastaks for the movement of such goods. The Company another in Bengal servants were also permitted to trade, but were not covered by this Farman. without paying any This Farman was a source of conflict between the Company and the Nawab taxes. of Bengal because it meant less revenue for the Bengal government. The power to issue dastaks for the Company’s goods was misused by the Company’s servants. All the Nawabs of Bengal from Murshid Quli Khan to Alivardi Khan had compelled the Company to pay tax and firmly suppressed the misuse of dastaks. In 1756 Siraj-ud-Daula succeeded his grandfather Alivardi Khan. He demanded that the Company should trade on the same basis as in the times of Murshid Quli Khan .The English refused to comply and levied heavy

2 6 History (Block 1) Establishment of English East India Company Unit 2 duty on Indian goods entering Calcutta, which was under their control. All this annoyed the Nawab. He also suspected that the Company was favouring his rivals for the throne of Bengal. Following were the main causes for the outbreak of the Battle of Plassey-  Bengal was a rich and prosperous province. The British were anxious to occupy this region. They were looking for an opportunity to conquer it. Siruj-ud-Daulah, the Nawab of Bengal, was an incompetent and weak ruler. The British thought that they could easily subjugate him.  In 1756, Seven Year War broke out in Europe. Both the French and British began to fortify their settlements in Bengal as they feared an attack from each other. Siruj-ud-Daulah asked both of them to demolish their fortifications. The French carried out his orders but the British refused to do so.  The British had also not received any permission from the Mughal Emperor to fortify their settlements. Nawab Siruj-ud Daulah could not tolerate this.  The British officers had begun to misuse the trading concessions given to them by the Mughal Emperor in 1716.  The British had granted asylum to the enemies of Siruj-ud Daulah which embittered relations between them.  The British were hatching conspiracies against the Nawab with some Hindu chiefs. One of them was Kishan Das. It also annoyed Siruj- ud-Daulah.  In 1756, Siruj-ud-Daulah occupied the British colony of Kasim Bazar. He next captured Fort William and Calcutta. It is said that the Nawab imprisoned 146 English men in a small dingy dark room. Next day, when the door of the room was opened, only 23 prisoners came out alive. This incident is called the Black Hole Incident.  Clive hatched a conspiracy with Amir Chand, a rich Hindu merchant, and Mir Jaffar, the Nawab’s commander-in –chief against Siruj-ud- Daulah. According to their plan, it was decided that Clive with a contingent of army would march to Plassey. Mir Jaffar, along with

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his army would desert Siruj-ud-Daulah and join Clive. Nawab Siruj- ud-Daulah would be deposed and Mir Jaffar be installed as the Nawab of Bengal in his place.

2.3.2 EVENTS

Clive marched towards Murshidabad, the capital of Siruj- ud- Daulah with a small army of 8000 European soldiers and 2100 Indian sepoys and 10 guns only. Siruj-ud-Daulah too with an army of about 70,000 and 50 guns marched from his capital. It was an unequal fight. The two armies met at Plassey. The traitor Mir Jafar and Rai Durlabh took no part in the fighting. Only a small group of Nawab’s soldiers led by Mir Madan and Mohan Lal fought bravely. The Nawab was forced to flee and put to death by Mir Jafar’s son Miran.

2.3.3 SIGNIFICANCES

Though the battle of Plassey was only a small battle from military point of view, politically its importance in the history of India is indeed great.  The Battle of Plassey paved the way for the British to establish themselves in Bengal and eventually the whole of India.  Mir Jafar was appointed the Subedar of Bengal. He awarded the British with much wealth for this favour. Besides he gave them the district of Twenty Four Parganas in the South of Calcutta  They also got a huge sum of money as compensation. Mir Jafar soon realized that it was impossible to meet the demands of the company.  In 1760 the British forced the Nawab of Bengal to make his son- in-law, Mir Qasim as the Nawab of Bengal.  The battle brought many important changes in the position of the East India Company. Before this battle, it was only a trading company but this battle made them a political power in Bengal. It also greatly improved their financial position which helped them in defeating the French in the Third Battle of Carnatic.

2 8 History (Block 1) Establishment of English East India Company Unit 2 LET US KNOW Causes of defeat of Siruj-ud-Daulah and success of East India Company 1. Siruj-ud-Daulah had to face the opposition of his relatives. They challenged the claim of Siruj-ud-Daulah to the Nawabship of Bengal. 2. The British instigated the Hindu traders and merchants to oppose Siruj-ud-Daulah. 3. Nawab was also deceived by his treacherous servants. They took bribes from the British and helped them against the Nawab. 4. The Nawab was an inexperienced person and lacked political foresight. 5. The Nawab had no knowledge about the strength of the British. He attacked Calcutta without any preparation. 6. Nawab made a mistake by capturing the French Colony at Chander Nagar, now he could not expect any help from the French.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answer the following questions:

Q.No. 1: Name the Mughal emperor who issues a Farman in 1717?

......

Q. No. 2: Who succeeded Alivardi Khan in Bengal?

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Q. No. 3: In which year did Siruj- ud- Daulah occupy the British colony at Kasim Bazar?

......

Q. No. 4: Who was Amir Chand?

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History (Block 1) 2 9 Unit 2 Establishment of English East India Company 2.4 BATTLE OF BUXAR

2.4.1 Causes Mir Jaffar was not a capable ruler. He led a luxurious life and wasted money of the state on his own pleasure. The people were not satisfied with him and the English also no longer cared for him because his resources were completely exhausted and they could no longer enrich themselves at his cost. The new British Governor General deposed Mir Jaffar and appointed his son-in- low Mir Qasim as Nawab of Bengal. Mir Qasim displayed considerable ability and had a chance been given to him, there was every probability that he would have solved the financial problem which he was struggling. But the opportunity of doing so was denied to him. The servants of the company first of all demanded considerable sums of money as personal presents. Next, they asserted that they had the right to trade in country’s produce without paying any taxes. The result was that Qasim lost his chief source of income and all his efforts to improve the financial condition of the country were rendered useless. Mir Qasim determined to put himself beyond the pale of English control. He removed his capital to Monghre which was far off from Calcutta. He then abolished all traits and duties throughout his dominions and remitted all duties on European and Indian traders alike. Then he put an end to the concessions which the employees of the Company enjoyed. He also began to recruit a large and trained army. It was now clear that Mir Qasim was no longer willing to remain a puppet in the hands of British. The British decided to depose Mir Qasim and declared war on him. The British seized Patna, but Mir Qasim recaptured the town. The British send an army against Mir Qasim and the latter was defeated in three successive wars at Gheria, Udwanulla and Monghyr. Mir Qasim fled away to Oudh and took refuge at the court of Shuja-ud-Daulah, where he met the Mughal emperor Shah Alam-II. 2.4.2 EVENTS The three Indian princes, Mir Qasim- ruler of Bengal, Shuja-ud- Daulah-ruler of Oudh and Shah Alam-II-Mughal emperor made an alliance

3 0 History (Block 1) Establishment of English East India Company Unit 2 to combine their forces to put a check on the rising power of the English in Bengal. A combined force of 20,000 armies marched against the British. The opposing armies met at Baxur where Major Munro defeated the armies of three allied forces in 1764. The English followed up the success in the following year; they completely defeated Shuja-ud-Daulah at Kara in 1765. Nizam-ud-Daulah a son of Mir Jaffar was made Nawab of Bengal. But the general administrations of province, which include law and order and army organisation, were in the hands of Mohammed Raza whom the British appointed as his Naib. But the real control of Bengal was in the hands of British. Nizamat: Control over the administration. Diwani: The right to collect revenue In 1765 the company signed a treaty with the Nawab of Bengal Nizam-ud-Daulah and got the Nizamat of Bengal. The Company secured the Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa from Shah Alam who was still the titular head of the Mughal Empire. Thus, the Company’s control over Bengal was legalized.

LET US KNOW The ‘Massacre of Patna’ was to take direct action against the British, Ellis, the English agent at Patna, attacked and seized Patna. However, the Nawab’s forces soon recaptured it and took 2000 Englishmen as prisoners. In August 1763, the English troops headed by Major Adams defeated the Nawab’s force at Katwa, Gheria and Udayanal. A dejected Mir Qasim returned to Patna where he ordered the slaughter of all the captured Englishmen. This event came to be known as Massacre of Patna.

Treaty of Allahabad and Grant of Diwani to the British After the defeat of Indian forces at the Battle of Buxer, Clive proceeded to sign Allahabad Treaty with the Indian defeated rulers. Clive restored Oudh (except the districts of Allahabad and Kara) to Shah Shujah in return for Rs 50 lakh as war indemnity. Clive gave districts of Allahabad

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and Kara to Shah Alam-II and obtained from him the grant of Diwani to Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. Significance of the Treaty Though theoretically, the British had been granted the right of Diwani i.e. to collect the revenues of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, it actually made the British the masters of these territories. The nawab of Bengal was reduced to the position of a pensioner of the British. Clive however did not take over the administration of the country. He entrusted the function of land revenue and custom collection, civil and military criminal justice and police to the Deputy Nawab Raja Khan in Bengal and Shitab Rai in Bihar. The Deputy Nawabs were to administer really in the interest of the Company while maintaining only in name the sovereignty of the Mughal Emperor and authority of the Nawab. The British had become the real rulers of Bengal and had become the most powerful political authority in India. Thus the Battle of Baxur completed what Plassey had begun; it not only defeated the Nawab of Bengal but of the Mughal Empire as well as of the Nawab of Oudh. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Answer the following questions: Q.No 5: Who succeeded Mir Jaffar in Bengal? ...... Q.No 6: Who was Shuja- ud- Daulah? ...... Q.No 7: Who headed the English army at Baxur? ...... Q. No 8: What do you mean by the ‘right of Diwani’? ...... Q. No 9: Who by the Allahabad Treaty gained the districts of Allahabad and Kara? ...... Q. No. 10: Name the provinces which lost their Diwani right to the English by the Allahabad Treaty......

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2.5 LET US SUM UP

After going through this unit, you have learnt-  The factors responsible for the Battle of Plassey,  The internal clashes within the officers and jealousy of nearer and dearer of the Bengal ruler helped a lot to the British in their success at the Battle of Plassey.  Battle of Plassey gave a grip to the East India Company in the Indian administration.  Mir Qasim, the new ruler of Bengal however was an egoist person and he did not want to be a puppet at the hands of the British, accordingly he made alliance with his contemporary ruler of Oudh and the Mughal Emperor against the British and stood against the British at Baxur.  The combined force of Indian rulers could not succeed at the Battle of Baxur and the British through this Battle theoretically established political power in India.

2.6 FURTHER READING

1. Chopra P.N. , Puri B.N., Das M.N. Pradhan A.C. (1996) A new advanced history of India, New Delhi, Prentice Hall of India. 2. Majumdar, R.C. Ray Choudhury, H.C. Dutta , K, (1996) An Advanced History of India, New Delhi, Macmillan India Ltd. 3. Grover, B.L. Mehta, Alaka (2011) A New look at Modern Indian His- tory, New Delhi, C. Chand & Company Ltd. 4. Banerjee A.C. (1985) History of India , Calcutta, A Mukherjee & Co. Pvt. Ltd.

2.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answer to the question no.1: Farukhsiyar

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Answer to the question no.2: Siruj- ud- Daulah Answer to the question no.3: 1756 Answer to the question no.4: A rich merchant of Bengal Answer to the question no.5: Mir Qasim Answer to the question no.6: Nawab of Oudh Answer to the question no.7: Major Munro Answer to the question no.8: The right to collect revenue Answer to the question no.9: Mughal emperor Shah Alam-II Answer to the question no.10: Bengal, Bihar and Orissa

2.8 MODEL QUESTIONS

A) VERY SHORT QUESTIONS (Answer each question within 50 words) 1. Mention two reasons for the outbreak of the Battle of Plassey. 2. Who was the ruler of Bengal during the Battle of Plassey? 3. Who was Shah Alam II? 4. Name the rulers made alliance against the British on the eve of the Battle of Baxur. B) SHORT QUESTIONS (Answer each question within 150 words) 1. Briefly discuss the significance of the Battle of Baxur. 2. What is the meaning of right of Diwani? 3. Analyse the factors responsible for the defeat of Siruj-ud-Daulah at the hands of British. 4. Write a short note on the Battle of Baxur. C) LONG QUESTIONS (Answer each question within 300-500 words) 1. Discuss the Battle of Plassey in your own words. 2. Why the Battle of Baxur was more important than the Battle of Plassey? Give reasons.

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3 4 History (Block 1) UNIT 3: ROBERT CLIVE AND HIS REFORMS

UNIT STRUCTURE

3.1 Learning Objectives 3.2 Introduction 3.3 Robert Clive and His Reforms 3.4 An Estimate of Robert Clive 3.4.1 Military Settlement 3.4.2 Political Settlement 3.5 Dual Administration in Bengal 3.6 Let Us Sum Up 3.7 Further Reading 3.8 Answers to Check Your Progress 3.9 Model Questions

3.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:  Discuss the Robert Clive’s reforms for the British administration in India.  Estimate the Robert Clive’s role for the establishment of British rule in India.  Assess the dual government in Bengal and its impact.

3.2 INTRODUCTION In this unit, we are going to discuss about the Robert Clive’s reforms for the British administration in India. He established the military and political supremacy in Bengal and thus, together with the Warren Hastings; he was regarded as one of the key figures in establishment of British rule in India. In his first Governorship from 1757 to 1760, he got military triumph upon the French, Dutch and Nawab of Bengal (Siraj-Ud-Daula). In the second phase of his Governorship from 1765 to 1767, he solved the political problem

History (Block 1) 3 5 Unit 3 Robert Clive and His Reforms of Bengal, Oudh and Mughal emperor. He initiated and implemented dual administration in Bengal, which had adverse impact.

3.3 ROBERT CLIVE AND HIS REFORMS

Robert Clive was born in 29 September 1725 Styche Hall, Market, Drayton, Shropshire, England. Clive served East India Company as a clerk, then as a trader, as a soldier, a commanding Officer and finally twice Governor of Bengal. Clive arrived at Fort St George, Madras in June 1744. When in 1746 French attacked Madras, Clive escaped south to Fort St. David and joined the East India Company’s army. Commissioned as an ensign, he served until peace was declared in 1748 (First Carnatic War). In 1749, Major Stringer Lawrence, the first Commander in Chief in India (1697- 1775) appointed Clive commissary at for St. George with the rank of captain. The Council of Calcutta first elected him as a Governor in June 1758 and the home authorities of the Company legalized the election in December 1756. However, he returned to England in February 1760 and back to India in May 1765 to serve his second term as a Governor. Because of his military skills and achievements, William Pitt, the elder, the Prime Minister of England (1759-1806), describes Clive as a “heaven born general.” As a resolution of taskmaster and the boldness of a dictator, Clive took decisive action in case of administrative reforms for the British rule in India. We are now going to discuss the administrative reforms of Robert Clive through the following sub sections: Civil Reforms: During the time of Robert Clive, Company transformed into a political body, needed administrative reforms. The three revolutions of Bengal namely 1757, 1760 and 1764 enriched the governors and councilors, but demoralized the servants of the Company from top to bottom. The Company’s servants than misusing the dastak (trade permit by which trader of East India Company were exempted from paying customs or transit duties on their private trade) began to indulge private trade. In lieu of Company’s interest, servants were busy in self-advancement. Due to this,

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Clive compelled the servants of the Company to sign ‘covenants’ by prohibiting acceptance of presents. He forbade the servants of the Company from indulging in private trade and made payment of internal duties obligatory. Clive to compensate the private traders for their low salaries and loss of income sought to regularize and control of internal trade. A Society of Trade was formed in August 1765, which had monopoly of trade in salt, betelnut and tobacco. All the production and imports into Bengal was purchased by Society of Trade and sold it at selected centres through the retailers. The profits from this trade went to the superior servants of the Company on a graduated scale. The evils of private trade raised the price of ordinary commodities, which suffered the people of Bengal. Clive resorted to abolish plunder of the individual servants of the Company, but on a collective basis sought to put the plundering activities of the Company’s servants. But this scheme was disallowed by the Court of Directors in 1766. Society of Trade also abolished in January 1767 by Clive. Military Reforms: In 1763, the Court of Directors sent orders for reduction of the double bhatta (field allowances) paid to the military Officers in Bengal and bhatta should be given based on bhatta of Madras army. Based on this order, Clive with effect from 1 January 1766 issued ordered that double allowance would be paid only to Officers on service outside the frontiers of Bengal and Bihar. Here it is mentionable that double bhatta originally granted to the active service. This was continued by Mir Jaffar in times of peace also. Since then military Officers considered bhatta as a part of their salary. Thus, the allowance of Bengal army Officers was twice as high as of corresponding Officers in the Madras army. Due to the order of Clive, the whole brigades stationed at Monghyr and Allahabad organized resistance. The Brigades calculated that the possible advance of the Marathas would compel Clive to withdraw the order. Even one of them planned to assassinate Clive. Clive strongly takes action in this regard. He accepted all resignations and ordered to arrest and trial

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of all ring leaders. Clive’s resolution proved effective and the White Mutiny was suppressed. Revenue Reforms (Dual System): As Nizam-ud-daula (After Mir Jaffar’s death Nizam-Ud-Daula was made as a king of Bengal)) surrendered the Nizamat functions on conditions to the British and in August 1765 Shah Alam II (the tiller head of Mughal Empire) granted the Diwani functions in Bengal to the Company, thus path was ready for imposing dominion upon revenue administration of Bengal. But at this time Robert Clive was not ready to direct administration on revenue. To exercise of Diwani functions, Company appointed two Deputy Diwans, Muhammad Reza Khan for Bengal and Raja Shitab Roy for Bihar. In the way the whole administration Nizamat as well as Diwani was exercised through Indian agents, though the actual power rested with the Company. This system was known as the Dual system. In actual practice, Company exercised all political power and used the Indians as mere instruments for their purposes. Clive justified his dual system on the following grounds:  An open take over of power would have invited revolt from the Indian princes and thus embroil them in a war.

 Company did not have trained personnel to run the work of administration. The few servants of the Company were ignorant of Indian practices, languages and customs. So, it will fruitful for British

 It was doubtful whether the French, Dutch and other foreign powers would acknowledge the Company’s authority.

 Clive understood that Court of Directors opposed to the acquisition of territories for that might interfere with their trade and profits, as Directors were more interested in commerce and finance than territorial acquisitions.

 Clive’s open assumption was that political power could create complications in England’s diplomatic relations with France, Holland, Portugal or Sweden and might urge those powers to join in an anti- British front.

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 Clive was afraid that an open assumption of political power might lead to interference in the affairs of the Company by the British Parliament.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Q 1: Write the period of Robert Clive’s first Governorship in Bengal.

...... Q 2: Which year Society of Trade was formed? ...... Q 3: In which items monopoly was imposed through the Society of Trade? ...... Q 4: Which year Robert Clive ordered to abolish double bhatta paid to the military officers of Bengal? ...... Q 5: Who offered the Diwani of Bengal to British? ...... Q 6: Who was first appointed as a Deputy Diwan in Bengal? ......

3.4 An Estimate of Robert Clive

In the above, we learn about the reforms of Robert Clive. Now to estimate Robert Clive, let us discuss about the military and political settlement of him in detail in the following heads:

3.4.1 Military Settlement

The military settlement of Robert Clive can be discussed through the following sub-sections.

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Siege of Arcot (August 1751, Second Carnatic War): As a part of Anglo-French war in Europe, the hostilities broke out in India, in 1746. From 1746 to 1763, three Carnatic Wars took place in India. In the first Carnatic War (1746-48) on 21 September 1746, Madras town capitulated to the French. Before the peace arrived in India British had sent an expedition to Tanjore , in which Clive promoted to Lieutenant and he lead bravely to the soldiers. Later Madras was return to the British as a part of the peace agreement in 1749 (Treaty of Aix-La- Chapelle in Europe). In the second Carnatic war against the French, Robert Clive tactically captured Arcot (August 1751), the capital of Carnatic, with a few hundred soldiers (210 men). It encouraged the English army to push their schemes with greater vigor and demoralized the French and Chanda Sahib (ruler of Carnatic). Very soon, English captured Trichinipoly, defeating Chanda Sahib. Clive established Muhammad Ali (son of Nawab Anwar-Ud-Din, ruler of Carnatic before Chanda Sahib) on the throne of Carnatic. He left Madras in 1753. Winning the Battle of Plassey: Clive returned to India in July 1755 to act as Deputy Governor of Fort St. David at Cuddalore. As a head of the post he got the news of the capitulation of Calcutta (20 June 1756) by Siraj- Ud-Daula, (succeeded as the ruler of Bengal by grandfather Alibardi Khan in early 1756), directed an army towards Calcutta. Clive after reaching in 14 December 1756 bribed Manik Chand, Nawab Siraj Ud-Daula’s Officer in Charge of Calcutta and he surrendered Calcutta to the English after making a show of resistance. In February 1757, Clive signed Treaty of Alinagar with the Nawab, which restored English their former privileges of trade, granting permission to fortify Calcutta and promising compensation for the losses suffered by the English. After that, Robert Clive to defeat Siraj-Ud-Daula made a conspiracy with Mirjafar, (the Commander-in chief of the Nawab’s army), Rai Durlabh, Jagat Seth, (an influential banker of Bengal) and Omi Chand, an intermediary. By the conspiracy, it was planned to make Mirjafar as Nawab who in turn was to reward the services of the Company and pay compensation for the losses suffered by them earlier.

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After making conspiracy, Robert Clive’s army and Siraj is army reached on the battlefield of Plassey, a mango grove 22 miles south of Murshidabad. The English army consisted of 950 European infantry, 100 European artillery, 50 English sailors and 2100 Indian sepoys. Treacherous General MirJafar commanded the Nawab’s large army. Only Mir Mudan and Mohan Lal got the better of the English troops and forced Clive to withdraw his forces behind the trees. When Mir Mudan died, the troops of Siraj surrendered. Siraj-Ud-Daula captured and put to death. Perhaps the battle of Plassey was in the game of diplomacy of Clive. He played on the fears of the Jagat Seths, worked up the ambition of Mirjafar and won a victory without fighting. In general, he made an alliance with the dissatisfied nobles of the Nawab Siraj Ud-Daula and reduced the new Nawab Mirjafar to the position of a puppet ruler. The Battle of Plassey in 1757 paved the way for the conquest of India by the British and Clive became the defacto masters of Bengal. Blow to the power of Dutch: When Clive suspected that the Nawab of Bengal was in league with the Dutch, he attacked the Dutch, by land and sea. The Dutch made peace at Chinsura and agreed not to fortify their settlements in India.

3.4.2 Political Settlement

Robert Clive when recalled back to England, he returned to Bengal as its Governor in May 1765. Clive settled the problem of Bengal, Oudh and Mughal emperor politically for the Company’s interest as British defeated the combined powers of Mir Qasim- Bengal ruler, Shuja-ud-Daula the ruler of Oudh and Shah Alam II Mughal emperor in the Battle of Buxar in 1764. This was one of the most decisive battles of Indian history, which demonstrated the superiority of English arms. Likewise, the military settlement, the political settlement can we discuss through the following sub-sections: Settlement of Bengal: Clive gradually changed the power of Bengal and transferred the authority of the Government from the Nawab to the

History (Block 1) 4 1 Unit 3 Robert Clive and His Reforms

Company. After the death of father Mir Jaffar, Nizam-Ud-Daula was made king in February 1765 based on the following conditions:  The Nawab was to disband most of his army.  Nawab was to administer to Bengal through the Deputy Subedar who to be nominated and dismissed by the Company only.  Nawab was to virtually surrender the Nizamat (Judicial power) to the Company. The above conditions made the British real power of Bengal, while responsibility for administration rested on the shoulders of the Nawab of Bengal. Settlement with Oudh: Although Oudh ruler Shuja-ud-Daula was the one of the allies of Mir Qasim in the Battle of Buxar, Robert Clive did not want to annex Oudh. Rather he wanted to impose obligation upon Oudh through friendly relations, as there were threats of attack from the two strong power of the time- the Afghans under Ahmad Shah Abdali and the Marathas. With this view, Robert Clive proceeded to Oudh, met Shuja-ud-Daula, at Allahabad, and concluded with him the Treaty of Allahabad (16 August, 1765). The terms of the Treaty were as follows:  Nawab will surrender Allahabad and Kara to Emperor Shah Alam.  Nawab agrees to pay Rs 50 lakhs to Company as war indemnity.  Balwant Singh, Zamindar of Benaras were given in full possession of his estate. Apart from the regular Treaty Nawab entered into an offensive and defensive treaty with the Company. By this Treaty Nawab was bonded with a mutual term by the British. By the term, Nawab will render gratuitous military help to the Company in time of need and the Company to help the Nawab with troops for the defense of his frontier. The cost of defense will be paid by the Nawab to British. This friendly Treaty not only made the Nawab a firm friend of the Company, but also created Oudh into a buffer state. Settlement with Shah Alam II: Robert Clive’s settlement with Shah Alam II, (Mughal emperor) based on practical wisdom. As through the Treaty of Allahabad (August 1765) Shah Alam was given Allahabad and Kora from

4 2 History (Block 1) Robert Clive and His Reforms Unit 3 the Nawab of Oudh and he was taken under Company’s protection. In return, Shah Alam was compelled to issue a firman dated 12 August 1765 granting to the Company in perpetuity the Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, which legalized political gain of the Company in Bengal. Similarly, Company made an annual payment of Rs 26 lakhs to Shah Alam and providing for the expenses of the Nizamat of the said provinces, which was fixed at Rs 53 lakhs. Thus, Robert Clive was regarded as the true founder of British rule in India. He correctly understood the political situation of the time and took bold step in this regard. He got more permanent results than the Duplex, the French Advisory. His successful action against Arcot (1751) turned the scales against the French in the Carnatics. In Bengal, he won the battle of Plassey (1757) more tactically and made the King Mirjafar as a puppet king. On the base of Bengal, English conquered south India and overthrow the French, the political rivals in India. Above all, he transformed the trading East India Company into a political power. When Clive was recalled in 1765, he consolidated the gains of Company and regulated the Company’s relation with the native states on a secured basis. Percival Spears mentioned that Clive was not a founder but a harbinger of the future.

But, he was criticized by the historians. He had weakness upon money, which was even criticized by the British Parliament. He collected illegal presents, which created bad habits among his successors. By organizing Society of Trade, he encouraged general plunder in Bengal. In case of Dual Government scheme in Bengal, Clive’s paramount consideration was establishment of English power and not welfare of the people. The whole of Bengal was reduced to the position of an estate of the East India Company. Clive failed himself as a Statesman. His administrative settlement created difficulties to his successors. In case of establishment of peace and order in this distracted land, Clive cannot claim any share, which created disorder through the various expeditions in India.

History (Block 1) 4 3 Unit 3 Robert Clive and His Reforms

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Q 7: Which year first Carnatic War took place?

...... Q 8: Write the name of the capital of Carnatic...... Q 9: Between whom Treaty of Alinagar was signed? ...... Q 10: Where Plassey situatd? ......

3.5 Dual Administration in Bengal

The dual administration was introduced by the Robert Clive as a solution to the political problems of Bengal. Hereby Company acquired real power while the responsibility for administration rested on the shoulders of the Nawab of Bengal. But the Dual System proved ineffective and unworkable, which created new problems in Bengal. Through the following sub sections, the impact of dual administration in Bengal can be analyzed. Administrative Breakdown: The dual control of the Nizamat undermined its importance. As a result, the administration of law and order virtually declined and the administration of justice became futile. The Nawab had no power to enforce and provide justice and the Company refused to take any responsibility in administration. Corruption increased largely and the people of Bengal suffered lots. The Indian servants of the Company badly treated by the masters and the Governor and the members of the Council could not choose honest Indians. Decline of Agriculture: Under the Dual system economic problems increased. Land revenue was annually farmed out to the highest bidder. The tax collectors or contractors had no permanent interest in the land. The peasants suffered from over assessment, harshness of collection. Thus, they compelled to sell their children to pay rents or even flee from Bengal to jungles or joined the ranks of the robbers. At the same time, the

4 4 History (Block 1) Robert Clive and His Reforms Unit 3 famine of 1770, which was one of the most terrible famines known in human history, produced untold miseries and loss of life. Even during the famine, land revenue was collected with severity while the servants of the Company added to the misery by trading and profit in essentials articles of foodstuffs. Trade and Commercial Disruption: The agricultural depression followed the famine adversely affected trade and commerce. The Company’s servants virtually monopolized the internal trade of Bengal creating obstacles for the Indian merchants in the local markets. This was admitted by Clive himself in the House of Commons that the Company’s merchants traded not only as merchants but also as sovereigns. The famine was due to the failure of the rains its effects were heightened by the Company’s policies. Industrial Backwardness: The weaving industry of Bengal, particularly the silk and cotton industry received a setback. The Company used political power to discourage its growth to hamper rivalry with silk fabrics of England. In 1769, the Court of Directors sent orders urging Bengal authorities to encourage the manufactures of raw silk and cotton and discourage weaving of silk and cotton fabrics. Thus, the labourers were compelled to work in the Company’s factories. The Company’s agents or gomastahs oppressed the weavers by fines, imprisonments and forcing bonds from them. These gomastahs registered a large number of weavers in the books and did not permit them to work for any other. The monopoly in internal trade led the Company to force the prices on raw materials like silk and cotton to the disadvantage of the Indian producers. Drain of Wealth: As the wealth of Bengal was inexhaustible and so after the battle of Plassey Company controlled the Nawab of Bengal to drain the wealth of the Province. The Company’s authorities no longer sent money from England to purchase Indian goods. Goods were purchased through collected revenues of Bengal and sold them abroad by the British. These were known as the Company’s investment and formed a part of its profits. Besides the British Government wanted its share of the profit and demanded from the Company an annual payment of Rs 400,000. In the years 1766, 1767 and 1768 alone, nearly 5.7 million were drained from

History (Block 1) 4 5 Unit 3 Robert Clive and His Reforms

Bengal. The abuses of the Dual Government and drain of wealth led to the impoverishment and depletion of the resources of Bengal. Degradation of Morality of the People: The weaver and farmers were begun to believing that if they labored more than they would have to pay more. On the other hand, Government Officials would work no more. Weavers were also not given their best for work and society became static.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Q 11: Write one impact upon agriculture due to the dual administration in Bengal...... Q 12: Write one impact upon trade and commerce due to the dual administration in Bengal...... Q 13: Which industry received severe setback due to the dual administration in Bengal?

3.6 LET US SUM UP

After going through this unit, you have learnt that,  Robert Clive made administrative reforms for the continuation of British rule in India.  To stop the misuse of Dastak, Clive compelled the Company’s servants to sign ‘covenants’. Clive to compensate the private traders for their low salaries and loss of income formed ‘A Society of Trade’ in August 1765, later, which was abolished in January 1767 by himself.  Clive reduced the double bhatta paid to the military Officers of Bengal, which led White Mutiny. But Clive suppressed it.  Clive with small soldiers won the battle of Arcot in the second Carnatic War. In the battle of Plassey he tactically defeated the Siraj-ud-daula and became the real master of Bengal.

4 6 History (Block 1) Robert Clive and His Reforms Unit 3

 After Mir Jaffar’s death, Nizam-ud-daula was made as a dependent ruler of Bengal. By the Treaty of Allahabad (16 August 1765) Shuja –ud-daula, king of Oudh was made as a dependent state of British and became the buffer state against Afghans and Marathas. From the Shah Alam II British got the diwani of Bengal.  Dual administration had adverse impact on the administration and economy of Bengal.

3.7 FURTHER READING

1. Bipan Chandra: History of Modern India 2. Hermann Kukle; Dietmar Rothermund: A History of India 3. Philip Lawson: The East India Company: A History 4. Douglas M. Peer: India under colonial rule: 1700-1885 5. Sekhar Bandhopadhyay: From Plassey to Partition: A History of Modern India 6. B. L. Grover; S. Grover: A New Look of Modern Indian History 7. W Cooke Taylor: A popular History of British India 8. Percival Spear: The Oxford History of Modern India (1740-1975) 9. R. C. Majumdar: (Volume-I / Volume-II) British Paramountcy and Indian Renaissance

3.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Ans to Q No 1: 1757-1760 Ans to Q No 2: August 1765 Ans to Q No 3: Salt, betelnut and tobacco Ans to Q No 4: 1 January 1766 Ans to Q No 5: Shah Alam II, Mughal Emperor Ans to Q No 6: Muhammad Reza Khan Ans to Q No 7: 21 September 1746 Ans to Q No 8: Arcot Ans to Q No 9: Between Clive and Nawab Siraj-ud-daula

History (Block 1) 4 7 Unit 3 Robert Clive and His Reforms

Ans to Q No10: Plassey situated in a mango grove, 22 miles south of Murshidabad. Ans to Q No11: Although the tax collectors or contractors had no permanent interest in the land, but they over assessed, harassed the peasants for collection of revenue, which suffered. They were compelled to sell their children to pay rents or even flee from Bengal to jungles or joined the ranks of the robbers. Ans to Q No 12: The Company’s servants virtually monopolized the internal trade of Bengal, which created obstacles for the Indian merchants in the local markets. Ans to Q No 13: Silk and cotton

3.9 MODEL QUESTIONS

A) Very Short Questions (Answer each question within 50 words) Q 1: Write one justification of Clive’s dual Government in Bengal. Q 2: Who was Shah Alam II? Q 3: Write one term of the Treaty of Allahabad. Q 4: Who was Nizam-ud-daula? B) Short Questions (Answer each question in about 150 words) Q 1: Write shortly about the civil reforms of Robert Clive. Q 2: Write in short about the military reforms of Robert Clive. Q 3: Define the term of ‘dual administration’ in Bengal. Q 4: How did the Robert Clive behave against the ruler of Oudh? C) Long Questions (Answer each question in about 300-500 words) Q 1: Discuss the reforms of Robert Clive. Q 2: Critically estimate Robert Clive as the Governor of Bengal. Q 3: Analyze the impact of dual administration in Bengal.

4 8 History (Block 1) UNIT 4: WARREN HASTINGS AND HIS REFORMS (1772- 1785)

Unit Structure

4.1 Learning Objectives 4.2 Introduction 4.3 Administrative Reforms 4.3.1 Regulating Act 4.3.2 Pitt’s India Act 4.4 Revenue Reforms 4.5 Relation with Oudh 4.6 Estimate of Warren Hastings 4.7 Let Us Sum Up 4.8 Further Reading 4.9 Answers to Check Your Progress 4.10 Model Questions

4.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

After going through this unit, you will be able to-  Understand the administrative reforms introduced by Warren Hastings.  Discuss the relationship between Company and Oudh during the tenure of Warren Hastings.  Estimate Warren Hastings.

4.2 INTRODUCTION :

Warren Hastings was appointed as the Governor of Bengal in 1772. His appointment opens a new chapter in the history of the East India Company. He had to face the administrative challenges of newly acquired Bengal province. At the same time he had to rehabilitate the finance of the History (Block 1) 4 9 Unit 4 Warren Hastings and His Reforms (1772-1785)

Company and improve its commerce. In this unit we will discuss reforms he incorporated to stabilise the Company administration in India.

4.3 ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS

As the Dual administration established by Clive was not working up to the mark and therefore the Court of Directors decided to end the Dual System and in 1772 required the President and Council to ‘stand forth as the Diwan’ and take over charge for the entire care and management of the revenues of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. Warren Hastings dismissed the two Deputy Diwans, Mohammad Reja Khan and Raja Shitab Rai. The Governor and the Council formed the Board of ‘Revenue and the Company appointed its officers called Collectors to manage revenue affairs. The treasury was removed from Murshidabad to Calcutta. Thus the entire internal administration was transferred to the servants of the Company and the Nawab deprived of every share in the government. However, the Nawab still lived in a state of sovereignty. Hastings also reorganised the household of the Nawab of Bengal and appointed Munny Begum, the widow of Mir Jaffar, as the guardian of the minor Nawab Mubarak-ud-daula. The allowance of the Nawab was reduced from 32 1akhs to 16 lakhs. Further, Hastings redefined relations with the Emperor. He stopped the payment of 26 Lakhs of rupees annually paid to Emperor Shah Alam since 1765. The districts of Allahabad and Kora assigned to the Emperor by Clive in 1765 were also taken back and sold to the Nawab of Oudh for 50 lakhs of rupees. Though the motivating force was economy, the pica put forward was that the Emperor had accepted the protection of the Marathas. Thus Hastings tried to seize all powers from Nawab to the Company. The two major administrative reforms initiated during the period of Hastings by the British government were the Regulating Act of 1773 and the Pitt’s India Act of 1784. Now we will discuss these acts in detail.

5 0 History (Block 1) Warren Hastings and His Reforms (1772-1785) Unit 4 4.3.1 The Regulating Act, 1773 In 1773, the British Parliament passed the Regulating Act which made changes in the constitution of the Company and also in the government of its territories. The Company had remained not only a trading body but it had also acquired large possessions in India and had become a political power. So the British government found it necessary to control its administration. The acquisition of Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa by the Company led to the spread of chaos and confusion in these territories. The servants of the Company amassed huge wealth by private trade and corrupt practices. The Company paid huge amount of money to the British government but in 1765 the financial position of the Company had deteriorated to such an extent that the Company had to ask for loan from its government. This gave the British Parliament an opportunity to step in and regulate the affairs of Company in India by passing the Regulating Act in 1773. The main provisions of the Regulating Act were as under-  The Governor of Bengal was henceforth to be known as the Governor General of Bengal and warren Hastings was the first Governor Gen- eral of Bengal.  The Act provided for the formation of a council of four members to assist the Governor General.  In case of differences of opinion in the council, the decision of majority of the present members was to prevail.  The presidencies of Bombay and Madras were subordinate to the Governor General.  The numbers of members of Court of Directors was raised to 24 and were to be elected for four years.  The Board of Directors was required to lay before the Secretary of State everything dealing with civil and military administration of the Company.  The Act sought to establish a Supreme Court at Calcutta.  The Company’s servants were prohibited from receiving bribes, presents etc. from the native princes and people. History (Block 1) 5 1 Unit 4 Warren Hastings and His Reforms (1772-1785)

Significances of the Regulating Act The Regulating Act despite all its shortcomings was a measure of great constitutional significances. It was the first in the series of Acts of the British Parliament that altered the structure of the British government in India. The Act recognised the fact that the East India Company was not merely a trading body. In fact it had emerged as a territorial power and had assumed the responsibility for the administration of a vast country. It aimed at improving the tone of the Company’s administration through the control of British Parliament. The Governor General and the Council were required to be obedient to the Court of Directors.

4.3.2 The Pitt’s India Act of 1784

The name of the The Regulating Act proved to be failure as it had many shortcomings. Act come from the The Governor General was powerless in dealing with his own Council. He then British Prime was not given the power of veto and could be over-ruled by a majority of his minister Pitt the Council. The Governor General had no effective control over the internal Younger policies of the Governors of Bombay and Madras. Again after the loss of British colonies in America in 1783, the British Government feared that it might lose the Indian possessions. So the British government felt the necessity of putting some more checks on the powers of the East India Company. The main provisions of the Pitt’s India Act 1784 were as follows-  The Act established a Board of Control comprising six members out of which two were to be British Cabinet minister.  The Board of Control was to direct, superintend and control all civil and military affairs of the Company.  The Act greatly increased the powers of the Governor General. He had now complete control over all the military and civil administration of the Company in India.  The presidencies of Madras and Bombay were also subordinated to the control of the Governor General and his Council.  The Directors of the Company were empowered to appoint all officers of the Company, but the British Crown had the right to recall or remove of them. 5 2 History (Block 1) Warren Hastings and His Reforms (1772-1785) Unit 4

Significances of the Act : The Pitt’s India Act was a great landmark in the constitutional history of India.  The Act practically placed the Company and its officers under the control of the British Parliament.  The Act considerably strengthened the position of the Governor General in his relations with the presidencies. It specifically laid down that disobedience on the part of the Presidencies would result in their suspension.  The Act introduced a new principle in the Company’s relations with the native princes. The Company was not to interfere in the affairs of the native states for the extension of its dominions in India.  The Act established the general framework in which the Government of India was carried on till 1857. Despite these merits of the Act, there were some defects in it. The Act established two centres of power namely, the Board of Control and the Board of Directors. There were possibilities of conflicts between these two authorities. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Answer the following questions: Q. No 1: In which year the Regulating Act was

passed in the British Parliament?

...... Q. No 2: The term of a member of the Court of Directors was...... years. (Fill in the blank)

...... Q. No 3: The...... Act sought to establish a supreme court at Calcutta. (Fill in the blank)

...... Q. No 4: Mention any one provisions of the Pitt’s India Act 1784.

......

History (Block 1) 5 3 Unit 4 Warren Hastings and His Reforms (1772-1785) 4.4 Revenue Reforms

The system of land revenue administration initiated by the Company in the initial stage was nothing more than on experimental basis. They were unable to initiate a proper revenue system. In order to work out a satisfactory system of land revenue administration, Warren Hastings also resorted to the devise of experimentation and tried to evolve a system by the proverbial method of trial and error. In 1772 Warren Hastings made a five-year settlement of land revenue by the crude method of farming out estates to the highest bidder. Acting on the presumption that the zamindars were mere tax-gatherers with no proprietary rights, in the settlement of 1772 no preference was given to them and in fact in certain cases they were actually discouraged from bidding. In 1773 changes were made in the machinery of collection and named the system as quinquennial settlement. The Collectors who had been found to be corrupt and indulged in private trade were replaced by Indian Diwans in the districts. Six Provincial Councils were set up to supervise the work of Indian Diwans. The Overall charge rested with the Committee of Revenue at Calcutta. The trend of Hastings’ Mind was towards centralization and he desired to ultimately centralise all functions into the hands of the committee at Calcutta. This settlement was a miserable failure and the peasants suffered greatly. Most for the revenue- farmers were mere speculators, had no permanent interest in the land and therefore tried to extort the maximum sum from the cultivators by way of land revenue. The officers of the East India Company themselves participated in the bidding through their servants or banias. It had been observed that even Warren Hastings himself was not free from this greed, e.g. there is a case of a grant registered in the name of a ten-year old son of Kuntu Baboo, an Indian servant of W’arren Hastings. Further, the land had been over-assessed and the state’s demand fixed very high. Added to it was the harshness in tile method of collection.

5 4 History (Block 1) Warren Hastings and His Reforms (1772-1785) Unit 4

The result was that many revenue contractors fell in heavy arrears, many had to be arrested for default and the ryot deserted the land. After the expiry of the quinquennial settlement in 1776, Warren Hastings reverted to the system of annual settlement on the basis of open auction to the highest bidder. Preference was given to the zamindars in making the settlement. Some changes were made in the machinery of collection in 1781. The Provincial Councils were abolished. The Collectors were re-appointed in the districts but were to have no power in the settlement of revenue. The entire work of supervision was concentrated in the hands of the Committee of Revenue at Calcutta. We may say that Warren Hastings failed to devise a satisfactory system of land revenue settlement. His bias towards centralisation worked against an effective system of land revenue collection or acquisition of detailed knowledge regarding revenue matters. 4.5 Relations with Oudh : Clive had sought to create Oudh as buffer state for the territories of the Company. Every year the Nawab had asked for the help of the Company’s troops without payment of extra expenses which meant heavy loss of the Company. In short, the relations with the Nawab were very unsatisfactory and he was looked upon with suspicion. Warren Hastings felt the clear need of re-defining relations with the Nawab of Oudh or alternatively the latter might join the Marathas for the partition of Rohilkhand or might even succumb to a Maratha-Rohilla combination. Hastings personally proceeded to Banaras and concluded the Treaty of Banaras (1773) with the Nawab. By this treaty, Allahabad was handed over to the Nawab for Rs. 50 lakhs. The Nawab agreed to increase the subsidy of the Company’s troops from Rs. 30,000 a month to Rs. 2, 10,000 a month for one brigade when called for service. Further, a secret clause provided that in case the Nawab asked for the help of the Company’s troops against the Rohillas he would pay a further sum of Rs. 40 lakhs to the Company. Warren Hastings defended the Treaty of Banaras before the Council thus— discontinuance of the Emperor’s allowance, a safe frontier, a compact state of Oudh financial gain and the alliance between the Marathas and the Nawab of Oudh rendered impossible.

History (Block 1) 5 5 Unit 4 Warren Hastings and His Reforms (1772-1785) 4.6 Estimate of Warren Hastings

Warren Hastings is a very controversial figure in modern Indian history. He raped, despoiled and conquered India and showed the British aggressive side to India. Macaulay talked of his hard heart and lax principles when he wrote, “The rules of justice, the sentiments of humanity, the plighted faith of treaties were in his view as nothing when opposed to the immediate interests of the state. His only steadfast principle was that Might is Right. He left behind a dark trail of misery, desolation and famines in Bengal, Banaras and Oudh”. Philip Francis reported that once a flourishing and rich India was reduced to ‘beggary and ruin’. However, his contribution to the cause of British dominion was really great. At a time when the overseas possessions of Great Britain witnessed rebellion, defeat or humiliation, in India the British position remained unharmed. Warren Hastings saved the Company’s position in the face of great difficulties. In this field of administrative reforms he laid the foundations where the superstructure was raised by Cornwallis.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Answer the following questions: Q. No 5: Who introduced the quinquennial settlement of revenue collection under the Company rule? ...... Q. No 6: Between whom the Treaty of Banaras was concluded? ...... Q. No 7: Provincial Councils were set up by Warren Hastings to look after Indian Diwans. ( State true or false) ......

4.7 Let Us Sum Up

After going through this unit, you have learnt,  Various administrative measures adopted by Warren Hastings to stabilise the Company’s rule in India.

5 6 History (Block 1) Warren Hastings and His Reforms (1772-1785) Unit 4

 Provisions of the Regulating Act, 1773 in order to regulate the administrative and military works of the Company in India.  Provisions of the Pitt’s India Act, 1784 to practically placed the Company and its officers under the control of the British Parliament.  The revenue reform measures initiated by Hastings to financially stabilise the Company.  The relation with Oudh during his period.

4.8 Further Reading

4.9 Answers to Check Your Progress

Answer to the question no 1: In 1773 Answer to the question no 2: Four Years Answer to the question no 3: The Regulating Act 1773 Answer to the question no 4: The Act established a Board of Control comprising six members out of which two were to be British Cabinet minister. Answer to the question no 5: Warren Hastings Answer to the question no 6: Between English East India Company and Nawab of Oudh History (Block 1) 5 7 Unit 4 Warren Hastings and His Reforms (1772-1785)

Answer to the question no 7: True

4.10 Model Questions

A) Very Short Questions (Answer each question within 50 words) Q.1: Why did the British Parliament pass the Regulating Act 1773? Q.2: Who was the first Governor General of Bengal? Q.3: Who was Munni Begum? Q.4: The number of members of the Court of Directors was raised to 23/ 19/24 by the Regulating Act 1773. (Find out the correct answer) B) Short Questions (Answer each question within 150 words) Q.1: How did Warren Hastings reorganise the administration of Bengal? Q.2: Discuss the provisions of the Pitt’s India Act 1784 Q.3: Write a short note on the provisions of the Regulating Act 1773. B) Long Questions (Answer each question within 300-500 words) Q. 1: Evaluate the Regulating Act of 1773 in your own words. Q. 2: Discuss the significances of the Pitt’s India Act 1784.

*******

5 8 History (Block 1) UNIT 5: LORD CORNAWALLIS AND HIS REFORMS (1786-1793)

Unit Structure 5.1 Learning Objectives 5.2 Introduction 5.3 Judicial Reforms 5.3.1 Cornwallis’s Code 5.3.2 Reform of Criminal Law 5.4 Police Reforms 5.5 Revenue Reforms 5.5.1 Introduction of Permanent Settlement 5.5.2 Merits and Demerits of Permanent Settlement 5.6 Let Us Sum Up 5.7 Further Reading 5.8 Answers to Check Your Progress 5.9 Model Questions

5.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

After going through this unit, you will be able to-  Understand the judicial reforms of Cornwallis,  Know the police reforms initiated by Cornwallis,  Analyse the revenue reforms of Cornwallis.

5.2 INTRODUCTION

Cornwallis was appointed to carry out the policy of peace outlined in Pitt’s India Act and to reorganise the administrative system in India. He was especially charged with the duty of finding out a satisfactory solution of the land revenue problems, establishing efficient judicial machinery and of reorganising the other administrative set ups. In this unit we shall discuss the reform measures of Cornwallis to stabilise the Company administration in India. History (Block 1) 5 9 Unit 5 Lord Cornawallis and His Reforms (1786-1793) 5.3 JUDICIAL REFORMS

The first attempt of Cornwallis was towards concentration of authority in the district in the hands of the Collector. This trend was also in line with the instructions of the Court of Directors who had enjoined economy and simplification. In 1787 the Collectors in-charge of the districts were made judges of Diwani Adalats, they were given more magisterial powers and empowered to try criminal cases with certain limits. Regarding criminal administration also further changes were made during 1790 -92. The District Faujdari Adalats presided over by Indian Judges were abolished and in place of these four circuit courts- three for Bengal and one for Bihar, were set up. These circuit courts were presided over by European covenanted servants who decided cases with the help of Qazis and Muftis. These courts toured the districts twice a year and tried persons committed by the city magistrates. Further, the Sadr Nizamat Adalat at Murshidabad so far presided by a Mohammedan judge was replaced by a similar court set up at Calcutta comprising the Governor-General and members of the Supreme Council assisted by the Chief Qazi and two Muftis.

5.3.1 Cornwallis’ Code

From the above discussion we have noticed that Cornwallis took several initiatives for judicial reforms. His judicial reforms took the final shape by 1793 and were embodied in the famous Cornwallis Code. The new reforms were based on the principle of separation of powers. Under the influence of the eighteenth century French philosophers, Cornwallis sought to separate the revenue administration from the administration of justice. The Collector was the head of revenue department in a district and also enjoyed extensive judicial and magisterial powers. Cornwallis believed that concentration of all powers in the hands of the Collector in the district retarded the improvement of the country. How could the Collector acting as a judge of the Diwani Adalat redress the wrongs done by him as collector

6 0 History (Block 1) Lord Cornawallis and His Reforms (1786-1793) Unit 5 or assessor of revenue? Thus neither the landlords nor the cultivators could regard the Collector as an impartial judge in revenue cases. The Cornwallis Code divested the Collector of all judicial and magisterial powers and left him with the duty of administration of revenue. A new class of officer called the District Judge was created to preside over the District Civil Court. The District Judge was also given magisterial and police functions. A gradation of civil courts was set up. The distinction between revenue and civil cases was abolished and the new Diwani Courts were competent to try all civil cases. At the lowest level of the ladder were the Munsiffs’ Courts presided over by Indian officers and competent to decide cases involving disputes up to 50 rupees. Next came the courts of Registrars presided over by European officers which tried cases UP to 200 rupees. Appeals from both these courts lay to the District of City Courts. District Judges presided over District Courts and decided civil suits with the assistance of Indians well-versed in law. Above the District Courts were the four Provincial Courts of Appeal at Calcutta, Murshidabad, Dacca and Patna. These courts were also to supervise the working of District Courts and on the basis of their report the Sadr Diwani Adalat could suspend the District Judges. In certain cases it had original jurisdiction also. These courts presided over by English Judges heard appeals in suits involving disputes up to 1,000 rupees. Next in order of gradation came the Sadr Diwani Adalat at Calcutta presided over by the Governor-General and his Council which heard appeals from Provincial Courts in cases involving over 1,000 rupees. Appeals lay to the King-in-Council in disputes involving more than £ 5,000. Regulations also laid down the procedure to be followed in these courts and also the qualifications of Indian officers attached to these courts. The Mohammedan law was administered in respect to Muslims and Hindu law in respect to Hindus. Even the European subjects in the districts were made amenable to the jurisdiction of the local civil courts. Europeans intending to reside in the districts away from Calcutta were not given licences until they agreed to submit themselves to the jurisdiction of the district civil courts. Further, Government servants were made answerable before the civil courts for

History (Block 1) 6 1 Unit 5 Lord Cornawallis and His Reforms (1786-1793)

the acts done by them in their official capacity. Thus Cornwallis proclaimed the principle of Sovereignty of Law in India. Important changes were introduced in the field of criminal administration. The District Faujdari Adalats presided over by Indian officers were abolished. The District Judge was given magisterial powers to order the arrest of criminals and disturbers of peace. The petty cases were decided by the District Judge himself while for serious offences lie-committed the culprits to the four circuit courts. The provincial circuit courts of appeal which heard appeals in civil cases also worked as criminal circuit courts. The judges of these circuit courts toured their divisions twice a year and decided criminal cases with the assistance of Indian Qazis and Muftis. These courts could pass sentences of death or life imprisonment subject to the confirmation of the Sadr Nizamat Adalat which was the highest court of appeal in criminal cases. The Governor-General enjoyed the general power of pardon or commutation of punishment.

5.3.2 Reform of Criminal Law

If Warren Hastings had asserted the right of the Company’s government to interfere with the administration of law, Cornwallis maintained that the Company had the right to reform the criminal law itself. The Mohammedans take their criminal law to be divinely ordained. During 1790-93 Cornwallis introduced certain changes in the criminal law which were regularised by a Parliamentary Act of 1797. In December 1790 a rule was framed for the guidance of Mohammedan law officers that in all trials of murder they were to be guided by the intention of the murderer either evident or fairly inferable and not by the manner or instrument of perpetration. Further, in cases of murder, the will of the heir or kindred of the deceased were not to be allowed to operate in the grant of pardon or in the demand of compensation money as a price of blood. Again, the usual punishment of amputation of limbs of body was replaced by temporary hard labour or fine and imprisonment according to circumstances of the case. Regulation IX of 1793 amended the law of evidence by providing that

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‘the religious persuasions of witnesses shall not be considered as a bar to the conviction or condemnation of a prisoner’. Thus non-Muslims could give testimony against Muslims in criminal cases-not permitted so far according to the Muslim law of evidence.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Answer the following questions: Q. No 1: Which was the highest court of appeal in criminal cases? ...... Q. No 2: Who presided over the District Faujdari Adalats? ...... Q. No 3: Where Provincial Courts of Appeal was situated? ......

5.4 POLICE REFORM

To supplement and implement the judicial reforms, important changes were introduced in the police administration. In Calcutta itself a state of near lawlessness prevailed and ruffians and bad characters went unpunished. In many streets people passed after sunset only at the peril of their lives. ‘The outskirts of Calcutta had more the appearance of a jungle than an inhabited town,’ remarked a Police Superintendent. Even the Police Superintendents were corrupt. The Regulation of 1791 defined the powers of the Police Superintendent. To induce the police officials to act honestly and with promptitude Cornwallis raised the salaries of all police officers and offered good rewards for the discovery and arrests of burglars and murderers.

5.5 REVENUE REFORMS

Cornwallis reorganised the Revenue Department. In 1787 the province of Bengal was divided into fiscal areas and each placed under a

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Collector. The number of Collectorships was reduced from 36 to 23. The old Committee of Revenue was renamed as the Board of Revenue and charged with the duty of superintending the work of the Collectors. Till the year 1790 the old system of annual settlements was continued. In 1790 Cornwallis with the approval of the Court of Directors decided to recognise the zamindars as the owners of land subject to the annual payment of land revenue to the state. A ten-year settlement was made with the zamindars in 1790 on the basis of 89% of the rental. In 1973 the decennial settlement was declared permanent and perpetual.

5.5.1 Introduction of Permanent Settlement in Bengal, 1973

At the time of his appointment Cornwallis was especially directed to devise a satisfactory solution of the land revenue system in Bengal which should ensure the Company’s interest as well of the cultivators. The first essential for a satisfactory approach to the problem was a thorough enquiry into the rents prevalent in Bengal. Prolonged discussion followed in which the leading part was taken by Sir John Shore, the President of the Board of Revenue, Mr. James Grant, the Record Keeper and the Governor-General himself. The discussion centred round three vital questions: With whom was the settlement to be made — the zamindars or the actual tillers of the soil? What would be the state’s share in the produce of land? Should the settlement be for a term of years or permanent? After a prolong discussion the zamindars were recognised owners of land and a ten years’ settlement was made with them in 1790. In 1793 the decennial settlement was declared permanent and the zamindars and their legitimate successors were allowed to hold their estates at that very assessed rate for ever. The state demand was fixed at 80% of the rental, leaving 11% with the zamindars as their share for their trouble and responsibility. Advantages of the Settlement. Contemporary opinion claimed a number of advantages for the Permanent Settlement:

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Financially, the Permanent Settlement secured a fixed and stable income for the state and the state could depend upon that income, monsoons or no monsoons. Further, it saved the Government the expenses that had to be spent in making periodical assessments and settlements. Economically, it was claimed that the Permanent Settlements would encourage agricultural enterprise and prosperity, waste land would be reclaimed and the soil under cultivation would be improved; the zamindars would introduce new methods of cultivation like better rotation of crops, use of manure etc. Thus the Settlement would create conditions for the development of the fullest power of the soil. This in turn would create a contented and resourceful peasantry. Politically, Cornwallis expected that the Permanent Settlement should create a class of loyal zamindars who would be prepared to defend the Company at all costs because their rights were guaranteed by the Company. Thus the Permanent Settlement secured for the government the political support of an influential class in the same way as the Bank of England had for William III after 1694. The zamindars of Bengal stood loyal during the great rebellion of 1857. Seton Karr commented that the “political benefits of the settlement balance its economic defects” Socially, the hope was expressed that the zamindars would act as the natural leaders of the ryot and show their public spirit in helping the spread of education and other charitable activities. Lastly, the Permanent Settlement of Bengal set free the ablest servants of the company for judicial services. Further, it avoided the evils normally associated with the temporary settlements, the harassment of the cultivator, the tendency on the part of the cultivator to leave the land to deteriorate towards the end of the term to get a low assessment etc. Disadvantages: Whatever little economic or political purposes the Settlement might have served during its first few years, it soon turned into an engine of exploitation and oppression. It created “feudalism at the top and serfdom at the bottom”. Many of the advantages claimed proved to be illusory.

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Financially, the state has proved to be a great loser in the long run. The advantages of a fixed and stable income were secured at the great sacrifice of any prospective share in the increase of revenue from land. Even when new areas of land were brought under cultivation and the rents of the land already under cultivation had been increased manifold, the state could not claim it legitimate share in the increase. The state demand fixed in 1793 remained almost the same even in 1954. The Permanent Settlement retarded the economic progress of Bengal. Most of the landlords did not take any interest in the improvements of the land but were merely interested in extracting the maximum possible rent from the ryot The cultivator, being under the constant fear of losing the land, had no incentive to improve the land. The zamindars did not live on the estates, but away in the cities where they wasted their time and money in luxury. Thus, the zamindars became a sort of ‘distant suction pumps’ sucking the wealth of the rural areas and wasting it in the cities. Besides, a host of intermediaries grew up between the state and the actual cultivator. This process of sub-infeudation sometime reached ridiculous proportions, there being as many as 50 intermediaries. All the intermediaries looked to their profits and the ryot was reduced to the position of a pauper. In this context it may be worthwhile to quote the view of Carver who wrote: “Next to war, famine and pestilence, the worst thing that can happen to a rural community is absentee landlordism”. Politically, the Permanent Settlement did fit in the game of the Company and the zamindars along with other vested interests became the favourite children of Imperialism However, the British Administration gained the loyalty of the few at the cost of the alienation of the masses. Besides, the system divided rural society into two hostile classes, namely, the zamindars and the tenants. Socially, the Permanent Settlement stands condemned. By recognising the absolute right of ownership of the zamindars the Company sacrificed the interests of the peasants whether of property or occupancy. In a way the peasants suffered from a double injustice, first by surrendering

6 6 History (Block 1) Lord Cornawallis and His Reforms (1786-1793) Unit 5 their property rights and secondly by being entirely left at the mercy of the zamindars that rack-rented them. True, the Government attempted rectification and passed tenancy legislation (Bengal Rent Acts, of 1859 and 1885) to protect the interests of the ryot, but the zamindars evaded the protective legislation. The growth of population resulting in an excessive pressure on land played into the hands of the zamindars and they not infrequently ejected the ryot. In fact, the peasant was reduced to the position of a serf.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Answer the following questions: Q. No. 4: In which year the Permanent Settlement was introduced in Bengal? ...... Q. No. 5: Who introduced the Permanent Settlement? ...... Q. No. 6: Permanent Settlement retarded/encourage economic progress of Bengal. (Choose the correct one) ......

5.6 LET US SUM UP:

After going through this unit, you have learnt –  The reforms initiated by Cornwallis in the field of judicial reforms in the Colonial India.  The police reforms introduced by Cornwallis to improve the police system.  The revenue reforms of Cornwallis, especially the Permanent Settlement.

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5.7 FURTHER READING

5.8 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answer to the question no 1: Indian Judges Answer to the question no 2: At Calcutta Answer to the question no 3: Sadr Nizamat Adalat Answer to the question no 4:1793 Answer to the question no 5: Lord Cornwallis Answer to the question no 6: Reterded

5.9 MODEL QUESTIONS

A) VERY SHORT QUESTIONS( Answer each question within 50 words) Q. No 1: Who were Qazis and Muftis? Q. No 2: Cornwallis raised the salaries of the police personals to encourage them. (State true or false) Q. No 3: Mention one social impact of the Permanent Settlement.

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Q. No 4: Why did Permanent Settlement introduce in Bengal? B) SHORT QUESTIONS (Answer each question within 150 words) Q. No 1: Write a short note on Cornwallis police reforms. Q. No 2: Briefly discuss the criminal law reform programmes introduced by Cornwallis Q. No 3: Write a short note on judicial reforms of Cornwallis. C) LONG QUESTIONS (Answer each questions 300-500 words) Q. No 1: Discuss the merits and demerits of Permanent Settlement. Q. No 2: Analyse Cornwallis’s Code.

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