ACAS Bulletin, No. 77, Summer 2007
Introduction: North Africa and the Horn in the Vortex of the US War on Terror
Jesse Benjamin and Fouzi Slisli, Co-Editors
This issue started as an attempt to explore the Bulletin, AFRICOM is now upon us, and with impacts of the US-declared global ‘War on it a growing US presence in Africa, closer ties Terror’ on the region of North Africa. We with oil and natural gas rich nations, were joined at ACAS for this purpose by Fouzi burgeoning US naval and military buildup and Slisli as a special guest co-editor who brought spending. As of October 2007, the global US considerable expertise of the region. We military operation officially declares a new wanted to be clear that it was a US conceived region to add to its existing five “commands,” war on terror, albeit with many ally and proxy a sixth region specific to Africa. Until now, nations drawn in, and we intended to focus on the Pentagon divided the Western Hemisphere North Africa as a region because of its into USNORTHCOM and USSOUTHCOM, connections to the Arab and Islamic worlds and the rest of the world into the US European that have been so much of the focus of this Command [EUCOM], US Central Command military engagement. The boundaries of North [CENTCOM], and the US Pacific Command Africa versus the Middle East, and between [PACOM]. Most of Africa was under North and Southern Africa, are themselves EUCOM, northeast Africa from Egypt to problematic and used here only loosely. Kenya was under CENTCOM, as though it Boundary issues are in fact indicative of were part of the extended Middle East, and colonial legacies that are themselves central to Madagascar, the Seychelles and portions of the the story told in this issue. It is in this context African Indian Ocean coasts were under that we received several interesting pieces on PACOM. With the new AFRICOM, or Somalia and the Horn of Africa, which are of African Command, the United States has course not in North Africa explicitly, but we restructured Africa as a region of vital US decided to include them here because of the strategic significance unto itself, with the parallel dynamics they are experiencing in the entire continent except for Egypt, which new post-9/11 US global order. As such, this remains in CENTCOM, under this new issue begins with two essays on Algeria, then command structure. moves to an update on Western Sahara and three pieces reflecting on Moroccan politics in Our focus in this issue on North Africa and the the current context, and concludes with three Horn therefore highlights aspects of a more essays on Somalia and the greater Horn of general trend in Africa. It is no accident that Africa. In each regional context, the new this new structure was ordered by Donald global milieu of post-Iraq invasion US global Rumsfeld while he was still Secretary of State, military projection is being felt in important and it reflects his neoconservative vision of new ways, while imperial politics as usual extending US hegemony into the future based continues unabated, if generally intensifying. on economic and political control of strategic fuel and geopolitical resources. New military In fact, the entire African continent is budgets, bureaucracies and bases will simply undergoing a renewed and newly restructured increase the imperial network of client and ally US military and political presence in the wake states the US has cultivated in Africa since the of the expanding Middle East conflict and the Second World War. From an oil point of view, increasingly desperate search for petroleum the Sudan/Chad nexus, and the Gulf of Guinea and other energy resources. As Daniel reaching to Angola in the south will be the key Volman warned in previous issue of the arenas of concentration, but the apparitional
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War on Terror provides cover for almost infinite engagements, arms deals, base The after-effects of these policies in Algeria building, and interventions throughout and via are recounted in a short review, in the form of the continent. Africom starts out under the a press release, by Selima Mellah and François auspices of the European Command, and will Gèze of Algeria Watch, which was founded go independent in about a year, when it is ten years ago to monitor human rights issues in more fully established. So it is in a FAQ on the wake of state-sponsored violence against the EUCOM website that we see the question, the population. Reprinted here with special “Is this an effort by the United States to gain permission, ACAS Bulletin readers get to peer access to natural resources (e.g. petroleum)?” into the human rights struggle 15 years into the As the saying goes, “If you have to ask…” Generals coup d'Etat, which the authors here The pat official answer on the website follows compare to post-Allende Chile and the immediately, “No. Africa is growing in Argentina of Videla with the difference that military, strategic and economic importance in the Algerian Generals, supported by France global affairs. We are seeking more effective and other intelligence agencies, stayed in the ways to prevent and respond to humanitarian shadows as they wages a campaign of terror on crises, improve cooperative efforts to stem civil society. On the one hand, their grim transnational terrorism and sustain enduring appraisal foreshadows what we can expect in a efforts that contribute to African unity and decade or more in Iraq and surrounding areas, bolster security on the continent.” and on the other, explains the context in which the US currently finds such a willing ally in its The issue starts with Fouzi Slisli’s penetrating regional war on terror in the current Algerian analysis of Algeria as a model for regime. The question remains, at what pace do contemporary US politics and military movements of mothers and children and other intervention in the Middle East. He thus survivors of the disappeared, in the Latin establishes Northern Africa as both the American tradition, emerge from the rubble? progenitor and the recipient of military calculations in the critical theater of the greater Turning to Morocco, we find another staunch Persian Gulf region. Parallel with the incisive US-ally in the war on terror. We begin our historical analysis of Mahmood Mamdani, in discussion with Western Sahara, where his recent Good Muslims, Bad Muslims,1 Slisli Morocco has been acting as the regional and identifies current US strategy in Iraq [and imperially-sanctioned power against a staunch Afghanistan] as based on the Algerian model, national Sahrawi resistance that has been in which Islamic factions were used as proxies compared to the Israel/Palestine conflict by in a terrible civil war. The US is now arming numerous observers and participants alike. allies to fight Islamic rivals in a dizzying array Jacob Mundy, co-author of a forthcoming book of countries throughout the Middle East and length discussion on the topic, provides a northern Africa, in what Slisli tells us is being concise history of the conflict before called the ‘redirection.’ Perhaps the only non- explaining the manner in which Morocco has US exponent of this philosophy of modern shifted its imperial discourse from the rhetoric divide and conquer is Quaddafi, who used it to of the Cold War to that of 9/11 and the specter set some of the current Darfur conflict in of “terrorism.” Polisario rebels have been motion, but everywhere else, from Afghanistan branded as allies of Algeria, al-Qaeda, and and Iraq, to Algeria, Morocco and Somalia, the even Castro. And now, with Morocco an even US fingerprint is in direct evidence. What is closer ally in US global aspirations under the revealed is a kind of revere blowback in which umbrella of its war on whatever and whomever the Algerian model is imported to Iraq, it deems to be terrorist, the long stalled peace Afghanistan, Palestine and other parts of the negotiations in this refugee-laden conflict are Middle East, and then flow back into Africa at a low point – further bolstering the again as this war on terror rages increasingly inevitable comparisons with Palestine. out of control.
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James Sater, writing from Morocco, explains such accusations make possible military that the stated US policy of fighting the global interventions and other gross circumventions spread of Islamic terrorism by supporting of international and local laws. As recounted democracy, while not always being fully and historicized in the review essay by truthful, is ironically creating conditions in Immanuel Wallerstein and reprinted here next, Morocco where civil society grows even the US went about its post-“Blackhawk Down” stronger and gains a foothold in which to invasion of Somalia via its newish regional challenge both the US and that of its ally, the proxy, Ethiopia. This was accomplished with Moroccan state. Mohammed Hirchi writes for covert US air support, Ethiopian ground us about situation within national politics of a troops, a newly installed Somali leader openly moderate Islamic group, the Islamic Party of professing civilian carpet bombing, and secret Justice and Development [PJD]. He too shows detention and torture prisons in the invading that, if US sponsored Moroccan state neighbor state. As a result, one more Islamic nationalism and its authoritarian policies organization which had stepped into the void continue unabated, this will ironically lend of the state to provide security and services for support within civil society for alternative citizens has been removed or displaced from regimes, such as that embodied by the PJD. power, without the US and its allies This could also be the case with less moderate considering the consequences of such action. Islamic movements in society, precisely As a result, much as in Iraq, Palestine and because of the repression they experience in Algeria before them, we are seeing the context of rhetorical openness and “unexpected” popular resistance, and a return democracy – this is the case of Adl wal Ihssan, to lawlessness and civil war under the name of the Justice and Spirituality Association, which democracy. Yet, Western media fail to Hirchi touches on and which Fouzi Slisli question any such distant unilateral and provides even greater insight into. Because of externally determined “regime changes” when its largely outlawed status and with its founder they are done under the rubric of the war on in and out of prison, Slisli’s interview this terror. Finally, Dustin Dehez provides a close summer with its current leader, Nadia Yassine reading of events in Somalia from a is groundbreaking. We are privileged to carry perspective that the West has too long his short synopsis here, as it casts light onto a abandoned Somalis to the violence of small movement that in numerous ways defies the arms and a failed state. Whereas previous Orientalist tendencies of reduction when it authors have suggested various flaws in the US comes to Islamic movements in the context of war on terror, Dehez calls the US and its allies the US war on terror. Yassine is a woman at in the war on terror to abide by their own the head of an Islamic movement, she is commitments and sees in this hope for a more outspoken against government policies, but stable future in Somalia and the region. secular in her outlook of the state, and critical Certainly, this will remain the subject of of current electoral politics in Morocco, as she debate for our readers and the broader world is also of Wahabism as a movement in general. community for some time to come. Our goal Seen from these various vantage points, in this issue was to provide readers with Morocco is a nation-state very much in the information and analysis to assist in vortex of the US global war on terror, and very deciphering important developments and in much at the crossroads. bringing this perspective to wider audiences in their/our daily lives and work. Finally, we turn to Somalia, and its neighbor Ethiopia, for our final three essays. We start As we turn to the analyses of our contributors, with Ramle Bile’s analysis of the US campaign let us leave you with the questions presciently against the Union of Islamic Courts, which it raised about terrorism by Eqbal Ahmad in the deemed to be linked to al-Qaeda, Hamas period prior to 9/11. Ahmad, in Terrorism: and/or Hezbollah. As we saw in the case of Theirs and Ours,2 exposes the shortsights of North Africa, in the new global war on terror, official views of terrorism, the most obvious of
3 ACAS Bulletin, No. 77, Summer 2007 which is that its definition hinges on which clients go rouge]. As this issue is devoted to side of a conflict a particular movement is the impact of the war on terror in North Africa rather than any moral or human rights record – and the Horn, perhaps the reflections contained the one person’s terrorist is another’s freedom herein will challenge readers to reconfigure fighter refrain. Moreover, Ahmad then this terminology, perhaps as the “war we dare provides five broad categories of terrorism in not call terror.” Let us know what you think. his new critical definition, only one of which, political terrorism, get scrutiny in official 1. New York: Pantheon Books, 2004. discourse, while the most violent form, state 2. New York: Seven Stories Press, 2001 [orig. terrorism is almost entirely overlooked [unless 1998].
The Algerian Civil War: Washington’s Model for “The New Middle-East”
Fouzi Slisli
Washington has much to learn from Hizb’Allah. With the help of the Saudi Algeria on ways to fight terrorism.1 government, Washington is currently funding and arming various Sunni fundamentalist This is a prescription for intra- groups to confront Iran’s influence. Civil war Muslim civil war throughout the scenarios are already unfolding in Lebanon, Middle East. Those involved Palestine, and Iraq. It is obvious that the would be seen as proxies tearing United States is setting Islamist groups against the Muslim world on behalf of each other. What has been less obvious is the Israel and the US.2 fact that the only time Islamists movements were fought by proxy through other Islamist The American invasion of Iraq has clearly movements is Algeria’s civil war of the 1990s. failed to produce the domino effect that would, If that is the case, then Algeria’s civil war is as the architects of the war promised, bring all Washington’s model for the “New Middle US enemies into line, and create a new Middle East.” East where democracy would flourish. The invasion of Iraq, like Israel’s failed invasion of I. The “Redirection”? Lebanon in 2006, has made it clear in Reports have confirmed that the US has Washington, London and Tel-Aviv that intensified covert operations in Iran using the conventional military power and hi-tech obscure Sunni group Jundallah.4 In Lebanon, weaponry are impotent in the face of popular the US has been funding and arming Sunni insurgencies. While this fact is widely fundamentalists with links to al-Qaeda, like accepted by experts on low-intensity warfare, Fatah al-Islam, and actively promoting a hawks in the American, British and Israeli confrontation between them and Hizb’Allah.5 governments preferred to test its validity for In Palestine, the United States has been arming the twenty first century. Now that they found and training factions of Fatah loyal to out, at a great price one should add, a Mohammed Dahlan in the hope of provoking a significant shift in US war strategy is in place. confrontation with Hamas. In Syria, the US has Analysts and government officials are calling been funding Abdel Halim Khaddam and the this shift “The Redirection.”3 Muslim Brotherhood in the hope of provoking a confrontation with the Syrian regime. US According to media reports, the US is now Marines have been supervising the Ethiopian convinced that the biggest threat to its interests invasion of Somalia, and US covert operations in the Middle East is the increasing influence are now underway in the African desert, of Shia Iran and its allies Syria and Lebanese Pakistan, and Afghanistan.
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who tortures and punishes the Analysts and government officials are openly Mujahideen and sets up secret prisons calling this shift in strategy the “redirection.” for America? And who, and who, and Encouraged by Saudi Arabia, the United States who? Yes, they are protectors of the has apparently decided that the biggest threat American way (sunnah), Crusader to its control of the Middle East are Shia way (sunnah) and Zionist way groups in alliance with Iran and Syria like the (sunnah). As for the way (sunnah) of Lebanese Hizb’Allah and the Iraqi Mehdi the Prophet Muhammad (peace be Army. As a result, the “redirection” would upon him), they are its enemies and consist of using Saudi Arabian money and its the ones who combat it.6 standing in the Sunni world to do a rerun of the anti-Soviet jihad of the 1980s, this time against The quote is long but it shows how many Shia, “Safavid” Iran. The truth of the matter is obstacles the governments of Saudi Arabia, that Saudi standing in the Sunni world is not Jordan, and Egypt have to overcome before what it was in the 1980s. The vanguards of they can claim to be defenders of anything Sunni resistance groups, whether it is al- besides American interest. Palestinian Hamas Qaeda, Hamas, or Islamic Jihad, do not and Islamic Jihad, too, have always had better consider Iran a bigger threat than America and relations with the Syrian and Iranian Israel. They are also unlikely to consider Saudi governments than with those of Egypt, Jordan Arabia and America as “protectors” of Sunni and Saudi Arabia. If the US and Saudi Arabia Islam. Here is how Ayman Zawahiri reacted to want to organize a Sunni jihad against Shia this idea: ascendancy, as they once did against the Soviet Union, they will have to contend with the fact Some have claimed that the that the vanguard groups of Sunni jihad are governments of Saudi Arabia, Egypt categorically opposed to it. No wonder the US and Jordan are protectors of the and the Saudis are working with obscure people of the Sunnah. Allah suffices groups like Iranian Jundallah and Lebanese us and He is the best of protectors. Fatah al-Islam. Since when are those who helped America to blockade Iraq and kill a An interesting aspect of this “redirection” million of its children protectors of the effort is the fact that it is essentially run by people of the Sunnah? Since when are deputy national-security adviser, Eliot Abrams, those who supplied American forces and the Saudi national-security advisor, Prince with provisions and materiel, and Bandar. Abrams and Bandar were both provided them with bases, airports and involved in the Iran-Contra scandal of the storerooms to attack Afghanistan and 1980s, and observers have noted that the Iraq helpers of the people of the “redirection” involves a rerun of the US war Sunnah? From where did the planes on communism in Latin America. Joseph which bombed Afghanistan and Iraq Massad compared the way Palestinian Fatah take off? From where did the forces has been collaborating with the US in toppling which invaded Iraq set off? Who was the elected Hamas government to Chile’s it who agreed to the international General Pinochet collaborating with the CIA in resolutions to occupy Afghanistan and the early 1970s.7 While the comparison is to Iraq? Who was it who recognized the some degree accurate, it ignores the fact that puppet regimes of apostasy and when fighting communism, the US had the treason in Afghanistan and Iraq? Who added advantage of dealing with a Western was it who pursued and combated ideology. Islamic political ideology is everyone who wanted Jihad in indigenous to the global south and, as such, it Afghanistan and Iraq? Who was it is still incomprehensible in the West and still who recognized Israel and approved largely seen through Orientalist (even its usurpation of Palestine? Who is it Medieval) stereotypes.
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If the US is promoting a civil war scenario in and a mass following that allows them the Muslim world, and if this civil was is considerable share in state power. This type of supposed to dispose of groups and states that Islamist challenge manifested itself concretely oppose US dominance in the Middle East, then for the first time in Algeria when the Islamist they need more expertise than what they used Salvation Front used legal means to get to in Latin America in the 1970s. The only power in 1991. country where a civil war scenario was engineered (literally) to get rid of an Islamist Before the end of the twentieth century, opposition, and which the US government Algeria was the only Arab-Muslim country would consider a success story is Algeria. The where an Islamist movement managed to Algerian civil war was the only precedent for mobilize a grassroots movement and win a fighting Islamist movements by proxy through landslide electoral victory. By the late 1980s, other Islamist movements. Rather than a only Iran and Sudan saw the coming of an counter insurgency, Algerian generals called Islamist movement to power. But while the civil war they engineered and have been Sudanese Islamists overthrew the existing running for over fifteen years now a “counter regime, and while Iranian Islamists rode a Jihad.” That is exactly what the United States popular uprising to power, Algeria’s Islamists seems to be doing. were the first to win a parliamentarian majority through legal means. The Algerian military, II. The Relevance of Algeria back then, refused to recognize the popular If the era of casualty-free wars through aerial mandate of the FIS. They took power by force, bombing and hi-tech weaponry is over, as and fought fiercely for the control of the Hicham El Alaoui notes, then the new battles population. The US and Israel today, too, are for the control and the allegiance of refuse to accept the popular mandate of these populations. The recent electoral victory of groups. They are trying to take power by Hamas in Palestine, and the extent to which military force, and are embarking on a Hizb’Allah, the Mahdi Army and the Sunni clandestine adventure to control the insurgency have all entrenched themselves in populations. The objective of the US and the electoral politics and the societies of their Israel, and one should not forget the countries, have made it clear to US war governments of Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Jordan, planners that they can either accept defeat and and Lebanon, is the “eradication” of these withdraw (as Israel did last summer), or Islamist movements in a military sense of the change strategy. The US chose the second word. The one Muslim country that has option. It is here that the Algerian civil war pursued an existential civil war with a experience comes in. grassroots Islamic movement with the purpose of “eradicating” it is Algeria.8 While media The challenge that Palestinian Hamas, reports have often noted the Bush Lebanese Hizb’Allah, the Sunni resistance in administration recurrent interest in “learning” the Anbar province of Iraq, and the Mahdi from the Algerian civil war, the nature and Army in the south of Iraq represent for United extent of that interest have generally been kept States and Israeli ambitions is not of the kind out of public view. As it was the case with the of challenge that al-Qaeda and its affiliates Algerian civil war, the real story will have to have represented so far. The latter have be reconstructed by comparing, as they say, exclusively been a fighting force of at most yesterday’s leaks with today’s lies. few thousands, and have showed no interest in electoral politics or even in governance. The Since the invasion of Iraq, Analysts and challenge that Hamas, Hizb’Allah, the Mahdi government officials have often cited Algeria Army, and the Sunni resistance of Iraq as a useful case and a relevant precedent to constitute for American and Israeli ambitions learn from. As soon as it became obvious that in the Middle East is of a different kind. These the Iraqi resistance was there to stay, Pentagon Islamist movements have a large popular base officials got interested in the Algerian war of
6 ACAS Bulletin, No. 77, Summer 2007 national liberation. The Washington Post took place, though, the Algerian army took reported that the Pentagon was screening Gillo power by force, cancelled the elections, and Pontecorvo’s classic film The Battle of banned the FIS. French and American Algiers.9 For the US military, the Algerian war reactions were diverse and inconsistent. At of liberation provides the closest parallels and first, France could not condone the coup d’état the most useful lessons on the strategies, the or publicly support it, but it clearly saw it with strengths and the weaknesses of a popular a willing eye. As President Mitterand said, resistance movement facing a Western “fundamentalism does not appear to be the occupying power. surest way to reach democracy.”13 Up until 1993, the French administration was not sure, More recently, it was reported that George W. though, that the generals of Algiers could halt Bush was reading Alastair Horne’s classic A the tide of Islamism sweeping Algeria. While Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954-62. Henry Mitterand and his foreign affairs minister, Kissinger had apparently recommended it to Roland Dumas, quietly supported the generals, the president.10 After the attacks of September they were also bracing themselves for the 11, 2001, Algeria was also one of the first possibility that Islamists might win the civil countries the United States turned to in order war. Similarly, when the Clinton to learn how to fight Islamic militancy. administration allowed Anwar Haddam to Washington, as undersecretary of state represent the FIS freely in Washington, it was William Burns put it in December 2002, “has obvious that the US did not want to be left out much to learn from Algeria on ways to fight in the event of an Islamist victory in Algeria. terrorism.”11 It did not matter that the Algerian government had acquired one of the worst Until 1994, the Algerian junta was still finding human rights records on earth, or that its it hard to control the Islamist insurgency. The security forces have been heavily implicated in country was paralyzed by its massive foreign some of the worst massacres of civilians. debt, and international donors were requesting Torture techniques that were notorious in the the introduction of constitutional structures basement of the Chateauneuf police station and before approving new loans. To get the funds it the garage of the Cavignac police station in needed to “eradicate” the Islamists, the junta central Algiers (sexual violence, chemical decided to show that Algerian Islamism was suffocation, blowtorching of faces and bloating primarily a threat to the West. To that end, the with salted water) soon started showing up in Algerian secret services created their own Guantanamo and Abu Ghraib.12 There is Islamist groups. Instead of a counterinsurgency reason to believe, today, that Washington is campaign, Algerian generals appropriately not only borrowing torture techniques from called it a counter jihad. The fact has been Algeria, but the whole sinister program of clearly established that some of the notorious eradication that the Algerian junta has used for Islamic Armed Groups (GIAs) were creations fifteen years to terrorize its populations, of the Algerian secret services (DRS). On the especially the poor. The Algerian generals who domestic front, their purpose was to commit devised and run this program routinely referred atrocities in the name of Islam that would to it as “counter jihad.” discredit the FIS. On the international front, the aim was to convince the West that III. Counter Jihad: The Counterinsurgency Islamism needed to be “eradicated.” These are of “Eradication” the groups who came out with a takfiri The rise of the Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) in ideology (excommunication), and declared Algerian politics in the late 1980s was swift civilian populations, intellectuals, musicians and unexpected. By the time France, the and artists to be legitimate targets. These are United States and Britain realized what was the groups who smashed babies against walls, going on, the FIS had already won the local hacked defenseless civilians, and put toddlers elections by a landslide and was set to win the in ovens. These are the groups who raped, legislative elections. Before those elections pillaged, and massacred entire villages
7 ACAS Bulletin, No. 77, Summer 2007 undisturbed, while the screams could be heard Mohammed Mediane, aka “Tewfik,” and from large military barracks nearby. Not once, Smain Lamari. Again, defectors’ accounts as is well known, did the army intervene to have corroborated each other and the details rescue those people who sometimes were only matched. Primary investigations also showed few hundred feet away. It was not an accident the port to be under heavy control of the that the terrorized communities always Algerian army. It would have been impossible happened to be the ones that massively voted for an Islamist group to kill the seamen, steal for the FIS in the 1992 elections. tons of merchandise, and escape unnoticed.16 The terrorist bombings in Paris in 1995 – one After fifteen years, the Algerian junta has left a at the Saint Michel metro station and one at the trail of evidence and countless contradictions Maison Blanche - were also the work, it turned that have allowed analysts to piece together up, of the Algerian shadowy Directorate of their eradication strategies. A wave of Infiltration and Manipulation and the defectors in the ranks of the Algerian military Directorate of Information and Security.17 and security services, many of them wrote accounts of their involvement, allowed a very With the spectacularly gruesome massacres of precise corroboration of the evidence.14 Many civilian communities that had massively voted atrocities that were committed between 1993 for the FIS, especially in the towns of Bentalha and 1998, allegedly by Islamists, turned up to and Rais, the West was ready to give the junta be covert operations of Algerian secret enough billions and weapons to “eradicate” the services (DRS). A few high profile cases Islamists.18 Counter jihad, as a form of would be enough to establish the point. In counterinsurgency, had borne its fruits for the 1996 seven French monks were kidnapped in Algerian Junta. The Algerian population was the Medea region south of Algiers. Betraying debilitated by the intensity and gruesomeness their contempt for Algerian sovereignty, the of the violence, international public opinion French secret services (DST) attempted to was outraged against the Islamists, and contact the Islamist kidnappers directly. What Western powers were ready to send the IMF they discovered was the shocking evidence and World Bank. What’s more, most of the that the Algerian government was engineering violence that the Islamists were being blamed the civil war. Jamal Zitouni, the notorious for was actually targeting what was left of the leader of one of the main Armed Islamic legitimate Islamist resistance, and the Groups (GIAs) – the one that kidnapped the population at large who supported it. Many monks and was responsible for other gruesome birds were hit with one same stone. atrocities - it turned up, was an agent of the Algerian government. The suspicion is strong From 1994, the French government threw in its still, today, that when Zitouni decided to lot on the side of the Algerian junta once and murder the monks, the Algerian junta was for all. The hard-line idea of eradicating actually punishing France for going over their Islamism triumphed. Roland Dumas, the head to contact the kidnappers.15 French foreign minister at the time, declared France’s “political backing of the leaders of Another high-profile case was the slaughter in today’s Algeria.” He pledged France’s 1994 of seven Italian seamen. They were economic support “as well as the backing of found with their throats cut on board their ship Algeria on the international scene.” (the Luciana) at the port of Jenjen, east of “Friendship,” he said, “must be expressed Algiers. The massacre happened, conveniently otherwise than just with words.”19 Socialist for the junta, on the eve of the G7 summit in leader Claude Cheysson spoke for most French Naples, and was predictably blamed on liberals when he said that democracy in “Islamic extremists.” Numerous defectors from Algeria, as a result of the army coup, “was safe the Algerian security forces told Le Monde and for the time being.”20 Western intellectuals The Observer, though, that the crime was (and westernized Algerians) who embraced, planned and instigated by Generals condoned and defended the unsavory military
8 ACAS Bulletin, No. 77, Summer 2007 junta were legion in the nineties. Little did they Palestinian group Fatah to provoke various know that they were providing precious cover civil wars scenarios in Iraq, Iran, Syria, for a massive military onslaught on a largely Lebanon, and Palestine. To work around poor and unarmed population of Algeria.21 congressional oversight, the architects of this Little did they know that they were victims of strategy are using Saudi funds and the billions a murderous, depraved and reactionary that have been unaccounted for in the maneuver that some generals devised in order budgetary chaos of Iraq. to stay in power. Inside the Bush administration, the key players By Western standards, the coup and the civil in this adventure are Dick Cheney, the deputy war in Algeria were a success. Algeria was national security adviser Elliot Abrams, and “saved” from falling into the hands of Islamic the departing Ambassador to Iraq (and “extremists.” The idea of Jihad was turned nominee for United Nations Ambassador) against itself, and Islamist groups were pitted Zalmay Khalilzad. Dick Cheney’s office is against each other. The Islamic party that won coordinating these operations behind the back the elections (FIS) was the primary target of of Congress and the CIA. Outside the United this violence. The other main target was the States, the shadowy Prince Bandar bin Sultan, population that massively voted for them. the Saudi national security adviser, is the main Islamism was demonized in the eyes of both coordinator. Abrams and Bandar were both the Algerian population and of the populations involved in the Iran-Contra scandal in the of the West. Western governments were forced 1980s. Back then they helped the Reagan to support the illegal coup and the junta behind administration illegally fund the Nicaraguan it. In exchange, Algeria’s large reserves of gas Contras from secret arms sales to Iran and and oil kept flowing freely and cheaply to the from Saudi money. Prince Bandar brings West. The civil war also disposed of what considerable Saudi funds to the table. He also French public opinion routinely refers to as brings useful Saudi connections to the Muslim “Algeria’s demographic excess.” Equally Brotherhood and Salafi groups. He was also important, it paved the way for IMF’s involved, it should be remembered, in Structural Adjustment Programs. In short, coordinating the effort of Arab fighters who Algeria remained a safe French (and now joined the Mujahedeen during the Soviet American) backyard.22 invasion of Afghanistan. The Saudis have apparently assured the White House that they IV. The Algerian Model in Washington’s will keep a very close eye on the “War on Terror” fundamentalists this time. The White House, as It is clear that the unintended consequences of an intelligence official put it to Seymour the invasion of Iraq include the spread of Hersh, are not against the “Salafis throwing Iranian influence in Iraq and the Middle East. bombs”; they just want to make sure they The unintended consequences of the failed throw them at the right people: Hizb’Allah, the Israeli invasion of Lebanon in July-August Mahdi Army, Iran, and Syria.23 2006 include the emergence of Hizb’Allah as an undisputed champion of Islamic causes and In Lebanon, the United States has already a formidable and highly disciplined guerrilla pledged two hundred million dollars in group. The hawks in Washington and Tel Aviv military aid and forty million dollars for are convinced now that the United States internal security. The money is intended to should shift its war strategy in the Middle East. bolster the government of Fouad Siniora The central component of the new strategy, as against the Hizb’Allah led opposition. As it Seymour Hersh and others reported, is the was the case in the early phase of the Algerian large-scale use of clandestine operations civil war, many obscure and radical Sunni throughout the Muslim world. These groups are emerging in northern Lebanon, the operations aim at bolstering various shadowy Bekaa Valley, and around Palestinian refugee Sunni fundamentalist groups and the camps in the south. The US is now providing
9 ACAS Bulletin, No. 77, Summer 2007 these groups with clandestine military and Christian churches during the controversy financial support in the hope of provoking a surrounding the Pope’s racist comments on confrontation with Hizb’Allah. One notable Islam. Those who sanctioned the arson were Sunni extremist group that is now the recipient obviously hoping, as did the Algerian generals of US clandestine support is Fatah al-Islam. who sanctioned the killing of the French The group is based in the Nahr al-Bared monks in 1996 and the Italian seamen in 1997, refugee camp, and has recently been offered that the world would blame the Islamist. As I money and weapons “by people presenting write, the AFP is reporting that a Christian themselves as representatives of the Lebanese library in Gaza has been bombed in a strange government interests – presumably to take on pre-dawn attack.28 Reuters is reporting that a Hizb’Allah.”24 completely unknown group by the name of Tawhid and Jihad has executed kidnapped Saad Hariri, the Sunni majority leader of the BBC reporter, Alan Johnston.29 Hamas has Lebanese parliament and a US ally, has duly condemned these attacks and has already spent thousands of dollars to bail consistently provided protection to Palestinian members of Sunni fundamentalist groups from churches and helped release kidnapped foreign jail, many of whom are known to have trained journalists. in al-Qaeda camps in Afghanistan. Hariri also used his influence to obtain amnesty to twenty- The United States is also providing clandestine nine Sunni fundamentalists, some of them support to the Syrian Muslim Brotherhood and suspected of plotting bombs in the Italian and Abdul Halim Khaddam, the former Syrian Ukrainian embassies in Beirut. “We have a Vice-President who defected in 2005. Again, liberal attitude that allows al-Qaeda types to the goal here is to undermine the Syrian have a presence here,” a senior official in government of Bashar Asad.30 At the same Siniora’s government told Seymour Hersh. time, the US is funding and arming the Hariri also arranged a pardon for the Maronite shadowy Sunni fundamentalist group, Christian militia leader, Samir Geagea, who Jundallah, to mount a bombing campaign has been convicted of many atrocities against inside Iran.31 civilians as well as four political murders, including the assassination of Prime Minister Much like the Algerian junta, Washington is Rashid Karami in 1987.25 Geagea is already on creating its own Islamist groups and the offensive. He held a press conference, last developing its own “eradication” program. All week, to say that Hizb’Allah has become a the pieces seem to be in place for a large-scale burden on the Lebanese state.26 campaign of sabotage, bombings, kidnappings and assassinations whose aim it would be to In Palestine, the US has been intensely discredit the resistance movements in the promoting a coup against the democratically Islamic world and demonize them in the eyes elected government of Hamas. With the of the public. Unlike Algeria, though, the “friendly” governments of Jordan and Egypt, scope of American counter-jihad includes the the US has been providing military assistance entire Muslim world. The atrocities, slaughter to faction of Fatah loyal to security chief and and mayhem are likely to be far bigger than CIA man Mohammed Dahlan. Israel has been they were in Algeria. It remains to be seen helping by arresting members of Fatah who whether civil societies, the intellectuals, the oppose confrontation with Hamas.27 Besides media, and the genuine Islamist resistance burning the building of the Palestinian groups will fall into this insidious trap that Legislative council, shadowy Fatah operatives latter-day colonialism seems to be putting the also burned the prime Minister’s office, shot at final touches on. his car, and burned offices in different ministries and harassed Hamas ministers. In a ______move very reminiscent of Algeria’s dirty civil Fouzi Slisli is Assistant Professor at St. Cloud war, undercover thugs burned Palestinian State University. He received his MA and PhD
10 ACAS Bulletin, No. 77, Summer 2007 from the University of Essex (UK). His Political Stability, 1988-1995, (Ashgate, 2003), p. writings on the Middle East and North Africa 44. have appeared in Race and Class, Al-Ahram 14. See especially Nesroulah Yous, Qui a tué à Weekly, openDemocracy.com, Encyclopedia Bentelha? (Paris: La Découverte), 2000; Habib of the African Diaspora, and Mizna. Souaïdia, La Sale guerre: Le Témoignage d’un ancien officier des forces spéciales de l’armée algérienne, (Paris: La Découverte), 2001; Salima 1. U.S. undersecretary of state William Burns, in Mellah, “Le Mouvement islamiste algerien entre Barry James, “Arms Sales Overcomes Rights autonomie et manipulation,” Committee Justice Record Qualms: US Enlists Algeria in Terror pour l’Algerie, (Dossier No. 19, May 2004), Battle,” International Herald Tribune, (December
11 ACAS Bulletin, No. 77, Summer 2007
23. Seymour Hersh, “The Redirection.” 29. Nidal al-Mughrabi, “BBC ‘concerned’ by 24. Ibid. Claim Gaza Correspondent Killed,” Reuters, (April 25. Ibid. 15, 2007)< http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20070415/ 26. Mirella Hodeib, “Geagea launches Broadside at wl_nm/palestinians_journalist_dc> Retrieved on Nasrallah,” The Daily Star, (April 11, 2007). April 16, 2007. 27. Joseph Massad, “Pinochet in Palestine,” Al- 30. Warren Strobel, “US. Steps up Campaign Ahram Weekly, (November 9-15, 2006). against Syrian Government,” McClatchy 28. “Christian Library, Internet Café Bombed in Newspapers, (March 30, 2007); see also Seymour Gaza,” AFP, (April 15, 2007)
January 1992-January 2007: 15 years of atrocities and impunity in Algeria
By: Salima Mellah and François Gèze Press Release, January 11th 2007, reprinted with kind permission from Algeria-Watch http://www.algeria-watch.org/en/aw/15_years.htm, [Translated from French original].
Fifteen years ago, a handful of Generals at the one decade they were responsible for the heart of power, in "safeguarding democracy", deaths of 200,000 people, the disappearances aborted an historic opportunity by canceling of 20,000 others, tens of thousands of torture the first relatively free elections in independent victims, and a million and half displaced Algeria. The elections that were about to mark people; the ushering into power of the Salvation - a machinery of disinformation - on a scale Islamic Front (FIS), were ended by the that draws few parallels throughout the 20th Generals' actions with the fervent support from century -ascribing most of the violence to its civilian clients and more discreetly that of "Islamist hordes", in order to mask the fact France. It was, in all but name a coup d'Etat that, partially after 1992 and fully since 1996, mirroring in its objectives of preserving the armed groups acting "in the name of Islam" ruling elite's privileges, those of Pinochet in were manipulated and controlled by the DRS; Chile in 1973 and Videla in Argentina in 1976. - the complicity of the "international But where the Algerian Generals differed from community" - primarily the political elite in their predecessors in South America and France and a broad swathe of the French media elsewhere: they knew to remain in the who, whether guided by blindness or self- shadows, over the years, fabricating the façade interest, have uncritically relayed the gross of a pseudo-democracy while unleashing a deceptions manufactured by the Algerian clandestine state terror campaign of administration. horrendous violence against the population inspired by the methods of disinformation and Fifteen years after the coup d'Etat of January manipulation learned from their masters, the 11th 1992, Algeria-Watch, a non- French military theorists of the "modern governmental organisation created in 1997 to warfare", and the specialists in the Soviet fight against the human rights violations in KGB. Algeria and the government's propaganda machine, can only draw a disturbing picture This atrocious masquerade had three main from this dark period. characteristics: - a terrifying "killing machine" - performing Conditions in Algeria have noticeably routine acts of torture, extra-judicial changed, albeit superficially. With the constant executions, run by the army's secret service hammer blows of massacres, disappearances (the DRS), as well as its "special forces". In and kidnappings, gruesome torture, and the
12 ACAS Bulletin, No. 77, Summer 2007 displacement of populations, the Algerian terrorist" legislation, still in use, provides a so- regime succeeded in breaking civil society, called legal framework to these restrictions subduing any real possibility of an open and despite being unconstitutional. But the coordinated political opposition. This smothering of both individual and collective monopoly of power has allowed the Algerian freedoms, is also pursued through other means regime to issue in February 2006 a self- borrowing from the chilling traditions of the imposed "amnesty" for its own crimes, with Mafiosi: clientelism, corruption, threats, the announcement of a phoney national assassinations... "reconciliation", primarily aimed at validating the lies of the "dirty war" and prohibiting the At an economic level, due to the dramatic rise victims of state terror access to truth and in oil and gas prices, Algeria passed from a justice: criminals, "Islamists", and military heavily-indebted basket case to the coveted torturers, profiting from impunity, can now pinup of the American, European, Russian and devote themselves quietly to their lucrative Chinese multinational suitors, not only for its "business interests". hydrocarbons, but also for the great investment opportunities of her 70 billion dollars of cash But behind the "transition" to a "civil" reserves. And because of its "long experiment" government with its "democratic" façade, in the antiterrorist struggle since 9/11, it has managed by a marionette president, intended to become a willing ally in the US dupe an international community indifferent to administration's "Global War on Terror". Since the suffering of Algerian citizens, the 2001, Algiers has witnessed the unceasing orchestrators of the "Red decade" today still dance of a succession of political leaders and remain the sole masters of Algeria: they are military chiefs representing all Western Major General Mohammed "Tewfik" Médiène, powers, led by France and the United States, the immovable chief of the DRS since arriving to woo the Mafia-type power in the September 1990, and his long-serving hope of securing mouth-watering contracts. sidekick, Major General "Smaïn" Lamari. Their iron grip on both the country and its Yet in the meantime, with the exception of oil wealth, has allowed them to systematically and gas sectors, the Algerian economy is in a milk the country for the benefit of their state of advanced decomposition. The near children and their clients. complete failure of its privatization programme of public services, spanning nearly ten years, is Under their Mafia-like supervision, any forms a compelling evidence of the regime's of free political expression have been economic incompetence. The increasing banished, with practically no oppositional despair of a population plunged into a political party worthy of the name currently nightmare spiral of misery is in the face of the existing: most have been co-opted by the scandalous enrichment of a small minority system, the others prohibited, infiltrated or through clientelism and corruption (bound marginalized. So-called "freedom of inseparably to the organized violence of the expression" is meaningless: the audiovisual Red decade.) media, overflowing with state sanctioned political waffle, remains under the strictest What can one do when a family has only one supervision of the authorities; and the monthly wage of 15,000 dinars (EUR150 "independent" newspaper industry is fearful of /£100) whereas a kilogramme of meat costs publishing anything unauthorized under the 500 dinars? When children do not go to school watchful eye of the shadowy godfathers and because their parents are unable to afford the the DRS. The freedom of assembly is a far off transport or necessary equipment? When dream: only government officials and those patients die in hospitals for lack of basic who are considered malleable by the services or medicines, or because more and authorities are allowed to meet. Since 1992, more doctors are fleeing the country? When the draconian State of Emergency and "anti- the age of marriage is over 30 because of the
13 ACAS Bulletin, No. 77, Summer 2007 lack of affordable housing? When three In spite of this desperate situation, glimmers of generations are crammed into a decayed hope still remain. The spirit of resistance has apartment of two or three rooms without hope not been extinguished, even if its public forms of a better life? When the only dreams which of protest have been banished to the margins. enthuses both young and older citizens are of This speaks volumes for the courage of a escape, through drugs, by boat (to Europe), or people whose last three generations were suicide? subjected to continuous state oppression. How otherwise can we understand the strikes called For the last fifteen years, a whole generation of almost daily by workers and civil servants, Algerians has only experienced this despair. It who refuse to sink deeper into precariousness explains from the beginning of 2000, the and misery? How otherwise can we interpret incredible intensification of violent riots in the the gatherings of mothers, fathers and wives of urban peripheries and rural districts, and has the disappeared, who refuse to conceal the become the only form of protest left to the truth regarding the fate of their relatives in powerless. In confronting this threat the regime exchange for hush-money of a few thousands not only restricts itself to violent police and dinars? judicial repression. It also deploys terrorist groups like the GSPC (Salafist Group for Similar experiences in other countries, like Preaching and Combat), clandestinely Argentina, have demonstrated that through the controlled by the DRS whose blind attacks obstinate courage of the mothers, and then the strike almost predictably the main centres children of the disappeared, those responsible where the social unrest and riots occur (the have finally been "caught up" by the people's "terrorist" violence that is also used in justice three decades after the military junta's gangland killings in the internal power putsch. It is this conviction which fuels the struggles as was the case in December 2006 struggle of today's Algerian resisters, and with the attack against the American firm sustains the solidarity of Algeria-Watch: as BRC, nearby Algiers). time passes so the impunity of the guilty diminishes when confronted with the howls of Lastly, confronted by a society that disgusts pain, and the demands for life and respect of them, the DRS Chiefs are still prepared to dignity. The movement of resistance that today operate the "killing machine" they themselves is perceived as atomized, timid and suicidal, constructed during the 90s. Although working one day will erupt and sweep away the regime, at low capacity, "suspects" still disappear for its kleptocracy, its killing machine and its months in the secret DRS centres where they unjust justice. suffer atrocious forms of torture. And once ______they reappear, they stagnate in prison waiting Our special thanks to Algeria Watch and its for a trial at the whim of the men in the director, Selima Mellah, for permission to shadows. reprint this Press Release. Their work can be seen at: www.algeria-watch.org.
How the ‘War on Terror’ Undermined Peace in Northwest Africa: The Western Sahara Conflict After 9/11
Jacob Mundy
On a rocky plain in the Saharan desert, just native population of Western Sahara. These outside of the dusty military town of Tindouf, Sahrawis, as they like to call themselves, bide Algeria, sit four refugee camps first established their time, waiting -- as they always have -- for in 1976. These camps house nearly half the Morocco to leave Western Sahara so that they
14 ACAS Bulletin, No. 77, Summer 2007 can go home. Though the fundamental problem remains the same, the conditions that The United Nations peace process in Western underlie their exile often change. When they Sahara began in the mid-1980s when Morocco arrived over thirty years ago, it was the Cold withdrew from the Organization of African War that brought them there. Now it is the Unity (OAU) over the admission of Polisario’s ‘War on Terror’ that helps keep them there. Saharan Arab Democratic Republic as a full member-state. Until then, the OAU had been at Whether we like it or not, the effects of the forefront of the Polisario-Morocco September 11, 2001, can be witnessed in some negotiations, and had won a major concession of the remotest spaces of the Earth. In this from Morocco: Rabat agreed to participate in a essay, I will outline two ways in which post- referendum on independence. 9/11 U.S. policy has affected the Western Sahara conflict between the occupying power, In the 1990s, the UN Mission for the Morocco, and the Polisario Front, a Sahrawi Referendum in Western Sahara (MINURSO) nationalist independence movement. The most attempted to implement a plan the parties had obvious effect of the ‘War on Terror’ is tentatively accepted in 1988. The goal was to rhetorical; a shift in the way Morocco now hold a plebiscite allowing the native Western characterizes the conflict. Yet this mutation, as Saharans to choose either full independence or I will argue, is mere substitution. Moroccan integration with Morocco. Ever constant were efforts to securitize the discourse in its favour disagreements on who should even be allowed are an old trick that unfortunately works in to apply to vote and then the process by which Washington. Secondly, I will describe how and ethnic Sahrawis native to Western Sahar0061 why the George W. Bush administration could be ‘identified’. undermined the UN peace process in Western Sahara in the name of the ‘War on Terror’. That plan was thrown to the wayside in early However, I will start with a brief background 2000, perhaps owing to an East Timor effect in of the Western Sahara conflict. the UN Security Council (i.e., a disinclination towards contentious referenda). Furthermore, A Western Sahara Primer: King Hassan II of Morocco, who naively Fourteen days after the International Court of thought the referendum’s outcome would Justice called for a referendum on favour Morocco, died in mid-1999. His son, independence in Western Sahara, the Mohammed VI, soon took independence off Moroccan military commenced an invasion on the table. October 30, 1975. Though Madrid had administered Western Sahara since 1884, the Frustrated with the international community’s immediate post-Franco government decided to disregard and their own status as second-class hastily abandon the Territory to Rabat and citizen in Morocco, the Sahrawi independence Nouakchott, to avoid becoming embroiled in a movement has spawned its own ‘Intifadah’ ‘colonial war’. The Polisario Front protest movement in the streets of the independence movement, formed in 1973 to Moroccan occupied Western Sahara. Though fight Spanish colonialism, was forced into normally non-violent, this summer saw the exile along with half of the native population. first Sahrawi attack on Moroccan police with From its base in Algeria, Polisario waged a Molotov Cocktails in the major city of al- fifteen year guerrilla struggle to drive out, first, ‘Ayun (Laayoune). Mauritania (in 1979) and, secondly, Morocco. Yet with firm aid and support from the United Comfortable with its support from Paris, States, France and Saudi Arabia, Morocco was Washington and Madrid, Morocco has proven able to keep Polisario’s fighters at bay while more and more intransigent in recent years. slowly gaining control of the territory. By the Though Morocco describes its recent 1991 UN sponsored cease-fire, Morocco had ‘autonomy’ proposal as a concession to won control of most of the territory. Polisario, Rabat now believes that it can
15 ACAS Bulletin, No. 77, Summer 2007 unilaterally impose a solution in Western actively and directly involved in the security Sahara and receive the international affairs of central Saharan and Sahelian nations imprimatur. Morocco’s belief that it can -- (i.e., the Pan-Sahel Initiative and the $500 literally -- get away with murder in Western million Trans-Saharan Counter Terrorism Sahara is an effect of recent U.S. policy Initiative), it was only a matter of time before the Moroccan regime started using guilt by The Moroccan Discourse on Western geographical association to tie Polisario to Sahara after 9/11: Old Wine, New Bottles armed Islamic groups allegedly active in the When pressing its case for Western Sahara to region (e.g., GSPC, the Salafist Group for foreign patrons, Moroccan regime has also Preaching and Combat, now al-Qaida in the attempted to de-legitimize Polisario in various Islamic Maghrib). ways. The most common tactic is Rabat’s frequent attempts to highlight Polisario’s links Likewise, the governments of Niger and Mali -- real, ideological and imaginary -- to groups, are attempting to brand former Tuareg rebels persons and countries at odds with U.S. foreign as al-Qaida lackeys; nor has the Mauritanian policy. government missed an opportunity to manufacture some post-9/11 sympathy and aid The Moroccan regime has never seen Polisario from the United States by playing up its as a legitimate independence movement. Islamic dissidents as GSPC ‘terrorists’. Above all else, Polisario is, for most Moroccans, a creation of the Algerian state, an What is even more incredulous about arm of the Algerian army. This premise, Morocco’s recent approach is that Rabat has unsupported as it is by the actual history of continued to use Polisario’s good relations Western Saharan nationalism, which long pre- with Cuba to gain backing from Cuban exile dates Algerian support, nonetheless remains a groups and anti-Castro members of congress. firm cornerstone of the Moroccan nationalist One might wonder if any other organization imaginaire. besides Polisario has been accused of having ties to both Fidel Castro and Osama Bin During the Cold War, when the armed conflict Laden. (One might also wonder if Washington, in Western Sahara was at its peak, Morocco D.C., is the only place in the world where such often attempted to portray the conflict as a a claim could be believed.) The Moroccan proxy war between East and West. Whether government has also used its half-dozen hired calling attention to Polisario’s Libyan-supplied U.S. lobbying firms to build-up support from Soviet arms or its good relations with Cuba, pro-Israel members of congress by stressing Rabat spared no argument to win backing from Morocco’s long-standing good relations with the United States. Under the Reagan Israel. The argument is quite simple: What is administration, Morocco was able to regain the bad for an ally of Israel is bad for Israel, and so ninety percent of the territory, which it had lost supporters of Israel should support Morocco in during the first four years of the war (1975- Western Sahara. 1980), thanks in large part to the generous arms it received in the 1980s from the United There is, however, an aspect to Moroccan States. rhetoric that Western powers are starting to take seriously. On the one hand, most policy- Having long ago figured out how to push the makers who have some experience with the United States’ security buttons, the Moroccan Western Sahara conflict know full well that regime wasted little time attempting to deploy Polisario is not in bed with al-Qaida. Yet the post-9/11 rhetoric to maintain and increase post-9/11 Moroccan discourse has made use of U.S. support. Instead of maligning Polisario as the ‘failed state’ anxiety so many Western radical left, the Moroccan government now capitals harbour towards Africa. Rabat’s portrays Polisario as susceptible to ‘Jihadism’. efforts seem to have paid off. In the context of And once it became clear that U.S. was Western Sahara, there is an emerging
16 ACAS Bulletin, No. 77, Summer 2007 consensus that a new weak Saharan state might become a safe haven for terrorism. As no one Baker’s second alternative proposal was given is quite sure how an independent Western to the parties in early 2003. This time, Baker Sahara will fair (politically and economically), sweetened the deal for Polisario by broadening no Western power now wants to take the risk. the autonomy and explicitly calling for In the 1970s, it is rumoured that Henry independence as one of three options on the Kissinger articulated his support for a final status referendum, along with integration Moroccan take-over of Western Sahara by and continued autonomy. For Morocco’s saying that it was not in the U.S. interest to benefit, Baker allowed the majority Moroccan have an Angola on its Eastern flank. Today settler population to participate in the vote, one could plausibly imagine someone saying thus giving Rabat the demographic edge in the that it is not in the national interest to have an referendum. Though Polisario was still Afghanistan on the U.S. eastern flank. uncomfortable with the idea of living under Moroccan sovereignty for five years, the The Peace Process in the Shadow of 9/11 liberation movement stunned most observers From 1997 to 2004, the Western Sahara peace and accepted the proposal. Upset that Baker process was under the direction of former U.S. had put independence back on the table, King Secretary of State James Baker. He originally Mohammed VI protested to Presidents Chirac accepted the assignment as a favour to former and Bush directly, including a reportedly tense UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan. In mid- sideline meeting with the latter in the General 1997, he got Morocco and Polisario to sign a Assembly. Yet Morocco’s stiff rejection of a series of agreements that would guarantee the proposal that seemed like a clear give-away to implementation of the 1991 UN Settlement Rabat led most observers to conclude that Plan. The Houston Accords, as they were Morocco is not even sure how its own settler called, guided the peace process until the population would vote in an independence Security Council threw them away in 2000. referendum in Western Sahara. Baker then embarked on a series of mostly indirect negotiations on a non-zero-sum With Polisario on board, Baker wanted the solution -- an alternative to a referendum on Security Council to strongly endorse his plan, either independence or integration. The idea of so as to signal to Morocco that there was only autonomy for Western Sahara under Moroccan one way forward. Since 2002, Baker had sovereignty surfaced as the ideal, middle-of- concluded that sooner or later the Security the-road solution. Yet the major stumbling Council would have to ask either Polisario or block remained: the right to self-determination, Morocco -- or both -- to do something that including the option of independence. neither wanted. For Baker, the Security Council’s calls for a mutually agreeable Baker submitted his first alternative proposal solution were a pipe dream. Sooner or later, in 2001, which offered Western Sahara five Baker would need to twist some arms, and he years of significant autonomy. At the end of would need the Security Council’s support and the five-year period the population would blessing to make his threats real. Undercutting participate in an undefined ‘final status’ vote Baker, the Secretary-General’s own Personal (i.e., without the explicit choice of Envoy to Western Sahara, the Security Council independence), polling both native Western would not endorse the proposal. Saharans and Moroccan settlers. Though Morocco embraced the proposal, Polisario In the following months, Baker worked with vehemently denounced it. Instead of endorsing Morocco to develop a counter proposal. The Baker’s proposal, the Security Council, in first Moroccan ‘non-paper’ came in late 2003, early 2002, would only state that it supported yet offered very little autonomy and no any proposal that provided for self- referendum of self-determination. Baker determination (i.e., a referendum including pressed Morocco to enhance the autonomy and independence). clearly spell out what kind of referendum it
17 ACAS Bulletin, No. 77, Summer 2007 could tolerate. The second Moroccan counter- number of Moroccan ‘jihadists’ participating proposal, according to reports, did not even in the Iraqi and Algerian insurgencies, not to attempt to meet Baker halfway on autonomy, mention the 2004 Madrid bombings and other and even less so regarding self-determination. European al-Qaida cells, suggest that Frustrated with Morocco’s intransigence and something ominous is lurking behind the Security Council’s unwillingness to push Morocco’s peaceful façade. For these reasons, Morocco (even under Chapter VI), Baker the Bush administration feels all the more resigned in June 2004. Since then the peace compelled to support Morocco in Western process has further deteriorated. Sahara.
There were two main sources of Morocco’s The clearest sign that the United State’s ‘War growing intransigence during the final years of on Terror’ had undermined the Western Sahara the Baker-administered peace process in peace process actually came in June 2004, the Western Sahara. One -- a factor that has same month Baker resigned. Coincidentally, always been present since 1975 -- is the almost the U.S. awarded Morocco a bilateral free unconditional support Morocco receives from trade agreement and major non-NATO ally France. Yet under the final years of the Chirac status, making Morocco a top security priority presidency, this support seemed limitless. like Japan and Israel. Even though Morocco’s Indeed, it was clear that Chirac saw himself as foreign minister bragged that Baker’s Mohammed VI’s godfather. It might also have resignation was due to his country’s tenacious had something to do with Chirac’s relationship foreign policy, the Bush administration still with a certain female member of the Moroccan thought fit to shower Morocco with gifts. royal family. Rather than support the work of Baker, the man who helped ‘W’ win Florida, the second The second factor behind Morocco’s Bush administration opted to bolster a intransigence in Western Sahara is the United stumbling ally in the ‘War on Terror’. The State’s post-9/11 policies towards Northwest White House’s blatant disregarded of the Africa in the ‘War on Terror’. Morocco, recommendations of 2006 Iraq Study Group always a pivotal ally of the United States, has was not the first time the Bush administration become an indispensable to the Bush dismissed Baker. administrations regional designs. Playing to the neo-conservatives (i.e., Eliot Abrams, head Final Thoughts of Middle East in the National Security Thanks to the myopic policies of the second Council), Morocco portrays itself as a Bush administration, the prospects for a liberalizing and democratizing country yet resolution to the Western Sahara dispute in the offers its security services in the fight against near future are grim, to say the least. The armed trans-national Islamic networks. Not worst-case scenario -- a return to armed only is it clear that Morocco is one of the conflict between Morocco and Polisario -- major routes the CIA has used in its seems more probable now than at any other extraordinary rendition programme, there is time since the 1991 cease-fire. Given that growing evidence that prisoners of the U.S. conflict management resources are stretched so have been sent to Morocco for information thin, the international community will extraction. An EU official once summarized apparently have to learn to stomach a high the U.S. attitude towards Morocco in Western level of instability and violence, especially in Sahara by asking, ‘You don’t criticize the Africa. Just as the effects of 9/11 can be seen country that tortures for you, do you?’ almost everywhere, the damage caused by the ‘War on Terror’ is equally pervasive. Not only is Morocco an ally in the ‘War on Terror,’ it is a major site and exporter of it. ______The coordinated suicide bombings of 2003 and Jacob Mundy is a PhD candidate at the the botched ones of 2007, along with the Institute of Arab and Islamic Studies,
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University of Exeter (UK). He is co-author of Black Holes’, Groupo de Estudios Estratégicos the forthcoming Western Sahara: War, (June 29, 2007), http://eng.gees.org/articulo/ Nationalism and Conflict Irresolution 214/ (Syracuse University Press) with Stephen Zunes. San Martin, P. 2007. ‘Nationalism, Identity and Citizenship in the Western Sahara’, in J. References: Keenan, ed., The Sahara. Past, Present and Hodges, T. 1983. Western Sahara: Roots of a Future (Routledge: London & New York), Desert War (Westport: Lawrence Hill). 304-331.
Keenan, J. 2004. ‘Terror in the Sahara: the Shelley, T. 2004. Endgame in Western Sahara: Implications of US Imperialism for North and What future for Africa’s last colony? (London: West Africa’, Review of African Political Zed). Economy 101 (September), 475-496. Zoubir, Y. 2006. ‘American Policy in the Mundy, J. 2006. ‘Neutrality or Complicity? Maghreb: The Conquest of a New Region?’ The United States and the Moroccan Takeover Real Instituto Elcano (July 24, 2006). of the Spanish Sahara’, Journal of North African Studies 11,3 (September), 275-306. Zunes, S. 2007. ‘The Future of Western Sahara’, Foreign Policy in Focus (June 20, Ruiz-Miguel, C. 2007. ‘The 2007 Moroccan 2007), http://www.fpif.org/fpiftxt/4410. Autonomy Plan for Western Sahara: Too many
US War on Terror: Reactions from Morocco’s Civil Society
James N. Sater
Introduction and US support to authoritarian rulers in the ‘Terror’ and ‘civil society’ are two highly Middle East as part of its traditional controversial concepts that lack analytical containment policy, have been identified as precision. Both are highly value laden, terror is one of the underlying reasons for the rise of inherently negative and often used to defame terrorist groups in MENA. The result has been one’s opponent;1 civil society is inherently the ‘hybrid character’ of the Bush positive, originally associated to the self-image administration’s foreign policy toward the of European bourgeois society in the Middle East since the tragic events of eighteenth and nineteenth century. Both September 11, 2001, as Singh so well concepts are analytically related, as the observed: successful implementation of ‘civility’ in societies negates or, at least, reduces the Metaphorically, Jacksonianism and possibility of the use of terror as a means to an Wilsonianism had been melded into a end. It is therefore not a surprise that the so- new hybrid, one unafraid to project called War on Terror included an American power and American values instrumentalist approach aimed at – indeed one that saw the combination democratization of the Middle East and North as inextricably linked for the African (MENA) region by strengthening civil preservation of American security. In society. This was not only because of civil this regard, the traditional biases of society’s idealization as a bulwark against foreign policy approaches were terrorism, but also as the lack of democracy, subverted. The Bush Doctrine
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embraced liberal idealists’ faith in Moroccan Civil Society and the War on (American) values, agreeing that the Terror form of domestic regimes bore In Morocco as elsewhere in the Arab-Muslim directly on their foreign policies and world, the confusion of the so-called War on that ‘democratic peace’ proponents Terror with anti-Muslim, anti-Arab policies is had it right. 2 paramount, especially as they relate to US policies towards the Arab-Israeli conflict and Especially in MENA, this Wilsonian twist of US policies in Iraq. When Richard Perle, a the ‘Bush doctrine’ was reinforced with what leading Republican figure and former assistant Singh called ‘hardheaded, realist means to secretary of defense mentioned as early as in yield idealism without illusions,’3 referring to November 2001 Iraq, Sudan, Syria, Lebanon, the US willingness to use force and unilateral Iran, Libya, Somalia and North Korea as action if necessary. possible target countries, included in ‘phase two’ of the War on Terror (after Afghanistan), This short essay seeks to illustrate that it may all but one of these countries were either not necessarily be the inconsistency of the US Muslim or Arab.5 The religious and approach to fight terror that is likely to lead to civilizational connotation of this observation failure, but the particular character of the has been crucial. In addition, the rhetoric of Middle East international system where both human rights as part of universal values that strategies have been applied. The reason is that the US now projects, as well as ‘democratic both aspects of the War on Terror met a transitions’ as part of its War on Terror, particularly fragmented regional system smacks of hypocrisy when secret prisons are marked by what international relations scholars reported to have operated in Morocco, the termed a long history of penetration by European Union, and elsewhere, not to European colonial forces before the rise of mention conditions in US run prisons in Abu Egypt’s Gamal Abdel Nasser in the 1950s and Ghraib or Guantanamo Bay – beyond national by the US since the early 1990s.4 A or international protection and control. particularly weak state system meant that suspicion if not hostility to increasing US On the other hand, the attitude of Morocco’s ideological and military penetration which the civil society towards the War on Terror goes War on Terror entails, is not so much beyond simple anti-American rhetoric and is articulated by weak state leaders and regional multifaceted: First, Morocco’s foreign alliances (such as the Arab League, Gulf relations have been constructed as generally Cooperation Council, Arab Maghreb Union). pro-Western and moderate, rendering Morocco Rather societal organizations that often make a natural US ally. In addition, Morocco the penetration of the Arab system by the US experienced acts of terror in May 2003, which and its traditional ally Israel their main traumatized not only a secular elite but large mobilizing force, have become the main parts of the population, rendering Moroccans protagonists of this resistance using Islam as hostile to ‘terrorism’ – loosely defined. their main ideological resource (Hizb’allah in Second, a large number of Moroccan nationals Lebanon, Hamas in Palestine, and other were involved in terror acts in Madrid and emerging Islamic parties and movements such elsewhere, raising questions as to Morocco’s as the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt). strategy for preventing its nationals from being Ironically, as this article seeks to illustrate involved in acts of terror. The Moroccan using Morocco as an example, this also government reacted with an important public includes those organizations that the US is relations campaign that has at its core ‘Ne primarily interested in promoting, civil society Touches Pas A Mon Pays’ (Don’t Harm My and pro-democracy organizations that are Country), creating an internal enemy that crucial in supporting the Wilson-inspired transcends Morocco’s ‘civil’ society. The aim democracy promotion agenda. was to first discourage Moroccans from being involved in acts of terror, second to create
20 ACAS Bulletin, No. 77, Summer 2007 consensus concerning the punishment of organizations has become part of a strategy of transgressors – those 2,000 Islamists that had creating civil, ultimately less unruly, been kept in prisons without fair trial in the controllable space. aftermath of May 16, 2003, the date of the Casablanca bombings that killed more than 40 To achieve the latter, more long-term people. As a result, it should have been fairly objective, the Bush administration significantly easy to build upon pro-US sympathies in its increased development budgets including War on Terror. However intrinsic problems of projects that aim at ‘democratization.’ US foreign policy have prevented this from Although Morocco has traditionally figured materializing. high on the list of US aid recipient countries in the Arab world, second only to Egypt, towards The main problem with post-9/11 US foreign the end of the 1990s US Overseas policy – the Bush doctrine – remains its core Development Aid (ODA) was at the same level assumption that rules such as multilateralism as that of Germany, accounting for that apply to the rest of the world need not approximately 4.5 percent of overall ODA that apply to US foreign policy. Although this has Morocco received.7 The increase of the budget been a constant in US foreign policy, the idea from US $ 10.250 million in 2000, to US $ that the world needs a strong US that leads it, 19.107 million in 2006 illustrates that regardless of criticism or inconsistency, has especially after the Casablanca attacks of May been given even more importance by the Bush 16, 2003, Morocco has moved higher on the administration: As President George W. Bush list of US preoccupations. This includes the put it to the graduating cadets at West Point in democracy promotion agenda as for the first 2002 ‘America has, and intends to keep, time USAID prioritizes ‘Government military strengths beyond challenge – thereby Responsiveness for Citizens’ in its 2004 making the destabilizing arms races of other Strategic Plan for Morocco.8 In 2006, eras pointless, and limiting rivalries to trade ‘Government Responsiveness for Citizens’ and other pursuits of peace.’6 From the (read democracy promotion) takes with US $ perspective of MENA countries, this meant 6.440 million about one third of overall US that the US military hegemony is being ODA. regarded as a significant threat to national sovereignty and nationalist sentiments, It is here that civil society’s response to the US reinforced by the occupation of Iraq and the War on Terror is crucial: as recipients of virtual military hegemony that Israel has increasing aid, organized groups outside of the enjoyed with the isolation and then occupation immediate reach of the state – the independent of Iraq since the early 1990s. The irony of this media, Islamic groups and political parties, as is that ultimately, the US continues to rely on well as human rights organizations – are highly partners and therefore multilateralism, even if sensitive and critical to US strategies in the it has the power to impose its views more so Middle East but at the same time attracted to than other states. This is illustrated by its long- the increasing attention with which the US is term strategy of dealing with global terror. wooing them. In addition, despite constant official reaffirmation that the Moroccan-US As part of its War on Terror, the US uses a friendship agreement dating from the late 18th two-fold partially inconsistent strategy of century is the longest, unbroken of such targeting a potential Islamist anti-American treaties that the US has with any other foreign resurgence by repression – thereby lending country, the Moroccan population is very support to authoritarian states – and creating a influenced by anti-American sentiments due to civil space inside Arab-Muslim countries in events in the Middle East. which conflicts can be articulated. Strengthening civil society, an independent A short survey of the Moroccan press indicates media, as well as constructive dialogues this point: Out of 100 articles reviewed by the between Islamists, state actors, and secular French embassy that appeared in the Moroccan
21 ACAS Bulletin, No. 77, Summer 2007 press in 2006 – using two keywords: subject to repeated repression by the Moroccan ‘International Affairs’ and the ‘United States’ state), broader criticism also includes more – around 60 percent of all articles deal with integrated groups with links to the government. Iraq, Israel, prison conditions in Abu Ghraib In September 2006, a government circular to and Guantanamo Bay, and are generally hostile foreign embassies in Morocco asked for the to US policy in the Middle East including its end of support for civil society organizations War on Terror. Articles that are not related to other than those that are officially sanctioned these topics deal with a Free Trade Agreement by the Moroccan state as public utilities that Morocco signed with the US, a visit by the (utilités publiques). Programs that include then Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld in support to civil society should be run by the February 2006, increasing security co- Moroccan state. Although details of the operation between the US and Morocco, or the circular have not been spelled out, and it has US ‘manipulation’ of Morocco’s electoral caused great confusion among local NGOs, in process by publishing a pre-election survey its initial response the Moroccan journalists’ that grants the Islamist Parti de la Justice et du union Syndicat National de la Presse Développement (PJD) 47% of votes.9 Marocaine (SNPM) advocated greater control of embassies’ involvement in civil society, as What is striking is that the US receives very the risk of manipulation was seen as great. Its little or no attention by the media if it does not secretary-general Younès Moujahid relate to Arab-Islamic affairs, i.e. Iraq, anti- specifically targeted the US embassy and an Islamism, and the Arab-Israeli conflict, or to important aid program with which journalists issues that involve Morocco directly. This should be better trained and supported. In his means that US Middle East policies that opinion, the US was ‘infiltrating’ the strengthen the US presence in the Middle East Moroccan media in order to improve the image ultimately undermine US policies as they of the US in Morocco, and to use Moroccan relate to its more long-term strategy of its War journalists against the Moroccan state in on Terror, including its aim to officially disputed issues. According to the newspaper support Morocco’s democratization process. At-Tajdid, the journalists’ union SNPM and the Whereas former Secretary of Defense Donald Moroccan human rights association AMDH Rumsfeld declared to the Moroccan media that prepared a document that calls for a boycott of ‘the voice of His Majesty Mohamed VI is that the US embassy in Rabat in order to limit their of reason, modernization, and tolerance’, impact on the autonomy of civil society.12 adding that ‘reforms in Morocco illustrate that democracy and tolerance are perfectly Conclusion compatible with Islam,’10 protests in front of From this account, it seems clear that the long- the parliament organized by Morocco’s leading term strategy of increasing civil space and human rights organization Association associated moderate discourse inside Arab- Marocaine des Droits Humains (AMDH) Muslim countries is about to fail even in a brandished the visit with the following country that has historically known little anti- slogans: ‘No To Morocco’s Integration In The Americanism due to its moderate official US Imperialists’ Security And Military Plans’, ideology and its comparative distance from the and ‘Guantanamo: A Crime Against Arab-Israeli conflict. Increasingly, activities Humanity.’11 Interestingly, both articles that are financed by the US are met with appeared in the same issue of the government suspicion if not hostility. Civil society’s newspaper Le Matin du Sahara et du Maghreb, ‘independence’ from the state – a highly indicating high level disagreement with US celebrated characteristic among local activists policies in the Middle East. in Morocco – ever more includes independence from actors that have a strategic In addition to these possibly predictable interest in increasing the very same actors’ protests by human rights organizations that are visibility in the Moroccan political scene. outside of the established political field (and Visits of US officials such as former Secretary
22 ACAS Bulletin, No. 77, Summer 2007 of Defense Donald Rumsfeld that frequently logic was that it would be easier to pressure praise Morocco’s ‘civil’ society and the King’s Israel once its ultimate threat, Iraq under position as that of ‘reason, modernization, and Saddam Hussein, had been eliminated.14 In tolerance’ ultimately undermine the credibility fact, this policy of sequencing proved of US efforts to support Morocco’s reform illusionary not only for the creation of a process. functioning Palestinian state: It only supported an Israeli position framed as fighting terrorism This means that the recent US democracy in the Palestinian territories, thereby lending promotion strategy is being perceived as just support to the election of Hamas and another aspect of overall US Middle East increasing violence in the occupied territories. Policy and therefore another facet of the It also proved illusory because the US Middle Eastern state system’s penetration. It is continues to underestimate the importance of a rejected as it is associated with US and Israeli viable Palestinian state for its overall policy of military hegemony in the Middle East, fighting terrorism, including its instrumentalist highlighting the importance of pan-Arab and view of civil society to achieve this aim. pan-Islamic sentiments that continue to be prevalent in MENA. Officially the Moroccan ______state as most other Arab states, continues to be James N. Sater gained his Ph.D. in 2003 from part of a pro-US alliance against terror; a Free the University of Durham / United Kingdom. Trade Agreement with the US came into force He is an Assistant Professor of International in 2005 despite Morocco’s disagreement with Studies at Al Akhawayn University, Morocco, the US invasion of Iraq. However, the where he teaches Middle East and North underlying tensions are now being expressed African politics and international relations. He by social groups with arguably larger margins is the author of Civil Society and Political of maneuver. The implication of this has been Change in Morocco (New York and London: aptly pointed out by Ehteshami: The result of Routledge, 2007) and has contributed to The the US democratization drive seems to be that Journal of Democratization, The Journal of it de-democratizes the MENA even further, as North African Studies, Mediterranean Politics, its double standards only help to embolden and The Mediterranean Journal of Human radical and conservative forces, whilst it Rights with research on civil society, human undermines the moderate and progressive rights, gender, and political participation in reformers. If, as in the case of civil society North Africa. organizations and other ‘democrats’, policies aim at strengthening their visibility, the first 1 David J. Whittaker: The Terrorism Reader. action undertaken is ‘to condemn the US Second Edition. (London: Routledge, 2003), p. 8. 2 superpower for its occupation of Iraq, for the Robert Singh: ‘The Bush Doctrine’ in Mary behaviour of its troops and political agents Buckley and Robert Singh: The Bush Doctrine and there, for its unconditional support for Israel the War on Terrorism; Global responses, global and blatant disregard for international law and consequences (London and New York: Routledge, 2006), p. 18. norms in the Palestinian-Israeli conflict and for 3 Ibid. its continuing support for many of the region’s 4 13 See Raymond Hinnebush : ‘The Middle East authoritarian regimes’ Regional System’ in Reymond Hinnebusch and Anoushiravan Ehteshami : The Foreign Policies of A last point concerns this above mentioned Middle East States (Boulder and London : Lynne linkage of US Middle East policies and its War Rienner, 2002) pp. 29-53. 5 on Terror. The US made a point before the Anoushiravan Ehteshami : ‘The Middle East : overthrow of the Iraqi regime under Saddam Between ideology and geo-politics’ in Mary Hussein that it first needed to install a viable, Buckley and Robert Singh: The Bush Doctrine and democratic state in Iraq before pressuring the War on Terrorism; Global responses, global consequences (London and New York: Routledge, Israel to allow the creation of a viable 2006), p. 110. Palestinian state. The reasoning behind this
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6 Robert Jervis : ‘Understanding the Bush Doctrine’ 10 Le Matin du Sahara et du Maghreb, February 13, in G. John Ikenberry: American Foreign Policy. 2006. Theoretical Essays. (New York: Pearson Longman, 11 Ibid. 2005), p. 584. 12 At-tajdid, September 13, 2006. 7 http://www.usaid.gov. 13 Ehteshami, 2006, op.cit. p. 117. 8 USAID – Morocco Country Strategy Plan 2004- 14 Hall Gardner : ‘Preclusive War with Iraq : 2008, pp. 37-46. Available at Regional and Global Ramifications’ in Hall http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PDABZ612.pdf. Gardner (ed): Nato and the European Union. New 9See http://www.ambafrance-ma.org/presse/index. World, New Europe, New Threats (Aldershot, cfm. Ashgate, 2004), p. 282.
Political Islam in Morocco: The Case of the Party of Justice and Development (PJD)
Mohammed Hirchi
The impact of America's War on Terror on the represented. Since 2004, the party’s leader has evolution of the Moroccan democratic been Saadeddine Othmani, a charismatic and a initiative and especially on its impact on the well respected politician. The PJD accepted moderate Islamic Party of Justice and the political game by participating in the Development (PJD) is important to political system and recognizing the institution comprehending the current political conditions of the monarchy, unlike Al Adl Wa Al Ihssane in Morocco. This analysis will look at the (Justice and Spirituality), a radical Islamist evolution of the PJD since the Casablanca Organization that has refused to participate in bombing in 2003 and will explain how this the process of democratization that Morocco is event has created new political dynamics going through. between the government and the party. Before the 2003 Casablanca bombings, the Background party used to publish harsh criticism and The moderate Islamic Party of Justice and violent diatribes targeting Morocco’s opening Development (PJD) was founded by Dr. to Western values in the MUR’s newspaper Abdelkrim Al Khatib, a politician known for Attajdid (The Renewal). Since 2003 the party his sympathy with the Monarchy, under the has been redefining its criticism and gives the name of the MPDC (Popular Democratic and appearance of having softened its political Constitutional Movement). The party was stances by adopting a more moderate rhetoric. known for its political amnesia for many years Under pressure from the palace, the leaders of until various members of a clandestine the PJD were urged to redefine their political association Chabib Islamia (Islamic Youth), discourse and to embrace the politics of who later formed the MUR (Movement for modernization that constitute an important Unity and Reform), joined the party, with the ideological tool for the new monarchy. blessings of former interior minister Driss Because of Mohammed VI’s agenda to Basri. In 1988 the party officially became the develop a modern state with viable democratic PJD. Some scholars argue that the PJD name institutions, Morocco became an attractive was inspired by the Turkish Party of Justice country to Western Europe and to the United and Development. The Moroccan party differs Sates. As stated by Marvine Lowe, from the Turkish PJD, however, in its brand of liberalism and modernity. As one of a handful of Arab countries which Washington can comfortably On September 27, 2002 during the legislative consider a friend, Morocco is viewed elections, the PJD took 42 out of 325 seats, as a cornerstone for the American winning most of the districts where it was policy of promoting democracy in the
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region. Caught between the process of many of the problems facing other Arab democratization and the growing countries at the time by successfully playing momentum of political Islam, Islamist parties against the left, whom he saw Morocco is a place that anyone as his main opponents. These measures kept concerned with the future of Islamist groups at bay for most of King Hassan democracy in the Arab world should II’s 38-year reign. However, the prominence of be watching closely. political Islam started to grow again in the late 1990s as King Hassan II started opening up the The complication of the political games in government to opposition parties in order to Moroccan national politics should be ensure an orderly succession to the throne for understood within the context of the social and his son Mohammed VI. This rise in popularity the economic strategic vision adopted by the and appeal among Morocco’s Islamist parties palace and the government. It should also be was strengthened by the political relaxation articulated in the global context of the war on carried out by King Mohammed VI upon his terror and of its impact on the evolution of the ascension to the throne in 1999. As a result of Islamist parties in Morocco. In order to grasp the king’s new policies, such as tolerating an the evolution of Moroccan society toward a independent press, Islamists benefited greatly democratic stage, we should look at this from the freedom to exploit the government’s evolution in its historical dimension. numerous unfulfilled promises. (Howe)
After the death of King Hassan II, known for Democratization After 2003 his autocratic and authoritarian regime, Morocco’s political openness is coupled with Morocco has gone through drastic political multiple attempts to democratize society and to changes. In the last years of his reign, Hassan enhance a spirit of responsibility, ethics and II’s political openness was crucial to the nationalism. In this political context, parties changes that were going to take place after his that were banned under Hassan II, especially death. By offering the post of the prime Cheikh Abdesslam Yassine’s radical minister to Abderrahman Youssoufi, the movement Al Adl Wa Al Ihsane, started to opposition leader of the socialist political emerge as anti-establishment parties party, Hassan II understood the historical embodying dissidence, contestation and a necessity of change and of creating a new staunch criticism of the monarchy. On the political atmosphere adapted to the liberal other hand, the PJD’s moderate tone allowed it tendencies of his son. The heir to the throne, to continue to enjoy popularity among a large Mohammed VI, a well esteemed prince known segment of the Moroccan population. The for his political and democratic openness, took PJD’s ideological stances and its political over in a smooth political transition. The position within the framework of the regime change brought hope to the people of a Moroccan political arena appeal to people who country who were accustomed to living in a are disenchanted with the rhetoric of the state of fear and insecurity under the ideology secular parties. However, after the 2003 of the Makhzen. The Makhzen ideology, terrorist acts in Casablanca, the PJD was incarnated in the person of the interior minister targeted by the security apparatuses as one of Driss Basri, was based on oppression, the movements that contributed to the spread humiliation and violation of the most basic of a culture of religious intolerance. As stated human rights. In the early 1990s, Hassan II by Marvine Howe, launched a political project that allowed opposition parties to freely participate in the The debate over the PJD has new political process to pave the way to a intensified in recent months as the smooth transition to the heir of the throne. party has adopted a more assertive attitude. The Islamists lowered their Reacting to the rise of Islamism in his own profile after the 2003 Casablanca country, King Hassan II was able to avoid attacks, which led to a torrent of
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criticism that the PJD was alternative. They are seeking a way out that is contributing to a climate of undoubtedly associated with the party’s intolerance. The attacks also provoked reformist agenda and with a redefinition of the a new law banning political parties government’s priorities and previous based on religion, leading the PJD to initiatives. As an opposition party, the PJD emphasize that it was no more than a criticizes the amnesia of a coalition party with "Islamic references." government unable to implement economic structural changes. We should wait until the legislative elections to see the outcome of governmental Despite its popular appeal, however, the PJD manœuvres to contain the propaganda machine remains a very controversial political party. of the PJD. Because the PJD is viewed as a The two main secular parties, the leftist moderate political party by the United States Socialist Union of Popular Forces and the and the European Union, it benefits from the nationalist Istiqlal (Independence) argue that support of the international community and the moderate tone of the PJD is only a strategic from a growing number of Moroccan move to win the upcoming legislative sympathizers. In this perspective, the PJD has elections. They view the PJD’s political succeeded in promoting an ideology that philosophy as anchored in a radical ideological condemns political violence and recognizes the framework. If the movement succeeds in centrality of the structure of monarchy. building bridges beyond the national borders, it Moreover, members of the PJD embrace social is still subject to criticism in a culture of initiatives that have a strong impact on voters. Islamophobia. Its charitable associations are very involved in social work in the whole country. Government officials as well as secular rivals accuse the party of embracing a radical According to Roula Khalaf, earlier in 2006 ideology while presenting itself to the world polls showed that 47 per cent of the electorate with a moderate face. For example, Nabil embraced the party’s ideology. The PJD’s rise Benabdallah, the minister of communication illustrates the trend across the Arab world and a government spokesman, believes that the where Islamist movements enjoy popularity PJD’s ideology undermines the vision of because of their dedication to social justice modernity promoted by the king, including a coupled with a staunch opposition to American 2004 Family Code that strengthens women's imperialism and a sustained criticism of failed rights. The party’s reactions to Marock, a social policies and initiatives of the coalition controversial movie made by a young government in place. It is clear to Islamic Moroccan woman film maker, are also scholars that the PJD defines itself as a revealing of the PJD’s deceptive position to political party that values communications, issues of women’s anticipation, fasting, inter- dialogue and negotiations and condemns any ethnic/religious relationships, etc. resort to violence as a means to political, social and economic gains. As a moderate state, Morocco has emerged as one of the most trusted Arab countries for the In this perspective, PJD leaders’ resort to an United States. Its new political culture has ideology of proximity is associated with the allowed it to occupy a leading position among party’s harsh criticism of the government’s the Arab nations that are in the process of failure to provide jobs and security to a modernizing their political institutions. growing number of Moroccans. Lahcen However, this political opening is urging the Daoudi, one of the top leaders of the palace and the government to redefine their movement, an economist by training and a political rhetoric and priorities. After attempts significant political capital for the PJD, argues to implement a fully democratic electoral that the government is not performing and that culture, the government is very aware that the Moroccans are looking for a political radical Islamic movements might capitalize on
26 ACAS Bulletin, No. 77, Summer 2007 this opening and be the first political parties to interpretation of Islam, their political success benefit from it. In this respect, new strategies in the June 2007 elections may pave the way and alliances have been taking place to contain for more radical Islamist movements in the popularity of PJD and to minimize its Morocco. Some observers believe that their political impact during the upcoming electoral success will certainly benefit Al Adl legislative elections. On the other hand, the Wa-Al Ihsan (Justice and Charity), the most leaders of the party multiply their social controversial Moroccan Islamist party. appearances and activities nationally and internationally to promote their political However, some prominent PJD leaders urge agenda. Othmani’s previous visits to the the secularist critics to avoid deepening the United States, Spain, and other European polarization in society. For example, Dr. countries were the product of this strategy. Daoudi argues that the PJD is a barrier against radicalization and weakening it will only Leaders of the PJD are very aware of their benefit radical movements. According to political role in a country in the process of Marvine Howe, this moderate Islamist party redefining itself. Since his ascension to the can be seen as a “buffer against al-Qaeda- throne, King Mohammed VI has been striving inspired groups that have sought to mobilize to develop a strategic vision that will enhance impoverished Moroccans” such as those who Moroccan economic development to encounter were involved in the 2003 Casablanca the challenges of the 21st century. With the bombings. From this perspective, one could increase of youth unemployment, illegal argue that the PJD can be used by the immigration and drug trafficking, the PJD Moroccan government and by the United movement takes advantage of this historical States as a barrier to the development of situation to anchor its oppositional rhetoric radical violent Islamic movements that would within the framework of a country incapable of challenge the monarchy. The US sees in this transcending its imminent contradictions. As a political party a promising departure from result, the party is well positioned to acquire movements with an anti-imperialist and an the confidence of the voters. anti-western stance. With an awareness of the evolution of fundamentalist groups around the PJD’s prospects for the future Arab world as a result of their involvement in According to national and international Iraq and Palestine, the United States is political observers, the PJD enjoys a very capitalizing on political parties that embrace promising position in the Moroccan political moderation, tolerance and openness toward the landscape. Since the 2002 elections, the West. As mentioned earlier, PJD has already Islamist party continues to attract individuals taken many steps in this direction. Al from different strata of the Moroccan society. Othmani’s trips to the US and Europe testify to Its Islamic ideological referential is engrained the tendency of the party to articulate its within the context of a society striving to tribulations within a moderate alternative. reconcile between tradition and modernity. The PJD leadership is very conscious of this As a moderate party, the PJD appeals to a fundamental polarity in Moroccan politics and variety of voters from different social and culture. Since its inception as a political party, economic classes. The party’s benevolent the PJD has been using a reconciliatory associations are visible in the poorest areas of political rhetoric. The party tries to stay in tune the big cities, such as Casablanca, Rabat, and with the modernizing strategies of the palace Marrakech. The proximity strategies that the and to participate in the promotion of the PJD has celebrated since its inception as a ideals of an open and democratic state. Many political organization are beneficial for a political analysts are skeptical about the positive reputation of the party. The PJD’s party’s ability to reconcile between these two good sense of organization and management is drastic political agendas, arguing that even well respected by its opponents and its one of though PJD leaders embrace an “open” its major strengths.
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PJD and the National Politics proposes to continue in this direction in order The PJD currently has 42 out of 325 seats in to build a new Morocco attractive to foreign the Chamber of Representatives won in most investment and tourism. of the districts where it was allowed to compete during the legislative elections of Justice: With the empowerment of the position 2002. Besides, the party participates in the of the prime minister, the PJD hopes that the government of about 60 municipalities, minister of justice will be nominated by the including Casablanca and Rabat and controls prime minister instead of the king. The justice 14 municipal and village councils, including ministry is one of the sovereignty ministries the city of Meknes. On the national level, the under the Palace’s control. If the PJD wins in PJD representatives attempt to improve public the upcoming legislative elections of June services, redefine priorities for public 2007, and in the case that the king appoints the spending, fight corruption, and reach out to the leader of the party as the prime minister, the public. As reflected in the party’s title, the question of the reinvention of a new Justice PJD’s motto is social justice and economic department may well be raised. The revision development; two major areas that need of the constitution is one of the most important improvement in a country with a high level of components of the party’s political agenda. illiteracy and unemployment. The organization’s electoral program has five Since becoming king, Mohammed VI took pillars: authenticity, sovereignty, democracy, many initiatives to modernize Morocco. His justice and development. development strategies encompass a variety of economic sectors. The king’s strategic Authenticity: the concept of authenticity means involvement in these endeavors is aimed at the revival of an Arabo-Islamic tradition. developing the country as well as at inhibiting Morocco, according to the leaders of the party, the rise to power of oppositional parties, is sliding toward all forms of corruption; especially the PJD. In this respect, the PJD prostitution, drugs, etc. that destroy the fabric will need a strong economic package to offer of an Islamic society. In order for the country to voters before elections day. to meet the challenges of the 21st century, it needs to embrace an ideology of reconciliation Conclusion with its historical past. The American war on terror has certainly created a tense political environment in Sovereignty: Like other political parties in contemporary Morocco. Due to this ideology Morocco, sovereignty is a sacred concept that of war, the Moroccan government has felt the needs to be integrated in the program of any obligation to redefine its relationships to the party that promotes integration and main Islamic political movements and nationalism. The PJD like other major national especially the Party of Justice and parties recognizes the “Moroccanness” of the Development. However, the leaders of this Western Sahara. It also promotes the party continue to promote their political integration of all the northern enclaves (Ceuta agenda by offering a moderate interpretation of and Mellilia) to the motherland. their political platform. In the aftermath of the 2003 Casablanca bombings, the government Democracy: Morocco is going through a has engaged in its own war against Islamic period of democratization of various extremism. The idea of integrating the PJD institutions, including the creation of a number into the government, in the event that they win of organisms that promote human rights. The in the upcoming legislative elections, has King’s controversial revision of women’s provoked deep concern in the palace and status is articulated within this perspective. beyond. The PJD encourages these initiatives, except the redefinition of women’s status, and
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Currently, Mohammed VI is at a historical Arabophone and Francophone Moroccan watershed, faced with two options. His first women writers. option is to integrate into his political agenda the growing voices of change by pushing for References: more economic, social and democratic Mohammed Tozy. (1999). Monarchie et islam reforms. His second option is to continue politique au Maroc. Paris: Presses de Science enjoying executive power by maintaining the Po, Collection Références. politics of the status quo. If the king opts for the second strategy, the PJD will have a strong Marvine Howe. (2005) Morocco: The chance of gaining a majority in the upcoming Islamist Awakening and Other Challenges. parliamentary elections by appealing to the Oxford: Oxford University Press. disenchanted segments of the Moroccan population. -----. http:www.mideasti.org/articles/doc385. html. ______Mohammed Hirchi teaches Arabic and French Roula Khalaf. “Morocco sees the rise of language & literature at Colorado State 'acceptable' Islamist party,” http://www. University. He is the author of a number of iri.org/newsarchive/2006/2006-05-23-News- articles on postcolonial francophone literature. FinancialTimes-Morocco.asp. Currently, he is working on a manuscript on
Meeting with Nadia Yassine: Non-Violent Islamists who Threaten the Regime in Morocco
Fouzi Slisli
“Fil Maghrib la tastaghrib/In Morocco do not near collapse. In Morocco, where the be surprised,” says an old Moroccan saying. constitution defines the person of the king as This is true even in politics. Where else would “sacred,” Yassine’s statements were bound to one find the largest Islamist movement in the get her in trouble. She and the editors of the country having a woman as its most outspoken weekly where her statements were published member? Where else would a grandmother now face up to 5 years in prison. preaching non-violence and democracy constitute the biggest threat to the regime? The Yassine invited us to meet her at her house in lady in question is Nadia Yassine. The the poor city of Salé. She lives across the street movement is the banned Islamist group Adl from the infamous prison of Salé. She had wal Ihssan - Justice and Spirituality moved there to be close to her father Association (JSA). In August 2007, on the eve Abdessalam Yassine, founder and spiritual of the Moroccan legislative elections, I had the leader of the movement, when he was opportunity to visit and interview Nadia incarcerated by the late king Hassan II. Her Yassine with colleagues from The Economist, husband, Abdallah Chibani, came to meet us BBC World, and MacClatchy Newspapers. At by the prison. He is also in the party’s senior the time, the media was still debating her last leadership, and had also been incarcerated in court appearance, lips taped with a red X to that very prison. In more than one way, symbolize the government’s attempt to silence Yassine and Chibani are not the typical her. She had declared to the press that Islamist couple. It was him who waited on us monarchy was not suitable for Morocco, that and brought us trays of tea and Moroccan she prefers a republic, and that the regime sweets, while Yassine sat down and talked (known by its traditional name Makhzen) was national, regional and world politics to us. As
29 ACAS Bulletin, No. 77, Summer 2007 an Islamist party, Adl wal Ihsan is unique for years, and was then placed under house arrest. having such a strong presence of women at the He regained his freedom again in May 2000 by leadership level. The Women’s association that order of the new king, Mohammed VI. Yassine Yassine founded and built since 1983 is an immediately addressed another open letter. energetic force within the party and is “Redeem your father from torment,” he represented at the most senior level of party demanded of the young king, “by returning to leadership. the people the goods they are entitled to.” The royal fortune, Yassine said, was equivalent to Adl wal Ihsan is also unique in its style of Morocco’s foreign debt.2 militancy. JSA has been consistent, loud and unapologetic in its rejection of the king’s claim Besides refusing to recognize the legitimacy of to power, and has actively worked to oppose it. the king, Adl wal Ihsan also refuses to “We undermine the system, slowly but surely,” participate in elections or take part in the Yassine was quoted saying in The Boston government. On the eve of new legislative Globe, “we put into question the legitimacy of elections, Nadia Yassine was categorical in her the Islamic claim of the regime. We contest the dismissal. The elections “are a non-event for legitimacy of their power.”1 JSA, though, is a us,” she said. While Morocco has taken non-violent organization. It practices important steps to democratize and allow wide grassroots politics and has a huge network of participation in the political process, and while charities, associations, and clubs spread across the legislative elections of September 2007 Morocco and at all levels of civil society. The have been certified as clean and fair by party aspires to provoke concrete social and international observers, the king still maintains political change following Abdessalam the lion’s share of power, controls the most Yassine’s concept of “qawma.” As his powerful cabinets, and his person, according to daughter explained, the word is used in the constitution, is “sacred.” The king is reference to the Moroccan people and means executive leader of the state, military chief and overcoming of, or rising up against, religious leader all at the same time. Many “ignorance, enslavement, feudalism, poverty, Moroccans consider the elections no more than and fears.” Rather than the concept of superficial ornaments in the king’s absolutist “revolution” which, she said, involves violence regime. In Morocco, as the French Libération and blood letting, qawma involves a peaceful succinctly put it in a headline, “the King Rules, transformation of society. Long term Moroccans Vote.” JSA refuses to take part in a educational programs, and patient grassroots system that is, in Nadia Yassine’s words, “by politics and social work are the methods JSA definition rigged and does not allow true uses to affect this transformation. The pursuit participation.” of this educational program and non-violent grass roots politics is considered by Nadia JSA promotes democracy and remains Yassine and her movement a jihad. interested in participating in politics, said Nadia Yassine, but not at any price. Her The group first came to prominence at the movement, she said, refuses to give the height of what Moroccans commonly call “Les government the satisfaction of integrating them Années de Plomb/ The Years of Lead” – the into the system. The strength of the movement repressive era in the 70s and 80s under the late is in its grassroots politics, and its closeness king Hassan II. Abdesallam Yassine, who was and attentiveness to the problems and needs of then a regional school inspector and a Sufi Moroccans. Participation in what she calls mystic, addressed an open letter to Hassan II Morocco’s “theatrical democracy” and the challenging his legitimacy and requesting king’s “politics of appearances” would alienate accountability. Incarcerations, house arrests the movement from its grassroots. That, she and bans all failed to curb the party’s said, is a price JSA categorically refuses to popularity, especially among the poor. pay. Abdessalam Yassine was incarcerated for six
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Nadia Yassine’s views on international politics supports the right of the Islamic resistance in were not predictable either. She considers the Lebanon, Palestine, and Iraq to defend their spread of Saudi Wahabism a sort of land and their people from colonialism, she adolescence that the Islamic world is going does not agree with some of their social through. It will eventually die away and sober programs, especially their attitudes towards political programs will come to replace it. The women. education and spiritual training that members ______of her movement go through, she says, makes 1. November 06, 2005. them immune to wahabism. And while she 2. World Press Review, (Vol. 49, N. 11).
In Pursuit of al-Qaeda in Somalia: A Critical Analysis of U.S. Foreign Policy Towards Somalia
Ramla Bile
Introduction employed by the U.S. and the ramifications of In an attempt to monitor and curb terrorist such policies. activity in East Africa, the United States launched an aggressive campaign against the U.S. Policy in East Africa Union of Islamic Courts—a rising political In general, U.S. foreign policy towards force in Somalia, including a direct invasion, Somalia is characterized by strong disapproval which ensued a failed attempt by the CIA to of UIC. This condemnation manifests itself in defuse the movement. In this effort to weave two forms. The first is an aggressive military the Horn of Africa into this ever-exhaustive campaign, which developed into support for war on terrorism, there has been a tendency to the Ethiopian invasion of Somalia. The second demonize the UIC and portray the organization is a propaganda assault in which there exists as another menacing and monolithic Islamist strong demonization of the UIC in political, movement without doing justice to the and consequently media circles. Somalia complexity of Somali politics. It is often the became an area of interest after senior case that the UIC is inappropriately linked with members of the Bush administration conveyed other Islamist movements, such as al-Qaeda, that instability in Somalia posed a significant Hamas and Hezbollah. Such allegations have terror threat for the United States,4 and on May largely been reported as fact in media outlets 2006, a U.S. spokesperson openly confirmed even though supporting details remain weak. that the president would not allow Somalia to Publications and news stories with headlines, exist as a safe haven for terrorists.5 U.S. such as, “The Hunt for al-Qaeda in Somalia,”1 officials also conveyed that five al-Qaeda “Al-Qaeda Threat Seen Looming if operatives, including some connected with the Government Fails,”2 and “U.N. Says Somalis U.S. embassy bombings in Nairobi and 3 Helped Hezbollah Fighters,” dominate media Tanzania were in Mogadishu.6 This was discourses and perpetuate the idea of a perhaps the beginning of the formal menacing movement emerging in Somalia. declaration of opposition against alleged Additionally, much of the existing terrorist elements in Somalia. Though the U.S. representations of the UIC in Western media openly expressed concern regarding Somalia’s invoke an alarmist sense of urgency to act and status as a failed state and also regarding the dismantle the group. In this paper, I argue that question of the five al-Qaeda operatives, it the U.S. approach to Somali politics has became clear that there was more anxiety over largely been shortsighted and uncritical. I the increasing popularity of the UIC and the deepen this argument by examining the tactics
31 ACAS Bulletin, No. 77, Summer 2007 existence of Islamist politics in Somalia. prisoner abuse in Ethiopia, the future of Instead of pursuing a more surgical approach hundreds of individuals captured from Somalia to the issue of the al-Qaeda operatives or and Kenya is a grave concern for Somalis.11 attempting to mediate collaboration between the UIC and the Transitional Federal The collective impact of these various Government (TFG) for a more stable Somalia, pressures has been the most draconian events the U.S. took a different course. to ensue since the Somali Civil War. Since the initiation of ground combat, chaos has On February 2006, Washington began its unfolded in the capital. Hundreds of Somalis campaign to exert political pressure on the UIC have perished in the hands of Ethiopian troops through the CIA funded “Alliance for and TFG soldiers. Mass displacement Restoration of Peace and Counter-Terrorism in continues to spillover neighboring countries Mogadishu” (ARPCT). The alliance created a and towns, and many of the city’s two million coalition of warlords to monitor and defuse inhabitants are seeking refuge elsewhere. Islamist politics in the capital.7 This network Astonishingly, the reverberations of the human was eventually defeated by the UIC, and this suffering of this conflict have yet to be defeat was followed by a deepening of U.S. experienced beyond the regional borders involvement in Somali politics via neighboring Somalia, with the exception perhaps of the Ethiopia. In recent months, Ethiopian presence vibrant Somalia Diaspora abroad. This on ground has escalated. As early as July 2006, disregard can perhaps be attributed to the Ethiopian forces were seen crossing into the framing of the discussion. The tragedy that country and in October, Meles Zenawi results from this propaganda assault is that the declared that the state was “technically at war” death of the other suddenly becomes justified, with the UIC.8 In November, the UIC as the conflict is seen as a necessary conveyed that Ethiopia was shelling a town in component to the greater “war on terror.” Bandiradley9 and the UIC launched an attack in Instead of mourning for the dead, a lost life response. Ethiopia does not admit fighting suddenly becomes “collateral damage.” And until December 24, 2006, and then claims that since the culmination of the Cold War, it was an act of “self-defense,” as the states politicking in this era of globalization has actions received little criticism from abroad, in replaced “the enemy” from the communists to addition to the blessing of the U.S. the Islamists. More recently, the events on 9- government. Aside from the green light 11 invoke a sense of urgency and fear that has Washington gave to Ethiopia, the U.S. itself not previously existed. By effectively using the has actively participated in air strikes in the rhetoric of post 9-11 discourse, it becomes south. The attacks by foreign elements and easier for individuals to accept the fall of those by the national army have been Mogadishu and the loss of Somali life. dismissed by the United Nations. The Likewise, U.S. approach to the political internationally recognized and U.S. and factions in Somalia has relied heavily on the Ethiopia backed Somali president, Abdullahi exploitation of the fear of the Muslim other. Yusuf, has openly expressed that his troops Moreover, by creating false binaries, such as, will shell civilian areas in order to eradicate “good, secular Muslim” versus “bad, extremist rebel forces. Even so, Yusuf has been free of Muslim,” and imagining an al-Qaeda adequate criticism by international connection that did not exist, the rhetoric governmental bodies and human rights against the UIC becomes a powerful political organizations alike.10 The latest assault on the and military tool. Ultimately, the construction Somali people is the utilization of Ethiopian of such a polarizing factions leads to prisons. Nowadays, it seems that carrying out unchecked power and uncritical alliances. the “war on terror” includes the service of interrogators and the use of detention centers; U.S. Policy and the Miscalculation of Intra- the conflict in Somalia is certainly no Somali Politics exception. But given the disturbing history of
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The recent attacks on Somalia, although Somalis. In addition to this skepticism, there is largely labeled “successful,” were the fear of Ethiopian influence in the country. shortsighted, as it failed to do justice to the And while this influence does exist, the mere political context in Somalia and socio- presence of this perception of power and economic realities that Somalis face. The influence brings about tremendous outrage. excursion achieved the shallow objective of This is perhaps most evident in the riots and ousting the UIC temporarily from one area protests against the TFG, Ethiopia and the without establishing stability or eliminating Americans that have been erupting in any of the existing condition, which plague the Somalia’s capital,14 and as articulated Somali populace. The fighting did not draw previously, the inception of newer resistance in out peace, security or order. In fact, since the Mogadishu. direct invasion of Ethiopian forces, Mogadishu has returned to its anarchic—post bellum Both political figures and the media exploited status quo and the U.S. has chosen to what Maxine Rodinson refers to as unconditionally align itself with an unpopular theologocenrism—a term used to describe how force.12 In addition to the resurfacing some professionals wrongfully use Islam to symptoms of the old anarchy, Somalia has explain and describe the actions of Muslims. I recently experienced its first suicide bomb, in contend that the actions and the debate addition to an overall escalation in what some surrounding the UIC as a whole demonstrate a identify as insurgency attacks. Despite that, the promotion of Orientalist notions about Islam, bombardment on civilians and the destruction specifically an attempt to manufacture a of the city is indeed contributing to the monolithic Islam. The term theologocenrism resistance that the TFG and Ethiopian forces refers to a Western school of thought, which confront. Although many Somalis did not discusses all observable events about Muslims initially embrace the UIC or its policies, even to Islamic theology.15 The practice of this more are fundamentally opposed to the approach narrows the rise of the UIC to a Transitional Federal Government for its strictly religious development; it ignores the ineffectiveness and corruption. Members of the context of lawlessness in Somalia and the role TFG parliament include ruthless warlords of the UIC in establishing a nationalist and previously supported by the U.S. Additionally; more effective alternative to the TFG. It’s its membership can be deduced to ignores the crucial context from which the UIC clanmanship—a dangerous practice for a emerged. The UIC was able to glean support country already torn by tribal loyalties.13 from Somalis for pragmatic reasons. The Furthermore, Prime Minister Gedi and the organization quickly becomes known for its TFG have no authority in Mogadishu; they honesty, as well as its success in providing have long attempted to command Somalia much needed security. The UIC launched a from Nairobi, Kenya. For leaders who until strong weapons confiscation campaign, recently did not dare reside in the country they reopened the airport and seaport and supposedly rule, it’s clear that they are established policies that attempted to limit disconnected from the vast majority of the drug use.16 The UIC essentially established people. order and governance that has not existed since the fall of the Siad Barre regime. Regrettably, Since the recent events, the Somali populace is the smear campaign against the UIC not only understandably skeptical of this regime, which fails to consider the diversity within the UIC or allowed Ethiopia to destroy the infrastructure recognize the UIC as a popular, nationalist of its own country, especially given the context movement, but it rationalizes the of the historically bloody border between unsubstantiated assaults on Somalia from Ethiopia and Somalia—a history that is various forces. Ultimately, such discourse without a clear reconciliation process. The prevents critical diplomacy from taking course. decision to embrace Ethiopian troops at the expense of Somali lives is not well received by Conclusion
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I maintain that the exaggerated fears and the 3 Worth, Robert (2006, November 15). U.N. Says shortsighted incorporation of Somalia by the Somalis Helped Hezbollah Fighters. The New York U.S. into the “war on terror” not only pushes Times. International. 4 the state near total collapse, but also Menkhaus, Dr. Ken (2007, February 6). compromises the prospects of regional "Exploring a Comprehensive Stabilization, Reconstruction, and Counter-terrorism Strategy for stability, in addition to breeding more radical Somalia." Hearing before the Committee on elements of discontent and advancing the U.S. Foreign Relations, United States Senate. towards an increasingly isolated world. The 5 Kelemen , Michele (2006, June 7). Islamist Militia flagrant human rights violations, from the Seizes Capital of Somalia. In Day to Day . National indiscriminate bombardment of civilian Public Radio. neighborhoods to the existence of detention 6 Jeff Koinange, Barbara Starr, Jim Clancy, and centers in Ethiopia mimic the failed policies Ralitsa Vassileva. The Hunt for al-Qaeda in the U.S. employs in Afghanistan and Iraq. To Somalia (2007, January 13). In Inside Africa. CNN International. avoid similar conditions in Somalia, it 7 behooves the U.S. government to work Menkhaus, Dr. Ken (2007, February 6). towards a more neutral approach in the region. "Exploring a Comprehensive Stabilization, Reconstruction, and Counter-terrorism Strategy for For a sustainable Somalia, it’s crucial to win Somalia." Hearing before the Committee on hearts and minds—something the TFG, Foreign Relations, United States Senate. Ethiopian officials and the U.S. have yet to 8 Ethiopia is 'technically at war'. (2006, October achieve from this military venture. When 25). BBC News, Africa. waging the “war on terror” exceeds the 9 Ethiopia accused of Somalia attack. (2006, boundaries of democratic values and pushes November 28). Al Jazeera, Africa. struggling nations further collapse, it’s 10 Lee, Matthew (2007, April 06). Bombing of important to question how proportional such Civilians Justified by UN-Supported Somali strategies are, especially as U.S. foreign policy President, War Crimes Questions Raised. Retrieved continues to engage in destructive April 10, 2007, from Inner City Press: Investagative interventionist campaigns in the broader Reporting from the United Nations Web site: http://www.innercitypress.com/somalia040907.html Islamic world. 11 Mitchell, Anthony (2007, April 4). U.S. agents interrogating terror suspects held in Ethiopian ______prisons. International Herald Tribune, Africa & the Ramla Bile immigrated to the United States Middle East. with her family in 1989. She is finishing a 12 Gettleman, Jeffrey (2007, February 20). In Bachelor of Arts in Global Studies and Somalia, Violence is Status Quo. New York Times. Political Science at the University of 13 Menkhaus, Dr. Ken (2007).Somalia: The Back- Minnesota. She served on the editorial board up Plan. CSIS African Policy Forum. 14 of The Minnesota Daily where she currently Ethiopia accused of Somalia attack. (2006, November 28). Al Jazeera, Africa. works as a columnist. Ramla is also on the 15 board of directors of the Arab-American arts Abu Khalil, As'ad (2006, March 20). "The Bush organization, Mizna. Doctrine: Assumptions and Realities in the Arab World." Rice University . Fansworth Pavilion. 16 1 Mire, Amina (2007, January 2). Return of the Jeff Koinange, Barbara Starr, Jim Clancy, and Warlords. Counterpunch. Ralitsa Vassileva. The Hunt for al-Qaeda in Somalia (2007, January 13). In Inside Africa. CNN International. 2 Sands, David (2007, January 12). Al-Qaeda Threat Seen Looming if Government Fails. The Washington Times, World, A13.
34 ACAS Bulletin, No. 77, Summer 2007
Ethiopia Rides the Tiger
Immanuel Wallerstein
The Prime Minister of Ethiopia, Meles used his prestige to play a key role as Zenawi, must have been studying the intermediary between differing African states. magnificent successes of the U.S. preemptive The OAU established its headquarters in invasion of Iraq and Israel's recent foray into Ethiopia's capital, Addis Ababa. But if Lebanon. He has clearly decided to emulate Ethiopia served this symbolic role throughout them. His argument is exactly that which was Africa, it also had an oppressive and given by George W. Bush and Ehud Olmert. aristocratic state machinery. And when acute We must attack our neighbor because we have famines began to plague the country in the to keep Islamic terrorists from pursuing their 1970s, internal discontent mounted rapidly. In jihad and attacking us. 1974, an army officer, Mengistu Haile Mariam, led a revolution against the "feudal" In each case, the invader was sure of his monarchy and established a military military superiority and of the fact that the government which soon proclaimed itself majority of the population would hail the Marxist-Leninist. attackers as liberators. Zenawi asserts he is cooperating in the U.S. worldwide struggle Before Mengistu, relations between the United against terrorism. And indeed, the United States and Ethiopia had been warm. Ethiopia's States has offered not only its intelligence neighbor, Somalia, had strained relations with support but has sent in both its air force and the United States. It also had a military units of special troops to assist the Ethiopians. government under Siad Barre. However, it called itself "scientific socialist" and had fairly Still, each local situation is a bit different. And close relations with the Soviet Union, offering it is worth reviewing the recent history of what it a naval base. After the 1974 coup, when is called the Horn of Africa, in which countries Mengistu proclaimed his government Marxist- have switched geopolitical sides with some Leninist, the Soviet Union dumped Somalia ease in the last forty years. and embraced the larger and more important Ethiopia. So the United States embraced Throughout the first half of the twentieth Somalia in turn, and took over the naval base. century, Ethiopia was a symbol of African resistance to European imperialism. The To understand what happened next, a few Ethiopians defeated the Italian colonial troops words of ethnic analysis of the two countries is at Adowa in 1896 and the country remained needed. Ethiopia is an ancient Christian independent. When Italy tried again in 1935, kingdom, long dominated by Amhara Emperor Haile Selassie went to the League of aristocrats. There is another large Christian Nations and pleaded for collective security group, the Tigre, who speak a different against the invasion. He received no help. language. There are also two other quite large Ethiopia then became the symbol of Africa groups in the country - the Oromo (half of throughout the Black world. The colors of its whom are Muslim) and the Muslim Somalis. flag became the colors of Africa. And at the In addition, at the end of the Second World end of the Second World War, Ethiopian War, Ethiopia absorbed the coastal Italian independence was restored. colony of Eritrea. Under Haile Selassie, only the Amhara counted, and Eritrea was waging a In the difficult genesis of the Organization of war for its independence. Without Eritrea, African Unity (OAU) in 1963, Haile Selassie Ethiopia is landlocked.
35 ACAS Bulletin, No. 77, Summer 2007
call "Blackhawk down," and it withdrew its Somalia was quite different. There had been troops. A long multi-sided civil war continued. two colonies - Italian Somaliland and British In 2006, a group called the Union of Islamic Somaliland. Italian Somaliland became Courts (UIC) took over the capital, independent in 1960 in the course of Mogadishu, and expelled the feuding clan liquidating Italian colonies, and British leaders, restoring relative peace for the first Somaliland was added onto it. In the 1960s, time in more than a decade. when ethnic conflicts began to plague many African states, it was commonly said that the The United States saw the UIC as a replica of one African country that would never know the Taliban and allied to Al-Qaeda. So did ethnic conflict was Somalia, since almost Zenawi. So Ethiopia decided to invade, oust everyone in the country was ethnically Somali, the UIC, and prop up the powerless central spoke Somali, and was a Muslim. government that had existed on paper since 2004 but had been unable even to enter the People in both countries chafed under the capital city. There we went again. Of course, respective dictatorships. And when the Cold Ethiopia (with the United States) has won the War ended, neither government could survive. first round. The UIC has abandoned Both Mengistu and Barre were overthrown in Mogadishu. But the Somalis aren't welcoming 1991. the Ethiopians as liberators. The clan leaders are fighting each other again, and Mogadishu What replaced Mengistu was a Tigre liberation is again in turmoil. The Ethiopia government is movement, which at first spoke a "Maoist" facing troubles not only in Somalia but now nationalist language. As a way of increasingly at home as well. distinguishing itself from the Mengistu regime, it acceded to Eritrea's independence, only to As Israel had to withdraw from Lebanon, and regret this later. Christian (if not Amhara) as the United States is going to have to do in dominance soon became the major theme of Iraq, so Ethiopia will have to pull back soon the new government and Oromo and Somali from Somalia. The situation within Somalia uprisings began. Human rights activists do not will not have been improved because of its consider Zenawi's government much better preventive attack. Preventive attacks are than Mengistu's. always a potential boomerang. Either one wins overwhelmingly or one loses badly. In Somalia, the "perfect" ethnic state fell apart, as Somali clans began to fight each other for ______power. After 1991, the United States began to Immanuel Wallerstein teaches at Yale embrace the new leader of Ethiopia, Meles University and is a board member of ACAS. Zenawi, who abandoned his "Maoism" This commentary originally appeared in altogether. Somalia was left out in the cold. Commentary No. 201, Jan. 15, 2007, and is When the United States sent in troops on a distributed by Agence Global. Copyright "humanitarian" mission to quell disorders, the by Immanuel Wallerstein. United States got the brutal drubbing we now
Winning Another Front in the War on Terror – What the West Could Do Better in Somalia
By Dustin Dehéz
Introduction Somalia surfaced on the international agenda Right after 9/11 and the war in Afghanistan again. After nearly fourteen years without any
36 ACAS Bulletin, No. 77, Summer 2007 central administration Somalia seemed to have once the most influential power in the Horn, to become what some observers have called a chaos and anarchy. However, the north- second Afghanistan, a failed state that could western province of Somaliland went through serve as a potential safe haven for terrorists a process of peaceful conflict resolution. While with links to Al-Qaeda or Al-Qaeda itself. Somalia had been a former Italian colony, However, international attention shifted to Iraq Somaliland had been a British protectorate rather than Somalia, and the U.S.- before it entered a union with the former administration, that had initially been keen to Italian part in 1960. After Barre was ousted tackle the problem of failed states, set out to from power in 1991, Somaliland declared its change the whole Middle East by intervening independence again and has since been in Iraq. But why was Somalia dropped as a establishing a functioning democratic order. A major source of concern by the U.S. new constitution was introduced after a administration again? Part of the answer is that referendum held nationwide in May 2001 and the U.S. was looking for a means to the presidential elections in April 2003 which fundamentally change the Middle East region, were considered being free and fair. But which it considered as the major source of although the Somalilanders managed to threats to its national security. The whole maintain political stability and even introduced concept of the Broader Middle East Initiative democratic reforms the international was designed to inspire a process of community is still reluctant to acknowledge democratic transformation in the region. The the efforts being made by Somalis without war in Iraq can be seen as part of that foreign help and the considerable success they particular campaign, although it soon had in doing so. overshadowed the whole initiative. Africa came only second on the agenda. Moreover, What the West could do better in this instance another military intervention in Somalia could is to finally acknowledge the progress being have caused heavy casualties. Therefore the made by Somalilanders; meanwhile U.S. administration looked for a way of Somalilanders developed a strong feeling of containing the problem of state failure in nationalism towards their country. Fourteen Somalia and chose to establish a maritime years of independence and relative prosperity mission on the Horn of Africa in order to produced a national dynamic, a reluctance to monitor the movements into Somalia and into accept any central authority that could possibly the Middle East region. But by adopting this emerge in Mogadishu or anywhere else in the strategy the problem of Somalia will not be South of Somalia. A success of the current solved, quite on the contrary the Horn of peace process in the South – although the Africa will remain as volatile and insecure as Transitional Government was relocated from ever. Keeping in mind the limited resources Kenya to Jowhar near Mogadishu, a success now available, what could the West do better remains highly unlikely – would necessarily in Somalia? lead to a war between Somaliland and Somalia as soon as the new administration would set Recognising Somali Efforts out to tighten its grip on the country. The beginning of the 1990s brought International recognition of Somaliland is not considerable change to the Horn of Africa. The only a prerequisite for any successful peace influx of cheap weapons and small arms from process within Somalia but would also show the former Soviet Union and its allies the West’s willingness to readily acknowledge destabilised the region in the early 1990s, indigenous efforts for stability. Moreover, while many countries in the Horn had to international recognition of Somaliland would rebalance their foreign policy as the collapse of not pose a precedent for state secession in the Soviet Union robbed them off their closest other parts of Africa. As Somaliland has been a ally. At the same time a long history of single entity before independence its deterioration in Somali politics washed away recognition would be in line with the the dictatorship of Siad Barre leaving Somalia, international communities’ politics of
37 ACAS Bulletin, No. 77, Summer 2007 maintaining the colonial borders in Africa. movements like Al-Ittihad Al-Islamiya (AIAI), Like in Eritrea’s case for national an Islamic organisation being held responsible independence in 1993 colonial borders would for a number of attacks on American forces be restored rather than destroyed. An during mission ‘Restore Hope’ and for other independent Somaliland would also offer an terrorist attacks in East Africa. Al-Ittihad was ideal base for strengthening East African sponsored by the Islamic Sudanese governments in their stance against terrorism government in the early 1990s, and the U.S. and Somaliland could easily be integrated in administration subsequently focused on the US’ East African Counter Terrorism containing Sudanese influence in the region. Program (EACTP) that already unites Kenya, As Walter Kansteiner, former Assistant Ethiopia, Djibouti and Tanzania in the global Secretary for African Affairs put in 2002 with struggle against terrorism. So far only the U.S. regard to state failure in Somalia: and the United Kingdom are considering international recognition, but doing so would “What better place for the seeds require an active U.S. policy in overcoming of international terrorism and especially Italy’s aversion of an independent lawlessness to take root?” Somaliland. In fact, this rhetoric question shed some light Combating Terrorism on events unfolding in Somalia in 2006. The 1998 attacks on the U.S. embassies in Virtually at the beginning of this year did Nairobi and Dar-es-Salaam by Al-Qaeda left Islamists of the Islamic Courts Union (ICU) 224 people dead, most of them Africans. The challenge the authority of the Transitional embassy bombings proved to be one of the Federal Government (TFG). For the first time deadliest attacks until 9/11. However, the in the past one and a half decade is Mogadishu reaction of the Clinton-Administration was a no longer divided between various warlords confused mixture of a rapid military retaliation but under the firm control of one group, the and a half-hearted political initiative to offer Islamists. At the end of 2006 it looks as if the military instruction for African-peacekeepers seeds are finally taking roots. in the African Crisis Response Initiative (ACRI) that was meanwhile succeeded by the With international attention focused elsewhere African Contingency Operations Training and another conflict, the bloody border war Assistance Programme (ACOTA). It soon between Eritrea and Ethiopia from 1998 to became clear that terrorism was a problem not 2000 went by largely unnoticed by the U.S. only of Arab origin. The attacks on U.S. forces and the international community. While a wide in Somalia during mission ‘Restore Hope’, the range of conflicts in the Horn remained Embassy bombings, the attempted shooting unsettled, ‘purer’ versions of Islam could down of an airplane at Mombassa airport in attract people looking for some sort of identity 2002 and the attack on an Israeli owned hotel and stability. Moreover, the spread of complex again in Mombassa showed that the Islamisation never really stopped. Apart from a problem of terrorism in Africa will not simply Christian Ethiopia nearly all East African disappear. On the core of the increasing states are today Muslim or Muslim dominated, number of terrorist incidents in East Africa lies with an overwhelming majority belonging to a longer lasting strong drive towards further Sunni Islam: As the scholar John Nyuot Yoh Islamisation of the East African coast recently noted: sponsored by Saudi Wahabbism as well as Sudanese fundamentalist imperialism. Whilst ”The emerging latent rivalry many West African states are already being between the Sunni and Shiite Muslim the attention of Islamic versions of Islam along the fundamentalists shifted towards East Africa in eastern coast of Africa might well the late 1980s and early 1990s. State failure in pose a threat in some countries in Somalia provided a fertile ground for the Horn where the numbers of
38 ACAS Bulletin, No. 77, Summer 2007
Muslims and Christians differ effectively combat terrorism. Even though the widely.” U.S. national security strategy considers failed states as a threat to its national security the The East African coastal strip has indeed U.S. has so far been relative reluctant of become an area most suitable for terrorist getting involved in failed states or post conflict activities ranging from money laundering to policing. As the U.S. military capacities are carrying out attacks on Western targets. State now largely bound in the Middle East the U.S. dysfunctions, informal economies, and weak should seriously enhance its training efforts security infrastructures allow for an easy with African troops, as Gayle Smith, put it: penetration of East African States by terrorist networks. What is more is that there is an “If the United States is unwilling inviting range of possible targets in these to commit troops to peace- states: Embassies, liaison offices, and Western keeping in Africa, then I think we based Non-Governmental Organisations. The have to be prepared to seriously recent attacks on employees of the World Food support African Nations that are Programme (WFP) in Somalia show how prepared to fill the gap.” difficult it could become to serve the people in such an insecure environment. Especially If these initiatives could be started Somalia should be of concern in this regard as multilaterally, national security would be a new terrorist group has recently emerged in enhanced and the international prestige of the Mogadishu under the alleged leadership of a United States would possibly improve. certain Aden Hashi ‘Ayro. The group is being held responsible for the killing of four aid Bringing Stability into the Region workers in Somaliland in 2003 and 2004 and is The major obstacle to lasting peace in the Horn suspected of having links to Al-Qaeda. and in Africa in general is the free availability of small arms. Yemen has served as the Despite the insurgency in Iraq, parts of Africa supermarket for small arms trade to Somalia and especially the Horn of Africa could still for years, despite a UN arms embargo. become a potential safe haven for terrorists as Although the maritime mission Combined well as potential targets for terrorist attacks. Joint Task Force Horn of Africa (CJTF-HoA) Countries such as Kenya and Somalia have already monitors the region, the influx of small become a transit hub for fundamentalists from arms into the Horn from Yemen has never all over the world. Combating terrorism really ended. The limited authorities of the therefore requires a bunch of initiatives that naval mission do not allow for the stopping of could easily be started and should aim at: suspicious vessels leading directly to a 1 making harbours and airports more continuing breakdown of the UN arms secure, embargo against Somalia. Given the fact that 2 promoting a system that could Yemen and Somalia are either failed or failing effectively prohibit money laundering, states, the only way of stopping the free trade 3 promoting good governance, of small arms is during its journey on the sea. 4 and finally put an end to de facto free Therefore the international community should trade of small arms seriously consider that in combating terrorism These initiatives could allow for a better it will be necessary to police the important monitoring of the movement of people and waterways and, in doing so, the international goods, funding of terrorism could be seriously community must give the participating naval hardened and would finally support African forces the means to fulfil the assigned tasks governments in their attempts to fight effectively. By broadening the mandate of the terrorism and achieve greater in depth control Joint Task Force the Operation Enduring of their national territory. Although many Freedom could contribute to multilateral African countries are part of the international efforts to combat the trade of light weapons coalition against terror, they lack the means to that were being made under the auspices of the
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United Nations (UN Programme of Action to on the peace process in Sudan. A peace treaty Prevent, Combat and Eradicate the Illicit Trade between the Sudanese government and the in Small Arms and Light Weapons in All its SPLM/A in Southern Sudan could open a way Aspects – UNPoA) and on the multilateral of ending the insurgency of the Lords initiative of East African countries (as Resistance Army in Northern Uganda, leaving formulated in the Nairobi declaration on the Somalia as the remaining major threat to Problem of the Proliferation of Illicit Small lasting security in the Horn. Especially Arms and Light Weapons). Djibouti and Kenya had been very keen to initiate a peace process in Somalia but so far In bringing stability to East Africa the West every effort to bring the contending parties can again contribute to measures being taken together failed. The current 14th attempt to by Africans themselves. Thirteen East African establish a new government for Somalia is countries are currently in the process of sponsored by IGAD and has so far been the establishing an East African Standby Force most successful initiative to restore order in (EASBRIG). To support this development the Somalia reaching a climax with the relocation West should assist the participating countries of a Transitional Government and Transitional on a wider scale. The American ACOTA Parliament to Jowhar near Mogadishu. But the Initiative and the French Reinforcement of return of the two provisional bodies to Somalia African Peacekeeping Capacities Programme caused deep divisions between two varying (RECAMP) are already leading in the right parties in the transitional institutions over the direction but in order to avoid another clash of question where the government should be French and U.S. interests in Africa these based; in Mogadishu or Jowhar until the initiatives could be melt under the aegis of security situation in Mogadishu improves. This NATO. This would allow for significant dispute meanwhile led to a serious encounter contribution by new and small members of the with some observers fearing an armed conflict Transatlantic Community. What should be between the two parties. As nearly all figures envisaged is a Partnership for Peace for Africa, in the transitional institutions are warlords and a way of offering military instruction, technical the Prime Minister Abdullah Yusuf is regarded support and logistical competence to partners by most Somalis as an Ethiopian puppet the rather than recipients. Still the costs of such new government lacks authority and measures would be limited especially as the legitimacy. If the peace process shall be burdens would be shared among the NATO successful it cannot rely on warlords longing member countries. for peace but must be prepared with the help of the international community. An unavoidable Regional integration should be another prerequisite for lasting peace apart from essential part of any effort to achieve a lasting recognizing Somalia is the prevention of and sustainable peaceful environment in the further small arms trade. The Joint Task Force Horn of Africa. A good way of promoting could easily be integrated into this task. regional integration would be to bring in the Effectively stopping the arms influx to Intergovernmental Authority on Development Somalia will make it much easier to achieve a (IGAD), which is still a weak regional peaceful settlement. organisation founded originally in 1993 to promote food security. Renamed in 1996 it had Conclusion to focus primarily on security issues in the As the Horn of Africa is located in a strategic Horn; in the meantime the Sudan and Somalia zone with access to two of the most important peace processes have become the major focus waterways in the world, the Red Sea and the of the IGAD as continuing political instability Indian Ocean, the limited intervention by the persists as the major obstacle to enhanced food international community is more than security. While the United Nations was debatable. But with a bitter insurgency in Iraq preoccupied with the violent border war and a state-building mission in Afghanistan the between Eritrea and Ethiopia, IGAD focused West’s resources are strained. However, the
40 ACAS Bulletin, No. 77, Summer 2007 international community cannot afford to leave disadvantage by relatively modest and any continent behind in the war on terror, nor financially cheap means. Doing so would first can it afford that another safe haven for of all require a greater political willingness, a terrorists emerges while the West tries to greater awareness of how easily weak and rebuild Afghanistan. While failed states from failed states in East Africa can be penetrated the Democratic Republic of Congo to Liberia by terrorist networks and better multilateral co- and Somalia can easily be penetrated by operation in bringing together East African terrorist network organisations like Al-Qaeda, governments and the West. rebuilding failed states is a major task that stresses the financial and military resources of ______the U.S. and its allies over years. On this point Dustin Dehéz is Director for Northeast African terrorists can claim a strategic advantage. But Studies at the Düsseldorf Institute for Foreign the West can still try to balance this and Security Policy (DIAS).
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