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R H n L Chairman o H D C . The ight . VISCOUNT ARCOURT , . . ( ) . $‘ A 1 S I R E M S K C I E a e dmira D OND LADE , . . . (nomin t d by A l ice- Chair an V m . the dmira ty) , ( ) E M G D V Es . D UND . A IS , q * e s H D D S c e Met all ur ni ersit C. U v Prof s or . ESCH , . Prof ssor of gy, y o f S ef l h fie d. * S ’I‘AN E M LL D R UN s . C G D e W M D . . . Y . NDHA , q , ir ctor I e al I n e Of the mp ri stitut . C A L ELS WORTH Y I n ell en D e a War O e aptain . . , t ig ce p rtment , ffic n a th e ar f (nomi ted by W O fice) . * e ss W G G Y D S c e s G l Prof or J . . RE OR , . . , Prof s or of eo ogy , U s o Gla e l D e Of G l al S u niver ity f sgow , form r y ir ctor eo ogic rvey, a A l a Victori , ustra i . Sir R B H F B r a - I O ERT AD IELD , a t P st President , ron and S e el I n t stitute . A H Es M A Ph D D a RTHUR UTCHINSON , q . , . . ep rt e M al U s Of Ca e m nt of iner ogy, niver ity mbridg . W W M Y Es Me s s H A Wa s CO . . . Lt d . O ERS , q ( sr . . t on . , . ) * F R Es B E D a . M. e n Of n . I . . e J ONCA , q , ep rtm t dustri s an d Ma a e n a e th e B a a nuf ctur s (nomi t d by o rd of Tr de) . R A Es M A B S I al I ns ecr ar . S t . . . c . e LLEN , q , , mperi titute ( y) .

e m rs O f o r a - o mm e e M be Edit i l Sub C itt .

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TH E Mineral Resources Committee Of the Imperial I nstitute has arranged for the issue Of this series o f Monographs o n Mineral Resources in amplification and extension Of those which have appeared in the B u lletin of the I mperia l I n stitute during the past fifteen years . The Monographs are prepared either by members o f the S S a Of I o r cientific and Technical t ff the mperial Institute , by al W extern contributors , to hom have been available the statistical and other special information relating to mineral a I I resources collected and arranged t the mperial nstitute . The Object o f these Monographs is to give a general account o f the occurrences and commercial utilization o f the more a l a B E a al u . NO import nt miner s , p rtic rly in the ritish mpire attempt has been made to give details of mining or metallurgical processes .

‘

HARCOURT , Chairman M in eral Resources Committee , .

s e Lo n o n n S W. I titut , d , . 7 u 1 2 0 j ly 9 .

C O N T E N T S

CHAPTER I

United Kingdom I mports and Exp orts of P otash World and United S tates Outp uts of P otash

CHAPTER II

D EPOSI TS OF SOLUBLE POTASH MINERALS

Germany Fran ce H olland D enmark P oland Russia S p ain I ndia Canada Aby ssinia Nigeria P eru

CHAP TER III

SALT LAKES AND PANS

United S ta tes I ndia China Tunis M orocco Chile

Canada

CHAPTER I V

NITRATE DEPOSITS OF MI NERAL ORI GIN

Chile Rhodesia Russia B razil ; Venezuela

CHAPTER V

POTASSIUM NITRATE DEPOSI TS OF ORGANI C ORI GIN

I ndia M exico Gua tema la P eru United S tates Rhodesia Union of S outh Africa Upp er Egypt 1X x CONTENTS

CHAPTER VI SEA WATER AS A SOURCE OF POTASH

CHAPTER VI I INSOLUBLE POTASH MINERALS

ALUNITE Comp osition of Alunite Extra ction of P otash from Alunite FELSPARS AN D OTHER S ILICATES : Extra ction of P otash l t rom F e s ars e c . f p , I N S OLUBLE POTASH MINERALS AS FERTILIZ ERS

CHAPTER VI I I FLUE GASES AS SOURCES OF POTASH

CEMENT KILN DUST BLAST FURNACE DUST

CHAPTER I X VEGETABLE SOURCES OF POTASH

MARINE PLANTS S cotland I reland N orway jap an S outh Africa Can a da United S tates RAW S EAWEED AS A POTASH FERTILIZ ER WOOD AS H VEGETABLE WASTE : H edge Clippings S un ﬂower S talks Water Hyacinth B ra cken OTHER VEGETABLE S OURCES OF POTAS H

CHAPTER X RESIDUES FROM BEET-SUGAR MANUFACTURE 1 07

CHAPTER XI ANIMAL SOURCES OF POTASH

WOOL WASHINGS KARROO AS H

REFERENCES TO LITERATURE ON POTASH I I 4 O E —N ume rals in s uare bracke ts in the te xt re e r to the N T . q f t nd B ibliography at he e .

PO TAS H

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTI ON

M o f h as OST the potash used throughout the world , for many l S years past , been supp ied from the deposits at tassfurt , in O t o Germany . wing the favourable situation and magnitude o f these deposits , almost all other sources have proved , in comparison , unremunerative to work . At the outbreak o f the war the greater part o f the world a o f l f was confronted with a sc rcity potash sa ts , and e forts were made to revive Old sources previously considered un a l o n al work b e account Of cost , and so to discover possible

new sources . The importance Of an adequate supply o f potash fo r agri cultural purposes is well shown by the following table which o f gives the consumption potash metric tons , in the more important countries during the four years preceding the I war [ /p .

“ m m ” i i’ - ; Seteai cah ﬁl ated that the following quantities o f K 0 i potash ( 2 ) , per square kilometre , were applied as fert lizer t o a 1 1 2 : 1 - 00 E 0-1 8 l nd during 9 in Germany , 4 ; ngland , 3 ;

- - U S 0 1 2 F 0 0 6 . nited tates , 9 rance , 9 metric tons , respectively Durin g the war the consumption of potash fertilizers in

Germany increased considerably , the amounts used during 1 91 6 and 1 91 7 being equivalent to and over K O e metric tons of potash ( g ) resp ctively , as compared with 1 tons in 1 9 3 . I n the present monograph most o f the Old and the new sources C a are described so far as details are available . ert in of these will probably onl y be utilized so long as the price o f potash is o f A high , but others , such as those lsace , have already become a competitors with the S t ssfurt deposits . The values of pota sh s alts imported into and exported from

' the United Kingdom during th e past few years have been as — shown in the accompanying tables (pp . 3 4) The sources of potash m ay be roughly classiﬁed into ( 1 ) solid o f l a s ll deposits solub e potash minerals , such carna ite , sylvite

a 2 se a - i a - a and k inite ( ) water , br nes and s lt l ke deposits con taining appreciable amounts Of potash s alts associated with l l sodium sa ts ; (3) vegetab e substances , such as wood ashes ,

- a al beet sugar residues , se weed and sunﬂower stalks (4) anim a s material , such wool washings ; (5) products resulting from a o f I the dec y organic nitrogenous matter , such as ndian nitre (6) dust carried in ﬂue gases from the manufacture of cement

as l and iron ; (7) insoluble potash minerals , such a unite , l . E o f felspar , leucite , etc ach these sources wi l be considered in detail . Complete statistics of the quantity o f potash produced l l recent y from all sources are not available , but the detai s U S concerning the outputs from the nited tates , in short tons , are ee 6 of interest (s p . ) [4] [2 4] [85] [1 76] These Show 1 1 6 that if the production during 9 , which was tons , be o f taken as unity , then the outputs succeeding years will be

- - - - 6 1 . represented by 3 35, 5 , 3 34 and 4 94 respectively The o f production during 1 91 8 amounted t o about 2 2 per cent . a the norm l consumption o f the United S tates .

POTAS H

m o m N o u O m u w J N d m O w H H

mc m mu 0 3 M m 8 E 0 D 3 0 3 5 g m 9 E 8 $ 8 S o S b 8 B o Q a S ﬁ S m S m E I NTROD UCTI ON

H 9 o 0

w a e M s M E E R e R M x E ﬂ b H 0 S Mmo M W 6 POTASH

Outputs of P otash in the United S tates

C n K o tent o f ava ilable p o tash ( 20) .

1 91 9 . 1 92 0 .

Na tural brin e s an d Salt Lake s Alun ite e m e n n s 1 1 C t kil du t , 47 Bla st furn ace dust 94 1 73 e a e S w e d . Mo la sse s re sidue s fro m distillerie s Wo o d a she s Sugar re ﬁ n in g waste Silica te ro cks Miscellane o us so urce s

The potash producing capacity of the United S tates is about tons per year from the following sources

N e bra ska an d o the r brin e la ke s Alun ite D u st fro m c e m e n t m ills Ke lp Mo l asse s a n d s ugar - reﬁ n ing waste Wo o d a she s Othe r so urce s The average price per unit for potash salts produced in the U S 1 1 6 nited tates has fallen considerably Since 9 , as shown by the following

1 1 9 5 . Price CHAPTER II

DEPOSITS OF SOLUBLE POTASH MINERALS

Germany — The most important deposits o f this type hitherto worked o n an extensive scale are the Stassfurt deposits o f P a . Germ ny , which are of ermian age I t is no t intended t o give in this monograph a complete o f account these deposits , but a brief outline is necessary in order to convey an adequate idea o f their gen eral relationship t o to other sources , and particularly deposits recently located S elsewhere . The tassfurt deposits had been worked near the the surface for salt Since thirteenth century , but their value o f w as nl 1 8 as a source potash o y discovered about 57 , when Shafts were being sunk in search o f further deposits of rock 1 861 salt . In the regular production of potash salts com m enced h as a l , and continued in incre sing vo ume ever Since . Exploration has shown that the deposits cover an area o f 1 00 a t o n i o n H squ re miles , extending Thuri g a the south , anover M o n . I the west , and ecklenburg on the north t has been estimated that these deposits occupy a volume o f ll o f million cubic metres , containing mi ion metric tons a l f t O l pot sh sa ts , a quantity su ﬁcient supply the wor d for

years at the present rate of consumption . The deposits l vary considerab y from point to point , but the following may a S be taken s representing an average sequence . tarting from f ri ll a 2 6 . o the surface , there occurs bout ft d ft , fo owed by al a an d la a Sh es , s ndstones c ys of v rying thicknesses . The saline deposits often start here with a varied thickness o f al ll 8 2 62 anh drite rock s t , which is fo owed by 9 to ft . of y al l Ca S ' la O 1 6 . (anhydrous c cium su phate , 4) , to 33 ft of salt c y and o f carn allite f a 49 to 1 3 1 ft . (double chloride o m gnesium I n o f and potassium , certain parts the l i kainite KCl ﬁe d this is succeeded by vary ng thicknesses of ( , 2 7 8 D EPOSITS OF S OLUB LE POTASH MI NERALS

M S O H O s lvite KCl g 4 , 3 z ) mixed with y (potassium chloride , ) , icromerite a o f rock Salt , and p (sulph te potassium and a o f m gnesium , Then occur deposits kieserite M SO H O ol halite sul (magnesium sulphate , g 4 , 2 ) , p y ( l a 2 Ca SO K SO phate of ca cium , potassium and m gnesium , 4 , 2 4 ,

M S O 2 H O al anh drite g 4 , z ) , rock s t and y , somewhat interbedded , l n 0 it . F the tota thick ess varying from 49 to inally , beds o f anh drite sum I n y and gyp are found . all , over thirty minerals , l l l most y doub e sa ts , have been found in these deposits . E ll carn a llite ainite conomica y the most important are and k . S pace will not permit o f a description o f the methods o f m a 1 1 working these deposits , but it y be mentioned that in 9 3 the cost of production of the various salts was stated to be d : d 6 1 s 1 . s . 2 . . o as follows Kainite , 7 ; potassium chloride , ; d S 8 3 . 1 . 2 8 . . potassium sulphate , 9 fertilizer salt , 4 per ton ince 1 91 5 these costs have been considerably increased by the rise a in w ges and the cost o f stores ( see p . The mines are controlled by the P otash S yndicate (K al i w as 1 880 m syndikat) , which first formed in and includes me bers o f P the russian and Anhalt Governments . I n 1 0 9 9, owing to dissension amongst the producers and in a a order to m intain the price of potash and prevent w stage , a the Potash L w was passed . This remains in force until 1 2 fo r 9 5, regulates the minimum quantity to be produced t o home consumption and the total amount be exported , provides authorities for apportioning the quantities to be rice er o f produced by each mine , and fixes the p , p unit potash , for material exported . According to recent information the control of the German potash industry is now vested in a Board composed o f thirty m members (with an equivalent nu ber of deputy members) , e i o f P repr sent ng the interests the producers , merchants , otash S f a nd yndicate , potash miners and o ficials , agriculturists the

manufacturers o f potash products . The representatives of the B a employers an d workmen form a maj ority o n the o rd . S ince 1 91 5 the ofﬁcial prices fo r potash in Germany have e a l as been very consid r b y increased , shown by the following n o f table , which gives the price in pfennigs per u it potash per metric t o n [7] [1 64] GERMANY

1 92 0 .

Crude sa lt Sulphate o f po tassium

' Chlo ride o f po t a é aiu m

P o ta ssiumm a gne sium sul phate (crude ) 3 1 0 400

From the above ﬁgures it is seen that from 1 91 5 to 1 91 8 the prices o f fertilizing salts were increased by amounts vary 1 ing from 52 to 35 per cent . It is stated that wages at the 1 end o f 1 9 7 were 42 9 per cent . higher than those prevailing 1 — in 1 9 2 1 3 . A 1 2 1 w as The average price in pril 9 , eight times that before : O the war , without allowing for depreciated currency in ctober

a further rise , averaging 35 per cent . , took place . Working costs have increa sed enormously Since 1 91 7 : at the present time underground operatives are workn only 7] hours per day 8 compared with 9 before the war, and surface operatives o instead f 1 0. The law o f 1 909 indirectly led t o a very active search fo r o f o U S sources p tash in other countries , in the nited tates the investigations being largely ca rried o ut by the Govern ment . The productions o f German potash allocated for home 1 1 8 1 1 as consumption and export for the years 9 and 9 9, determined by the Verteilungsstelle fiir die Deutsche Kali

1 0 . Industrie , were , in metric tons , as detailed in table , page

The quantities of potash (K20) contained in the potash salts exported from Germany during the period 1 91 3— 1 9 are shown l in tab e (p . the amounts being given in metric tons . Of the 2 00 Shafts on the potash deposits only about half are a a o f e now working, lthough the m jority t h e 74 reﬁneri s are in operation . Trade is considerably restricted by t h e high o f l l o f i price coa , a arge quantity wh ch is used in the prepara arn a e t o 1 2 e r c n K o . C llit with 9 p e t . o Raw sa s 1 2 t o 1 e r c e n . K O 6 00 lt with 5 p t 2 33 , 0 Fe r z n sa s 2 0 t o 2 2 e r c n tili i g lt with p e t . K; O a s co n a n n ro m 0 t o 2 c n S lt t i i g f 3 3 p e r e t .

K oo o Salts co nta iningfro m 40 t o 4 2 p e r c e nt: K o n c u n e r z er sa s o , i l di g f tili lt with 8 e r c e n . K o 3 p t o . o as s m c o r e P t iu hl id o . P o ta ssium sulphate with o ve r 40 p e r 2 3 Po tassium magn e sium sulphate

I 00 37.5

[5] [6] 1 Durin g t h e ye ar t h e to tal qu an tity allo cat e d w as in cre a se d t o m e r c o n s t i t .

— P ota sh K 0 sold rom the German Mines b Countries 1 1 1 , ( 2 ) f , y , 9 3 9

in M etric Tons .

Co un try .

Un it e d Kin gd o m s r a - I Au t i Hun gary 9 , 49 7 Italy Scan din a v ia D e n m ar k Russia a n d Baltic ro n ce s I 6 P vi i 477 3 , 59 Spa in Othe r co un tri e s

60 80 9 , 7 o r me r ca 111 N th A i , cludin g H aw a u Ce n tra l Am e ric a So uth Am erica Afric a s a n c n a s A i , i ludi g E t In die s

Gran d To ta l

2 n K alis n dicatc 1 1 2 0 Germa y . The American F ertiliz er H an db oo k , 9 . 1 0

1 2 D EPOSITS . OF S OLUB LE POTASH MINERALS

the salts can be used fo r fertilizing purposes without previous

o f - a reﬁning , whilst the preparation a high grade pot ssium

chloride is simple and cheap , as no potassium sulphate is

present .

o Alsatian Crude and M anu actured otash S alts l Analyses f f P .

I n so l .

Ka in it e (Sylvin ite ) Man ure s alts

Muriate o f po ta sh

S u lpha te o f po ta sh

1 2 1 n il in e a c c a se . N a 8 MgC 2 h 2 04 .

The ﬁrst Shaft for obtaining potash was started in 1 91 0 by

- A e fﬁ the Gewerkschaft m lie , several a liated companies being also formed shortly afterwards in order to proﬁt by the regu o f latio ns the German potash kartel , which allowed a given W 1 1 1 output for each company orking hectares . In 9

A e . t o the control of the m lie Co passed the Deutsche Kaliwerke , At S e e of S tassfurt . a later date the ociété Th r se was formed by French and Alsatian capitalists t o work concessions cover

ing hectares . This company has sunk two shafts t o the f t w o o . deposit , and more are in course sinking On the eve o f war the four chief groups carrying o n opera 1 A e Max E M tions comprised ( ) the m lie , , lze , Joseph , arie M L and arie ouise corporations , which were absorbed some e o f S 2 years ago by the Deutsch Kaliwerke , tassfurt ; ( ) the Theodor and Prinz Eugen corporations belonging t o the Gewerk W o f o n W F Schaft intershall , Heringen the erra ; (3) the ranco e a o f V S t . e e A Alsati n group ogt , which controlled the Th r se , lix , Rudolph and B attenheim companies ; (4) the Reichsland and Anna companies controlled by the Hohenzollern (Roe chling) n L Of 1 06 o f F o . group reden the eine the concessions made , 8 o f 7 were under the control the Deutsche Kaliwerke , and the remainder under the S ociété Therese FRANCE 1 3

At o f i o f a the time the Sign ng the armistice , the c pital invested in the Alsatian potash industry w as divided as follows : Germ an and Alsatian Government capital 55 per

a 2 . cent . French capit l 5 per cent Alsatian capital 2 0 per r 1 cent . [ 5 /p . The following details o f borings made in Alsace may be of interest The potash bed w as struck in the neighbour l M i R ax Co . f s o t . hood eichwei er by the at , whil t at the Marie and Louise mines in the same neighbourhood the bed

and . w as I O 2 0 . found at ft respectively , to ft in s a l thickne s , dipping at and having potassium ch oride content of about 40 per cent . Potash was struck o n the Elze and f t . w as and Joseph concessions at , whilst it n o n found a t a d ft . the Theodor and Prinz Eugen concessions a t Wittelsheim in a bed having an average content f o f . o R a 2 5 per cent potassium chloride . The eichsl nd co n cessions have two shafts which met the potash beds at l ft . 2 2 2 , the upper and ower beds containing to 5 per cent . 1 o f l 8 2 0 . and to per cent potassium chloride respective y . At Ensisheim the Alsatian group of ﬁnanciers has sun k two a o n Al R l Sh fts the ix and udo ph concessions , which cut the a pot sh beds at and ft . Production at the Société Thé ré se mines had just commenced at the outbreak o f war ; at the latter period o f the war all L four shafts were ﬂooded . ittle damage appears to have ul and res ted , in this respect the mines differ from those of

S o t o tassfurt , where ﬂooding appears necessitate permanent Amé lie o f . w as abandonment the mines The mine , which o n o h as l l e f the largest producers before the war , a arge p ant

o f - a for the recovery high grade pot sh salts , which was

is . damaged during the war , but now in working order The

R sla as eich nd mine , which was in better condition regards the raw mine workings and reﬁnery , is producing and reﬁned

al s ts . a are i la The Alsati n potash works equipped w th modern p nt , a nd some have installations for the manufacture o f high - gra de

t - po assium chloride . The pit heads are all connected with the

l a are l l rai w y , and the mines and works supp ied with e ectric 1 4 D EPOS I TS OF S OLUB LE POTASH MI NERALS \ The following table gives recent outputs o f crude salts in Alsace ‘

Me tric Tons . 1 9 1 7 1 9 1 8 1 9 1 9 1 92 0

1 2 0 as F The output during 9 was distributed follows rance , U S tons nited tates , tons Belgium ,

a . tons Great Brit in , tons The present output is being provided by 1 8 works producing the crude salt and by 3 potassium chloride reﬁning plants . The possible future annual production o f the mines al ready a I equipped in Alsace appears to be very consider ble . t is estimated that each fully equipped Shaft Should have a haul ing a o f 800 il o n hi cap city at least tons da y , and t s basis the shafts al ready equipped would have a daily capacity o f tons i ul al o f crude salt . Th s quantity wo d be roughly equ t o the ’ - o f world s pre war consumption potash . It was estimated at o f the time the armistice , however , that at least two years would be required to repair and bring these present shafts to a their full producing cap city . Descriptions o f the potash mines o f Alsace and their working will be found in references [1 57] and 1 1 During 9 3 , drilling was in progress near Belfort , with a

View t o locating an extension o f the Alsatian deposits . Wells

- - Ch arnesis S were sunk at Chavannes les Grands , and uara , but

S O far no results have been announced . H olland — S . aline deposits carrying potash are reported to S o f O . o occur near Wessel , in the province veryssel far as can no be determined production has been made , and the deposits diﬁ icult o f are somewhat access . D enmark — According to recent information potash deposits S ch erreb eck o f 2 2 0 have been found at , Denmark , at a depth metres . P oland - The Austrian Potash S yndicate— which consisted o f the Austrian Government a nd a group o f capitalists- con a 1 1 trolled the Galician potash deposits in K lusz until 9 3 , when

a local company took over the control . The deposits were o f t a u only local impor ance , the nnual outp t of about — POLAND RUSS I A— S PAI N 1 5 tons being insufﬁ cient to supply the demands o f the former

- E 1 1 o f a Austro Hungarian mpire , for in 9 3 , tons pot sh

‘ (KzO) h ad to be imported from Germany . The four be ds o f ka inite and sylvite vary in thickness up to 2 0 ft and are a stated to be lenticul ar in form . The aver ge content o f b I potash (K20) is stated t o be a out O per cent . I n M 1 2 1 arch 9 , it was reported that the output , which o f was at the rate wagons per annum , could be increased l tenfold if wagons and transport were avai able . Additional capital has been authorized in order to develop the mines o r o f 1 further . F a description the deposit reference [ 75]

Should be consulted . Pota sh deposits a re stated t o occur in the S t eppenit z district o f E so astern Galicia , but far no production has been recorded

Russia — From time t o time occurrences o f workable potash R deposits in ussia have been reported , but little information

is available as to their extent o r value . It w as stated in 1 91 7 that considerable deposits o f potash had been located by a S P scientiﬁc expedition near olikamsk , in the erm district According to certain authorities the salts appear to contain f a . o ﬁ from 5 to 7 per cent potash , an mount hardly suf cient t o prove remunerative in ordinary times ; but other accounts t al o f credi the raw materi with as much as 2 0 per cent . potash A communication published in Essen by a German geologist also refers to the occurrence o f potash deposits in Russian

- Poland . Before the war it was known that the potash bearing

Z echstein S extended from Germany not only into ilesia , but

also into Poland and West Prussia . Sp ain — Deposits o f potash sal ts were found some years ago

C C a in the salt district of ardona in atalonia , in folded str ta

considered to be o f Tertiary age . They have been prospected o f S a - o f C chieﬂy near the town uri , to the south west ardona ,

where borings have been made . The resul ts obtained up t o R . M 1 91 4 have been described by C ubio and A . arin l from their account the following detai s were obtained . I n the valley o f the Riera de To rdell the salt deposit is n covered b y marls . Between these a d the potash deposits 1 6 D EPOS ITS OF S OLUB LE POTASH MI NERALS

o f l there are interposed deposits gypsum and sa t . During al a ne prospecting operations sever borings were m de . O of a a o f 1 these re ched depth 97 ft . and struck the deposit of a 1 A t 2 . 8 o potash salts 5 ft nother reached 3 0 ft . and began t a 1 I n a t 82 . enter the bed of salt ft third , salt was met

1 6 f . an t d a 8 . with at 4 , boring was stopped at depth of 55 ft a l . V a in pure white salt arious se ms of c rnal ite , mixed very ul l I n w . irreg arly ith sa t , were encountered another boring

o f a 2 6 ft . thin beds carn llite were traversed at a depth of 4 , o f a 886 a . and boring w s stopped at a depth ft . in white s lt A shaft sunk through the surface marls struck salt at a depth

A - al o f about 2 2 3 it . t about this depth a cross cut and a vertic

- boring were made . The cross cut passed through anhydrite into carnallite . The carnallite was found in irregular beds , sometimes S O broken up that it formed mere patches in the rock salt . The latter occurs in beds separated by ﬁne leaf like deposits o f anhydrite (the typ ical year rings of the

8 . Germans) . These beds of anhydrite are from 4 to mm

2 0 . 1 . (1 to in . ) and those of rock salt from to 3 cm (2 to 2 in )

At o f - thick . the end the cross cut , a horizontal boring of about 85 ft . has been made . In both the horizontal and al o f vertic borings carnallite occurs , sometimes in seams pure S mineral and sometimes mixed with rock salt . ylvite appears a a at the bottom of the vertic l Sh ft in two bands , whilst in the horizontal boring of the cross - cut it is mixed with masses of

A - carnallite . ccording to observations made in the cross cut o f 1 f l al . o a 2 there is a tot thickness 3 ft carn lite and 3 ft . o f an intimate and irregular mixture o f rock sal t a nd p o t asli o f n salts . These zones mixture are so irregular that it is o t 0 safe to assume that they contain more than 3 per cent . of l I n l carna lite . the horizonta boring there appears to be a - f l and - l 8 . o 2 . o f tota thickness of 4 9 ft carna lite 39 ft sylvite . An accurate estimate cannot yet be made a s t o the proportion On o f al . potash s ts in these veins a conservative basis , how m a ever , it y be assumed that the carnallite veins contain f 0 . o as 5 per cent the pure mineral , and that those described

o f - a al a 2 0 consisting rock s lt and potash miner s c rry per cent . On o f o f the latter . this basis the gross thicknesses the potash minerals may be estimated t o be as follows : S PAI N 1 7

Cross—cut and H ori z ontal B oring

Mixture (es tim ate d a s e qual t o pure min e ral) Othe r po ta sh-be arin g be ds

Vertical B oring

Feet . f n t o re m n e ra 6 -0 arna e 2 t . e a e C llit , 7 , quiv l t pu i l 3 f a n r m n r -2 arn a e an d ro c sa 1 2 1 t . e e t o e e a 0 C llit k lt , , quiv l t pu i l 3 5 al n t o re m n e ra - e 1 ft . e e Sylvit , 9 , quiv t pu i l 4 75

On o f the whole , the average thicknesses the beds of potash minerals encountered may be estimated as follows Carnallite - - 1 1 1 . about 56 ft . ; sylvite 2 3 to 3 ft The results obtained by borings are as yet inadequate to afford a satisfactory basis fo r cal culating the cubic contents o f these beds . F o n rom observations hitherto made it is estimated , a con serv ativ e S basis , that in the uria district the potash beds o f occupy an area not less than 75 acres , whilst the total area o f S probably largely exceeds this ﬁgure . The carnallite uria is deep red in colour and h as much the same average percen o S Va tage f potash as the tassfurt mineral . rious specimens have been an al ysed with the following percentage results :

- - - Po tash K oo 1 2 50 1 5 2 6 1 2 30 1 1 52 Ma gne sia Mgo 1 0 -0 7 1 3 -06 1 2 -0 2 9 -38 Chlo rin e CI 44 -70 4 1 -50 4 1 -50 46 -70 - - - - Sulphuric anhydride 8 03 1 0 7 0 46 0 82 0 7 1

Other specimens gave the following percentage results °

Po tassium Chlo rid e KCI So dium chlo ride N a Cl Ma gn e sium chlo ride MgClz

l no t These analyses indicate that the carnal ite is pure , but l and l rather a mixture with sy vite sodium ch oride . I n Cardona the deposits occur in the axis of a Sharp anti

’ 2 2 0 R cline some yards from the town , close to the iver Cardo n r e . The upper beds are interbedded with gypsum and

l e c ay , and are much folded and fractured . These d posits are as th e M Red S l on known locally ountain of a t , account of 1 8 D EPOSITS OF S OLUB LE POTAS H MI NERALS

a o f their ch racteristic colour , although beds white and trans al parent s t al so occur . Below these beds a large compa ct o f mass transparent and very pure white salt is found , which l F is that principa ly mined . ormerly it was obtained by t o open workings , but underground mining is now resorted ,

1 60 . al the shaft being ft deep and sunk entirely in the s t . P l at C otash salts had not been previous y recognized ardona , w as S but search made for them after the discovery at uria , a n and nearly pure crystalline sylvite , v ryi g in colour from o ne a white transparent variety to of a more reddish tint , S al w as found . pecimens have been an ysed with the following results

White

P e r ce n . P er ce n . r c t t P e en t .

1 - - - Po tash K 2 0 6 3 2 6 2 1 9 6 1 9 7 Ma gn e sia MgO n il tra ce tra c e

1 Equivale n t t o po tassium c hlo ride (K CI)

The works at Cardona are traversed by a small stream , the a f I w ters o which are highly charged with salts . t is cal cul ated 1 t o f that 5 ons salt per day are lost by this means . S amples o f this water were found o n analysis to contain from 1 0 t o 8 o f K O 4 grams potash ( g ) per litre , indicating that a large o f l C quantity sylvite probab y exists in the ardona salt beds . Concessions to prospect for potash are limited to a n area S o n C enclosed by olsona the north , and Tarrega , ervera and M o n anresa the south , the entire district being practically con S L r 1 ﬁned between the egre and lobregat rivers [ /p . I n July 1 91 4 a Bill was presented to the Cortes by the Minister o f Public Works making the exploitation o f the deposits subj ect to S tate intervention . The Bill provided for the imposition o f special conditions in favour o f the home consumption o f l potash sa ts , and decreed that a mine producing potash may no t so suspend its Operations long as the mineral can be mined , unl ess the Operations are being conducted at a loss o r for cer tain other reasons . A d r is o n O r 1 1 1 royal ec ee , publ hed ctobe , 9 4, directed that

2 0 D EPOSITS OF S OLUB LE POTASH MI NERALS

P S S o ne otash yndicate , several panish companies and group o f A merican capitalists . Although the Spanish deposits extend over a considerable so as area , the potash does not occur regularly in the beds at S M A W tassfurt and ulhouse ( lsace) . orking would also appear to be more difﬁ cult owing to the beds being somewhat steeply inclined . A o f ccording to a recent publication , the amount potash in Sight in the S panish deposits is t o o small to be o f international fo r l importance . Estimates the area prospected p ace the quantity o f carnallite at tons and o f sylvite at

tons compared with million tons , the estimate o se e fo r the Stassfurt basin . F r further information references [1 4] and — I n dia . P otash minerals , occurring in regular deposits , have been recorded from several localities notably the Mayo mine S N R P . at Khewra , and urpur , in the alt ange , unj ab The o f 0 deposits potassium nitrate described later (see p . 4 ) cannot o f be accurately described as being mineral origin . 1 8 set o f o f M In 73 , while a samples salt from the ayo mine fo r V E was being prepared transmission to the ienna xhibition , o f kallar o r s it was observed that a certain band , impure alt , n through which a drift was bei g excavated , had an unusual F h o d . S We hardness urther examination that this band , which o f f f 6 t . o had a thickness about , consisted sylvite , kieserite , langbeinite (anhydrous double sulphate o f potas sium and K SO 2 M SO a magnesium , z 4 , g 4) and common salt ; the tot l quantity o f material then obtained amounted t o only about t o n L a t o th half a . ittle attention seems t o have been p id e l 1 1 2 S occurrence unti about 9 , when the Geological urvey f o India continued the investigation o f the deposit . Detailed

A . . accounts of the deposits have been given by W . K Christie M S [1 6] and . tuart The potash beds at the Mayo mine are generally overlaid am o f o f by se s marl , above which occur seams salt , which are mined by the Northern I ndia S alt Revenue Department .

In these circumstances the potash bed is not often exposed . P o f In the harwala section the mine , the principal bed carrying potash minerals h as been traced for adistance o f about 850 ft . I ND IA 2 1

N . O l W. 2 0 . a along its strike and 5 ft ong its dip , which is about 3 , ° with an inclination of 2 0 to This bed h as an average - - f a 6 8 6 . o t hickn ess o f 6 ft . and c rries from to 9 per cent potash (K zO) . I n o f M o f the Buggy section the ayo mine , the only seam

in . a a n 2 . any import nce found has an verage thick ess of ft 9 ,

- o f a K O . and carries 1 4 4 per cent . pot sh ( g ) The seam thins ll al out when fo owed upwards ong the bedding , and at a dis

tance of 1 70 ft . from the nearest exposure it has a thickness

o f only a few inches . The Nurpur deposit is situated in a small salt mine in the

Nilaw an l L a . gorge of , about eleven mi es from the railway at ill

al - The princip potash bearing seam , which is exposed at only a t E. l 6 S . o ne . p ace , is about ft thick , dipping in a direction ° ha s E. about and having a strike N . 40 The seam a f a n o 6 ft . true thick ess about , the pot sh minerals being chieﬂy a ll langbeinite and sylvite , but there lso occur sma amounts o f blé dite a o f kainite and (sulph te magnesium and sodium , M SO Na S H a O 6 O . A g 4 , z 4 , 2 ) further seam has lso been located , but both this and the preceding are stated to be very irregular and f di ﬁcult t o work . During 1 91 6 a small quantity o f sal ts carrying about 1 4 per o f K cent . potash ( gO) was excavated from the Nurpur deposit N I S l R by the orthern ndia a t evenue Department , and during 1 1 8 o f 2 9 9 about 3 tons potash salts , valued at £4 at the mines , An was produced . examination o f numerous other outcrops in the Nilaw an ravine failed t o locate potash deposits o f any

probable importance . I n the table (p . 2 2 ) is shown the composition o f average

P l - S N samples from the harwa a ujowal , Buggy and urpur a al C W. A . . se ms , the first three an yses being by K hristie , whilst the last w as made in th e S cientific and Technical R o f I I esearch Department the mperial nstitute . I t is remarked that considerable diffi culty would be exp eri en ced in obtaining pure potash salts from mixtures such as al are represented by the an yses (p . Ow ing to the differ o f ence in mineralogical composition , methods treatment now E l l employed in urope wou d probably prove to be inapplicab e . A t o ccording M. S tuart the salt w as deposited in zones 2 2 D EPOS ITS OF S OLUB LE POTASH MI NERALS

r r B uggy . N u pu .

P er cent . Po ta ssium So dium (calculate d) N a Magn e sium Calcium

Sulphuric a cid

In so luble m atte r

corresponding to those recognized at S ta ssfurt . He suggests G that the uppermost zone , corresponding to the erman car n allit e zone , has been removed by overthrust , and the three lowest of the Indian zones he names in descending order— the S o o f Khewra , Warcha and Kohat . far , no potash deposits any importance have been located in the Kohat zone , traces S only being found at Nandrakh a and Kalabagh . M. tuart considers that the salt deposits to the west o f the Indus will not yield potash o n a commercial scale . At the Warcha sal t mines in the Shahpur district there is a o f o f o ut seam potash salts some thickness , but it thins in I depth . t is suggested that this occurrence may be worth further investigation . S 1 o f M. tuart [ 7] states that , although a certain amount and W potash will always be found in the Khewra archa zones , the present distribution is so irregular that no continuous bed o f S a R potash is likely to be found anywhere in the lt ange , and that the recovery o f potash salts can here only prove

- remunerative as a b y product in s a l t mining . Canada — I n N S i Cumberland county, ova cot a , important I n deposits o f common salt are worked at Malagash . connec tion with these is a lenticular deposit of potassium chloride in o f the form sylvite in a halite matrix . The potash zone , which

ft . en co un varies in width from a few inches to 5 , has been t ered 0 o f a at two points , 3 feet apart . The amount pot ssium chloride present in the crude material varies considerably ; - - o f two different samples giving 1 1 6 and 8 7 per cent . potash respectively

Ab ssinia - A o - al y . deposit f high grade potash s ts was dis ABYSS INIA 2 3

covered in 1 91 1 by an I talian resident o f the colony of

E S D ancalia - S ix ritrea , at Dallol , in outhern , about forty miles l Red S ea l Fatimari in and from the sett ement of , and about

' o i ten miles from the I talian frontier Eritrea . The deposits t o are stated occur in a barren and waterless district , and this may have been the reason for their not being worked 1 1 f ul until 9 4 . Transport di ﬁc ties were considerable , as con a v eyan ce by camel was the only means then vailable . In 1 1 I 9 4 an talian company was formed to work the deposits , and it w as reported that a force o f men was then employed in making a road to the coast and constructing a wharf a t Fatim i ar . The salts had then to be sent to the port by 2 0 camel , at a cost of 5 francs per ton , and were conveyed from l a o r the port either by ighters to steamer , sent by dhows to Aden o r Massowah for trans - shipment Recently a 6 h as i Fatimari light railway, 4 miles long , been bu lt from to

A and 1 0- the nearest point on the byssinian boundary, a mile

motor road beyond it to the deposit . Recent outputs in metric f o . : 1 1 6 1 1 tons 95 per cent material have been 9 , 9 7, 1 1 1 2 0 9 9, 934 ; and 9 , The salts have been F and U exported to Italy , rance , Great Britain , Japan the nited S tates o f The deposit , which occurs in a salt plain having an area 8 l l 2 2 00 . about 4 square miles , ies most y in a depression ft

se a - A l below level . t the surface is found potassium ch oride f o a 0 . al bout 9 per cent purity , the quantity of this s t being

estimated at about metric tons . The lower layers carry 8 0 0 . o f d from 4 to per cent the chlori e , and have been estimated o f to be equivalent to tons 95 per cent . potassium hl c oride . The working o f the deposit has been considerably facilitated by the ease with which a high - grade sal t can be a o f a obt ined , but the cost the product is consider bly increased C by the high transport charges . onsiderable variation occurs in the composition of the salts : at some points o f the deposit l sodium ch oride predominates , but in all cases the quantity hl of magnesium c oride is low , and traces of bromides have l been found to occur in on y a few cases . The waters o f the al o f o f therm springs Dallol, which emerge at a temperature ° ° 80 to 0 f o f C. o 9 , consist saturated solutions magnesium 2 4 D EPOS ITS OF S OLUB LE POTASH MI NERALS

l ch oride , together with appreciable quantities of magnesium bromide and traces of sodium chloride Ni ia — ger . The preparation o f salt from saline earth is a a o f N ul native industry in certain p rts igeria , partic arly in M N P I t the anga district of the orthern rovince . may be noted that the term potash seems here to be applied to certain

- al l native prepared s ts which contain , at the best , ittle more o f l a than traces that substance . Numerous ana yses m de at the I mperial I nstitute have shown that such m aterial usually o f O consists of sesquicarbonate soda ) . A description o f the methods o f preparing sal t from alkali soils h as been given in the Reports o f the Mineral S urvey o f Northern Nigeria for 1 904— 5 and 1 906—7 I n the following table is given the composition of certain l a sa ts , prepared by native methods from impregn ted soils , which o n analysis at the I mperial Institute were found to contain notable quantities o f potash :

P er cen . P er cen . P er cen . P er cent . t t t Po ta ssium chlo rid e K Cl 4 -6 7 1 0 -00 8 -2 7 -72 So dium c hlo ride N a Cl 1 4 -98 4 3 -94 8 1 -00 6 1 5 1 - - - su lphate N a 2504 37 4 5 2 7 85 2 3 1 7 - c arbo n ate N a gCo a 2 36 2 44 a a 8 M gne sium sulph t e MgS O;. 55 n so e m a e r - 2 2 -88 I lubl tt 7 4 _ Wa te r 1 -8 2 2 -1 2

1 . S h e dd a n o sa an a s r c e s o rn . lt , M g di t i t , W t B u

2 . e s s a an a s r c e s o rn . Pi ki lt , M g di t i t , W t B u a r r 3 . S lt p e pa e d fro m Brin e Sprin gs at Aw e .

. a ro m m a Fre n c e rr o r . 4 S lt f Bil , h T it y

S o f ar can as be ascertained , none of these salts has been

' o f de o sit s fro m used as a source potash , but the p which they were obtained might be worth detailed examin ation . P eru — A deposit - containing pota ssium chl oride has been

S a An a o f Sin u as reported to occur at nta , district g in the o f A a . province requipa The deposit , which is probably a l ke

l a bottom , occurs in an arid p ain bout twelve miles from the C coast , but the nearest ports are Quilca and hala , ﬁfteen miles distant . PERU 2 5

l 1 The potassium ch oride occurs about ft . below the surface , o r l under a more less soft cong omerate , in a deposit about

1 6 . a s ft . in thick , carrying pot s ium chloride about 49 per l 0 I t 2 . 2 . cent . ; sand 4 per cent sodium ch oride per cent has been estimated that at least 5 million tons of such material L t o is available in this deposit . abour is stated be abundant ri and cheap in the dist ct . M M 2 1 al a According to . achado [ ] s t deposits c rrying some o n o f Ca A potash occur the plain the marones , between rica

an d Z a apiga . The deposits occur under a h rd conglomerate

. A rock , which is 3 to 5 ft in thickness . preliminary examina no t ul o f tion of the deposit did give very promising res ts , few l a 1 o r 2 . o f the samp es showing more th n per cent potash . I n 1 91 8 rich deposits o f pota sh were reported to occur in the Maco plantation in the province o f Jauja CHAPTER I I I

SALT LAKES AND PANS

I N many arid regions lake basins occur from which the wa ter o r a l a has wholly p rtia ly ev porated , leaving the salts pre v i u l a l ll o ut o s y c rried in so ution . These salts have crysta ized o f in approximately the reverse order their solubility , and as potassium chl oride is much more soluble in saline solutions di l than either so um ch oride or sodium carbonate , the potassium salts are usually found in the residual liquor that impregnates di the crystalline so um salts in these lakes . During the war important quantities o f potassium salts were produced from o f S this class deposit in the United tates and Tunis . United S tates — Many areas o f this character occur in the o f U S western portion”the nited tates , being there termed o f desert basins , and a large number them have been examined for potash salts AS it is impossible to predict whether any given lake basin will yield potash salts , it is al l necessary to make tri borings , and to ana yse the salts M and brines obtained . any such occurrences have been a U S ul o f hi ex mined in the nited tates , the res ts w ch will be found in the numerous publications on the subj ect issued by i I n the United S tates Geolog cal Survey . several deposits potash salts have been located in quantity sufﬁcient to pay for in work g . K During the years 1 91 6 to 1 92 0 the quantity o f potash ( 2O) produced in the United S tates from such sources amounted t o and short tons respectively The possibility o f recovering potash o n a commercial scale from the numerous salt lakes in the United S tates depends upon

o f l b - l a number factors , such as ocation , y products obtainab e , no t l l o f etc . , and is determined so e y by the amount potash 2 6

2 8 SALT LAKES AND PANS is estimated that the brine contains over 2 0 million tons o f potash (KZO) A o f six l nalyses the brine obtainable from wel s in the lake ,

0 0 . at 3 to 4 ft below the surface , showed an average content f a o . o f o f bout 33 per cent salts . The average composition a these salts is given in the following t ble , in which they are shown cal culated to the conventional hypothetical co m b inatio ns 6 [2 /p .

Po ta ssium chlo ride K Cl So dium chlo rid e N a Cl m 8 So diu s ulphate N a2 04 . So dium c arbo n a te N a gCO 3 So dium bibo rate N a2B 4O 7 So dium arse n ate N a 3AS O 4

The original brine contains a varying percentage o f sodium bicarbonate , which is included with the sodium carbonate in the above analysis . Although potash had been shown to occur in the lake brines as 1 8 8 al as far back 9 , and the s ts had been worked for borax 1 1 and sodium carbonate for some years , it was not until 9 3 that the proj ect o f extracting potash received adequate

al . a ﬁnanci assistance In the previous ye r , it had been shown from results o f examinations made by the United S tates S o f S Geological urvey and the Bureau oils , that the brine obtained by borings in the basin contained a high percentage o f potassium chloride . The deposits have now been connected ,

- ﬁ v e o f S o n M by twenty miles rail , with earles , the oj ave a C a Owenyo br nch o f the Southern Paciﬁc Railway . ommerci l

a a - ash working has shown that potassium chloride , bor x , sod , sodium chloride and sodium sulphate can be recovered o n a a I t l rge scale at a fair proﬁt . has been stated that nearly

1 5 million dollars has been invested in developing the industry . S l a The deposits are being worked by four companies , the o v y P C W End C al a rocess ompany , est hemic Comp ny , Burnham

Process Company and the Trona Corporation . The brine utilized by the latter company is pumped from Six wells drilled in the al l a o f s t crust , the pumps de ivering about g llons brine

- o f per twenty four hours . The brine passes through a series

- single and triple effect evaporating pans , where sodium sul UNITED STATES 2 9

a o ut phate , chloride and carbon te separate , and are removed l W f l to the waste sa t cones . hen su ﬁcient y concentrated , the al l l l liquid is run to cryst lizing vats , where it coo s s ow y for f a a . At o a bout eight d ys the end this period , the sep rated

al are a l th e cryst s removed , dr ined and dried , whi st mother t o a liquor is returned the evaporating p ns , which treat gallons o f brine and gallons o f mother liquor each

- twenty four hours . Fo r several years the potash salts sold for fertilizing purposes by the companies working S earles La ke contained up to 3 o f as a a per cent . borax , but tri ls indic ted that borax was

a la a h rmful to p nt growth , the qu ntity present in the products

sold w as considera bly reduced . a a a o n The US . uthorities h ve pl ced such restrictions the use o f potash salts as will prevent the a pplication o f more than P o f a . 2 lb . nhydrous borax per acre roducers are forbidden

5 to sell potash s alts as fertilizers which contain more than 1 2, of lb 1 i 2 . per cent . borax , or mixed fert lizers with more than

of borax per ton unless the contents are clearly indicated . The co mpo sit l o ns o f crude brine and commercial potash sal ts now sold by the American Trona Corporation are shown in the following table

90 p er c en t . B rine . S a lts .

So dium chlo ride N aCl So dium sulpha te N a 2 8 04 So dium c arbo n ate N a oCo g B So dium bibo rate N ag 4O 7 Po ta ssium chlo rid e KCl Mo isture

The production o f the crude potash sal ts is carried o ut at

a - o f Tron on the south east edge of the lake . About 50 tons pot ash salts and 2 5 tons of reﬁned borax are being produced

daﬂy . The American Trona Corporation during 1 91 7 produced tons o f crude potash salts and 51 6 tons o f reﬁned l an d 1 1 8 a u potash sa ts , in 9 the mo nt recovered was short tons o f crude pota sh salts containing tons o f 30 S ALT LAKES AND PANS

hl r . A n o A potassium c o ide ccordi g t . de Ropp in 1 91 8 alterations were being made in the process which would result in a production of tons per month o f sal ts carrying 75 80 o f - to per cent . potassium chloride and less than 3 5 per cent o f borax . E A . . 2 vidence , given by C Harrigan [ 7] before the Commis o n M M f o US . S sion ines and ining the enate , indicated that

o f o f 1 00 KCl a the costs production per ton per cent . s lts at S earles Lake early in 1 91 8 were as follow : 5 1 9 -60 Ge n e ral o ve rh e ad e xpe n se s 3 -75 6 -03 Sale s e xpe nse s 3 -50 0 52

30 -00 To tal co sts 3 7 -2 5

A t o n o f 80 o f u l salts carrying per cent . potassi m ch oride 1 2 would therefore cost $3 5, but to this must be added freight 1 to consumers and other charges amounting to $ 77 2 . F h as uel been the chief expense in the past , but this item is now being reduced by a more extensive u se of solar evapora

a a 6 . tion in spr y ponds , which averages in depth bout ft S l l o per year . o ar evaporation is emp oyed by two f the S earles L a ake comp nies for preliminary concentration of the brine , and a third company claims to produce reﬁned potash salts and borax solely by this means . A good account o f the reﬁning process now used at S earles

Lake has been given recently by L. W. Chapman I n north - west Nebraska potash salts occur in various quan o f l tities in the salts and brines numerous alka i lakes , especially M l a n G C S d . in herry , heridan , Box , Butte , orri l arden counties The areas of these lakes vary from an acre up to more than

1 2 0 a . o f two Square miles . During 9 bout 45 per cent the potash produced in the United S tates was obt ained from

a - such l kes in north west Nebraska . One is La of the largest of these Jesse ke , three miles north

o f H o fﬂand a o f 2 0 . , which has an are about 4 acres This lake received attention as a possible source o f potash in 1 1 1 o n al 9 , but production a commercial sc e did not commence 1 1 1 i until 1 9 5. About the middle of 9 7 it was cla m ed that UNITED STATES 3 1 the production o f high - grade po tash sal ts amounted t o over

short tons per a nnum . The surface brines carry from - - f al a 1 2 1 1 . o 3 to 4 per cent dissolved s ts , of which pot sh com - - a re prises from 2 6 4 to 34 8 per cent . The brines utilized those occurring in the bed of the lake under a thin layer o f hard an - p . The brine is pumped through a pipe line to the o n i H o fﬂand l plant the ra lroad at , heated , passed down a so ar

- t o f o . W tower, and thence triple e fect evap rators hen its ° h as 0 B é t o speciﬁc gravity been raised to 3 , it is passed single f o f al e fect evaporators where part the s ts is removed , the ° t o 8 B é t o ll liquid being concentrated 4 , and run crysta izing

. al vats The s ts produced , which are largely sulphates and f K 0 2 . o carbonates , and contain about 7 per cent potash ( 2 ) , are then run to rotary driers and reduced to a dry clinker- like

An is C L other company working the brine from ook ake , which is situated about o ne mile north- west from the railroad L at akeside , where the evaporating plant is situated . Here again the chief source o f the rich brine is the porous stratum a t o f a the bottom the l ke , the surface liquors during most seasons being t o o weak to repay evaporation . The rich brines are trea ted in a manner similar to those from Jesse Lake (see

o f . above) , and yield a product much the same composition Two companies ha ve evaporating plant o n the railro ad at A o n e l L ntioch , uti izing the brine from Taylor ake , three miles il al to the east , wh st the other treats brine from several sm l a l l kes occurring about three mi es t o the north . I t is reported that about 1 2 million dollars have been N invested in the ebraska potash industry , the prospects for ar which e still uncert ain . At the conclusion o f hostilities the a industry received severe check , due to consumers not buying in the expectation of obtaining relatively cheap potash from E urope . The Nebraska producers were left with about a a at a tons of mixed s lts on h nd , which were unsaleable except w as price below the cost of production , and further production

a . l tempor rily suspended However , the expected foreign supp y o f a a a l l pot sh f iled to m teria ize , and not on y were the stocks o f in hand disposed , but production was actively resumed at many o f the plants in the latter half of 1 91 9 32 S ALT LAKES AND PANS The recovery processes have already been much altered w a s and Since the industry commenced , further improvements are constantly being effected as the result of experience gained i in work ng . I n Utah at least two companies have recovered potash salts L One as from the water of Great S alt ake . w formed to treat the waste mother- liquor o f the salt works near Potash S iding , whilst the other treats the lake water directly . f a 2 0 . o The lake water contains bout per cent dissolved solids , f di l o 6 . which about 7 per cent is so um ch oride , whilst the a potassium chl oride amounts to bout 2 per cent . The waste from the sal t works near P otash Siding consists o f o f ul a saturated solution sodium chloride and s phate , together with potash salts equivalent to from 2 -5 to 3 per f K . o al cent potash ( gO) . By evaporation and fraction crys t alliz atio n f a sal t carrying from 9 t o 1 2 per cent . o potash is obtained . The plant o f the compa ny treating the lake water is Situated

o n R . at Grants , the Western Paciﬁc ailroad The brine is

- evaporated by solar action in clay bottomed troughs , until the

a o f . pot sh content the mother liquor is about 4 per cent , when

a a a . it is sep rated from the deposited cryst ls of s lt , etc , further l ll I t evaporated and fractional y crysta ized . does not seem probable that this proj ect will long survive the competition from imported fertilizer salts . S alduro S alt Marsh lies o n the main line o f the Western P R il a 1 0 t o 1 1 6 o f S L C aciﬁc a w y , 9 miles west alt ake ity , l U . 1 2 tah The deposit , which covers about 5 square mi es , on S L l l the surface resembles earles ake , but the sa t crust is on y

3 to 5 ft . deep , being underlaid by an undetermined depth of al l s ine mud saturated with brine . The so id matter in the brine : di 81 carries so um chloride , magnesium chloride , 9 potassium l 2 . o f ch oride , 7 ; and sodium sulphate , per cent The plant U S a C m 1 1 6 the tah lduro o pany , erected in 9 , and Since extended ,

- produces a high grade pot assium chl oride . The two products a o f re sold cont in 85 and 2 5 per cent . potassium chloride al o f sp e ct iv ely . The company has a capit O La C wens ke , alifornia , which has been worked as a source o f l o n u sodium carbonate , has a so received attention acco nt UNITED STATES — IND IA— CH I NA— TUNI S 33

o f its potash content . The lake has an area of about 97 square f o f 2 t . e a miles , and an average depth 9 , the brin c rrying in f di o a 1 1 . o z solution bout per cent salts , inclu ng about per

o f a l . cent . pot ssium ch oride The principal salt recovered is f o . o sodium carb nate , which constitutes about 45 per cent the al total solids in solution , whilst a potash s t is obtained from i o f the mother l quor . The process used for the recovery the h as C Elsch ner potash from these liquors been described by . C [2 9] and L. W . hapman The production is stated not t o exceed o ne ton o f potash per day , whilst the operating costs are relatively high Descriptions and references to the other numerous lakes in Uni S the ted tates , which have been found to contain potash , will be found in the M in era l Resources of the United S tates — f or 1 91 5 1 9. I n 1 92 0 potash sal ts obtained from natural brines in the U S hi nited tates amounted to short tons , of w ch amount N short tons were obtained from the ebraska lakes , whilst those o f Ca lifornia a nd Utah produced and tons of crude Salts respectively

I ndia - S o far a . , no potash salts h ve been produced from

. salt lakes o r brines in I ndia . The salts obtained from the L La l o f B C a onar ke , in the Bu dana district erar , entr l Provinces , 1 0 o f a have been stated to contain from 4 to per cent . pot sh K O A l ( z ) ccording to ater investigations , however , there seems to be some doubt as to the previously reported high o f a o f content pot sh in the salt , as samples the lake water 1 1 1 l - 0 o f examined in 9 showed on y o 0 9 per cent . potas sium al 8 - in a tot o f 4 per cent . of soluble salts . This would be l -1 al l l rough y 0 per cent . c cu ated on the soluble sa ts

a al The lake , 94 acres in rea , which has been worked on a sm l o f scale for many years past as a source sodium carbonate , at l l h as a its period of lowest eve a depth of bout 2 ft . Chin a — The brine obtained from the numerous wells o f Tz elinchin S 1 g , zechwan province , is stated to contain over per

f al . ai a cent . o potassium s ts The mother liquor rem ning fter the crystallization of the sodium chloride is said to contain - a over 3 5 per cent . of pot sh . Tunis — D S e l M uring the war a dry salt lake , ebkha elah , 34 SALT LAKES AND PANS

- o f Z o f situated to the south west arzis , and having an area 60 a and . about squ re miles , was worked for bromine potash The liquor beneath the salt crust o f the lake has the following : i 1 composition in grams per litre potass um chloride , 3 1 8 l 1 1 sodium chloride , 5 magnesium ch oride , 4 magnesium 2 2 2 sulphate , 3 magnesium bromide , 4 P otash was also recovered during the war from the mother o f e i liquors obtained at the salt works M gr ne . The potash a ﬂuo silicic was separated by precipit tion with acid , which was Obtained as a b y- product from the superphosphate works at El Af rane w as t o o , but later this process abandoned as being costly . A form o f carnallite (sebkhainite) has been recovered in f I quantity from the s alt deposits o S fax and Z arzis . t is stated to h ave the following p ercent age co mp o sitio n : p o t as hl 1 1 0 h sium C oride , 9 5 sodium chloride , magnesium c loride , 2 -2 l - 7 magnesium su phate , 9 3 water and insoluble matter , a El H enech e 34 . This s lt was treated at , and gave products o f containing from 35 to 95 per cent . potassium chloride . w as F The factory , which worked by the rench Government , produced between 1 91 7 and 1 91 9 the following amounts o f 0 potassium chloride tons of 3 2 to 35 per cent . 72 tons 80 8 8 2 . o f 65 to 67 per cent . and tons of 5 to 7 per cent a P About tons of bromine was also Obt ined . roduction o f ceased with the end the war .

‘ The Tunisian Government during the war erected at Ain - e s S Z o f erab , near arzis , works capable producing annually 60 0 t o . a common salt , tons ; 5 per cent pot ssium

800 . chloride , tons ; and bromine tons The works were only recently completed . — a o f M orocco . Potassium chloride occurs in cert in the o f M l Triassic formations orocco , but its extraction wou d A probably prove unremunera tive . more promising source o n o f L Z in the country is the salt land the banks ake ima , a t o between S afﬁ and Marrakech . The soil cont ins up 3 per o f cent . potash , whilst the lake waters contain about 75 grams o f potash per litre Chile — Deposits o f potash sal ts have been stated to occur o n L o f A Huasco ake in the province tacama , and also in the

36 SALT LAKES AND PANS

1 l f hi N . a o al o represents materi from the edge the s ar , w lst

No s . 2 and 3 represent the hard crust from the centre o f the

deposit . The extraction o f the potash salts from the mixture h as R C w h o been discussed by . . Wells considers that extrac tions with limited quantities o f hot water will probably prove o f the most suitable method separation . Ca na da — I n o f S l a certain parts askatchewan, alka ine l kes

occur, and these have led to attention being directed towards the possibility o f the occurrence o f deposits ca rrying potassium salts in commercial quantities The water o f Quill Lake W n ard - 1 6 o f w o 0 . at y contains per cent potassium chloride, l 0 - 6 2 . together with magnesium ch oride , 5 per cent sodium 0 -680 o f sulphate , per cent . , and small quantities sodium hl c oride and carbonate, calcium carbonate and sulphate . 1 1 Boring for potash was started, late in 9 7, in the district H al b rit e efﬂo rescence s o f between Weyburn and , where surface white salts occur during the dry season CHAPTER I V

POTASSIUM NITRATE DEPOSITS OF MI NERAL ORI GIN

Chile - Fo r . many years potassium nitrate has been known to C a occur, in small amounts, in the hili n sodium nitrate deposits, but its recovery as a b y- product o n a large scale was not a 1 1 a t o ne attempted until the war. Tow rds the end of 9 4 works a process w as installed for recovering potassium nitrate f rOm the mother liquor remaining after the crystallization o f o ne o f sodium nitrate . The process, which is evaporation

o ne - o f and fractional crystallization, recovered about third the

total potassium nitrate present . The recovered salts marketed o f 2 consisted largely a mixture containing about 5 per cent .

o f o f ﬁ rst - potassium nitrate, and the output the named product t o amounted about tons per annum , equivalent to about o f K 0 o f tons potash ( 2 ) . The possibility a large increase in the qu antity o f potash recovered from the Chilian nitra te deposits is evident when it is stated that this quantity was a o ne a obt ined by comp ny, whose output of sodium nitrate l 1 o f C l amounted to on y per cent . the total hi ian production A l e ccording to a recent consu ar r port, the production o f

o f C a nd nitrate potash in hile is being rapidly increased, al 1 2 0 s es made for delivery, up to June 9 , totalled

tons . The potash is made by further reﬁning up to 99 per f . a o 1 t o 1 1 03 cent grade, thus e rning a premium from £ £ . per

er . S o ton over the ordinary 95 p cent product . far all sales have been made in the United S tates Rhodesia — S oluble pota ssium salts ha ve been found here in a 1 1 8 banded ironstone . During 9 two samples o f the crude ma terial and o ne sample of extracted salts were examined in the S cientiﬁ c and Technical Research Department o f the I tw o o f mperial Institute . The samples crude mineral co n 37 38 POTASSI UM NITRATE D EPOS ITS t ained 1 0-0 - o f and 49 9 per cent . soluble salts respectively. The composition of the salts extracted from the shales at the I mperial I nstitute and that o f the saline m a tter prepared in R l hodesia, are shown in the following tab e, in which the constituents are calculated to their hypothetical combinations :

s ro m cru e n r S alt f d mi e a l .

P er cen . P e r cen . P er cen . P er cen t t t t . - - - - Po ta ssium sulphate K 2S O4 4 7 0 46 7 59 0 3 7 5 chlo ride K Cl 3 3 4 -1 4 -0 - - So dium su lphate N a aso , 3 5 4 4 1 2 7 - - - n itra te N aN 03 5 9 7 4 2 9 - - - Ma gne sium s ulphate MgS O 4 1 3 6 1 7 2 35 8 - - - Calcium sulphate Ca S O4 2 6 3 7 9 5 9

Analyses 1 and 2 represent the soluble matter obtained o f NO by total extraction the shales with water, whilst . 3 shows the composition o f the salts obtained by leaching the crude No 1 six material . with times its weight of water From the above ﬁgures it is evident that the composition o f the salts obtainable from the rock is subj ect to wide varia

‘ No a v ail ab le a s t o o f tions . information is the extent the occurrence o r the possibilities o f recovering potash salts o n a commercial scale . — N F r ana A Ru ssia ear e gh in Central sia there occur, in the

E - - ocene formation , certain clay limestone sandstones which o f carry from 2 to 5 per cent . saltpetre . The deposits outcrop at numerous points in a district rich in fuel and water B razil — Deposits o f potassium nitrate have been reported R at different places in the valley o f the S EO Francisco iver . The saltpetre occurs either in association with other salts n o f o r o r o the sites former ponds lakes, in numerous limestone o f l o f caverns . The remoteness the district on y permits development t o suit local demands [39/ p . The deposits o f potassium nitra te about twenty- four miles M C e o f t o from orro do hap o, in the province Bahia, are said o o n be o f very great extent, and t be awaiting exploitation a B RAZI L— VENEZ UELA 39

Analyses o f the salt as mined and as crystallized

crude, 75 per cent . potassium nitrate ; crystallized, t so 99 per cen , the material is of very high grade — Venezu ela Valuable deposits o f potassium nitrate are o f P exist near Guanare, in the state ortuguesa CHAPTER V

POTASSIUM NI TRATE DEPOSITS OF ORGANI C ORI GIN

I ndia — in - . Nitre is found the soils o f o ld village Sites in so a I various countries ; but far as can be scertained, ndia is the only country from which large quantities o f potassium nitrate obtained from this source are exported . The bulk of the Indian exports is obtained from the United P To rh u t S C rovinces, Bihar (chiefly from Gya, , aran and ham P paran) and the unj ab , whilst smaller quantities are obtained P a Ma a B from Kashmir, Central rovinces, Bomb y, dr s and urma . a The potassium nitrate, which prob bly results from the combined a ction o f bacteria and air upon nitrogenous orga nic compounds (urine, vegetable débris) in the presence of calcium carbonate, occurs in the soil mixed with nitrates of calcium and magnesium and sodium chloride . The operation of obtaining potassium nitrate from the soil is usually divided I into two stages , viz . ( ) the production of a crude nitrate which is sold t o a refiner ; 2 ) the refining o f this crude material A to produce a commercial nitrate . ltogether it has been estimated tha t there are about factories for the pro o f crud e N I and 600 duction saltpetre in orthern ndia, about o u t refineries, but it Should be pointed that the term factory a l o ne may pp y to a site worked by only man . The collection of the nitre - bea ring earth is carried o n from sur November to the commencement o f the monsoon . The

11 in l o i o f I . face the soil is scraped off to a depth 2 to , co lected

- and . into heaps, then conveyed in head loads to the factory The scraping process is repeated at intervals o f ﬁve to fourteen days according to the rate at which fresh supplies o f s alts are brought to the surface by capillary a ttraction . These a al operations are, in m ny loc ities, perf”ormed by natives of lo w Nuniah o r L caste , called unia, but in certain parts 40 I ND I A 41 o f the Central Provinces and the Punj ab the work is carried i o ut by ordinary v llagers .

The nitre- bearing earths contain amounts o f potassium 1 0 al nitrate varying from to 3 per cent . the gener average, o f however, lies between 3 and 5 per cent . The percentage certain o f the principal salts present in earths from various 1 2 localities is Shown in the following table [4 / p . 3]

N ra es o f o ass um S o i um S o um it t p t i , d di S W “? °f 53 m : m C l or e . su a e . lime and magn esium . h id lph t

P er c en . P er cen . P er cent . t t - e an ar an o o 8 0 0 1 1 6 S w , S , g d 3 5 5 4 - e a n ara n n e r o r 1 - 8 1 - 5 6 3 S w , S , i “f i 3 45 G urw a Gh a z i ur m n - 0 2 , p , iddli g 4 34 59 9 5 e ra a r n a Bh , Sh hpu , Pu j b , go o d e ra a r n a Bh , Sh hpu , Pu j b , in fe rio r Mah ao n a a a g , All h b d

The method o f extracting the salts consists in percolating the earth with a limited quantity o f water in a specially- pre o r ku thia pared earthen chamber . The latter is often circular, 6 1 6 5 to ft . in diameter, and ft . in . deep, with a ﬂoor sloping At o f from back to front . the lowest part the ﬂoor, a hole is made inthe side o f the chamber in order to allow the water t o a o u t l dr in after it has percolated through the soi , which a o f 6 t o 8 is carefully packed into the Ch mber t o a depth in .

I n t o a f f o r. a l order llow su ﬁcient space drainage, fa se bottom, o f consisting bamboos and matting about 4 in . high , is put

S l o f e o n t o into the kuthia . ma l quantities water are pour d l the earth, and that which perco ates through is collected in

murha n an earthen vessel, but only the ﬁrst runnings ( ) are a l l reserved for evaporation . The we ker iquid co lected later

dwe i a ( j) , which contains too little nitrate to repay ev poration,

’ o f bhin ua see is reserved for the preparation y ( below) . a The murh n is boiled down in Open pans over an open fire, l a a sh the fuel being chiefly dried e ves , the of which is employed la a a b h i W h e l suffi ter in the prep r tion of nju a . hen t iquid is cie ntl e a an d all an l a a y conc ntr ted , usu y before y so id sep r tes r l f om the hot solution, it is transferred to earthenware vesse s 42 POTASSI UM NITRATE D EPOSITS

to cool and crystallize . The crystals, which consist o f t o potassium nitrate and sodium chloride, are sold the as o f reﬁner crude saltpetre . The composition typical is 1 1 samples Shown in the following table [4 / p . 3 ]

Faruk ha bad

P er cen . P er cen . P er cen . P e r cent . t t t - - Po tassium n itrate K N 03 6 6 0 7 6 5 84 44 92 597 2 - -2 8 Ca lcium n itrate Ca (N 03) 2 1 96 1 -8 -80 Ma gn e sium n itrate Mg (N 03) g 4 0 4 - So dium c hlo ride N a Cl 2 1 -84 2 4 0 4 35 -38 2 2 04 - - 6 I O ‘O O 2 -1 6 s ulphate N a QS O4 3 6 5 4 3 Wate r 5 -00 4 3 0 9 -1 0 - I n so luble m atte r 0 -90 1 -50 1 -2 0 0 90

The nuniab does not attempt t o purify further the crude

shora o r a salts ( ) to ev porate the mother liquor, as this would

. o f no t involve the separation sodium chloride , which he is permitted to do by the S al t Revenue Department . The mother liquor (ka hi) which still contains a considerable o f l dw e i quantity nitrate, is added to the second perco ate ( j) a nd mentioned above, used to treat the residual earth remain sitta is a ing from the ﬁrst extraction ( ) , which mixed with o f certain quantity the fuel ashes . The moist earth is spread in the sun and turned over every l few days until the soil is dried , an operation usua ly requiring ua bhin , about three weeks . This material , known as j forms ’ - in- an important part o f the nuniah s stock trade , as a pro hhilua portion o f this is always mixed with the fresh earth or c l E before the atter is extra cted . xperiments have Shown tha t rapid nitriﬁcation o f the organic matter o ccurs during

r , the p eparation o f the b hinju a . It must be mentioned how

ever, that the residual earth (sitta) is not used immediately a o f b hin ua for the prepar tion j , but is usually stored under ’ o n e a A a cover for ye r. fter bout two months use the earth I composing the walls and ﬂoor o f the kuthia become mpreg I n n at e d with saltpetre and are then broken up and used the ,

n a preparation o f b hi ju .

44 POTASSI UM NITRATE D EPOSITS

o 1 in India have been given by D . H oper [4 / p . J . W . L N M . . M eather and J ukerj i and C . . Hutchinson The last- mentioned author arrives at the conclusions that ( 1 ) the present sources of saltpetre in India are not fully utilized ; ( 2 ) owing t o the methods employed for recovery much nitra te is lost (3) artiﬁcial nitre beds might be installed in Bihar o n account o f the favourable soil and climatic co n ditio nS . The quantities and destinations o f the sal tpetre exported from British I ndia during recent years are shown in the following table [44]

Exp orts of S a ltp etre from B ritish I ndia 1 (Long tons)

D es na o n 1 1 . 1 1 . 1 . ti ti . 9 3 9 9 92 0

Un ite d Kin gdo m FI a n c e Italy Russia Ce ylo n Straits Se ttle m e n ts an d La buan Sia m Japan Un ite d State s Ho n g Ko n g Ea st I n die s British We st I n die s Fre n ch We st In die s Mau ritius a n d D e pe n d e n cie s

r U nio n o f S . Af ic a Ara bia a nd Eritre a Au strala sia a nd o the r British Po sse ssio n s Othe r fo re ign co u n trie s

To ta l

To tal t o British Empir e

1 Ye ars e n n M arc I st di g h 3 .

I n the following table are shown the quantities Of sal tpetre produced in the several states of India during recent years [45] I ND IA— MEXI CO— GUATEMALA— PERU 43

P roductions of S a ltp etre from diﬁ erent S ta tes of I ndia

(Lo ng t o n s)

S a . e 1 1 . 1 1 . 1 1 . t t 9 3 9 4 9 5 1 9 1 9 .

o ns . o ns . o ns . o ns . o ns . Tons . T T T T T ar Bi 2 t 8 6 6 0 1 9 51 9 h 5 34 t a. 73 4 Be n gal 1 1 97 6 7 1 1 5 2 76 6 2 4 4 3 0 Calc utta } n e ro n ce s 8 (1 6 6 1 U it d P vi a. 7s 4 u n a 2 51 1 0 P j b .5 53 4 N o rth - We st Fro ntie r 7 2 1 Ma dra s 4 1 6 2 54 2 4 2 3 39 2 74 3 4 3

To tal (British I n dia )

Ce n tra l State s 2 4 Cutc h (Bo mbay) 3 1 R ajputa n a 36 3 40 6 1 3 7 2 44 2 34 2 45 1 80

To tal (N ativ e State s) 390 40 7 1 3 7 2 6 3 2 7 1 2 2 7

To t a l

1 st Statistics fo r ye ars e n din g March 3 1 .

The above ﬁgures Show that the Indian s altpetre industry responded well to the increased demands made upon it for

t h e salt during the war. M ic — S a i ar ex o . mall quantities of crude pot ssium n trate e produced by methods similar t o those used in I ndia (see p . During 1 91 7 and 1 91 8 the amounts exported to the United S t ates were 1 1 5 and 62 short tons respectively Gu atema la — A crude sal tpetre is prepared in a number o f localities from surfa ce soil in villages . The producing districts

S an A ll are ugustin , Progreso , and other places in the va ey of

M a a R A O and . A the ot gu iver , ntigua , ccidente Totonicapan good a ccount o f the occurrences and method o f working has

S . Ga been given by H . le P eru — On the northern co a st between P acasmayo and Huarmey numerous deposits containing potassium nitrate have been reported to occur, many having been worked in the p ast by natives for the manufa cture o f gunpowder. The salt appears to occur impregnating a somewhat sandy soil fo r a

e f o l d pth o 1 t 3 ft . The deposits wou d appear to be somewhat 46 POTAS S I UM NITRATE D EPOS ITS

a similar to those occurring in Indi , as it is reported that four to six harvests can be taken from the same ground each year. A 1 1 6 E M C ccording to information supplied in 9 by H . . . onsul a t C a allao, the deposits at Hu rmey were about to be worked by a P eruvian company holding concessions to work p o t as l sium nitrate in severa other districts . The deposits, which 1 2 a are Situated about 4 n utical miles from the port of Callao , a a have a workable rea of squ re metres, and it has 1 00 o f been estimated that each square metre will give lb . t o 6 o f a a t earth, carrying from 3 lb . potassium nitr te each a harvest . The Huarmey deposits were c lculated to be capable o f giving about tons o f pota ssium nitra te per I annum . nformation from other sources states that after two ’ o r three years working the yield of nitrate from deposits o f this character becomes too small to repay operations . The cost o f production o f potassium nitrate before the war o 6 s was estimated to be ab ut $4 per S panish quintal (4 kilo ) . A plant for the extraction and recrystallization o f the p o t as sium nitrate has been erected at the deposit, and the necessary t o water is stated be very abundant, and to occur at a depth o f 2 metres from the surface . United S ta tes — Occurrences o f potassium nitrate have been l o n recorded from numerous loca ities, but investigation most o f these have proved to be o f little commercial importance (see

[s/p . — Rh odesia A sample o f saltpetre rock from a gorge o n R R N the Kelewa iver, a tributary of the Kafue iver in orthern R hodesia, was examined in the S cientiﬁc and Technical a o f I l 1 1 6 a a Dep rtment the mperia Institute in 9 . The m teri l, w a s t o o f which found contain 3 5 per cent . potassium nitrate, appears to have been derived from the excrement o f colonies o f a . is b boons The deposit, which worked to some extent by

a o f no t a nd n tives for the production gunpowder, is extensive, working it o n a large scale probably would be unproﬁtable

Union of S outh Africa — From time to time occurrences o f potassium nitrate h ave been reported from certain p arts o f U the nion, notably in the P rieska and Maclear districts Until a few years ago most of these were believed ti? 12? Qﬁ UNI ON OF S OUTH AFRI CA 47

m t a l li ited exten and quite unsuit ble for commercia working, a but recently important developments h ve occurred . The best- known and largest o f the nitra te deposits of S outh A P o n O frica occur in Cape rovince, near Prieska the range River I n 1 895 a small company was formed t o work l a a these deposits, but the poor resu ts obtained ppe r to have been due to the fact that attention was conﬁned to the soil o f f and débris at the foot the cli fs, whilst the shales were I n 1 1 6 t o neglected . 9 , the deposits were brought the notice o f B an f a w a s the ritish Government, and o ﬁci l investigation w as a t made, but, although the report stated to be promising , the time nothing resulted . I n 1 91 8 the matter again received a ttention from commercial as a men, and a result several small interests were amalg mated, and the S outh African Nitrate and Potash Corporation was al formed . This company, which so holds extensive deposits o f no w pyrites, is in active operation , and apparently intends to build an extensive chemical manure factory. The nitrate deposits occur in the middle division o f the

Griqualand beds, which vary considerably in composition . siliciﬁ e d Where the deposit is hard and , asbestos and mag ne tit e is - occur, whilst saltpetre found in the partly decomposed powdery shales . I t appears probable that the potash is a primary con stitu en t o f the rock, and that the nitriﬁcation is a secondary An o f o f th e process . examination a portion Prieska district,

- l six a thirty three miles ong by miles wide, showed s ltpetre in the shales occurring at every farm visited, the quantity present 0 e varying from 3 to 3 per cent . The availabl tonnage is re ported t o be in excess o f the quantity necessary to meet the o f S A needs outh frica . The thickness o f the nitrate shales is stated to average not l 1 0 ft ess than . , and they are reported to cover a hundred square l miles . The shales in many p aces can be obtained by quarry ing, as they usually lie horizontally and are exposed in many places in the valleys cut by the Orange River and it s tribu I n taries . the following table is shown the composition o f l the solub e matter present in ﬁve samples of shale, the results being calculated o n the original Shale 48 POTAS SI UM NITRATE D EPOSITS

P er c en . P er cen . P er Cen . P er cen . P n t t t t er ce t . - - - - - Po ta ssium n itrate K N 03 2 4 3 1 4 6 7 5 95 1 2 2 5 88 - s ulpha te K oS O4 1 0 77 - So dium n itra te N aN 03 2 2 4 7 c hlo ride N a Cl 0 -90 1 -1 0 m n ra e Ca 0 Calciu it t (N 3) 3 a n e s n ra e M N O M g ium it t g ( 3) 2

I n t o order obtain a marketable product, the treatment ill o f process , in most cases , w involve little beyond extraction a s the shales with water, evaporation by solar heat far as l al possib e, and cryst lization . I t has been estimated that shales carrying as little as 3 per a nd a t cent . of potassium nitrate can be mined treated a proﬁt , 0 even Should the price of saltpetre fall to £2 per ton . A comprehensive account o f the nitrate deposits of the P rieska and Hay districts o f Cape Province has been given F d A L E ro o . recently by G . . B . and . Hall — Upp er Egypt The soil o n the Sites o f o ld villages termed koms is often employed as a fertilizer o n account o f its con tent o f potassium nitrate . This material is much valued for koutr i this purpose, and is termed CHAPTER VI

SEA WATER AS A SOURCE OF POTASH

ALTHOUGH the utilization o f sea water as a source o f potash s a lts has no t been carried o u t to any extent during recent

a o f S ye rs, owing to competition the tassfurt product , it w a s a t o n e l l time emp oyed to a considerable extent , notab y f R a C a F o t . at the mouth the hone , Giraud , am rgue, rance At o f the present time, however, with the enhanced price l potash sa ts, it might pay to recover the potash from the residues usually run back into the sea from large works o f a F for the recovery salt from sea w ter, such as exist in rance , P U S I S e a A . ortugal, the nited tates , ustralia and ndia water o n 0 -0 o f contains the average 4 per cent . potash salts . The ’ world s pre - war output o f potash salts from se a water was

estimated at about tons per annum . The starting- point in the recovery o f potassium chloride is the mother liquor remaining after the crystallization of common E o f se a o f salt . ach litres water, after removal most ° o f l 6 o f o f 2 B é the sa t, gives 4 litres mother liquor 7 . (specific gravity This is next concentra ted by solar heat to ° - B é 1 a o f 3 2 5 . (specific gravity with the sep ration a low o f grade sodium chloride . The liquid is next evaporated t o ° B é 1 35 . (specific gravity when a mixture of salts ( sets mixtes o f l ) , consisting sodium Chloride and magnesium su phate o ut in nearly equal amounts, separates . The mother liquor is transferred to deep tanks and kept ° fo r some time at a temperature no t below 1 2 C when o u t l magnesium sulphate separates free from carna lite . At certain works the necessary reduction in tempera ture is e l ffected by artificial re frigeration . The iquor is further ° ’ a o f B e ev porated until, when hot, it has a density 37 . (specific gravity 1 To this is added excess o f a hot 49 50 S EA WATER AS A S OURCE OF POTAS H

° o f o f 0 B é solution magnesium chloride 4 . (speciﬁc gravity 1 - 8 3 3) obtained at another stage in the process, and the l l o f a who e is we l mixed . This causes the separation further

o f sels mixtes quantity , which is removed, and the mother o n liquor, which contains all the potassium chloride , ° l 0 coo ing to about 2 C . deposits carnallite . This salt is treated with small successive quantities o f water and wash o f ings from a previous operation, thus causing most the magnesium chloride to pass into solution , whilst the potassium l o f ch oride remains behind . This process is capable giving a 82 o f a product, containing about per cent . pot ssium chloride, z suitable for fertili ing purposes . A recent account o f the process employed at S alin de Giraud i E M a a has been g ven by . anzella who states th t the nnual output from these works a verages 800 tons of salt containing o f 72 per cent . potassium chloride . The compositions of certain of the mother liquors which accumul ated at works in the United S tates are shown in the following table [51 ]

Po tassiu m Chlo ride K Cl So dium chlo rid e N a Cl Ma gn e siu m chlo ride MgClg Calc ium s ulpha te Ca S O 4 Ma gn e sium su lphate MgS O 4 bro mide MgB rg

Potash salts were produced in 1 91 6 to 1 91 8 from se a water U S a S an Ma e and Mt E Ca in the nited t tes near t o . den, lifornia . l S The mother liquors from the sa t works of Trapani , icily, are stated to conta in about 2 5 grams o f pot a ssium chloride

- per litre, and it has been estimated that the thirty two salt works in operation in Italy could be made to yield tons o f l 1 a potassium ch oride and 94 tons of bromine per nnum . The mother liquors from the salt springs in S ardinia have o f al so received attention as a source potash .

52 I NS OLUB LE POTASH MI NERALS

0 A1 0 S O approximating (when pure) to the formula K2 , 3 2 3 , 4 6H 0 S a 2 . ometimes the potash is partly replaced by sod m — l o f (forming atro a unite) , and varying amounts silica, oxide o f iron , lime, magnesia , chlorine and phosphoric anhydride l is are a so present . The colour white (when pure) , but may o r A be cream , pink red (when impure) . ccording to Dana a its the h rdness ranges from 3 5 to 4, and speciﬁc gravity from 2 - 2 - 55 to 75. o f La l The principal occurrences alunite are at To fa, near C New S S A a ivita Vecchia, Italy outh Wales outh ustrali U US A a M and tah , . It lso occurs at ontioni, Tuscany Mu saz B e re h sz asz Mt F and g , Hungary ; . Dore, rance Western Australia ; British Columbia and o n certain islands in the A Grecian rchipelago . S outh Au stra li — A C o n a lunite occurs at arrickalinga Head, S t V o f . incent Gulf . The mineral is found near the summit a headland in nodular masses embedded in a decomposed slate o r o f S pug , and lying along the bedding planes the Slate . imilar 2 0 a t M C nodular masses occur in a seam , in . thick, yponga reek , o f a about four miles to the north the Carrick linga deposit . o f The mineral from the latter locality is exceptional purity, l 2 6 so but on y 3 tons have far been raised . The extent of the A o f deposit is not yet known . recent account it has been

R L; given by . Jack N P P ear Warnertown , seventeen miles from ort irie, a deposit 0 o f 3 ft . wide has been found, from which 5 tons alunite have been raised, but the extent of which has still to be proved .

R a se a- f o f R ecently lunite was discovered on the clif amsay, Y P P o f S orke eninsula, about ﬁve miles from the ort tans bury . The mineral occurs in Tertiary rocks as irregular layers 1 I O 1 2 from to in . in thickness the exposure is about chains S l o u t . in ength , but it thins considerably at both ends imilar S t Vin deposits may be found in the Tertiary rocks fringing . cent and S pencer gulfs The quantities o f alunite

S A al a 1 1 6 1 1 1 1 1 2 0 produced in outh ustr i in 9 , 9 7 , 9 9 and 9 were a n 0 34 2 9 60 d 2 tons respectively .

ew S outh Wa les — Al a N . unite deposits h ve been worked for a o f B ulladelah o n a o f many years ne r the town , the b nks the Myall River which runs to Port S tephens . The mineral ALUNITE 53

a a 00 . a occurs in a narrow mount in r nge, 9 ft high and bout — l o n e . three mi es long, about third of which consists of alunite

- l all The high grade o re is pa e pink in colour, and usu y carries o f l a bout 2 per cent . si ica , but it is found only in patches, a C the rest o f the deposit being low gr de . halk white, a 1 6 - 1 - 8- purple and granular v rieties carry 4, 9 5 and 3 5

a - an per cent . Silica respectively. The ore is h nd picked, y ore 1 8 o f l conta ining over per cent . silica being rej ected , specia preference being given to material containing less than I O per

o f cent . this impurity. La - o re rge dumps of low grade exist, which could be made 8 1 6 o f l to yield from to per cent . potassium su phate by and h as roasting leaching, and it been suggested that this material might thus be proﬁtably treated and sold locally as a l S 1 8 1 a ferti izer. ince 9 the miner l has been shipped to R E uncorn , ngland, and there employed for the manufacture o f a alum and luminium sulphate . The production o f alunite from New S outh Wales from 1 91 1 to 1 92 0 h a s va ried from 32 5 tons ( 1 91 6) to tons al and from to in v ue . — Western Au stra lia A large deposit o f matro- alunite has a I t been recently opened up at Kanown . is reported to -6 er t o f carry about 5 p cen . potash . — B ritish C olumbia A sma ll deposit o f na tro—alunite was o n V I C a found some years ago ancouver sland, British olumbi , l l a No . but , judging from the an ysis , . 7 , p 54, it is of litt e economic value United S ta tes — Considerable attention h as been paid in the U S a 1 1 o f nited tates Since bout 9 5 to occurrences alunite, the a n a M a U a most important of which is th t e r arysv le, t h, where min eral is the being mined to some considerable extent . The a h as C miner l also been found in smaller quantities in olorado, N a evad , California and Texas . The Marysvale deposit lies chieﬂy along the crest o f the ridge between the main branch a nd the north fork of the

L C C a h a s l ittle ottonwood reek, but the miner l been a so found

la Ma al a m a in many p ces in the vicinity . The rysv e lunite y be roughly divided into two varieties ; the more valu able a kind consists of pure massive mineral, such as occurs in 54 I NSOLUB LE POTAS H MINERALS

u Q o m N N Tw U n F 8 o m U a o mm e . ; a H O n 0 a a u o d ﬁ m

N O 0 (D O G

s m “M c O O D o 0 O n N n m 0 o A S 8 o d 8 O O m u M g H sm m O Z . 2 o m

0 0 9 d 9 8 8 o 8 o C 3 d o H R 8 2 o 8 o O 8 8 8 0 o 2 8 0 > 0 8 H 0 8 2 8 8 0 8 3 0 Q 0 0 0 8 0 8 6 e A 8 0 8 8 8 8 m 8 8 0 8 $ 0 8 8 e 8 8 8 0 0 8 a 8 C 8 8 8 5 8 o o 3 0 5 3 8 mm < k 2 5 2 m 0 6 0 5 ALUNITE 55

i L l C quant ty on itt e Cottonwood reek , whilst the less impor

a o f o r , t nt variety is composed more less crystalline alunite , which occurs disseminated through rocks containing much l Ma a Si ica . The rysv le alunite deposits have been described F B and . S and S . in detail by B . . utler H . . Gale by G Loughlin These deposits suffer from being a considerable distance from centres o f potash consumption and fuel supply. I ta l — A I l y. lunite has been mined for several centuries in ta y, La at Tolfa, for the manufacture of alum . The deposits there have been worked since 1 874 by a French company who have d V pro uced alum at Civita ecchia, and aluminium sulphate at Rouen The princip al vein worked has a maximum width of about f e 00 t . 33 . , and has b en traced to a depth of 3 ft The outputs for the years 1 91 3—1 9 were respectively 59 76 ? 3 307 metric tons . S a in —I n o f p . connection with alunite, the deposits the , mineral that h a s been named ca lajatite Should be mentioned . a l e This mineral occurs ne r Benahadux , about ten ki om tres o f Al a o f from the port meria, and appears to be variety l I t s o f a unite . composition is shown in column 5 the table As . l below found, the mineral is inso uble in water, has a 2 - - o f speciﬁc gravity 75, hardness 3 5, and is usually a white colour.

Comp osition of Alu n ite (Foreign D ep osits)

K QO

S Od G. N aaO - Alumin a A13 03 40 00 1 75 0 Fe rric o xide Fe 203 Silica S I02 Su lphu ric anhydride 8 03 Pho spho ric anhydride P 2 05 Wate r 1 1 -2 0 1 0 -6 0 5 -0

’ ’

. 1 . a r US . 2 L o a o n scan a s a e A . a a . . o n M y v l , T lf , It ly 3 M ti i , Tu y, It ly ' B ' . e re h sz asz n ar . . Calafat it e ro m e na a a n . 4 g , Hu g y 5 f B h dux, Sp i 56 I NSOLUB LE POTASH MI NERALS It is stated that it occurs under a Triassic limestone for al l a mation , and several par el veins h ve been found having a o f 6 o f l width 5 to metres . The working these odes is reported t o be easy and cheap, and potassium sulphate can be obtained la u by processes simi r to those described for al nite . The composition of alunite from several localities outside E the British mpire is shown in the table on page 55.

Extra ction of P ota sh f rom Alu nite

° W al o f hen unite is heated to 500 C . it loses its water

hydration, and, if the heating be stopped at this stage, the a residue consists largely of anhydrous potash lum . If, how o f co m ever, the heat is increased , then most the sulphur b in ed h is wit the alumina disengaged as oxides, the residue o f an d al a consisting potassium sulphate umin . It is thus evident that two general methods of treatment are available : ( 1 ) to produce potash alum ; (2 ) to make l a potassium su phate and alumin ; in the latter case, the

a b - manuf cture of sulphuric acid, as a y product, is possible . A method formerly used in Europe for the production o f potash alum consists in roasting the coarsely- broken mineral

- in furnaces somewhat resembling lime kilns, except that the

fuel does n o t come into contact with the mineral . The roasting is continued for about Six hours ; the material is o n then exposed to the air a clay ﬂoor for several weeks, being

occasionally mois t ened . The product is next agitated with °

0 C . a water at 7 . , and the clear liquid, which has density of ° ° 1 0 1 2 B 1 -0 1 is to é . (Specific gravity 75 t o decanted and ° 2 B é 1 On evaporated to 3 . (specific gravity cooling , potash alum crystallizes o u t contaminated with a small o f quantity ferric oxide . This latter impurity is removed by recrystalliz ation A larger yield o f alum can be obtained by the following u se o f l process , which involves the su phuric acid The mineral is roasted for three hours at a tempera ture o f about ° C o f sul 800 . t o , and then added a predetermined quantity h ° l uric 2 B é . 1 p acid , 5 (specific gravity previous y heated ° l f r 0 . A o to 9 C fter being eft two hours , the liquid is ALUNITE 57

° 1 evaporated to 39 B é . (specific gravity and the requisite quantity o f potassium sulphate added so as to convert all the A l aluminium sulphate into potash alum . fter being a lowed l t o stand for thirteen hours the clear iquid is removed . The ° B muddy liquid remaining is diluted to 2 4 é . by the addition o f mother liquor from a previous crystallization , stirred , e o ff allow d to settle , the clear liquid then being drawn and r added to that fi st removed . The combined solution is allowed t o o n e n cool for day , the crystals bei g removed and purified by recrystallization . A New S nother method , which has been employed in outh l n : Wales , is the fol owi g The ground mineral is calcined in a reverberatory furnace and then treated with dilute sulphuric

in - a a acid lead lined t nks which are he ted by steam coils . The clear solution is run into crystallizing tanks and kept agita ted al l o whilst cooling . By this means the um crystal izes ut whilst the aluminium sulphate remains in solution . This la tter so lution is treated with a further quantity o f the calcined mineral in order to neutralize any acidity, and is boiled until a partial reversion takes place accompanied by a precipita as tion o f the iron salts ferric hydroxide . The solution is then further concentrated until aluminium sulphate solidiﬁes o ut o n . al cooling This salt , after grinding , is ready for s e . The extraction o f Simple potash salts from alunite h as l recently received considerab e attention , numerous patents o f having been granted covering many processes , several o n which have been employed a commercial scale . In the

. C . 1 1 opinion o f F. K ameron [3/p 7] potash can only be p ro ﬁ t a ably produced from alunite , under normal tr de conditions , al so if the residual alumina in the miner is sold , and pays part S o o f the total production cost . far as can be ascertained h as o n this condition not been attained a commercial scale .

o al M U se The dep sits of unite near arysvale , tah ( e p . were opened up before the war with a view to obtaining potash , and the ﬁrst plant for recovering potassium sulphate was erected early in 1 91 5 by a company in order to work the Chappell process In this method the mineral is crushed , until its coarser fragments are about the size o f large peas , and is then fed into rotary kilns maintained at a temperature 58 I NSOLUB LE POTASH MI NERALS

f ° o 0 . a o f about 75 C by me ns either powdered coal or o il . u are ' lib erat ed By this means s lphur dioxide and trioxide , l a o f e ving a residue potassium sulphate and alumina , which is l l digested with boiling water and then ﬁ tered . The iquid , which contains the potassium sulphate , is evaporated in triple a effect vacuum p ns , and a 95 per cent . potassium sulphate I . t O is recovered by crystallization was reported , in ctober 1 1 8 600 o f 9 , that this plant was producing tons potassium o re - sul phate per month . The used contains about 3 5 per

f l 8 . cent . o Si ica and from to 9 per cent of potash . Early in 1 92 1 it was reported that the Armour Fertilizer Works at Marysvale were producing about 50 tons o f high grade potassium sulphate per day . S o o f far , no use appears to have been made the residue a o f al li insoluble in w ter , which consists umina with any si ca 1 f a o r 2 . o I t present in the e and about to per cent pot sh . was stated recently that the silica content o f this material

- could be reduced to less than 0 5 per cent . if producer gas as o f were used a fuel in place coal , and that the alumina and silica could then be separated by a ﬂotation process . An interesting account o f experiments carried o u t in Au s tralia o n the treatment o f alunite from S outh Australia and

ew S l The Alunite D e osits o N outh Wa es , has been given in p f Australia and their Utilization from which the following details are taken . The changes which take place during the heating o f alunite ° l At 00 . a are o f some interest . 5 C the miner loses combined water and passes into potassium al uminium sulphate and l alumina . The potassium aluminium su phate is slightly °

600 C. decomposed at , but the Change is only partial even ’ °

00 . after twenty hours treatment , but at 7 C the reaction is °

ai l 800 C. f rly rapid , whi st at it is rapid and complete , being accompanied by the evolution o f copious fumes o f sulphuric ° I f 1 o o C S . o 0 . anhydride ( 3) the temperature is maintained at , F o f potassium aluminate is formed . requent rabbling the charge is necessary during the heating , and the evolved gases must be rapidly removed if it is desired t o ensure complete conversion into p otassium sulphate . With a V iew t o assisting the removal o f the sulphurous

60 I NS OLUB LE POTAS H MI NERALS

to produce soluble potassium sulphate and insoluble alumina . but other processes must be mentioned in which part at a o f l le st a umina is rendered soluble . P . . m C H Hersh an and R. ooke [64] propose to produce potassium al uminate and alumina by calcining al unite in the o f at ﬁ presence steam and carbon , a temperature suf ciently

low to render the alumina soluble in alkali .

FELSPARS AND OTHER S ILICATES

Owing t o the fact that large quantities o f potash felspar can be obtained in many parts o f the world a t comparatively lo w o f al prices , the problem converting the potash in the miner

into a soluble form has received considerable attention , and experimental plants have been in operation at various times U S C S a U in the nited tates , anada , weden , It ly and the nited

Kingdom . Important developments occurred during the war in the recovery o f potash present in the materials treated in n R ex eri blast furnaces and cement kil s (see p . ecent p ence has made it fairly ce rtain that in order that a process for recovering potash from insoluble silicates may prove b commercially successful , it is necessary that a valuable y

product for which there is a l a rge demand be also obtained . ’ A useful bibliography o f journal articles and United States patents dealing with the recovery o f potash from silicates h as S C 6 . . . been given by E. . Buck [ 5] and by H Gale [3/p

Extraction of P otash from Felsp ars and other S ilicates

The possibility o f recovering soluble potas h from felspar has received some attention during the past few years , and it is interesting to note that so far back as 1 860 a process w as A descri tried in this country with satisfactory results . p tion o f certain deposits in S cotland which contain felspar has been given in Reports o f the Geological Survey [66] o n During the war several processes were tried varying scales , but it would appear that these were discarded when blast f furnace dust became available as a source o potash (see p . FELSPARS AND OTHER S I LI CATES 6 1 The numerous processes which have been devised for the production o f soluble potash sal ts from Silicate rocks have been

C . . 68 S . divided by A. ushman and G W Coggeshall [ ] into several general classes as set o ut below . These authors describe o f a large number the methods which have been suggested , but only a brief outline o f the more typical in each class will o f be given here , with more recent details their commercial application . N tural ncies —S o f 1 a A e . . g everal processes in imitation s o f the e have been tried , such as the action moisture and so carbon dioxide , with and without pressure , but far as a h information is av ilable none of these as proved successful . reatment with hemical olu tions — 2 . T C S The treatment of potash rocks by means o f solutions o f the alkalies or alkaline o r i o f hydroxides , with w thout pressure , is the basis many processes A process fo r the recovery of potash from greensand with

d o f i al as b - the pro uction a build ng materi a y product , which C a has been described by H . W. harlton appe rs likely to o n al be used a commercial sc e in the United S tates . The ﬁ nely- ground greensand is digested with lime and water

- 2 fo r tw o . under 2 5 lb . steam pressure from to four hours Under these conditions the greater portion o f the potash

~ in is set and l present the mineral free forms a so ution , from hi w ch solid caustic potash can be obtained by evaporation . The potash product is stated to have the following percentage : K o -2 l composition potash ( a ) , 77 su phuric anhydride S 0 0 - 0 ili Slo 0- 0 a ( 3) , 9 ; chlorine (Cl) , s ca ( g) , 7 ; lumina

M 0 . ( 2 3) , nil The insoluble matter remaining o n the ﬁlter can be em

o f - a l o r ployed in the manufacture a steam h rdened brick , ti e stone , by incorporating it with a high silica sand , as is done

‘ - in the case o f lime sand bricks . Greensand is stated to be more suitable for the process than felspar owing to its lower o f a content soda , and the f ct that its alumina does not appear in the soluble portion after the ﬁrst steam treatment . A large plant operating o n the above lines h a s recently been erected

New B New . at runswick , Jersey The use o f hydro fluo silicic acid followed by sulphuric acid 62 I NSOLUB LE POTASH MI NERALS h as been patented as well as t reatment with dilute hydro fluo ri c acid followed by electrolysis o f the solution . Trials ha ve been made in the United S tates with the Doremus process in which ground felspar is treated in 2 0 per cent . an —fluo ride hydrofluoric acid , giving insoluble potassium silico

and a soluble aluminium ﬂuoride , which can be readily P separated . otash is recovered from the insoluble product by heating it to dull redness with gypsum , whereby soluble

On e - potassium sulphate is produced . third of the fluorine is a s fixed insoluble calcium fluoride , whilst the remainder is l a recovered as si icon fluoride and can be used gain . o f a The chief products the process , however , are luminium o f a um h dro fluo silicic salts . The solution l inium fluoride and y o re a l acid is treated with aluminous to separ te the si ica , and the aluminium fluoride recovered by crystallization . These crystals when heated in steam give hydrofluoric acid and l fo r alumina , the latter in a form avai able the manufacture o f aluminium o r its salts . A process which is stated to have been used in Germany f A o f aims at the production o nitrates . bout one ton potash rock is ground and treated with a solution containing 06 ton o f basic calcium nitrate at a pressure o f four to ten atmo A o f spheres for ten to twenty hours . s a result this treatment l the rock is completely disintegrated , and the s ime is then

. systematically lixiviated with water The solution . thus obtained , which contains the alkalies as nitrates , together with l o f a l a smal excess calcium nitrate , is treated with sma l o f a n l quantity alkali carbonate , and the cle r solutio neutra ized an a I t a with nitric acid d ev porated to dryness . is stated th t each t o n o f rock will give 1 80 kilograms of potassium nitrate and 2 2 0 kilograms o f sodium nitrate . olatilizati n o t t h lt — I n 3 . V o f he P o as S a s these processes the

ﬁ nel - and y ground rock is mixed with fuel other substances , a so A and he ted that the potash salts are volatilized . ccording ’ to a United S tates patent [73] felspar is heated with gypsum l and carbon , and the volatile potassium sulphate is co lected . The production o f potash salts as a b y- product in cement an d I n o n 2 80 Iron manufacture is described pages 7 and . An interesting process has been worked by the Buffalo FELS PARS AND OTHER S I LI CATES 63

C C o f f New Y Potash and ement orporation Bu falo , ork , for and f a l the production o f potash cement from elsp r , imestone U and cal cium chloride . The process , which is covered by nited ’ S tates patents consists in charging the correctly- pro portioned material s into a water - j a cketed blast - furnace o f l the type used in copper sme ting . The potash is volatilized a as- as chloride and c ught in dust collectors and a g washer , whilst the fused product is tapped from the bottom o f the

a l i . L furn ce , granu ated and ground , g ving a cement eucitic

L H W 1 1 . rock in the eucite ills , yoming , was worked in 9 9 al The crushed materi was dried , mixed with limestone and l sa t , heated in a rotary kiln , and the volatilized potash ll l l o ut co ected in a bag house . The p ant was p anned for an put equival ent to tons of potash (KzO) per annum After being in operation for a few months it was closed down owing to technical difﬁ culties . A al C process , which has been under tri in anada at the N a f C Co . o O works of the ational Portl nd ement , Durham , ntario , l : A o f is the fo lowing mixture consisting limestone , felspar , l a a A ca cium chloride and coal is heated in bl st furnace . ﬂuid l l s ag is obtained , and the potash is volatilized and col ected

n a I t . in suitable condensi g pl nt . is claimed that 90 per cent o f o a f 8 . o the p tash in the felsp r is volatilized , and 7 per cent n hl a this is co densed as c oride , also that the ﬂuid sl g can be I o r a . t cast into sewer pipes , tiles p ving bricks was stated Ma 1 1 a a in y 9 7 th t a plant was to be erected at Gr venhurst ,

O l - ntario , where a arge deposit of high grade felspar exists , and it w a s calculated that each furnace would want 1 1 0 tons o f a 2 0 o f K 0 felsp r per day , and would give tons potash ( 2 ) and

-in o f 2 o . . 800 ft . sewer pipe D r rocesses or the e aration a u ti — 4 . y P f S p of C s c P ota sh One o f S R S these , which was tried by the ocieta omana olfati , may I t be mentioned . consists in roasting the potash rock with o r o f o r carbonate nitrate soda lime or caustic alkali , and subsequently blowing steam through the product in order t o produce sodium aluminate and potassium carb onate h as so The high cost of the operation , far, prevented this process from becoming a commercial success . D s d — . r r c sse or ro u in d M 5 y P o e f P c g P otassium Chlori e . any 64 I NS OLUB LE POTAS H MI NERALS

o f the processes included under this heading have be en tried ’ o n a works scale , and therefore merit some consideration . In U S s the nited tates , during recent years several proces es o f r this type have received considerable attention , pa ticularly

t h e o f b - those which involve production a valuable y product . E 1 1 6 s R arly in 9 , a proce s invented by J . hodin was brought o f A A . . A to the notice of the Board griculture by C uden , who 1 1 had made experiments with the method in 9 3 . The process , as described in an English patent specification consists in roasting a mixture o f 1 00 parts o f orthoclase felspar with 6 a o f 0 o f 5 p rts slaked lime and 4 parts sodium chloride , and lixiviating the product with water . The insoluble matter , hi o -2 w ch contains about 5 per cent . of sodium chloride , is f 0 0 . o it s o f mixed with 4 to 7 per cent dry weight lime , pre v io usl a o f y sl ked , and the mixture fired at a temperature about ° 1 o l - o o . fi ne , C The final product is stated to be a y divided o f white hydraulic cement . The results experiments carried o ut under Government supervision [78] indicated that by the a e ul i above process cert in f lspars wo d y eld about 75 per cent . o f l their potash in a soluble form , whi st the insoluble matter could be converted into a nearly white hydraulic cement . The economic possibilities o f the process depend upon the a l 2 price at which the hydr u ic cement could be sold , as 7 tons o f this product would be produced for each ton of potash al U recovered . The annu consumption in the nited Kingdom o f the above type of cement a mounted to only about f o r o f tons , but arrangements disposing tons per 2 5 o f annum at 5 . per ton were in course completion when the investigation was discontinued , as the potash situation in the

United Kingdom became less critical . An interesting process for the recovery o f potassium chloride

l E. from insoluble potash minera s has been described by A. AshCro ft I f orthocla se o r microcline felspar be crushed 1 00 o w n e o f al and to pass mesh , mixed with its w ight s t heated o u t o f conta ct with air o r moisture to a temperature ° °

00 1 o o o C. of 9 to , for several hours , there are formed soluble l potassium chloride and an insoluble sodium fe spar . The success of the reaction depends upon the equilibrium con i h o n dit o ns being carefully maintained . It was found t at an FELS PARS AND OTHER S I LI CATES 65

experimental scale about 80 per cent . o f the potash present as in a felspar could be recovered the chloride . It has been suggested that potash could be recovered from the felspar o f S h deposits utherlandshire by t is process at a proﬁt . A Vo n Ko ln it z ccording to recent information , the process

a a l for extracting potash from greensand marl , hydr ted Si icate o f w as 1 1 8 a a iron and potassium , used in 9 by comp ny working P a 1 in ennsylvania , and resulted in a production of bout 50 hl tons o f potassium c oride . In this process the material is °

o f . e heated to a temperature 335 C in an oxidizing atmospher , and then to a higher temperature with calcium chloride in a reducing atmosphere . A process concerning which there is a fair amount of detail available is that associated with the name Cushman - Co g esh all s o n g This proce s , which has been tried an c extensive s ale , consists in treating in a rotary kiln a mixture o f ﬁ nely- ground po tash rock and lime with salts o f a mineral ll li acid , which when liberated wi decompose the si cate .

I n 1 00 o f ﬁ nel - practice , parts y powdered felspar are mixed with about 2 0 parts o f lime ; sometimes from 1 0 to 2 0 parts ar o n of salt e also added . The powdered mixture is fed

t o o f . a so the top a revolving drum , about 3 ft in di meter , i C l that a layer abo ut 5 n . deep is formed . alcium ch oride o n l and immedi solution is next run this layer from smal tubes , l i an ate y combines with the lime , g ving what may be termed o f a o oxychloride cement in the form small ggregates r lumps . As the drum revolves a scraper removes the mixture to a belt , which delivers it o n a screen where the lumps are separated a from the residual powder . This l tter is returned to the

fo r . drum further treatment The lumps , which average about the size of peas , are conveyed from the screen to a rotary kiln , similar in construction to those used in the manufacture

o f P . ortland cement , and ﬁred by coal dust On l a leaving the kiln , the lumps are practica ly the s me l Shape as when they entered , but are often stained ye low out

' a a side . The heat tre tment converts large proportion of the

l l is ~ lo st potash present in the rock into ch oride , and ittle by l vo atilization . It was proposed to utilize the product as obtained n i o f from the kil , which conta ns about 7 per cent . potassium 66 I NS OLUB LE POTAS H MI NERALS

l chloride , as a ferti izer , without attempting to separate the

potassium chloride from the other ingredients . A full account o f 0 o f trials , made with 35 tons felspar , is given in reference

In a later communication Cushman and Coggeshall give I the results o f further work o n the process . t was found that o f although the cost production was low , the freight charges o n material containing so little potash were a serious d raw a U S a back , especi lly as there was little demand in the nited t tes

for potash fertilizers o f this character . The potash salts in are the crude product readily soluble in water , and a solution I o i containing O per cent . f potassium chloride can be obta ned al ari by using the wash waters for leaching fresh materi . V ous o f methods concentrating this solution were tried , and the most economical w as found to be tha t of spraying the solution through the waste furnace gases from the kilns . By this means a sludge is obtained which is thoroughly dried in rotary Th n 0 80 driers . e material thus obtained contai s from 7 to f o f 1 1 6 . o per cent . potassium chloride and 4 to per cent hl l sodium c oride . This composition compares favourab y I f cr alliz a with that o f commercial Chloride . fractional yst tion be employed a high - grade potassium chloride can be

prepared . The plant required for the above process is somewhat similar to that employed in cement works . It is stated that t o 00 o f o f - handle 3 tons felspar per day twenty four hours , the plant required would include three rotary kilns , each

1 00 . 8 . . ft long and 7 to ft in diameter In the article quoted , o f ll sufﬁ detailed costs the equipment are given , but it wi be cient here t o state that the part o f the plant which is identical with that employed on a cement works woul d cost and the additional plant required is estimated t o cost Th e authors estimated in 1 91 4 that a product identical with 80 the German per cent . muriate could have been sold

at $3 1 3 per ton . r rocesses t —S f 6 D P P roducin ul ha es . o . y g S p everal these o ne o n have been patented , and at least has been tried a fairly E large scale . xperimental work o n the commercial extrac tion o f potash from Silicate rocks has been carried o ut at

68 I NS OLUB LE POTASH MINERALS

- C . The products obtained are ferro silicon and a glassy slag co nt al nlng potassium in the form o f a silicate which is more soluble than felspar . The slag is ground in ball mills F ﬁ nel and afterwards screened . ertilizer trials with the y i elek t ro k ali ground slag , wh ch is sold as , have been made in comparison with potassium sulphate , the amounts employed being such that each product contained the same amount o f potash . The results are stated to have been satisfactory , l t ro ali f e as the e ek k being foun d about 78 per cent . as e ﬁci nt h e t potassium sulphate . The follow ing a n alysis o f the elek t ro k ali has been pub li h d f alil tit is s e . The analysis o the rock used (k ep ) also given for comparison

Silica Silico n I ro n Alumin a Lim e Magne sia So da Po tash Carbo n Pho spho ric ac id Titan ium dio xide Wate r

lik alk Ka , a mixture of felspar , limestone and gypsum , ° S d as 1 1 o C. which has been calcined at , 5 , is sold in we en a fertilizer . - 6 cent . 2 t o Commercial samples contained 5 per potash , 5 P o f co n o f . 71 per cent . which was soluble ercentages other - i u e nt s : L 1 li ; , st t were ime , 33 ; soda , 7 ; si ca , 37 sulphate - 8 1 0 1 . to ; iron oxide , 7 The material has fertilizing proper ties e qual to those o f potassium sulphate A process which involves the production o f a fertilizer co n t aining both potash and phosphoric acid has been described C an d . by A . H owles is stated , to have been investigated P l U S . A. a New . by a comp ny in Jersey , otash fe spar is ground with rock phosphate in such proportion that the latter supplies two molecular weights o f lime to each molecular weight o f silica in the felspar . The mixture is Sintered at a FELS PARS AND OTHER S I LI CATES 69

° f 1 ooo temperature o about , C and the resultant product is extracted with sulphuric acid . The substances obtained are li insoluble dicalcium si cate , soluble potash alum and ortho phosphoric acid . The quantities o f potash salts recovered in the United S tates 1 1 6 1 2 0 : 6 from silicate rocks during the years 9 to 9 were 4 , l nil 2 01 1 60 . , , and short tons respective y Although considerable attention h as been devoted to the solution o f the problem o f how to obtain soluble potash from so as is felspar and Similar insoluble silicates , far information available it cannot be said that any considerable quantity o f no r potash h as been produced from this source , do the majority o f o f processes so far described seem capable competing , under S A normal conditions , with salts from the tassfurt and lsace deposits . t o al The exceptions this gener ization , however , are the processes for recovering potash from the ﬂue gases evolved in the manufacture o f Portland cement and iron (see p .

I NSOLUBLE POTASH MINERALS AS FERTILIZ ERS During the past few years attention has been directed li o f i o r towards the possibi ty employ ng as fertilizers , with without previous treatment , minerals and rocks which contain po tash insoluble in water . The more important of these are l a d l al n . unite , fe spar eucite Alunite — The treatment o f this mineral for the recovery o f alum o r potassium sulphate h as already been considered t o ( see p . and it remains discuss the value of the mineral l E itself as a ferti izer . xperiments carried out in the United States in this direction have indicated that when wheat w as C a s grown on a arrington loam , using ground raw alunite the o n potash fertilizer , the increase in weight over that obtained a a 1 6 the untreated soil ver g ed per cent . , the fertilizer being o 2 f t t from 5 to 500 lb . o potash 70 I NSOLUB LE POTASH MI NERALS

potash content , and superior to that yielded with potassium

chloride . Leu cit — ‘ e . feitiliz ers o f i The utility , as , rocks containing th s

I al . mineral has received considerable attention , notably in t y The results o f experiments made with leucite rock show that in most cases it is very inferior in its action to soluble potash l a . Fo r al o f a l a s ts equ quantities pot sh app ied , if the incre se 1 00 in crop induced by potassium sulphate be taken as , then 60 the increase induced by leucite rock varies from 4 to ,

averaging 2 6 . It would appear that soils containing much organic matter are more favourable for the utilization o f the potash in these minerals than are those o f a more sandy A o n character . useful summary o f experimental work this subj ect is given by Lemm erm ann According to information supplied to the I mperial Institute I I o f A a t R by the nternational nstitute griculture ome , leucite deposits have been worked in Italy o n Mount Vesuvius and in A M n o f I the lban ountains . A account o f some the talian h S as . leucite deposits been given by H . Washington At C C ivita astellana , where the surface workings cover an area

o f s . . about 3 q km , the rock is crushed , and the leucite l separated electromagnetica ly from the other minerals . The f 0 . o concentrate , which contains about 9 per cent leucite , is used for the manufacture o f alum and also as a potash fer iliz r At Le C l m t e . apanne le leucite was for erly separated from

puzzolana by sifting . The waste material obtained from either o f these processes has been used in the manufa cture o f o f reinforced concrete . The output leucite concentrates from Italy during the past few years h as varied between

and metric tons per annum . A t o 1 1 ccording a report in 9 5, it was proposed to work phonolite for fertilizing purposes near H afnarfjo rd in the l o u t Reykjavik district in Ice and . It was estimated that the

I . put would be about 900 tons per week . nformation is lacking l a s — N a Fe sp r . umerous comparative experiments h ve been As a l . tried with both eucite and potash felspar a gener l rule , these have proved that felspar is much inferior to leucite as a a as fertilizer , having in many c ses less than half the value , demonstrated by increased yield o f crop . I NS OLUB LE POTASH MI NERALS As FERTI LI Z ERS 7 1

ica — Mu and M . scovite biotite have a relatively high content a I o f potash comp red with other micas . t seems to be still a matter to be settled whether these are superior o r equal to the felspars as potash fertilizers . AS a al gener rule , it may be concluded that the employment as fertilizers o f minerals containing insoluble potash com l t o l pounds is not like y prove remunerative , un ess the material E is available in large quantity at a low price . ven under these a n conditions their use m y o t prove satisfactory . Minerals containing insoluble potash are employed as fer tiliz ers I al A R in t y , ustria , ussia and Germany, but no statistics so available as to the quantity used . CHAPTER VIII

FLUE GASES AS SOURCES OF POTASH

CEMENT KILN DUST

TH E possibility o f obtaining potash from the ﬁne dust produced during the manufa cture o f Portland cement has received considerable attention during recent years , par a t icularly in the United S tates . R w cement mixtures as a rule contain a small amount o f potash which occurs as felspar o r other insoluble silicates . Analyses made a few years ago o f raw materials from most o f th e Portland cement works in the United States showed a potash content varying 0-2 1 -1 6 t o f from to per cen , and that the quantity potash a t 0 - volatilized the various works ranged from 3 5 to 5 34 lb . o f potash (K20) per barrel o f cement (380 The average

- amount o f potash lost was 2 09 lb . per barrel from nine - C A 1 . merican works , and 95 lb per barrel from nine anadian works I t has been calculated that this quantity o f potash (KzO) thus escaping with the waste o f ﬂue gases from the cement works in the United S tates is equivalent to tons per annum . The dust obta ined during the manufacture o f Portland cement in rotary kilns may be roughly divided into two la : a c sses ( ) heavy dust , which settles readily and consists a o f 6 l rgely unburnt cement mixture ; ( ) ﬁne dust , which is carried some considerable distance and escapes largely into

e al a . the air , unl ss speci me ns are taken to prevent this occurring It is this latter variety of dust which carries the majority o f the volatilized potash . The fact that potash was volatilized during the manufacture a o of Portland cement was recorded fourteen years g by R. K . M fo r o f eade , but the first plant installed the recovery the 72 CEMENT KI LN D UST 73 fine flue dust was erected in order to mitigate the nuisance which it caused t o the orange growers in the neighbourhood ’ C o Lo s A o f R C . s the iverside Portland ement works at ngeles , o f California . When the valuable nature the trapped dust l a o f U was rea ized , number other cement works in the nited S tates and elsewhere installed plant during the war for its more

adequate collection . The quantity and probable potash content o f the dust pro duced at a cement works are important factors when con

sidering the possibilities of the material as a source o f potash . I t has been stated that the loss o f material from cement plants in the United S tates employing the dry process

a . mounts to about 5 per cent , and the dust produced would o f amount t o about 4 per cent . The quantity dust produced in the wet process is dependent upon many o f l 2 . factors , but a fair average wi l be about per cent the t o ne l . A material p ant , the dust collected in the fines and stacks connecting the kilns with the special dust recovery f t o 2 . o plant , amounted 7 per cent the total dust produced , - f . o a and contained 4 5 per cent potash . The rem ining dust which was saved by the special precipitating plant contained - 1 1 . 4 per cent It is thus seen that the finer dust , which under normal conditions o f cement manufacture passes into the a tw o atmosphere , cont ins more than and a half times as much h potas as the heavier material deposited in the flu es . The ratio o f potash t o soda in the dust is a matter of con siderab le import ance in connection with the question o f

- e al A l o f obtaining high grad potash s ts from the dust . na yses dust from cement plants in the United S tates showed that the quantity of potash with one exception exceeded that o f d 0- 2 6 -0 1 o f so a , the ratios varying from 9 to 7 with an average - 2 66 1 . It has been stated that any cement works whose raw 0 - o mixture contains over 3 per cent . f potash can reasonably expect to make a net proﬁt o n dust recovery even in times o f a a w normal potash market It ppears , ho ever , that o n l account of the cost of the dust recovery p ant , the process will not prove remunerative t o instal at works operating only l a sing e rotary kiln . The potash volatilized under ordinary conditions of cement 74 FLUE GASES AS S OURCES OF POTASH

2 manufacture varies between 5 and 95 per cent . o f the total quantity present in the raw mixture . This wide variation is a due in some measure to differences in burning , but v riation in the composition o f the raw materials has probably a greater

. A . R M . A . R . R influence ccording to W H oss , erz and C . . Wagner the average quantity o f potash volatilized from U S cement plants , in the nited tates , using the dry process o f h ma”nufacture , was 47 per cent . , whilst at t ose using the a l 6 a wet process the vol ti ization was 4 per cent . Contr ry 0- - to expectation , the two highest percentages (9 7 and 95 9) were recorded at works using the wet process . Two main problems have t o be considered in connection with the recovery o f dust rich in potash fro m cem ent works (a) means o f increasing the percentage of potash volatilized ; (b) the collection o f most of the fine dust in a form suitable for fertilizing o r manufacturing u se . The possibility o f increasing the percentage volatilization o f potash from cement materials has received a ttention from L o n o f several investigators . aboratory trials the influence temperature and various substances o n the rate o f volatiliza ll E R . . Nest e tion have been recorded by . Anderson and J The experiments showed that the whole o f the potash could be ° °

1 2 o o r o o . driven over at temperatures between , and , 3 C if ° suﬂicient a t r o o C . time were allowed , but , 4 the time required S l was short . peedy volatilization is a matter of considerab e importance , as the cement mixture remains in the hottest zone o f the rotary kiln for only a comparatively Short time . The speed o f volatilization was considerably decreased by the o f l presence su phates in the cement mixture , and accelerated by chlorides The addition o f sodium chloride for this purpose is now in use at certain cement works (see p . whilst calcium ﬂuoride has also been employed ( see p . other substances p roposed include calcium chloride [92 ] and steam and sulphur dioxide I n o f addition to the above methods , the quantity potash passing from the cement kiln can also be increased by adding some aluminous mineral rich in potash (such as felspar) t o the raw mixture in substitution fo r a portion o f the clay . The o f is addition felspar only economically possible , however,

76 FLUE GASES AS S OURCES OF POTAS H by Lodge in the United Kingdom and by Cottrell in the United S tates The Cottrell process consists in passing the dust - laden gases through an intense electrostatic ﬁeld in which the dust particles become charged and are driven from the high potential discharge to the earthed collector electrode , where they accumulate and whence they are periodically ll o f o f removed . The Cottre dry treater consists a number Sheet -iron tubes o r channels through the centre of which o r o f chains , wires , rods are suspended , the surface a tube and the central wire forming the electrodes . The requisite charge is produced by connecting a source o f al ternating current t o

lo w al o f - u the tension termin s a step p transformer , the high tension terminals o f which are connected with a mechanical al rectiﬁer . This latter instrument changes the ternating cur rent power supplied to it to one o f uni - directional polarity o f At volts and delivers it as such to the precipitator . d intervals the current is stopped , and the tubes rappe me ch anicall t o i y Shake down the accumulated dust , wh ch is removed to the potash extraction plant ( see p . This o treatment removes up to 95 per cent . f the total solids present in the gases . The ﬁrst cement works to install plant prim arily for the S L o f C Co . collection potash was the ecurity ime and ement ,

- o f S M . w as ecurity , aryland When the dust collecting system ll 1 1 6 o f t o insta ed in 9 , it was observed that the ratio soluble insoluble potash in the dust was considerably lower tha n w as R the case at the iverside plant . The comparative solubilities o f the two materials are shown in the following table

Wate r so luble po tash ( K Z O ) Slo wly Acid

To tal po tash

These differences were due t o the fact that the fuel used at R o il S iverside was , whilst at ecurity coal was employed and , the silicates in the ash recombined with the potash t o give i fﬁ silicates , which were soluble w th di culty in water . An CEMENT KI LN D UST 77

account o f an interesting investigation o n the nature and form ation o f these insoluble potash compounds has been given R M R A . . W. recently by erz and H . oss I n a recent United S tates patent it is claimed that the insoluble potash in ﬂue dust may be converted to a water- soluble form by an a l ignition in oxidizing tmosphere . This insolubi ity has now been largely overcome by a dding salt to both t h e powdered coal and raw cement mixture . This addition also increased

the percentage of potash volatilized . The quantity o f salt to be a dded amounts to about one per

o f . cent . the raw mixture The addition is stated t o have no f o n deleterious e fect the ﬁnished cement , which actually contains a lower percentage of alkal ies than when no sal t is

- added . The dust collecting plant in u se before the salt process w a s started consisted o f Cottrell precipitators o f the tube l . o f type , which col ected 95 per cent the dust but it was found that when sal t was added the efﬁ ciency o f the electrical pre i i c t at o rs . o f p decreased The loss dust , however , was more than compensated by the greater richness in potash of the

ll . R . M dust co ected , and it was stated by K eade that the loss has now been overcome by the use of a supplementary

- fi lm o f water treater the Cottrell typ e . In this plant the wires o f o f are located between two walls concrete , over the surface which flows a thin fi lm o f water which takes the place o f the

6 . surface of the tube in the treater described o n p . 7 The electrical discharge between the wire and water ﬁlm are l carries the dust t o the latter . The solids a lowed to settle o ut dl l , and the water used repeate y unti nearly saturated with

ll . salts , which are ﬁna y recovered by evaporation The com position o f a sample o f the dust recovered at the S ecurity 1 1 l works during 9 6 was stated to be as fol ows [3/ p .

r n P e ce t . Po tassium s ulphate 1 6 -7 Po tash (pre se nt a s S ilicate ) 3 -3 So dium chlo rid e 4 -0 C3 CO 3 a c m car o n a e s a e an d m e Ca S O C l iu b t , ulph t li 4 78 FLUE GASES AS S OURCES OF POTAS H

o f S 1 1 The cost collecting potash at the ecurity plant in 9 7 , a according t o J . J . Porter w s as follows

r P e unit o f p o tash .

o e c o n n c n a o r o e r an d a o ra o r o -1 C ll ti , i ludi g l b u , p w l b t y 4 Pa c kin g a nd S hippin g 0 -0 8 Salt 0 -2 5

The above operating costs do not include depreciation o r F royalty . rom detailed estimates given by the same author it appears that a n operating proﬁt o f $o -42 41 per barrel 8 l o f (3 0 b . ) cement produced can be obtained from potash recovery , with potash valued at $45 per unit , and if this latter value is reduced to $1 -o the proﬁt per barrel would be - o f $o o 6o5 . These estimates take no account Charges for o r o f royalty depreciation plant . o f The ideal procedure for the collection potash , according

t o . . P Ma o f S L J J orter , General nager the ecurity ime and Co l l Cement . , wou d consist in passing the gases , at a relative y 0 high velocity , through a dry precipitator , thus removing 5 t o o f 75 per cent . the coarsest dust , which would be returned

- ﬁlm to the kilns . The gases would next go through a water treater where most o f the dust woul d be precipitated . The water after repeated circulation would be evaporated by t h e ul waste heat , whilst insoluble Sludge wo d be treated in i s 1 00 d ge ters at lb . pressure for o ne hour in order to recover

. o f a 1 1 the recombined potash The cost such a pl nt , in 9 7, w as estimated at for a barrel plant . The wet - spray method o f treatment is employed at the Cal plant of the ifornia Portland Cement Co . The gases pass

ﬁrst through dry settling chambers followed by water sprays , the liquid from which is used a number o f times and then employed for leaching dust from the dry Settling chambers . o f This plant has a daily capacity o f about to lb . l 0 o f . potash sa ts containing 4 per cent . potash A novel system is in u se in Utah at a Portland cement works O S L C at gden , alt ake ity , where the dust precipitator consists o f two large brick chambers which have a number o f brick partitions arranged so as t o cause the gases t o ﬂow al ternately CEMENT KI LN D UST 79

t o up and down the chambers , sprays being fixed at the p o r and corners o f each compartment . In the first chamber e saturator the gases b come saturated with water vapour, and in the second chamber o r condenser the vapo urs are condensed , carrying in solution the soluble potash which is recovered by evaporation when the solution is sufficiently

concentrated .

Another variety o f wet process has be en devised by J . G . Dean [98] and used at a Portland cement works at Victor ll o f vi e , Cal . Here the wet process cement manufacture is

0 0 . employed , and the gases which contain 3 to 4 per cent o f water are passed through a condenser . The liquid thus obtained is used as the coo ling medium fo r further h o t gases which serve to evaporate the solution . The kiln gases thus effect vacuum evaporation o f the liquid . When the solution h as been concentrated t o a speciﬁc gravity o f 1 -1 the evapora

- tion is continued in open to p steam evaporators . S everal processes have been devised for the extraction o f potash from the collected dust ; most o f these differ chiefly a ll in mechanical det il . The fo owing brief outline o f that employed at the Riverside works will be suffi cient to give a o f general idea the methods employed . The dust is char ged into tanks fitted with stirring gear ° n and containing water at 85 C. Owi g t o the hydration o f a the c ustic lime the solution rapidly boils , and the water l solub e potash soon passes into solution . The extraction o f t h e o f each batch occupies about fifty minutes , end the process being ascertained by means o f specific gravity determinations o n o f the liquid . The temperature the solution h as to be ° C f o r 8 . o as maintained at above 5 by means steam coils , it h as been found that below this temperature an insoluble o f o o u compound p tash and lime may separate t . When the extraction process is complete the solution is run into a filter reservoir where the solid matter is separated by

means o f suction ﬁlter drums . The solution is next run into evaporating ponds and there left until it h as attained a speciﬁc o f 1 -1 gravity , when it is transferred to evaporating pans . is The liquid in these maintained at constant level , and the o ut salts which separate are recovered periodically . 0 FLUE GASES AS S OURCES OF POTASH

A t o . recovery plant yield lb potash per day , in which

- the dust is collected by wet spraying , was erected by the C Co . at P O 1 2 0 anadian Cement , ort Colborne , ntario , in 9 Certain cement manufacturers sell the ﬁne cement dust in its crude condition to fertilizer makers for use in compound l m a fertilizers . The materia y carry from 4 to 2 0 per cent . o f a 6 I t potash , and prob bly averages about per cent . seems likely that when normal conditions again prevail it will be I necessary for a product t o carry at least O per cent . o f potash

in order to be saleable for fertilizing purposes . This improve ment in the grade can usually be attained by selective preci i a io n S o a a e t t . p far as can be judged from d ta vailabl , the installation of special plant for dust precipitation 18 no t likely t o prove remunerative where the product from only o ne

o r two kilns is concerned . In th”e United S tates from this source the outputs o f crude 1 1 —2 0 potash (rich dust) in 9 7 aggregated short tons . a a It was estim ted by R . K . Meade [95] that when ll the cement dust recovery plants under construction in 1 91 8 came into a operation , their annu l output would be equivalent to

tons of potash (KZ O) . I n the United Kingdom during 1 91 9 an attempt was made to recover potash from cement- kiln dust at a works in Middlesex

I n 1 1 w a s 9 7 it stated that a company working at Durham , O w as a ntario , using felsp r as an ingredient in the manufacture I n l o f Portland cement . addition to the plants for col ecting at U S potash cement works in the nited tates , which number a N S about sixteen , installations are lso at work in orway , pain , Japan and Sweden S everal processes have been tried for the production o f potash from felspar with some variety o f cement more o r

- An o less as a b y product . account f certain o f these metho ds F S is given under elspars and ilicates ( see p .

B LAST FURNACE D usr

The gases issuing from the top o f a blast furnace during the smelting o f iron o re contain a large proportion o f valuable combustible matter which is utilized in va rious ways in the B LAST FURNACE D UST 81

o r o f works . F the majority uses it is necessary for the gas to be freed from the dust and fume carried over from the raw l A a o f e n materia s . n lyses the ﬁner dust and fum have show

a o f - l that they contain a l rge proportion water solub e potash , which has been produced in the furnace from the silicates of l o f potash occurring in the ores and ﬂuxes . The possibi ity recovering potash from blast furnace ﬂue dust has received 1 1 U considerable attention since 9 5, both in the nited Kingdom and in the United States . — C 0 U i d I . 1 1 n te Kingdom . t has been estimated by K hance [ ]

a t o n o f - U that for e ch pig iron produced in the nited Kingdom , there is fed into the furnace in the raw materials the eq uiv a On lent o f about 1 5 t o 30 lb . o f potassium chloride . this basis the quantity passing annually into these blast furnaces would be about tons . Of o f this total quantity , under ordinary conditions work la ing , about tons is lost in s gs , and tons is a o f a hl volatilized with the g ses in the form carbon te , c oride

- fi fth s o f and cyanide , and four this is finally discharged into h P o f the atmosp ere . art the remaining tons is de posited in the dow n catchers and down comers with is the heavy dust , whilst a further quantity recovered mostly as sul h at e ‘ in flu es p the boiler and stoves . It would appear that as a general rule the British ores contain more potash than those imported from abroad, those o f the Oxfordshire and Northamptonshire belt being p articu ' larl th e Clev eland y rich , followed by material from and North L F a incolnshire deposits . oreign h ematite ores appear to contain less than o ne- third o f the available potash found in

British ores . Th e processes employed fo r removing dust from blast furnace gas include : (a ) wet- spray methods ; (6) electrical precipitation ( c) dry- cleaning processes usually involving bag

ﬁltration . It is evident that if the maximum recovery of water

o f ﬁ rs - soluble potash is required , processes the t mentioned type are not suitable ( see p . E see 6 lectrical precipitation ( p . 7 ) has not been, so far, l a largely emp oyed in this country for this purpose, lthough it is stated that the Lodge process has been satisfactorily used 82 FLUE GASES AS S OURCES OF POTASH f o r treating to cubic feet o f gas per hour at one o f works at least The third kind of process , which the

- Halberg Beth may be taken as typical, has received consider able attention in connection with the recovery of potash from o f blast furnace dust It was, in fact, the examination dust recovered from a H alberg - Beth plant at the works o f N L Co L d t . the orth incolnshire Iron . , , that led to serious attention being directed in this country to this source of potash . o f K . M. Chance [1 03] states : The recovery potash in a gas- cleaning plant at a blast furnace has o ne enormous advantage over all other native sources o f supply in that o f o f the value the main product that plant, namely clean gas, is in itself sufﬁciently great t o provide a handsome remunera tion for the capital outlay involved in erecting it and the o f so o f cost its operation , that the cost recovering potash o f already in the gas in the form dust is nil . The second consideration is that the main items o f cost in volatiliz ing potash from an ore in which it is present in insoluble form o f l — namely, cost raw materia , labour and fuel are, in the case o f o f a blast furnace, already incurred and reckoned as items

o f - cost in the manufacture the main product , pig iron, whereas o f o r in the production potash from felspar alunite , those items o f cost have to be borne by the potash unless a market can

b - ll be found for some y product which wi carry their weight . The composition o f the dust recovered is very complex and o f t o o f will , course, vary some extent with the nature the s l is raw material used . In the fol owing table shown the per centage anal ysis o f a sample o f dust recovered from the Hal berg- Beth plant at S cunthorpe

S o u e in I nso u e in m er . l bl wa ter . l bl t

- a m o Fe O . Po t ssiu bicarbo nat e K H CO3 Fe rro so fe rric xide 3 4 CaCO c arbo n ate K 2 C03 Cal c ium c arbo nate 3 chlo rid e KCl Z in c sulphide Z n s c yanid e K CN Ma gn e sia MgO fo rm ate K H COz Carbo n C sulp ate K Z S O A Silica Si0 2 h , m So diu c arbo nate N a z CO 3 I ro n cyan ide Fe (ON) : Z inc an d le a d a s sulphide s

84 FLUE GASES AS S OURCES OF POTASH

The British P otash Company was formed fo r the pro fi duction of re ned potash salts from blast furnace dust, and O F the first factory has been erected at ldbury. actories will be erected in other localities as the production o f blast I t furnace dust j ustifies . has been decided that the smallest o n e unit , that can be erected consistent with economy, will be whose annual output o f potassium chloride will be not less than tons . I t would appear that the future o f this source o f supply in Great B ritain depends almost entirely upon the installation o f dry- cleaning plant for the waste gases at the blast furnaces . The recovery o f potash in S cotland from blast furnace pro ducts seems to present several features differing from those E S occurring in ngland or the United tates . This is due to the fact that whereas coke is the fuel principally used in the S two countries last mentioned, in cotland coal is generally As . al used a gener rule, the raw materials also contain a l R A A . o f . sma ler percentage potash . ccording to Berry N M Ar f . c t ur o and D . h the use coal causes a somewhat large a quantity of tarry m tter to be produced, and it is necessary to remove this before the gases can be used in the stoves, the washing being usually done by water. In most works this o f t o water , after removal the tar and ammonia , is run waste , but at some works it is evaporated by waste heat and its o f potash recovered . The following balance sheet the potash charged into the furnaces and that recovered at one blast S furnace works in cotland, together with the possible recovery 1 02 S from the blast furnaces in cotland, has been given by Berry and McArth ur

- P er t on of pig iron pro duced .

lb . ‘6 Po ta sh (K Z O) charge d in to furn a c e 7 Po tash re co ve re d in spe n t liquo r - ﬂu e a n d sto ve dust 0 04 - pitc h a sh 1 7 tube cle an in gs 0 2

The estimated possible annual production for S cotland is shown in the following table B LAST FURNACE D UST 85

Water - so luble To tal so luble p o po tash ( K 3 0) .

Estim ate d to ta l pro duc tio n

S o a o f far as can be ascert ined , no important quantity a potash h a s been recovered from blast furnace dust in S cotl nd . United S ta tes - Tn the United S tates the question o f the recovery o f potash from blast furnace dust seems to have attra cted less general attention than has been the case in the U nited Kingdom . This has probably been due to the fact that numerous other sources o f potash supply were being worked . The matter received considerable attention, however, S at the Bethlehem teel Works, and a comprehensive account R o f the investigation made there has been published by . J . Wyso r I t appears that the total quantity o f potash present in l lb a 2 2 . the raw materi s used in that works, which averages 4

o f - per ton pig iron produced, is considerably above the average usually found in blast furnace materials either in U S the nited tates or in this country. The composition of the dust caught in the several parts o f a a the pl nt shows gre t variation in potash content . The gases o n l a - and eaving the furn ce top go through dust catchers ,

0 6 1 . deposit the coarser dust, which carries about per cent o f o f l l a s potash , about half which is so ub e in water. The g t o ex e c is next treated in tower spray washers, but , contrary p t a tio n 2 0 about per cent . of the potash entering this plant A ll o f goes through untrapped . sma quantity dust containing -6 o f i 44 per cent . potash is deposited in the mains lead ng from a I t the spray w shers to the stoves . is from the passes of the a l o f latter th t the argest quantity potash is recovered . The

2 0 o f - stove dust carries from 5 to per cent . water soluble

a o f - - potash, the aver ge thirty six car loads, weighing tons, 0 W as use being 9 9 per cent . here the g is intended for in gas engines, it is treated in the secondary wet washers after 86 FLUE GASES AS SOURCES OF POTASH

o e leaving the tower spray washers . This removes most f th dust and potash, which is thus lost . The losses and recoveries o f potash in the various parts o f the Bethlehem Works have been summarized as follows

P er cen o f a t . to t l - f i ron . po tash charged . o p g i P otash re covered I n du st -catche r dust I n sto ve s a nd bo ile r p asse s

P otash lost I n sla g I n fum e fro m iro n a n d cinde r no tche s I n ga se s fro m t o p o f furn ace I n primary wa she rs I n se co n d ary wa sh e rs I n m a ns s o e s and o e rs i , t v b il

Experiments were made with a Cottrell electrical p recipi

as - tator installed to treat the g as it leaves the dust catcher,

and it was found that practically all the dust was trapped . The potash content of the m a terial amounted to about 1 0 per

cent . It is evident that such treatment would increase considerably the quantity o f potash recovered by eliminating o f a most the loss due to primary w shers .

1 1 8 a - During 9 , four s teel companies sold pot sh bearing dust 6 obtained from blast furnaces . The material carried from to 9 o f per cent . potash, and represented dust which had settled in a o f l a the ﬂue s o f stoves and boilers . The qu ntity b ast furn ce dust recovered in the period 1 91 7— 2 0 w a s short tons [1 77]

88 VEGETAB LE S OURCES OF POTAS H

S teno h lla F L. o r p y , which are cast up after storms . ( a compre h ensiv e account o f the seaweeds gathered o n the coasts o f

S see . o f cotland, J Hendrick The productions kelp in S 1 1 1 1 1 1 cotland in 9 3 , 9 4 and 9 5, amounted to and tons respectively In S outh Uist and B enb ecula the season lasts from the o f Ma t o o f S beginning y the end eptember. The weeds are f o r a are f o r dried two d ys, and then turned and dried another E t o o f three days . xposure rain entails a considerable loss o potash and iodine, and should therefore be av ided as far as f e. o possibl The collection and burning the weeds, which grow - o n N t o between the tide marks, are carried from ovember M arch . An o r open, shallow kiln, with brick stonework sides, from 6 o 0 1 t 2 . 2 1 . . ft long, to 3 ft wide, and about in high, is used for burning, but closed kilns are sometimes employed . The o n o f o r dried weed is laid a bed dried heather straw, and ix . t o s the whole fired The operation lasts from five hours, o f o ne t o n o f co m five tons dried weed producing kelp, the position o f which is shown in the following table

P o tassium s ulphate chlo rid e So dium chlo ride c arbo n ate thio sulphate io dide I n so luble m a tte r Wate r

l The kelp, as it is received at the chemica works, is often in th e form o f large semi- fused lumps and has ﬁrst to be broken

o no t 2 - in t pieces over . cube in size, and is sometimes further o f ground to a coarse powder by means edge runners . The lixiviation o f the ash is carried o ut in rectangular iron vats

having false bottoms, which are heated by steam . The kelp is repeatedly treated in these vats with water at a temperature ° o f about 43 C the strong liquors obtained in the first treat o ff ment are run to the settlers, whilst the weaker solutions MARI NE PLANTS 89 obtained by the later lixiviations are used for treating further f o f o f quantities o fresh kelp . The extraction each batch i kelp is usually continued unt l the liquids, which drain o f - B é away, have a gravity 3 4 . (specific gravity ° ° 2 2 6 B é The concentrated liquors which register 4 to 4 . 1 2 00 t o (specific gravity after being allowed to settle,

- are transferred to open , hemispherical, cast iron evaporating pans, each about 9 ft . in diameter. In certain works the n evaporation is conducted in the more economical closed pa s . These are heated by steam coils and have mechanical agitators t o prevent the separated sal ts from adhering to the sides o f the pan . The concentration is usually continued until the ° ° o f t o B é liquor has a gravity when hot 333 35 4 . (speciﬁc gravity 1 3 0 to The hot liquor is then run into l W o ut settlers, where the sa ts hich have already separated are o n l al allowed to settle, and passes into cylindrica cryst lizing 60 t vats . The residue in the settlers contains about per cen . o f ul potassium s phate, the remainder being sodium sulphate and sodium chloride . The hot liquor is allowed to cool very slowly over two o r a o f o f 0 three d ys, and a crop potassium chloride about 9 per cent . purity is obtained . The mother liquor from this opera o f tion is further evaporated, the mixture sodium chloride sulphate and carbonate kelp salt which separates during a the Oper tion being removed from time to time . The solution is again allowed to crystallize, and a further crop of potassium

. s l chloride is obtained This process i repeated, the ke p s alt being removed from the hot liquor and the potassium o n chloride being obtained by crystallization cooling . The second cr0p o f potassium chloride often contains 98 per o f cent . the pure salt, whilst the third crop usu ally does no t 82 carry more than per cent . The mother liquor remaining ai n n is f rly rich in iodi e, which is recovered by o e o f the well known processes . The residue remaining after the extraction of the soluble

F l a s salts from the kelp is used in rance as a ferti izer, it con tains a large proportion o f calcium carbonate and phosphates f A o . A A M f 1 0 lime and magnesia ccording to . . o fat [ 9] the residue has approximately the following composition 90 VEGETAB LE SOURCES OF POTASH

m c r n Calciu a bo ate CaCO3 sulphate Ca sO4 s ulphide Ca S m Ma gn e siu carbo nate MgCO3 Salts o f po tash a nd so d a Min e ral pho sphate s Carbo n Silica a n d san d Wate r

At o ne time this residue was used in the manufacture o f

common glass bottles . From time t o time methods have been suggested for the fi o f more ef cient working the kelp industry, particularly in rel ation t o the method o f burning and the recovery and o f e n utilization the products evolved during that proc ss . O e ' o f th e e arlie st o f these was the process, devised by S tanford , o f carbonizing the dried weed in closed retorts in order t o and o f recover the ammonia evolved to avoid loss iodine . In

’ 1 86 al Lo ch e o rt 3 sever works were erected, notably at p , in N U orth ist, for working the process, but these were unsuccess t o diﬂicultie s o f n ful owing technical , a fall in the price iodi e, fﬁ o f and the di culty transporting the dried weed to the works . — I rela nd Kelp is prepared at many places o n the Irish 1 1 t o 1 1 8 six coast, and from 9 3 9 counties produced 43 2 0 and tons respectively o f The percentage composition a typical sample, Showing S as : more potash than the cottish product , is follows 2 -1 potassium sulphate, potassium chloride, 7 7 ; sodium carbonate, sodium thiosulphate, sodium iodide,

l 1 0 6- 1 1 . 1 1 1 insolub e matter, 4 4 ; water, 3 During 9 7 ﬁ rm al considerable quantities were purchased by a in G way. N oma — 1 1 2 i N y. There were in 9 nine kelp factor es in orway, the produce being chieﬂy shipped to England and S cotland

f o r . 1 1 treatment During 9 3 , the price paid for kelp was

8 6 ~ o f about £ 5 . per ton . The pre war annual production kelp ash N t o o in orway amounted about t ns, the product t o o f containing from 34 37 per cent . potash . The seaweed most favoured is that known on the west

92 VEGETAB LE S OURCES OF POTASH

— S outh Af ried Analyses o f certain S outh African seaweeds M L i R have been published by . und e and . W. Hallack F and G . . Britten from which it would appear that the

o f Ulva la ctuca Enteromor ha iii testinalis potash contents , p , Ecklonia B uccina lis 1 (stems) are 9 5 per cent . A M . r 1 1 1 2 respectively ccording to archand [ 5/p . 7] the last mentioned is the only weed which would yield a product o f suﬂicient value to warrant the cost o f collection and preparation . S o far as can be ascertained no attempt has been made in the Union o f S outh Africa to utilize these weeds as a source o f potash salts . Ca na da — N ereoc t s . The giant seaweed ys i has been observed in varying quantities over a distance o f about ten miles o n o f N a V I 1 1 6 each side an imo , ancouver sland and, in 9 , a plant erected near S ydney was treating about 40 tons o f wet Cumsh ew a M weed per day. The beds near inlet , oresby u o f Island, in the Q een Charlotte group, cover an area about 1 1 ten square miles, and in 9 7 a plant was erected there with

‘

o f ab o u t 1 o oo o f . a capacity , tons wet weed per day United S tates — a o f During the last dec de , the subj ect recovering potash and other products from marine plants o n a scale much more extensive than that of the S cotch and Irish kelp industries has received the attention o f the United

S tates Geological Survey and the Department o f Agriculture . o f P o f The giant seaweeds the aciﬁc coast , consisting chieﬂy

N ereoc stis luetkecm a M a eroc stis ri em the species y and y py f , exist in enormous quantities , but a regular and adequate supply can only be ensured by systematic harvesting . The potash contents o f the above species average 2 0 -1 and 1 2 59 °

a t 1 0 C . per cent . respectively o f the material dried 5 One harves ting vessel used o n the P aciﬁc co ast [1 1 8] has o f 60—h a crew Six men, two . p . engines (speed nine miles per hour) and deck space for 1 30 tons o f weed (two and a half Fo r n hours work in a rich region) . detachi g the weed there 1 2 l is a horizontal cutter bar ft . long, ﬁtted with osci lating o f knive s, and, at the end this, are two vertical cutting

l . bars, each 4 ft . long, equipped with Simi ar knives The horizontal cutter works 4 ft . below the surface , and the MARI NE PLANTS 93 weed as cut is caught by a slat conveyor and deposited o n

deck . i t o From data publ shed during the war the cost harvest, l o n e o f bring ashore , and un oad short ton wet weed varied from I F Lauck s 1 1 A 0 . $ 4 93 ( . ) [ 9] to (C . . Higgins) On exposure to air in Single layers these gia nt seaweeds l 0 o f al as dry rapid y, and about 5 per cent . the s ts appear an re s ence efﬂo c on the surface . o f Raw 0 . seaweed contains about 9 per cent water, and the most economical form o f drier is probably o ne of Similar ﬁ sh design to the rotary kilns, used for drying scrap . 1 1 F C 1 2 0 In 9 3 , . K . ameron [ ] gave the following estimates fo r the plant and working costs o f treating 500 short tons o f P wet weed per day lant, (including working al 0 0 capit ) working costs, $37 (including $5 for interest and As 00 o f depreciation) . 5 short tons wet weed produce 75 o f o f o ne t o n o f Short tons dried weed, the cost short dried ill A l weed w be $49 3 . ssuming the atter contains 1 5 per 1 - t o n w cent . potash it will be worth $ 4 75 per Short ( ith nitrogen 2 6 and potash at $ 5 and 5 cents per unit respectively) . The above are pre—war estimates ; they would no w have t o be

considerably increased . The dried seaweed can be used : ( 1 ) as a potash and nitro t o o f genous fertilizer, after grinding it a sufﬁcient degree ﬁneness ( 2 ) as a potash fertilizer in the form o f ash (kelp) and o f 3) as a source potash salts and iodine, with the recovery

f b - S o many y products as in the cottish kelp process . t o ash o In reducing the seaweed an , the following meth d o n has been employed The weed, leaving the barge, is passed through a modiﬁed form o f ensilage chopper which a 1 2 reduces it to bout in . in length, and thence to storage bins . The yellowish slimy substance which exudes from the chopped is weeds, and rich in potash, is collected and evaporated by al waste heat , yielding a purple cryst line mass containing about f . o a 2 5 per cent potash . The wet weed then undergoes pre a liminary drying in the rot ry driers , which are unlined steel l l 2 and l p ate cy inders, 4 ft . long 7 ft . in diameter, and inc ined 1 in er about 1 0 . p foot towards the discharge end . Twelve o f o f n t o rows hooks, ﬁxed to the interior the cyli ders, serve 94 VEGETAB LE S OURCES OF POTASH

lift the wet weed and then drop it through the heated air of F . 1 o f the drier eeders supply each drier with 5 lb . wet weed

. o il every ﬁfteen seconds The heating is by burners . The ° o n o f 60 C gases meeting the wet weed have a temperature 7 . , ° e 1 2 0 o n dr which is reduc d to C leaving the kiln . The ied t o 2 o f weed, still retaining up 5 per cent . moisture, is next passed through incinerators o f similar construction to th e 0 — driers, but only 4 ft . long and 5 ft . in diameter the ﬂame i t o be ng allowed play directly into the cylinder. The

- charcoal like product obtained at the discharge end, which o f is r u contains about 35 per cent . potash, cooled and g o nd l o f co m up, being then ready for sa e to the manufacturers

pound fertilizers . The furnace gases and moisture are drawn o f from the discharge ends the driers and incinerators by fans, o f and, as a certain amount potash dust is carried over, the waste gases are led through a series o f brick dust settling A o f . chambers , where most this dust is deposited ccording t o Lauck s [1 1 9] shredded waste wood is sometimes employed as a fuel for the driers . The largest plant in the world fo r the treatment o f wet P Co o f . seaweed was probably that the Hercules owder , near S an Diego, California . It was erected in the ﬁrst instance o f for the manufacture acetone for munitions purposes, potash

b - and other substances being y products . The plant, which o f occupies an area thirty acres, and cost about to construct, found employment for about men . It is n o f u derstood that since the cessation the war, and the consequent decrease in demand for munitions products, the dl works have been practically i e . 1 1 o f During 9 7, about tons weed was harvested per month . The cut weed is carried from the water to the har vester vessel by a series o f moving screens which transfer it to macerators , whence it p asses to the hold . The macerated weed is next conveyed by a suction pipe to a barge which a il takes the pulp shore, wh st the harvester continues opera sea l tions at . The pu p is transferred by suction to the fer o f 1 0 ll mentation tanks , which there are 5 holding ga ons l o f s each . By carefu ly controlling the temperature the tank o f and securing aeration by means compressed air, fermenta

96 VEGETAB LE S OURCES OF POTASH commercial production o f potash salts from kelp o n a large o f 2 0 scale are far from bright , since the production tons o f potash involves handling about tons o f raw weed o f containing tons water. If this water were removed l s o f o il by rotary driers , about gal on would be required as fuel, an amount which under normal conditions would o f leave but little proﬁt o n the process . The cost harvest ing the weed alone a ppears to be prohibitive at present . Further information o n the American seaweeds is given by 6 F C 1 A R M 1 M 1 2 . . 2 2 . . . erz [ 5] D . Balch [ ] K ameron [ 7] E P R Lindmuth and by . G . arker and J . .

RAW S EAWEED AS A P OTASH FERTILIZ ER

The use o f fresh seaweed as a fertilizer h as been the practice fo r o f many years along the coasts Great Britain . The fer tiliz er al o n o f is v ued account its potash, nitrogen and organic as an sea matter contents , especially the last named in m y in weeds is a form which decomposes readily in the soil . o f The potash, nitrogen and phosphoric acid contents several marine plants common round the British Isles are Shown in o n i the following table, the results being expressed the dr ed weed

F u cu s s . e rs p , J ey F u cu s cem n o ides e o n , D v F ucus n o dosu s co a n , S tl d L min a aria s . co a n p , S tl d F u eus serra tus e n , K t

On - o f S o n the south west coast cotland, it is employed many light soils, being much favoured for early potatoes , the quantity used fo r this purpose varying from 2 5 to 30 tons per acre . I n C fo r and Devon and ornwall, fertilizing potatoes root no t crops , the weed is usually applied in the fresh state, but is mixed with sand and allowed t o ro t before being employed . RAW SEAWEED — WOOD ASH 97

The weeds chieﬂy used in this part o f the country are Fucus vesiculosu s F sem i tu s La minaria di ita ta Ulva , . and g , whilst u la ct ca is occasionally employed . S I In the cilly sles, seaweed constitutes the most important 0 f o r fertilizer, as much as 5 tons per acre often being used s ra tus Laminaria s F . er potatoes . is most used, whilst the pp . t o o f are held be the least value . I n addition to the drift weed cast up by the tide, in Jersey cut weed from the rocks is largely used the practice being t o l o f S apply the ferti izer in the middle eptember, at the rate o f about 45 tons per acre . I n o f 1 0 o r Thanet, the weed is often applied at the rate 1 5 tons per a cre over lucerne o r sainfoin in the autumn and o ff is l raked in spring , j ust before the crop starts . It a so s - ometimes ploughed in before sowing market garden crop s . I nformation o n the fertilizing value o f seaweed is given by E R J . Hendrick by . J . ussell and by J . J . S i A M k nner and . . Jackson

Wo o n AS H

AS o f potash is necessary for the growth plants, it is found , a P o f in v rying amounts, in their ash . rior to the middle o f the last century, wood ash constituted the chief source o f S ss potassium carbonate, but the exploitation the ta furt salt deposits led to a considerable decrease in the use o f wood ash al for this purpose . In certain loc ities, where large quan tities o f wood fuel are used o r where much waste wood is o f produced, such as in lumber camps, the manufacture pot l o n ashes and pearl ash is stil carried . This is the case in a o f U S R S cert in parts Canada, the nited tates , ussia and pain . It is customary t o use the term pot - ashes for the product obtained by calcination o“f wood and”subsequent lixiviation l t o and evaporation, whi st pearl ash is used deﬁne the

- fairly high grade potassium carbonate obtained therefrom . The residues o f all plants are not o f equal value as sources o f potash , as it has been found that those carrying large per o f a Gra min ew o r o f centages silic (such as the ) , phosphoric Fo r acid, yield little potassium carbonate . this reason the 98 VEGETAB LE S OURCES OF POTAS H utilization o f straw for the preparation o f potash is no t a fe sible . Great variation is S hown in the composition o f the mineral o f AS matter from various portions the same plant . a general rule the proportion o f ash is greaterin the limbs and branches than in the inside wood , whilst the alkalies and phosphoric acid attain a maximum in the fruits and their envelopes . The percentage o f potash in the ash o f a wood will naturally vary to some extent with the nature o f the soil upon which it has been grown , but the following ﬁgures Show the average contents o f ash and o f potash In certain plants in an air- dried condition .

P ercentages of Ash a nd P ota sh in Air- dried P lants

Po ta sh

P n P er n . er ce t . ce t Ash wo o d 6 06 Man uka wo o d (Lep a n an a an - r n m s B pl t 38 84 tospe m p p . ) Ban an a skin s 1 8 -0 6 2 5 Malle e wo o d (Eu ca o o o 1 -8 l tu s s B xw d 5 yp pp . ) Bush ﬂax (A ste lia O ak (po st) wo o d n e rvosa ) O ak (po st) bark a n s I 0 v o Br cke ( ee p . 4) . Oli e wo d Sugar ca n e to ps Pe pp e rmint wo o d Sugar c a n e tra sh Prickly pe ar Cardam o n ste m Re d gu m Ce dar wo o d Re d pin e Che stn ut wo o d Sa ge brush (p 2 -97 Co co n ut husk Sisa l he m p Co tto n se e d Sun ﬂo we r st alk a n d o o n se e e a 1 0 2 C tt d hull l ve s (p . ) Elm wo o d Sycam o re wo o d Gra pe m arc To bac co ste m s Kauri waste Wa te r hya cinth Ma gno lia wo o d Wattle wo o d Man gro ve (black) (Rl n z opk o mmu cro n a ta ) r ~ 34 Wo rmwo o d

o m e e ﬂ f Fe r z ers u nsla nd A ric ow c ro m n a se s o e e . a C pil i y f A ly tili , , d h Q g ( I 1 1 7 6 A sche n an al s n E Wo lﬂ R e f 1 0 an d an a se s m a e at 9 7 , , 3 , ”e by . . 5 ly y [ ] d m e r a n s e I p i l I titut .

n o f - The mean compositio ninety seven commercial . samples o f unleached wood ashes as given by Grossman is shown in the following table

1 00 VEGETAB LE S OURCES OF POTAS H

i l o 0 . o f b . f from 50 lb . t 8 lb slaked l me are added per o t o o wood ash , in order causticize the potassium carb nate , and il liberate some o f the base from potassium s icate . The damp ash is then packed in barrels , having false bottoms covered with straw , and hot water is poured over it . The liquor ° - B é c 1 1 8 . o f (over 9 , spe iﬁc gravity which contains most al o ff the soluble s ts , is drawn from time to time , and is after L f wards concentrated by evaporation . iquors o lower density

e o f . are used for lixiviating furth r quantities ash The residue , l o f stil containing a fair amount potash , is sometimes employed as a fertilizer . A simple process for the economical leaching o f wood ashes o n the counter- current principle is described in reference The concentrated liquors obtained by leaching are evaporated t o - l dryness in cast iron pans ﬁred from be ow , although pans

ﬁred from above would be more economical . There must be V o f igorous stirring during the latter part evaporation , to o n prevent as much as possible the mass burning to the pan . The mass o f crude potash is then calcined in a reverbatory a furnace below fusion point , org nic matter being thereby l removed and su phides converted into sulphates .

a - To produce pe rl ash , the crude pot ashes are mixed with r l in d a little sawdust and eca c e . The product is dissolved in o f ﬁl two parts water , tered from insoluble matter and allowed A to cool . fter a few days , the clear liquid is separated from hl h as the potassium sulphate and some c oride , which deposited , al and is then evaporated to dryness and again c cined . A still purer product is obtained by evaporating the ﬁnal solution only to crystallization and then removing and calcining the

deposited crystals . The principal constituents o f certain commercial brands o f po t - ashes and pearl ash prepared from wood are Shown in

the table o n the opposite page . The greater proportion o f the pot - ashes and pearl ash produced in Canada before the war w a s exported t o the United Kingdom f o . n and used as a source caustic potash However, owi g to the s German caustic pota h having fallen in price, the work proved hi a unremunerative , w ch explains the decre se in the exports d M during the years immediately prece ing the war . oreover, po t -ashes

Po tassium carbo n ate K 2 C03 hydro xid e K OH sulphate K 2 8 04 c hlo rid e KCl -8 So dium carbo n ate N a z CO 3 2 4

77 9

1 1 t o I m it appears (from a report furnished , in 9 5, the I F o f perial nstitute by the orestry Branch , Department the I C o f C nterior , anada) that much the wood cut in anada is soft wood , containing a much lower percentage of potash than the harder varieties formerly cut , which has also contri buted towards the decrease . The conclusion arrived at in the report with regard to the o f a production potash from wood ashes in C nada , is that it is no t commercially feasible to revive the potash industry as

- ﬁ v e a o an d practised in Canada twenty years g , that , in most

- cases , the only use for the ash from saw mill burners is for a l the f rmers in the locality to app y it directly to their land . Large accumulations o f wood ash often occur where wood h a is used as a fuel . T is is particularly the case o n the railw ys S o f C . o f l Kenya olony amples watt e , chestnut and olive wood ashes from this source have rec ently been examined at the Imperial Institute with the following results

Chestnut Wa ttle w oo d O liv e w oo d

w oo d ash . ash . ash .

Po ta sh so luble in wate r K z O in so lubl e in wate r K Z O N So d a so luble in wate r a z O in so luble in wate r N a z O Crude po ta she s re co ve rable p e r t o n o f 1b ash .

I t appears probable that the above ashes had been partly a t o as o f le ched by exposure the weather, the amount potash 1 02 “ olive wood compares unfavourably with that found in other specimens o f ash from these woods from the same colony examined in the S cientiﬁc and Technical o f I Research Department the mperial Institute . In Argentina many large industrial plants employ Quebracho as t o i wood fuel , and it has been proposed ut lize the ashes o f f o r the manufacture potash . Potash is produced in the Abdali and Fadhli districts o f A A b A a den , ra ia , by burning the den bals m with wood fuel in

. A shallow pits The crude ash is sent to den , and exported to

Bombay . VEGETABLE WASTE

H edge Clippings

It h as been suggested that much o f the vegetable waste o f the farm and garden might be burnt and the ashes used as E Ro th amst ed a potash fertilizer . xperiments carried out at

[1 36] have . shown that the a sh o f hedge cleanings from three

n o f . ﬁelds contained o an average per cent . potash The ashes must be protected from the rain while cooling , then mixed with superphosphates o f lime and applied at once t o

o f 2 0 . the soil . The quantity ash may vary from 5 to lb per

1 00 yards o f hedge trimmings .

S unﬂower S talks

The ashes from the stalks o f sun ﬂowers are the main source R o f potash in ussia , and the industry is important The o n N C sunﬂowers are grown waste land , mostly in orthern aucasia

- o and in the S aratov region . There were twenty eight p tash 1 1 2 factories in the former district in 9 , controlled by a R i 1 1 1 Moscow syndicate . The total uss an production in 9 was short tons . In the period 1 91 5- 1 7 the average annual production in Northern Caucasia was from 1 5 t o 1 7 thousand Short tons o f f S 0 . o f o o 88 to 9 per cent p tassium carbonate , that the aratov region being from t o tons o f 78 t o 80 per cent . 1 1 0 o f potassium carbonate . In 9 8 and 1 92 it was estimated that the United States imported and 600 Short tons respectively o f Russian potassium carbonate .

1 04 VEGETAB LE S OURCES OF POTAS H

o f from it . The plant grows wild in several the Western S o f A tates merica , and various attempts have been made to l o f co m uti ize it , but none the projects seems to have been a m ercial success [3/ p .

Wa ter Hy acinth (Eichornia crassip es)

B o f a In urma , Bengal , and other parts Indi , this plant has a a become serious pest , and steps h ve been taken for its l eradication . Its value as a ferti izer has recently been dis S Finl o McLe an R . w . cussed by . and K The dried o ne o f plant , which constitutes about twentieth the wet f K O 8 . o material , contains about per cent potash ( z ) , whilst h ash as o f 2 . the an average 5 per cent potash , but the quantity varies with the conditions o f growth and nature o f the soil as shown by the following analyses

Po tash K QO Pho spho ric a nhydrid e P 905 Ca O Cl

S iOg

A No I o n ash nalysis . was made prepared from a well grown I I No . plant from the Dacca khal , whilst represents the ash o f a stunted plant grown o n red soil at Mirpur (see 1 1 so 1 0 o f It was stated in June 9 7 that , far , about 7 tons n o f water hyacinth ash , representi g tons the green plant , had been sold in Calcutta and Dacca .

P rickly P ear

The eradication o f this pest has received considerable A o f attention in ustralia , and the recovery potash by burning h as I t the dried plant been attempted . was reported in 1 91 7 that the process w as no t yet a commercial success

B racken

Bracken has received some attention , particularly in the U o f o . n nited Kingdom , as a possible source p tash The pla t is stated t o have been used many years ago in certain parts VEGETAB LE WASTE 1 05 o f Wal e s fo r the production o f a crude form o f soda - ash used

r and a o f f o making soap gl ss . The composition bracken at R a o f . A various st ges its growth has been investigated by . R A B R E Berry and by . . erry, G . W. obinson and . J . Russell who found that the young plant gave an ash f 0 . o containing about 5 per cent potash , whilst the mature material gave a larger quantity o f ash containing a smaller o f W percentage potash . hen the dead bracken has lain exposed t o the weather the content o f potash may be as low as 2 per B o n cent . racken grown sandy soils gave considerably less

potash than that grown on loams . In most cases the quantity

o f - l w as 0 o f water so uble potash about 9 per cent . the total 0 potash, but in some cases this fell to as low as 5 per cent . The variation in yield o f ash and potash with the season

is Shown in the following table, the bracken under considera tion being obtained from Dundonald Glen in Ayrshire

D ry ma tter Po tash in Ash in dry Po ta sh in calcula te d on res rack en . ma er a sh f h b tt . .

From estimates made in 1 91 8 it would appear that the cost o f preparing the ash would now more than equal the o f market value the product . W o f e hen the eradication brack n is desired, it Should be a g thered when approaching maturity, indicated by the slight

o f - e yellowing the fronds ; after air drying, it should be car fully burnt and the ash protected from the weather. C . A . 1 0 a 2 3 t o B ston [ 4 ] gives cal cul ted values from £ 4 5 . 1 6 £ 5s . per ton o f ash from mature plants grown in New Z e a a 6d Pre 1 2 3 . . land ( ssuming potash to be worth . per unit) liminary results indicated that the yield o f ash per acre would l S be considerab y larger than that obtainable in cotland . 1 06 VEGETAB LE S OURCES OF POTASH

OTHER VEGETABLE S OURCES o r POTASH

K ega o r Kighr sal t is prepared by the natives in certain L o f k e u districts around ake Chad from the ash the g tree, t o S a lvadora ersica which is stated be the p . h as Ki h r o f It been stated, however, that the g salt Bornu Province is obtained by burning the roots and stem s o f a Ca a ris S odada climbing bush, possibly the pp . Numerous samples o f the salt have been examin ed in the S o f I cientiﬁc and Technical Department the Imperial nstitute , and found to contain considerable quantities o f potassium chloride , as shown by the analyses given below. In times o f scarcity a salt is prepared from the ash o f L three grasses, growing around ake Chad, whose local names ' K a i i K a la tsilini K am a bi is are y j , and g . This salt , which M a nda K a ria t o o f sometimes known as , appears be variable as composition , indicated by the analyses made at the Imperial Institute and shown in the following table

ce n . P er cen t . P er t Po tassium chlo ride KCl So dium chlo ride N a Cl sulphate N a Z S O 4 c arbo n a te N a z CO 3 bica rbo n a te N a H CO 3 I 52 ph o sh at e Na z H P O4 0 ° I I Calcium sulpha te Ca S O4 Cl chlo ride Ca z Ma gn e sium chlo ride MgCl z Bo ric anhydrid e E2 05 I n so luble m atte r Mo isture

u Ki h r sa ma e at o sso Fre n c e rr o r . g lt d B , h T it y

Ki h r sa m a e in a s r c o rn ro nce e r a . g lt d Ch d di t i t , B u P vi , Nig i

an a ar a m a e at o rn e r a . M d K i d Ng u , Nig i

wn r m rn ro n c e . - Ma d a Karia f o Bo u P vi u t sa ro m n o r -w e s o f t h e e r K o madu u Waub e o rn t Kigh lt f th t Riv g , B u

ro n ce e r a . P vi , Nig i

1 08 RES I D UES FROM B EET- S UGAR MANUFACTURE

is leached with water, and its potash recovered from the solution

by evaporation and crystallization . It is said that in 1 91 8 the potash recovered at the molasses U S 2 plants in the nited tates cost nearly $ per unit , but it was anticipated that in a few years ’ time the cost would o f compare favourably with that imported German potash . — During the years 1 91 6 2 0 the quantities o f potash (KsO) contained in the salts recovered a t factories in the United l S tates , treating distil ery waste and waste water from the S : teffens sugar process , were respectively as follows

and Short tons . The output in 1 92 0 was obtained from 1 4 factories as compared with 1 6 and 1 5 in 1 91 8 and 1 91 9 respectively . 1 o f J . Ginsberg [ 45] gives details a process employed some a o R years g at the aab Spirit factory, Hungary . The neutralized waste ( 1 2 0—1 40 metric tons per day) was passed through

- three evaporators , the ﬁrst being steam heated , and with o f A 1 80 square metres heating surface . partial vacuum was maintained in the second and third evaporators, the ° ° 80 O C and temperatures being kept at between and 9 . ° ° ° 0 B é 60 . 0 between and 7 C respectively. The liquid (4 . ) leaving the last pan was carbonized in two ovens without additional fuel . The smouldering mass, discharged into small t o ash a co m trucks, was burnt an , which varied in percent ge : K CO 6— 8 position as follows potassium carbonate ( 9 a) , 5 5 ; K S O 8—1 0 KCl potassium sulphate ( Z 4) , ; potassium chloride ( ) , 6 K H PO 7 ; potassium phosphate ( 2 4) , sodium car Na CO 1 0—1 2 ( Na S O o - —o - bonate ( z a) , ; sodium sulphate e 4) , 3 4 ; 1 0—1 1 1 0 — insoluble matter, organic matter, water, 5 5 4 . The ash was ground in ball mills and then lixiviated with On B é hot dilute lye . evaporating the extract to . o ut o n in a vacuum pan, potassium sulphate crystallized , and ° ° o — o o f t . 2 cooling the solution 5 3 C . a crop potassium chloride t o was obtained . The mother liquor was then concentrated °— ° B é o f o f 50 53 . , and then gave a deposit double carbonate On potassium and sodium mainly. further cooling, there w as obtained successively crops o f impure potassium chloride and the double carbonate . s Other processe have been used , . some involving the RES I D UES FROM B EET—S UGAR MANUFACTURE 1 09

treatment o f the vinasse residue I n cast- iron retorts so as to F r recover such volatile products as ammonia, etc . acto ies a B ueb u in Germ ny, employing the process of destr ctive dis tillatio n are a l , said to have produced nnua ly from the waste of molasses treatment processes about tons ea ch o f potassium cyanide an d ammonium sulphate Certain distilleries in I taly sell a product known as salino a W a 2 . pot ssico , hich is stated to cont in 47 per cent of potash K O ( g ) . With the osmose process for recovering sugar from molasses the liquors obtained are too weak t o repay evapora I n tion . the lime process the dilute waste water, containing

02 - 0 o f l 5 per cent . free ime , is treated with carbonic acid and l to get rid of the lime , the liquid, after ﬁ tration, has the : M following percentage composition oisture, 97 ; sugar, c nitrogen , potash , and organi matter, I t can be concentrated in multiple - effect evaporators f 0 . o until it contains 5 to 55 per cent solid matter, when o ut I f it begins to salt . the operation is continued in a a a l v cuum drum evaporator, the m terial can be complete y f K 0 W 1 0 1 2 . o dried, and ill then contain to per cent potash ( 9 )

and 5 per cent . nitrogen . Before the war potash was recovered at a number of beet

E a l B and sugar reﬁneries in urope, p rticu arly in elgium N F w as orthern rance , and, during the war, the recovery o u t a t C le Ro i S 1 1 carried hoisy , eine During 9 5, residual liquors from the treatment o f molasses by the barium process were evaporated at the works o f the Dominion S ugar C0 o f O . ntario . The concentrated waste liquor, containing 1 1 o r 1 2 a per cent . pot sh and 4 per cent . nitrogen, was sold to fertilizer manufa cturers I t is said that Germ any exported and 933 tons of crude potash recovered

- 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 re s ec from beet sugar residues during 9 , 9 and 9 3 p t iv ely CHAPTER XI

ANI MAL SOURCES OF POTASH

WOOL WASHINGS

TH E to material known as wool yolk , which is removed the o f 1 0 co n extent from 5 to 7 per cent . by washing raw wool ,

- o r su in t sists of wool grease, sand and dried sweat . The last o f consists potash combined with certain fatty acids, and can be removed from raw wool, prior to scouring , by n treati g it in water. The matter soluble in water usually un 1 1 8 al amo ts to 4 to per cent . , and contains potash equiv ent 2 t o o f al o n to 7 per cent . potassium carbonate (c culated the o n o f th e raw wool) , the amount depending largely the breed

sheep . The recovery o f the potash is no t remunerative unless co n o n o f ducted a large scale , and hence the three constituents wool yolk are often removed together in the process o f scouring o U and allowed to g to waste . It is reported that in the nited S tates the wool washings from certain large Slaughter houses are

run through peat, which absorbs the potash , and the material

thus obtained is used as a ﬁller for certain complete fertilizers . I n i F Belg um , rance and Germany, the wool , before scouring , is treated with cold water either in a mechanical washer o r of o ne o f in a series tanks, the last washings from batch wool u fo r o f . being sed the ﬁrst treatment the next (i . e a counter

s s . current system is used) . The brown washing ( p . gr about are evaporated nearly t o dryness in iron p ans in a P m oria type of evaporator, and the pasty mass is calcined in o r as a reverbatory furnace, destructively distilled in clay g is retorts . In the latter case, the nitrogen in the grease

recovered, as ammonia and cyanogen , and the combustible

s. T e ca b on ceo gases evolved are used for heating purpose h . r a us I I O

1 1 2 ANI MAL S OURCES OF POTASH

liquor and wool- grease takes place as in the Smith- Lea ch I s process . The middle liquid sent back for use in the scouring

bowls until again saturated with grease , when the centrifugal

treatment is repeated . These operations are carried o n fo r o r about four ﬁve cycles, when the liquor, which will then 6 8 o f contain from to per cent . potash, is incinerated in a

rotary apparatus . The working costs in 1 91 6 for treating gallons o f l 2 0 6s al scouring iquor per week amounted to £ . , and the v ue o f the product obtained and material saved per week amounted to £46 leaving a net annual estimated proﬁt o f R S W 1 According to . . eston [ 49] good results are obtained by passing the hot liquor from the centrifuge through a

a a C rdem evaporator, especially if w ste ﬂue gases are available

for heating purposes . 1 0 al D . C . Winterbottom [ 5 ] estimates that the tot wool scoured in Australia would yield tons o f potassium At carbonate per annum . the present time both potash and

- an d wool fat (lanolin , etc . ) go to waste , it has been suggested that portions o f the wool richest in potash and fat might l E S A be proﬁtab y treated . xperiments made in outh ustralia showed that ﬂeece wools when washed in cold water gave

f - 2 . o from to 3 per cent pot ashes, whilst locks and stained

o f - pieces gave from 45 to per cent . pot ashes . The - - a K O 2 t o 8 . pot a shes gave from 5 9 5 9 per cent pot sh ( z ) . l l o c . Winterbottom ( . cit ) estimates that a p ant for treating tons o f greasy wool per annum would cost about Putting working cost at and the revenue from 1 573 tons o f pot assium carbonate at £1 5 per ton) at an esti 6 l mated proﬁt o i £8 3 would be eft . The annual production o f potash salts from wool before the war w as estim ated to be equivalent t o from to o f l tons o f potash . The quantities crude wool yo k ash exported

a 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 from Germ ny in 9 , 9 and 9 3 were l and tons respective y [1 46/p .

KARRo o AS H Sheep dung is used to a large extent as fuel in the Karroo S districts of Cape P rovince and in the Orange Free tate . The KARROO AS H 1 1 3

ash remaining after ignition has been given the name o f Karroo a h B C M s . 1 1 1 1 2 2 , and it has been stated by de . archand [ 5/ p . ] that fully nine- tenths of the potash in the mixed fertilizers o n the S outh African market in 1 91 8 was obtained from this o f o n source . The ash is varied composition, but contains, — 1 6 1 0 . the average potash, per cent lime, 5 9 per cent and phosphoric anhydride, per cent . REFERENCES TO LITERATURE ON POTAS H

The P ublications are referred to by Numbers in the Text

1 K A a D our . S oc. Chem. [ ] estner, P The lsace Pot sh eposits ,

I nd 1 1 8 3 2 1 . , 9 , 7, 9 T e ent o the Trade o the United Kin dom [2 ] Annual S tat m f f g . l as U. S . Geo . S urv . Min . Res . G l H . S . [3] a e , , Pot h in H B a l and W. S eo . . G . U . Gale H . S [4] , , icks , Pot sh in

‘ i Res . M n . S urv .

r 1 1 8 1 e 00 . d o Trad ou . B . [5] f ] , 9 , , 753 de our 1 1 1 02 0 d Tra . . 6 B . o [ ] f ] , 9 9, , 7 5 i er Ta bla tt l A B erl n e 1 1 8 . [7] non . , g , Ju y 5, 9” e S a Nature 8 . 1 1 8 00 . [ ] Thorp , T ources of Pot sh , , 9 , 1 , 345 Al a a as M and A . W he Tr . m. [9] non , The s ti n Pot h ines orks , C

8 1 . our. 1 1 63 j , 9 , , 4 9 Al a a a Amer Fert Ma A . . . 6 1 1 1 0 2 2 . [ ] non , s ti n Pot sh , ”, y , 9 7 , p . 7 lb S H a S al M in I nd 1 1 D o ear . 1 1 [ ] Pot ssium ts , . . , 9 4 . D R a An . o he Tr C m. ur 1 2 . o . 1 1 [ ] on , Potash ep sits in ussi , j , 9 7 ,

82 . 61 , 4

’ D a R h A em T r . 1 C . r ou [ 3] non . , iscovery of Pot sh in ussia , . j ,

1 1 2 . 9 7 , 61 , 3 9 A l Ma . S a P o a i 1 R C. t s cas C l na [ 4] ubio , , and rin , es en ata u , l I n t Geol de Es ana 19 1 B o s . . . . p , , 35 M S a a M in 1 H E. . oa n 1 1 1 19 . [ 5] eriot , p nish Pot sh , J , 9 7 , , 753 N al 1 6 C W. A. K . S D s Cis [ ] hristie , , otes on the t epo its of the l l R Rec . Ge S ur I S o . v . I ndia 1 1 44 2 1 . ndus a t ange , , 9 4 , , 4

1 S M. a S al th e a S al Ra [ 7] tuart , ”, The Pot sh ts of Punj b t nge and e l ur I dia Rec. o . S v n 1 1 G . K 0 2 8 . ohat , , 9 9, 5 , An A s a a A. E S a M omm. 1 8 . S C [ ] outh rd , bys ini n Pot sh ine , U No 8 . 2 1 1 1 6 6 . Re ts. . p , 9 7 , , p 4 Gina M. all l ad 1 D D Atti R. Acc . [ 9] , , The Potash eposits of o , , 8 Lincei. 1 1 1 . , 9 , 27. 33 2 0 I e al I n e R R s l s M e al S [ ] mp ri stitut , eport on the e u t of the in r urvey N N a 1 0 — 1 06 - Colonial Re orts of orthern igeri , 9 4 5 and 9 7 p ,

- — d . 1 M . C . 2 1 and d 1 C . . 1 2 2 . isc 39 4 , pp 4 , 47 9, pp 9

Ma M. R B ol . de la I ns eccion dc e M i as 1 1 2 1 G o . n [ ] chado , p g y , 9 3 ,

350°

1 1 6 REFERENCES TO LITERATURE ON POTAS H

S al a in M. I s and H C. t O E [43] utchinson , , tpetre , rigin xtr ction

r Res . I nst . P u ll I nd a ic. sa B 8 A . 6 1 1 i , g , u , 9 7 .

nnual S tatement o the S ea - orn e r de o ri i h I ndia [44] A f b T a f B t s . S ta i tic o B ritish I ndia [45] t s s f .

A . R s a as . 6 Amer ert . 1 . . F S . 1 6 1 6 [4 ] non , u si n Pot h , , ept , 9 , p 49 arlo th R O n a ala M . N G [47] , , The rigi of the itr tes in riqu nd West , i A rica n P h l . Tra ns . S . S oc. 1 8 8 1 1 . f , 95, , 3 l G A N e P o h l . 8 B a E . w t aS S hem . ur . o C o S c. [4 ] ry nt , , upp y, f

I nd 1 1 3 60 . , 9 9, 8, 3 T r o E B and H all A L s F o d G. . . . N a e O [49] , , , The itr t ccu”rrence th e D s e a an d H a Ca e Union in i tricts of Pri sk y , pe Provinc , ica D e t M i es e S . A r . n M N o o . 1 1 1 . f f , p , moir 4 , 9 9

0 a ell a E M - l M . f a n s o M e B Ann . [5 ] nz , , The other iquor ri rines , e A lica ta ale Ch m. 1 1 I and 1 2 . pp (P rmo) , 9 5, 7, 3 n h 1 e n W. C t e l o f e . S e th U [5 ] Turr ti e , J , omposition of a in s nited B ne s th e O a S a e s an ur I nd. d S al La es o . t t , ri from ce n t k ,

and En . Chem. 1 1 1 . g , 9 3 , 5, 9 R s H Th e E a a l a R 2 W. . S [5 ] o s , , xtr ction of Pot sh from i ic ocks , i s a e ri ur . l S . D t . c . B S o l C u U. A 1 . p g , irc r 7 a Th e Al n D e o f n e R L. A al a a d [53] J ck , . , u ite posits ustr i th ir l a A l a Ad is U v . ou i B ll S c . an 1 nd . C n . d ti iz tion , ustra i , , u 3 , 1 6 1 . 2 . 9 7 , p Al n e D e s H e f o Ra Aust D e t. S . . [54] u it posit , undr d msay, p i e i Revie 1 8 No M n s M n . w 1 . 8 2 . 1 . , , 9 , , p 5 l d rr0 h lli in C a H . Al n e an P t e C. at K u uo t S [55] pp , , u i”t y p y y q ound B l a l . C Econ . Geo 1 1 0 1 . ritish o umbi , , 9 5, 0, 7

6 B le B e H S l n l - S . and Gal . . A e a e s . N [5 ] ut r, , , , ”u it , w y di covered D e s l e a 1 ne a Ma a U . Geol urv . 1 2 S . U . S po it r rysv , t h , , 9 , B ull . 51 1 . Lou hlin F Re e Al n e e l e a ale G . Ma [57] g , c nt u it Dev opments n r rysv ll 0 K and B e a e a e ur 62 . S . ol v . 1 1 B . U . G U . S v r, t h”, , 9 5, u 8 hem . . l . C 1 2 1 1 6 Al D ict . o A 1 [5 ] Thorpe , um , f pp , 9 , , 7 G P On th e Cal a n e e Al e n e [59] uyot , . , cin tio of powd r d unit i tend ”d a nd S l a e Al n a for th e M nufacture of Alum a u ph t of umi .

‘ m t Ren nd 00 . Co . d 1 882 6 a 1 1 p , , 95, 93 60 A n e e S a s th e Ne as a a I n s [ ] no Pr s nt t tu of br k Pot sh du try , Chem nd M et 8 a En 1 2 0 . . . . 23 g , 9 , , 57

6 1 . S a en and [ ] U . P t ts ’ ll S c de L I nd 62 N Al B u o . . e l a I al . [ ] icou , P unit in To f , t y, M inerale 1 08 9 6 , 9 , , 5 3 .

6 U. S a [ 3] . P tent ,

S . a 6 U. [ 4] P tent , REFERENCES TO LITERATURE ON POTAS H 1 1 7

E l a th e E a n as C. B 6 B . [ 5] uck , , ib iogr phy o”n xtr ctio of Pot h from le M ne al l a et a he n 8 M nd m . E 1 1 C S e s . C 18 omp x i r i ic t , g , 9 , , and 0 37 9 . 66 S a a A as Fel S ecial Re orts M em 5 . [ ] tr h n , . , Pot h spar, p p , Ge l S u Gt B ritain 1 1 o m . . . , , 9 7 [67] S ummary of the P rogress of the Geological S urvey of the United i dom 1 K n 1 . 0. g , 9 7 , p 3 68 C s an A c S . n all Th e . d C s G a . W [ ] u hm , , ogge h , Produ tion of A l la e n . a as Na ral S l a 8th I nter. Co v i b Pot h from tu i ic tes , g A l . Chem 1 1 2 5 . pp , 9 , , 33 6 En . P at . F P at S . d S . P at an U. [ 9] g , rench . , ,

0 C a l n H h an . T e e W. R e as G [7 ] h r to , , ecov ry of Pot h from re ns d , ur I o . nd. a nd En h C e . 1 8 . m 1 1 6 f g , 9 , 0, .

1 U. S . a e n s n [7 ] P t t , a d

2 U. S . a e [7 ] P t nt , U S . . a en [73] P t t ,

U. S . a en s an P t t , d

B a e a E W As e and as [75] t m n , ood h s Production of Pot h , Chem . and M et En 1 . . 1 1 61 2 . g , 9 9, , 5 6 F en a e [7 ] r ch P t nt , En . a e 1 [77] g P t nt , of 91 1 . 8 An n Th e M an a e ls a our . [7 ] o uf ctur of Potash from Fe p r, B d. A ric . 1 1 1 08 g , 9 7 23 , 7 . As c E [79] , . A. A Ne le e C e al R a n and an h roft , g ct”d h mic e ctio A a la le S e M et . 1 1 I nst . o i and M n . v i b ourc of Potash , f , 9 7.

27, 1 2 6 . 80 U. S . a n [ ] P te ts , and 81 C s an A. S . and C es all G Fels a as a s le [ ] , . . u hm , ogg h W, p r po sib S e A e can as D e c . 1 2 1 1 Amer . Fert . ourc of m ri Pot h , , , 9 4,

. 1 p 2 . 8 U. S 2 . a e n [ ] P t t , 8 H e s e n B . as l r d and En , F s a u I n . . [ 3] o . r t i , Pot h from e p r, f g Chem 1 1 1 3 , 9 , , 42 6 . 8 Amer Fe . rt M [ 4] . a 8 1 2 0 0 , y , 9 , 7 . A n . U S , . . as n 1 2 0 En and . M in no Pot h Productio , 9 , g . r ou . 1 2 1 1 11 2 j , 9 , , 59 . 86 C les A . H , . C e a [ ] ow , h pe r Alumina and Aluminium from M ne l S l a s our . I n , d. and En he . C m . 1 1 5 . i ra i ic te f g , 9 3 , , 335 [87] Lemme rm ann Th e ss l , Po ibi ity of Replacing Stassfurt S alts Finel - l e e tc y . B ull y . o A ric I nt l ground Phono it , . el . 1 1 , f g , 9 3 , Z1 487 . 1 1 8 REFERENCES TO LITERATURE ON POTASH

88 Wa H S I al a . . L La as as a S [ ] shingto”n , , t i n eucitic v ource of a M et d Chem . an En . 1 1 8 6 Pot sh , g , 9 , 18, 5. 8 R A R and H M . . Wa e W. . R Th C. e Re [ 9] oss , , erz , , gn r, ”covery o f as as a B - th e C e I n s S Pot h y Product in em nt du try , U. .

D e ri B ll . . 1 . t. A c. 2 6 p g , u 57 , p 0 A as B - . a Ce e Ma a [9 ] non , Pot sh a y Product in m nt nuf cture ,

he ur. 1 1 6 Tr. o . C m. 59 j , 9 , , 375 e ll Th 1 A e E and N st e R . . e la l a f . o [9 ] nd rson , , , ”J , Vo ti iz tion Ma e l our a Ce e . I nd . and E hem n . C Pot sh from m nt t ria s , g ,

1 1 2 . 9 7 , 9, 53 2 U S a e s [9 ] . . P t nt ,

U S . a e s [93] . P t nt , Me R and R s N Th e Na e A W . th e R co . . . e m [94] rz , , os , , tur of n d a M our I b i e ll . nd a En D . d C n . Pot sh in ement i ust . g

Chem 1 1 1 1 . , 9 9, , 39 R e D l in th e a K . I n M R. C [95] e de , ”, ec nt eve opments ement dust r hem and M et n 8 E 1 1 1 . C . . 2 y , g , 9 , 9, 47 6 U S a [9 ] . . P tents ,

R e as as a B - [97] Porter, J . J . , ecov ry of Pot h y product in the

Ma a l C Cement World S . nuf cture of Port and ement , , ept 1 1 9 7 . 8 D e a E a a C . G . Wet [9 ] n, J ”, Process for xtr cting Pot sh from ement D hem and M et E 1 1 8 ; C . . n 19 ust , g , 9 , , 439

S . a en U. [99] P t t , l A G o as R at C la 1 00 W n W. [ ] i so , . P t h ecovery ement P nts ,

a a a D e t i e M ines B ranch B ll . 2 C . M n s n d , p “, , u 9 n K M m e al A s Re e 1 01 C a e . C [ ] h c , . , The o m rci spect”of the cov ry of

a in th e Ma I I ron and Coal Tr . Pot sh nufacture of Pig ron , Re 8 v . 1 1 8 , 9 , 96, 5 . L l B l F a Ga B l s 1 02 C. L. C n [ ] eigh , ea ing ast urn ce ses for oi er

8 . Rev . 1 1 96 and S e I ron and Coa l Tr . tov s , , 9 , , 57

1 0 an d S teel I nst 1 1 8 9 . C e K . ur I ron an M o . 7 [ 3] h c , J , 9 , , 494 B Th e R c e as 1 0 R A an d McArth ur C. [ 4] erry , . . , ”, , e ov ry of Pot h I nd 1 1 8 hem. l r S oc. C B a F a D ou . from st urn ce ust , J , 9 , 1 37, T. 1 0 so r B - Blas W R . a as a [ 5] y , ”. J , Pot sh y Product from the t ll F 1 B . 1 2 1 . u a e Amer I nst M in . En s . 1 rn c , . . g , 9 7 , u [1 06] Rep ort to the B oard of Agriculture f or S cotland on H ome 6 1 1 8 I n d . dustries in the H i hlands and I slands G . g , 75 4, p

1 0 H e n Th e al e S e a e s as Raw Ma e al [ 7] drick , J . , V u of we d t ri for

C l I hem I nd 1 1 6 35 66 . our. S oc. C . hemica ndustry, f , 9 , , 5

1 2 0 REFERENCES TO LI TERATURE ON POTAS H

l a K I . a C a e s our nd nd En . Chem 1 1 the P ciﬁc o st p , f . g , 9 3 , 2 8 5, 7 . H e Th e se and al e o f Se a e as a Man 1 2 . U [ 9] ndrick , J , V u w ed ure , i a 8 r s i h and r c . c cotl nd 1 8 1 1 1 8. T an . H . A S o . S 0 g g , 9 , , “ 0 sell Th e C n S a e e and t se 1 Ru E . i s U [ 3 ] s , . J ompositio of e w d i 0— 1 8 as a a r 1 . M e our . B d. A c . 1 1 1 nur , J g , 9 , 7, 45 ' Al n e d K l as as 1 1 ac s A . M. an [ 3 ] J k on , , u it e p Pot h e i ils la 6 S . t r c . S o un C . B U D . A p g , ircu r 7 G m n a Th e a e S aw M ll as a S ce 1 2 C. W [ 3 ] i i gh m , T st from i s our

i 1 . a ur B d. A r c 1 2 1 o . 2 of Pot sh f g”. , 9 5, , 47

a I n an Al a s ric Led er 1 02 9 1 1 1 . 1 W G . A . [ 33] tt , , di k li , g g , 9 , , d a l e as la o o As es M et . an 1 B H . W [ 34] r d y , , Pot h from P nt d h , hem n 1 8 1 E 1 1 . C . 3 g , 9 5, , 4

‘ l An I n e ns Ash n D and c s G . e N B . 1 W. . [ 35] Tur r, , i ho , , xpe ive n l e 8 Le ac n n h m 1 10 . r d . a d En . C 1 ou . I n hi g P a t J g , 9 , , 374 ssell A es e e l s and n 1 6 R E. . s H C [ 3 ] u , J , h ”of dg ipping Trimmi gs

s a S e o f ri 1 6 . as our B d A c . 1 1 2 a ourc Pot h , f . . g , 9 4 , , 94 nl l i o R S . and McLe an a a n I s a e 1 F w . K W H t [ 37] , , ”, ter y ci th , V u a a Fe l e r ll s A ric . Resea ch I n st P u sa B u . 1 1 1 . rti iz r , g . , 7 , 9 7 An o c 8 . o a l e o r . 1 a Tr . u 1 1 Chem. [ 3 ] n , P t sh from Pri k y P r , J , 9 7 ,

61, 1 5. e A n n a e li 1 B R . R o E e o B c U a [ 39] rry, eport”xperim nts r k n ti z n and E a a n u ll ic . oll . 80 1 est cot . r B 1 . W S A C . tio r dic tio , g , 9 7 As n B r r a 0 . C as A l e ou . ic . Z e 1 A N . [ 4 ] to , Pot h in gricu tur , g la nd 1 1 1 . , 9 7 , 4, 443 e R A R so G and ssell E B ac e B . W 1 1 . R . [ 4 ] rry , obin n , . , u , J r k n a c i as S e as ur B d r c . 1 1 8 . o . . A 2 1 our of Pot h , j g , 9 , 5, i k o i Re c e as e e S a Z t w sk H E. B 1 2 . [ 4 ] , , ov ry of Pot h from t ug r H se as L s e m . n 1 1 . W M et . and Ch E 1 17 ou te iquor , “g , 9 7, , 7 1 s H o udaill e and e A Re ne S a - e S al s [ 43] Triqu t , ﬁ ry for ug r b et t , ’ ’ B ull S o c l Enc ur l I nd N a 1 1 1 1 o . . . . . t , 9 7 , 27, 55

‘ G s n s i nta rio B ur. M es O . a S tat . Rea 1 W. n [ 44] ib o , T , Pot h , , , ,

1 1 . 0 9 5, p 5 . ﬁ

1 G ns e Th e . e a e n asse at th e Raa S ri [ 45] i b rg , J Tr tm nt of Vi b pi t

° Fac . ur . 6 1 hem . nd 1 0 25 o . S oc C I tory , J , 9 ”, , 77

m. Re t S . 6 0m 1 6 E s as Ge a U. [ 4 ] xport of Pot h from rm ny, ﬁ , 1 1 8 No 6 00 . 2 1 1 6 . 9 , , p . l n 1 1 1 W s A G rade a e Waters L n o . . W T W st [ 47] i o , . , o d n , 9 3 a e G e ase W l E. Th e c 1 8 C V . Re e [ 4 ] h mb rs , ”, ov ry of r from oo

n is 1 1 6 3 6 . S ur . c D ers a nd olour ts 2 o S o . C couri g , j y , 9 , ”, 4

es n R o as l n Was . our . 1 W . S . W o S [ 49] to , , P t h from o couri g te f hem I 1 1 8 S oc. C . nd . 3 1 . , 9 , 7, 7 T REFERENCES TO LI TERATURE ON POTAS H 1 2 1

1 0 Wn e o D . C. a An I n es a its [ 5 ] i t rb ttom , , Pot sh , v”tig tion into n S e s S A al a S st E . Au . D e t co omic ourc in outh ustr i , p .

o . Chem B ull . N 2 ale H S Th e as D e s Al a e S l 1 1 G . . U Geo [ 5 ] , , Pot h po its of s c , . . . ll I B S um . 1 20 . , B u 7 5 , 9 Th e l al 1 2 d erb aum H . G e F e o f Kalik al k [ 5 ] , rti izing V u , n al Rev S ci and P ra c A r 1 1 I nter . . . . Ye a 1 . 0 No s g , 9 9, r , . 7—8 —9 834 1 as n in R s a N ew York ent r [ 53] Pot h Productio u si , C s Wa Rus ia Amer ele ati u st . om D on I nd C . s . . g p . 6 .

s n A an d B E Ro - Cle an B l 1 H . as [ 54] utchin o , , ury, ugh ing of t Furna ce ”Gas at S kinningrove by th e Lodge Ele ctrostatic e ss ou r I ron a nd S teel I n 1 0 6 . st 2 1 0 2 . Proc , , 9 , ; 7 am e n F K as K l 1 C . e . S D e t A ri U . c [ 55] ro , Pot h from p, p . g

Re t 1 00 1 1 1 . p . , 9 5, 7 in eral I ndu str 1 1 1 6 M . [ 5 ] y , 9 9 1 B e Fel as M e s U Al a e S oc I nd [ 57] ind r , ix , Pot h in in pper s c , . . lh se B ull 2 0 — 00 M u ou . 82 , , 7 3 . l S as D e o s s S a n S e l a e H . G o S u G U. . m , Pot h p it in p i , . , ll 1 A 1 2 o B . u . 7 5 , 9 A O Th e Mal a as S al e s l 1 a . C H . D e a [ 59] yes , , g h t po it , umb r nd un N S Gan Geol S m M cm 1 1 C . a 2 o ty, . ”. . 1 60 I e al I ns e M e al s R es a— as [ ] mp ri titut , in r from hod i Pot h , u ll I m I nst 1 1 8 1 6 6 B . . p , 9 , , 4 9. ’ 1 61 D e Re Ra sur le B ass de a e d Alsace [ ] tz , P pport in Pot ss , Con ré s des S ocié té s I ndustrielles de France at M ulhou se g , z u d Ed 1 2 1 9 . 1 62 A n as la E l s A er Fert Ma 1 m . a . [ ] no Pot h P nt n rge , , rch 3 ,

1 2 0 2 . 9 , 7 0 1 6 An n as Re e lan Co le e Can Ghem [ 3] o Pot h cov ry P t mp t d, . . ou r 1 2 0 4 2 6 ] . , 9 , , 5 . 1 6 A n Ge a as es Chem Tr our 1 1 . . . 2 68 [ 4] no rm n Pot h Pric , ] , 9 , , 66 5. 1 6 An Th e Ge a as I n u Fertilizer and [ 5] on rm n Pot h d stry, ' F eedin S tu s our 1 2 1 4 1 1 g ﬁ ] . , 9 , , 9 . 1 66 C a an L W S al s Re n lan at O e s and [ ] h pm , . ”. , t ﬁ ing P ts w n he and M e En 1 1 4 68 e a l s La e s C m 2 2 . S e . t. r k , g , 9 , , 3 1 6 B n n R Th e E a n B m n e an d [ 7] ourguig o , xtr ctio of ro i ’ ’ as n n B ull S oc l Encour l I nd N at 1 1 i . Pot h Tu is , . . . , 9 9, 1 1 18, 40 B u n R S e a as M c Le P hos ourg igno , . , rch for Pot h in oro co, a e ci Les n rais himi e 1 2 82 h t E C u s 28 . p g q , 1 9 9, , 1 2 2 “ o t ale H . and G , S , The Pr duc ion M in our 86 . ] . , 3 .

1 0 Ch I 6th Annu al Re ort onAlkali ( 9 ks [ 7 ] ief nspector, 5 p ”9 ”Wor 1 1 Gale H S al G a em al . a E S n . and Min u r , o . [ 7 ] tpetre in u t , g . ] ,

B A an d E Oll an der ury, . . , static D eposition of 1 8 24, 5 G e o W Th e Ge l l Fa . a a c th e r g ry, J o ogic ctors ffe ting ” S ra e the War and th e Ge l th e o ash S al s t t gy of o ogy of P”t t , Emsl e B L Th e S as a S . a our S oc i , , t sfurt Pot sh lts , ] . . 8 —8 2 , 393 . Ni e dwiedsk i Ge l cal S e th e S al D e o t , J o ogi k tch of t p si s of l al a K ali 1 1 Ka G 7 . usz , ici , , 9 3 , , 9 ’ c s M R a S i . H W B N . n U i ks , . . and our e , . , Pot sh . Geo l S u rve M in Res . y , . . 1 in 0 A r F Au . 1 No rs e M. R as 1 2 me . 2 u , . , Pot h 9 , g 27 , 9 , 1 3 . ” D a F F Wa H a a s a S e s W. . y , , ter y cinth ourc of Pota h , r l d M ala tates 1 1 8 A i B u l Fe . c . . S 6 g “y , 9 , Th e l P a I s A . non Po ish ot sh ndu try , 1 2 61 5 . 9 1 , , 3