Classification of Flowers As Gleaned from Ancient Indian Literature and Culture

180 Botanicals for integrated pest management Full-Length paper Asian Agri-History Vol. 20, No. 3, 2016 (181-199) 181

Emimal Victoria E. 2010. Pest infestation on juice in two dipteran pests. Agricultural and Classiﬁcation of Flowers as Gleaned from Ancient the biochemical modulation of Adhatoda Forest Entomology 8:16. Indian Literature and Culture vasica. Journal of Biopesticides 3(2): 413 419. Rohit Sharma, Gulab S. Thakur, Bhagwan Singh Sanodiya, Ashish Savita, Mukeshwar KG Sheshadri Kwasi Opoku Boadu, Samuel Ko Tulashie, Pandey, Anjana Sharma, and Prakash Bisen. Michael Akro Anang, and Jerome Desire 2012. Therapeutic potential of Calotropis RMV Clusters, Phase2, Block2, 5th oor, Flat No.503, Devinagar, Lottegollahalli, Bengaluru Kpan. 2011. Production of natural insecticide procera: a giant milkweed. IOSR Journal of 560094, Karnataka, India (email: [email protected]) from Neem leaves (Azadirachta indica). Asian Pharmacy and Biological Sciences 4(2): Journal of Plant Science and Research 4257. 1(4):3338. Singh RN and Sharatchandra B. 2005. The Abstract Madhumathy AP, AliAshraf Aivazi and development of botanical products with special Nature's diversity has fascinated humans from the ancient times. Plant and Animal diversity Vijayan VA. 2007. Larvicidal efcacy of reference to seriecosystem. Caspian Journal Capsicum annum against Anopheles stephensi of Environmental Sciences 3(1): 18. constitutes the foundation for sustainable livelihoods and happiness. Among plants, it is the and Culex quinquefasciatus. Journal of Vector ower that is the most attractive part which bewitches with its beautiful harmony, colors and Borne Diseases 44: 223226. Subbalakshmi Lokanadhan, Muthukrishnan fragrance, and thus symbolizing the blossoming of Universal Consciousness and the smile of P, and Jeyaraman S. 2012. Neem products and spirit hidden in Nature. Poets of ancient India have described the glory and beauty of these Misra HP. 2014. Role of botanicals, their agricultural applications. Journal of owers in their works. As the six seasons constitute the year, different owers display their biopesticides and bioagents in integrated pest Biopesticides 5(Supplementary): 7276. beauty by blooming at different times. Importance of owers was recognized since ancient management. Odisha review. pp. 6267. Suresh Kumar P, Suresh E, and Kalavathy S. times and was classied based on many factors. These modes of classication have been Nandre BN, Bakliwal SR, Rane BR and 2013. Review on a potential herb Calotropis discussed from Vedic period to the PostVedic texts and are presented in this paper. Flowers Pawar SP. 2012. A Review on Adhatoda gigantea (L.) R. Br. Scholars Academic have therapeutic uses, religious uses and other general uses. Several texts are devoted only to vasica. Pharma Science Monitor An Journal of Pharmacy 2(2):135143. them in the epics, Ayurvedic texts as well as those dealing with owers. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 3(4): 32323245. Vishal Kumar, Chandrashekar K, and Sidhu Ancient Indian sages had commendable Flowers in Vedic and Epic texts Om Prakash. 2006. Efcacy of karanjin and knowledge of the Plant kingdom of India. Nirmal SA, Shashikant R Pattan, Shaikh different extracts of Pongamia pinnata against They had an intimate knowledge of habitat, Even as early as Rigveda (RV) (Arya and selected insect pests. Journal of Entomology MH, Dhasade VV, and Mandal Subhash C. form, color, varieties, fragrances, and uses of Joshi, 2005), several owers are 2009. An overview of Lantana camara: Research 30(2): 103108. different owers. People adored these mentioned. RV [10.84.3] mentions that chemistry and pharmacological prole. Ashvinikumaras wore a garland of lotus Pharmacology online newsletter 3: 520531. Veena BK and Shivani Maurya. 2012. owers and also used them for worshipping B i o l o g i c a l u t i l i t i e s o f Pa r t h e n i u m Gods. They were also used in various rituals, owers. The Goddess Sri is mentioned as Pandey DK. 2009. Allelochemicals in hysterophorus. Journal of Applied and Natural ceremonies, feasts and festivals that Indian b e i n g b o r n o u t o f a l o t u s Parthenium in response to biological activity Science 4 (1): 137143. literature is replete with their use and (Padmasambhava), being lotus eyed and the environment. Indian Journal of Weed properties (Kashyap, 2001). The Art of (Padmaakshi) and having color of lotus Science 41(3&4): 111123. Vijayalakshmi K, Radha KS, and Vandana (Padminivarna). Several owers such as Shiva. 1995. Neem: A User's Manual. Centre making garlands using owers was one of Plaksha (g tree), Kasturi (wild turmeric Prasad TV. 2011. Objective Entomology. for Indian Knowledge Systems, Chennai.96 pp. the 64 arts that enhanced the beauty of the owers), Brahmi (Indian pennywort), New Vishal Publication, New Delhi, India. wearer or a deity (Sheshadri, 2014). The 277pp. Vijayalakshmi K, Subhashini B, and Shivani present paper brings out a mode of Ajashringi (Indian Ash tree) are mentioned Koul. 1996. Plants in Pest Control: Garlic and classication of owers as gleaned from in the Atharvaveda (Joshi, 2004). It also Prowse GM, Galloway TS, and Andrew Onion. Centre for Indian Knowledge ancient Indian literature. refers to medicinal and cosmetic Foggo. 2006. Insecticidal activity of garlic Systems,Chennai. 38 pp. 182 Classication of owers Asian Agri-History Vol. 20, No. 3, 2016 183

Champaka (Champak tree), Ashoka Sage Vyasa's Mahabharata (Mishra, owers based on the deity being A n c i e n t I n d i a n s a g e s h a d (Ashok tree), Nipa (Burower tree) and 1988) is also no less in its description of w o r s h i p p e d . T h e Pa d m a P u r n a commendable knowledge of the other owering trees that have been Flora. Heavenly owers were abounding in (Desponded, 1992) states that Dura Plant kingdom of India. They had an discussed in literature (Krishnamurthy, the mountain ranges of Himalaya, (Bermuda grass), Rambha (Plantain intimate knowledge of habitat, form, 1996). Several owers like Malati (Royal Gandhamadana and Mandara. The Vana owers), Bilva (Bael), Tulsi (Holy Basil), color, varieties, fragrances, and uses Jasmine), Mallika (Sambac Jasmine), Parva of the text describes several owers White and Red owers are dear to Lord of different owers. People adored Vasanti (Butter ginger lily), Madhavi like Ashoka, Amra (Mango tree owers), Ganapati. Malati (Royal Jasmine), Kunda these owers and also used them for (Helicopter ower), Champaka (Champak Indivara (Blue lotus), Utpala (Indian Blue (Oleander), Mandara (Indian Coral tree), worshipping Gods. It (Atharvaveda) tree), Kimshuka (Bastard teak), Ankola lotus), Kamala (Indian lotus), Karnikara and Kumuda (Blue Water lily) are dear to also refers to medicinal and cosmetic (Sage leaved Alangium), Kuranta (Maple leaved Bayur tree), Kahlara (White Goddess Sarasvati. The largest list of applications of other owers such as (Porcupine ower), Muchukunda (Maple water lily), Kunda (Oleander), Kumuda (Blue owers enlisted by Puranas are those for Apamarga (Prickly chafower), leaf Bayur tree), Kovidara (Mountain water lily), Kurabaka (Red or yellow worshipping Lord Vishnu as stated in Ebony), and Paribhadraka (Indian coral Arjuna (Arjun tree), Arka (Crown Amaranth), Kokanada (Red water lily), Skanda Purana (II.5.7.17) (Bhatt, 1993), tree) bloomed in the dry and moist Kovidara (Mountain Ebony), Kharjura Vamana Purana (68.1214) (Gupta, 1968; owers), Ashvagandha (Indian deciduous forests of Kishkinda. The (Silver date palm), Champaka (Champak Bimali and Joshi, 2005), Agni Purana ginseng), Dadima (pomegranate), Pampa lake was lled with lotuses. The tree), Dadima (Pomegranate), Tamarasa (202.12 13) (Joshi, 2001) and Narada Girikarnika (wild guava) and so on. plant diversity of these forests of (lotus), Nalini (Lotus), and Nipa (Burower Purana (XIII.97) (Tagare and Shastri, Dandakaranya, Kishkinda and Lanka has tree) that bloomed in Gandhamadana 1998). The Shiva Purana (5.51.48) been studied by scholars attempting to Mountain ranges. It also states how learn the ora described by Sage Valmiki (Shastri, 1970) quotes a large list of owers applications of other owers such as Damayanti went to search Nala in (Amirthalingam and Sudhakar, 2013). The used to worship Lord Shiva. Several Apamarga (Prickly chafower), Arjuna Ashokavana abounding in owers. Heavenly descriptions of Ashokavana in the Purina's also list the myth and legends (Arjun tree), Arka (Crown owers), lotuses (Saugandhika) have been mentioned Sundarakanda of the text also have details concerning owers. The Kalika Purana Ashvagandha (Indian ginseng), Dadima along with different varieties of lotuses in the of various owers. Various varieties of (Shastri, 1991) describes several owers (pomegranate), Girikarnika (wild guava) areas surrounding Kailasa Mountains close to Ashoka (Ashok tree) of different colors, used in worship of Goddess Kali and Her and so on. residence of Kubera. The Mahabharata also Champaka (Champak tree), Chandana mentions the ora of Dvaitavana, forms. The Simhasiddhantasindu of Sage Valmiki's Ramayana (Mudholakara, (Sandalwood), Kalpavriksha (Silk cotton Kamyakavana, those at the hermitages of Gosvami Shri Shivananda Bhatt 1991) mentions about beauty of owers in tree), lotuses, and lilies abound in these Sage Rishyashringa, Sage Agastya, (Phatasimha, 1970), a work on various various groves and forests especially in the exquisite evergreen forests of Lanka. The Himalayas and so on that have been discussed aspects of worship culled from the Aranya Kanda. Flowering trees like hermitage of Sage Matanga abounded in in literature (Mehendale, 1986). Purina's, Tantras and other works quotes Lodhra (Loch tree), Nipa (Burower tree), various owers which were never plucked certain Puranas on classication of and Tilaka (Red bead tree) abound in the and even if plucked never fade and remain Flowers in Purina's and Kavyas owers. It quotes the Bhavishya Purana on tropical deciduous forests of Chitrakuta. fresh always. certain owers that are to be used for The hermitage of sage Sutikshna had rafts The Purina's have a classication of worshipping all Gods, rejecting those that made of owers oating in river are not used. The text also quotes Sage Valmiki's Ramayana Mandakini. Panchavati was located amidst The Vana Parva (Mahabharata) of Narasimha Purana and Garuda Purana on mentions about beauty of owers a belt of various owering trees that the text describes several owers use of owers for worshiping Lord Vishnu. in various groves and forests bloomed all year around. The forests of like Ashoka, and Amra (Mango The Linga Purana and Bhavishya Puranas especially in the Aranya Kanda. Panchavati had various kinds of lotuses, tree owers). are quoted in mentioning the owers to be 184 Classication of owers Asian Agri-History Vol. 20, No. 3, 2016 185 used for worshipping Lord Shiva while the 'Karpooramanjari' discusses about the Classification of flowers in vidyaadharaanaam tadvidyaadarchitang Devi Purana is quoted for worship of Devi blossoming of different owers while Agamas and Tantras am vidurbudhaah| Durga. Flowers that are not to be used for experiencing different perceptions Flowers that are torn are to be regarded as a n y w o r s h i p a r e q u o t e d f r o m (Durgaprasad and Parab, 1887). His other A vivid description of various owers and their classication is given in Pancharatra Asura class, those that are fresh and new V i s h n u d h a r m o t t a r a P u r a n a , work 'Kavya Mimamsa' [Chap.18] and Vaikhanasa Agamas. They specify are Daiva, those with thorns on trees are to Brihannaaradiya Purana, and Skandha (Mishra, 1934) classies owers special combinations of owers that are to be discarded for worship as they belong to Puranas. according to their usage. be used for worship and those that are to be Rakshasa class, those that are ugly or Many poets recognize several types of Shobhaandhogandharasaih discarded. The Samurtarchanadhikara having holes or being cut are Yaksha class, owers and their uses. They distinguish the phalaarchanaabhyaam cha | Shodaa (Atri Samhita) (Bhattacharya et al., 2001) those that look burnt or not fresh when kept varieties, colors and time of blooming. th darshitametat syaatsaptamamanupayogi|| in its 44 chapter classies owers as for a night are Gandharva class, those that Kalidasa in his various works denotes fade away when plucked belong to Bhuta Daivikam maanusham braahmam several owers. His Abhijnana Shakuntala 'They are classied as decorative owers, class, those that are touched by men who paitrikam bhautikam tathaa|| Yaaksham (Kale, 2010) speaks of Sage Kanva's those for food, scent, honey, fruit, for are not clean or by Chandalas are termed to hermitage abounding in several varieties of g a a n d h a r v i k a m t a d v a d a a s u r a m worship, and those that are not used'. belong to Vidyadhara class. owers. The Shireesha ower, jasmine and raakshasam tathaa| Paishaacham several varieties of lotuses are mentioned The commentary by Madhusudhan Mishra mishrakam chaapi pushpamevam The list is also upheld by Vaikhanasiya in his works. About 30 different words gives examples for each of them such as prakeertitam|| [XLIV.12] Kashyapa Jnaanakanda [Chp. 72]. The based on varieties of lotuses are used by B a n d h u k a [ ( M i d d a y ow e r ) f o r Flowers are classied as Daiva, Kashyapa Jnaanakanda (Parthasarathi, him such as : decoration], Sthalakamala [(Changeable Maanusha, Braahma, Paitrika (pertaining 1998) also enlists the owers that are dear rose) as food], Bakula (Indian medlar), to Lord Vishnu, Shri and Bhu Devi, (a) Blue lotus Indivara, Kuvalaya, to Pitrs or manes), Bhautika (pertaining to Malati [(Royal jasmine) for scent], Brahma, Rudha, Surya, Mahakali. A list of Neelotpala, Pushkara, Rajeeva, Bhutas), Yaksha, Gandharva, Asura, Shireesha [(East Indian walnut) for owers that are also not to be used for Utpala, Vanaja Rakshasa, Pisacha, and Mishra varieties. honey], Kharjoora (Silver date palm), worship is given by the text. The (b) Red lotus Aravinda, Kokanaada, Panasa (Jackfruit), Jambu (Black berry), The description of these varieties is stated as classication of owers given by Taamarasa Amra (Mango), Priyala [(Chironjia tree) Samurtarchanadhikara is also upheld by Utpaatitaani pushpaani chaasuraaneeti (c) White lotus Pundareeka for fruits], Navamallika [(Shrubby it. In fact the Kashyapa Jnaanakanda lakshayet| haritaaharitaanyeva daivikaani (d) Golden colored lotus Jasmine) for worship], and other owers describes each of them as follows. v i d u r bu d h a a h | S a k a n t a k a a n a a m Kanakakamala that are not used. Bana's Kadambari vrikshaanaam pushpaani parivarjayet| shvetapeetakrishnaraktacaturvarnaani (Shastri, 1961) is also rich in description of Several species of owers blooming in proktaani raakshasaaneeti teshaam trivarnaani ca daivikaanyuktamanutt various owers like Parijata (Night different seasons are described in graahyaani poojane|| Chinnaaram amani| J a s m i n e ) . K i n g H a r s h a i n h i s Kalidasa's Ritusamhara (Kale, 2002). b h i n n a m a s t i s h k a m y a a k s h i k a m Naishadiyacharitam speaks of several dvivarnaani madhyamaani| ekava Magha has beautifully described the parikeertitam| ekaratroshitam pushpam owers like Lotus, Kuvalaya (Fragrant rnaanyadhamaani| blooming of Kamala and closing of g a n d h a r v a a n a a m p ra ke e r t i t a m | | water lily), Champaka (Champak tree) and raatrau saphullaani tadaahni saady Kumuda at sunrise simultaneously in his griheetaparisheernam cha bhutaanaam so on that adorned hands and other parts of cha vidurbudhaah|| narenaashuchina askaani tatkaalotphullaani arcane work Shishupalavadha (II.64) (Shastri, Queen Damayanti (Shastri, 1984) sprishtam chandaalaih pulkasaistathaa|| shreshtaani| [Chap. 72] 2013). Rajashekhara in his work 184 Classication of owers Asian Agri-History Vol. 20, No. 3, 2016 185 used for worshipping Lord Shiva while the 'Karpooramanjari' discusses about the Classification of flowers in vidyaadharaanaam tadvidyaadarchitang Devi Purana is quoted for worship of Devi blossoming of different owers while Agamas and Tantras am vidurbudhaah| Durga. Flowers that are not to be used for experiencing different perceptions Flowers that are torn are to be regarded as a n y w o r s h i p a r e q u o t e d f r o m (Durgaprasad and Parab, 1887). His other A vivid description of various owers and their classication is given in Pancharatra Asura class, those that are fresh and new V i s h n u d h a r m o t t a r a P u r a n a , work 'Kavya Mimamsa' [Chap.18] and Vaikhanasa Agamas. They specify are Daiva, those with thorns on trees are to Brihannaaradiya Purana, and Skandha (Mishra, 1934) classies owers special combinations of owers that are to be discarded for worship as they belong to Puranas. according to their usage. be used for worship and those that are to be Rakshasa class, those that are ugly or Many poets recognize several types of Shobhaandhogandharasaih discarded. The Samurtarchanadhikara having holes or being cut are Yaksha class, owers and their uses. They distinguish the phalaarchanaabhyaam cha | Shodaa (Atri Samhita) (Bhattacharya et al., 2001) those that look burnt or not fresh when kept varieties, colors and time of blooming. th darshitametat syaatsaptamamanupayogi|| in its 44 chapter classies owers as for a night are Gandharva class, those that Kalidasa in his various works denotes fade away when plucked belong to Bhuta Daivikam maanusham braahmam several owers. His Abhijnana Shakuntala 'They are classied as decorative owers, class, those that are touched by men who paitrikam bhautikam tathaa|| Yaaksham (Kale, 2010) speaks of Sage Kanva's those for food, scent, honey, fruit, for are not clean or by Chandalas are termed to hermitage abounding in several varieties of g a a n d h a r v i k a m t a d v a d a a s u r a m worship, and those that are not used'. belong to Vidyadhara class. owers. The Shireesha ower, jasmine and raakshasam tathaa| Paishaacham several varieties of lotuses are mentioned The commentary by Madhusudhan Mishra mishrakam chaapi pushpamevam The list is also upheld by Vaikhanasiya in his works. About 30 different words gives examples for each of them such as prakeertitam|| [XLIV.12] Kashyapa Jnaanakanda [Chp. 72]. The based on varieties of lotuses are used by B a n d h u k a [ ( M i d d a y ow e r ) f o r Flowers are classied as Daiva, Kashyapa Jnaanakanda (Parthasarathi, him such as : decoration], Sthalakamala [(Changeable Maanusha, Braahma, Paitrika (pertaining 1998) also enlists the owers that are dear rose) as food], Bakula (Indian medlar), to Lord Vishnu, Shri and Bhu Devi, (a) Blue lotus Indivara, Kuvalaya, to Pitrs or manes), Bhautika (pertaining to Malati [(Royal jasmine) for scent], Brahma, Rudha, Surya, Mahakali. A list of Neelotpala, Pushkara, Rajeeva, Bhutas), Yaksha, Gandharva, Asura, Shireesha [(East Indian walnut) for owers that are also not to be used for Utpala, Vanaja Rakshasa, Pisacha, and Mishra varieties. honey], Kharjoora (Silver date palm), worship is given by the text. The (b) Red lotus Aravinda, Kokanaada, Panasa (Jackfruit), Jambu (Black berry), The description of these varieties is stated as classication of owers given by Taamarasa Amra (Mango), Priyala [(Chironjia tree) Samurtarchanadhikara is also upheld by Utpaatitaani pushpaani chaasuraaneeti (c) White lotus Pundareeka for fruits], Navamallika [(Shrubby it. In fact the Kashyapa Jnaanakanda lakshayet| haritaaharitaanyeva daivikaani (d) Golden colored lotus Jasmine) for worship], and other owers describes each of them as follows. v i d u r bu d h a a h | S a k a n t a k a a n a a m Kanakakamala that are not used. Bana's Kadambari vrikshaanaam pushpaani parivarjayet| shvetapeetakrishnaraktacaturvarnaani (Shastri, 1961) is also rich in description of Several species of owers blooming in proktaani raakshasaaneeti teshaam trivarnaani ca daivikaanyuktamanutt various owers like Parijata (Night different seasons are described in graahyaani poojane|| Chinnaaram amani| J a s m i n e ) . K i n g H a r s h a i n h i s Kalidasa's Ritusamhara (Kale, 2002). b h i n n a m a s t i s h k a m y a a k s h i k a m Naishadiyacharitam speaks of several dvivarnaani madhyamaani| ekava Magha has beautifully described the parikeertitam| ekaratroshitam pushpam owers like Lotus, Kuvalaya (Fragrant rnaanyadhamaani| blooming of Kamala and closing of g a n d h a r v a a n a a m p ra ke e r t i t a m | | water lily), Champaka (Champak tree) and raatrau saphullaani tadaahni saady Kumuda at sunrise simultaneously in his griheetaparisheernam cha bhutaanaam so on that adorned hands and other parts of cha vidurbudhaah|| narenaashuchina askaani tatkaalotphullaani arcane work Shishupalavadha (II.64) (Shastri, Queen Damayanti (Shastri, 1984) sprishtam chandaalaih pulkasaistathaa|| shreshtaani| [Chap. 72] 2013). Rajashekhara in his work 186 Classication of owers Asian Agri-History Vol. 20, No. 3, 2016 187

by the text [XXXII.3840] and quotes the withered, dried, fallen to the ground and Panchaitaanyuttamaanyaahurmadhyama Flowers that are torn are to be views of Sage Mareechi on conducting of which are damaged should be abandoned. ani tathaa dasha| regarded as Asura class, those Pushpayaga (sacrice using owers). The If suitable owers are not available, leaves that are fresh and new are Daiva, Pa d m a S a m h i t a ( S a m p a t h a n d could be used or they could be Mallikaakundamandaaratagaraarjunaki those with thorns on trees are to Padmanabhan, 1974; 1982) states that one supplemented by fruits, grass, herbs in mshukaah| Paarijaatamashokam cha be discarded for worship as they must stand before the Pushpavana (forests their absence. Flowers made of gold, one of bilvam champakameva cha|| belong to Rakshasa class, those where owers grow) with folded hands the nine gems (Navaratnas) or diamonds Flowers are classied into ve types offering his salutations to the deity of the give greater fruit of worship when they are that are ugly or having holes or n a m e l y Pa ra , A p a ra , U t t a m a , forest and then proceed to collect owers. used. The text further states that one should being cut are Yaksha class, those Madhyama, and Adhama. Golden owers It adds that one must not collect owers worship the Lord with owers collected that look burnt or not fresh when belong to Para class and can be used before that are fallen and withered, black in color, from his own garden or those blossomed in kept for a night are Gandharva bath to the deity as well as for worship. dry, those that are torn, bought in a tied the forest. He should not worship with the class, those that fade away when Silver and copper owers belong to Apara cloth, touched by evil people, those that are owers and other materials brought for plucked belong to Bhuta class, class and can be used one or three years. already smelt, those bereft of scent, those money Tulsi (holy Basil), Ketaki (Fragrant Screw those that are touched by men who touched by feet, and those that are yet Pine), Padma (Lotus), Karaveera (Indian are not clean or by Chandalas are unblossomed (Charya Pada, Chap. XII). Aatmaaraamodbhavaih pushpaih athava Oleander), and Malati (Royal Jasmine) termed to belong to Vidyadhara Further the text enumerates seven vanasambhavaih | belong to Uttama class. Those of class. prominent owers of Kalpavriksha (Silk Dravyakreetaih prasoonaadyaiah Madhyama class are ten in number namely cotton tree), Parijata (Night jasmine), archayed anyathaa na cha || Mallika, Kunda, Mandara, Tagara, Those owers that are white, yellow, bluish Harichandana (Red sandalwood), – [Kriyaapaada, V.65] Arjuna, Kimshuka, Parijata, Ashoka, (dark hued) and red and those owers that Santanavriksha (Progeny tree), Mandara possess either four or three of these colors Bilva, and Champaka. Those that are (Indian Coral tree), Saughandhika The Meru Tantra [Prakasha III] (Shastri, are Daiva class and considered to be best, leaves or acquatic owers are considered to (Heavenly lotus), and Palasha (Flame of 2014) speaks about another classication those that are of two colors are medium and be Adhama the forest) that give more results of worship of owers as those that are of single color are considered than ordinary owers and each of them The Mundamala Tantra [Patala IX] (Rai, to be of low class. Those that bloom at gives more than the following in the list. A Pushpam panchavidham proktam param 2010) enlists several owers used in night and spread out in daytime or that similar aspect regarding different varieties c h a a p a r a m e v a c h a | U t t a m a m worship of Goddess Parvati. The bloom quickly are considered to be best for of lotuses and lilies is also mentioned. madhyamam hinam teshaam vakshyaami Simhasiddhanta Sindhu (Phatasimha, worship. lakshanam|| 1970) also quotes several Tantras on The Kamika Agama (Sabharatnam, 2015), owers. Of these the classication of The description of Daiva, Asura, a principle Shaiva Agama source for Param suvarnapushpam syaat tat sadaa owers is mentioned by quoting the Gandharva and other classes of owers are worship, temple construction and rituals yogyamevahi| Abhyangapoorvakam 'Mantratantraprakasha' similar to the identical to the Atri Samhita. The related to Lord Shiva has some information deyamarchanaarham punarbhavet|| Meru Tantra as below: Vaikhaanasa Khiladhikara (Parthasarathi about owers. A long list of owers and Bhattacharya, 1997) of sage Bhrigu Aparam raajatam pushpam taamrajam suitable for worshiping Lord Shiva is given Pushpam panchavidham proktam also gives a list of owers that are to be cha parikeertitam| Sadaa yogyam by the text [Purvapaada, Kriyaapaada, munibhirnaradaadibhih| paraparottamam used for worship of deities and those that chedamapi trivarsham chaikavarshakam|| Chapter V Archanavidhi]. It states that chaiva madhyamam cha tathaadhamam|| are to be discarded [Chap. 33]. The owers rendered unsuitable by hairs, Tulasi ketaki padma karaveeram cha auspicious and inauspicious times to be worms and insects, those that have sauvarnam paramityuktamaparam noted for plucking of owers are also given maalati| chitravastrajam| 186 Classication of owers Asian Agri-History Vol. 20, No. 3, 2016 187 by the text [XXXII.3840] and quotes the withered, dried, fallen to the ground and Panchaitaanyuttamaanyaahurmadhyama Flowers that are torn are to be views of Sage Mareechi on conducting of which are damaged should be abandoned. ani tathaa dasha| regarded as Asura class, those Pushpayaga (sacrice using owers). The If suitable owers are not available, leaves that are fresh and new are Daiva, Pa d m a S a m h i t a ( S a m p a t h a n d could be used or they could be Mallikaakundamandaaratagaraarjunaki those with thorns on trees are to Padmanabhan, 1974; 1982) states that one supplemented by fruits, grass, herbs in mshukaah| Paarijaatamashokam cha be discarded for worship as they must stand before the Pushpavana (forests their absence. Flowers made of gold, one of bilvam champakameva cha|| belong to Rakshasa class, those where owers grow) with folded hands the nine gems (Navaratnas) or diamonds Flowers are classied into ve types offering his salutations to the deity of the give greater fruit of worship when they are that are ugly or having holes or n a m e l y Pa ra , A p a ra , U t t a m a , forest and then proceed to collect owers. used. The text further states that one should being cut are Yaksha class, those Madhyama, and Adhama. Golden owers It adds that one must not collect owers worship the Lord with owers collected that look burnt or not fresh when belong to Para class and can be used before that are fallen and withered, black in color, from his own garden or those blossomed in kept for a night are Gandharva bath to the deity as well as for worship. dry, those that are torn, bought in a tied the forest. He should not worship with the class, those that fade away when Silver and copper owers belong to Apara cloth, touched by evil people, those that are owers and other materials brought for plucked belong to Bhuta class, class and can be used one or three years. already smelt, those bereft of scent, those money Tulsi (holy Basil), Ketaki (Fragrant Screw those that are touched by men who touched by feet, and those that are yet Pine), Padma (Lotus), Karaveera (Indian are not clean or by Chandalas are unblossomed (Charya Pada, Chap. XII). Aatmaaraamodbhavaih pushpaih athava Oleander), and Malati (Royal Jasmine) termed to belong to Vidyadhara Further the text enumerates seven vanasambhavaih | belong to Uttama class. Those of class. prominent owers of Kalpavriksha (Silk Dravyakreetaih prasoonaadyaiah Madhyama class are ten in number namely cotton tree), Parijata (Night jasmine), archayed anyathaa na cha || Mallika, Kunda, Mandara, Tagara, Those owers that are white, yellow, bluish Harichandana (Red sandalwood), – [Kriyaapaada, V.65] Arjuna, Kimshuka, Parijata, Ashoka, (dark hued) and red and those owers that Santanavriksha (Progeny tree), Mandara possess either four or three of these colors Bilva, and Champaka. Those that are (Indian Coral tree), Saughandhika The Meru Tantra [Prakasha III] (Shastri, are Daiva class and considered to be best, leaves or acquatic owers are considered to (Heavenly lotus), and Palasha (Flame of 2014) speaks about another classication those that are of two colors are medium and be Adhama the forest) that give more results of worship of owers as those that are of single color are considered than ordinary owers and each of them The Mundamala Tantra [Patala IX] (Rai, to be of low class. Those that bloom at gives more than the following in the list. A Pushpam panchavidham proktam param 2010) enlists several owers used in night and spread out in daytime or that similar aspect regarding different varieties c h a a p a r a m e v a c h a | U t t a m a m worship of Goddess Parvati. The bloom quickly are considered to be best for of lotuses and lilies is also mentioned. madhyamam hinam teshaam vakshyaami Simhasiddhanta Sindhu (Phatasimha, worship. lakshanam|| 1970) also quotes several Tantras on The Kamika Agama (Sabharatnam, 2015), owers. Of these the classication of The description of Daiva, Asura, a principle Shaiva Agama source for Param suvarnapushpam syaat tat sadaa owers is mentioned by quoting the Gandharva and other classes of owers are worship, temple construction and rituals yogyamevahi| Abhyangapoorvakam 'Mantratantraprakasha' similar to the identical to the Atri Samhita. The related to Lord Shiva has some information deyamarchanaarham punarbhavet|| Meru Tantra as below: Vaikhaanasa Khiladhikara (Parthasarathi about owers. A long list of owers and Bhattacharya, 1997) of sage Bhrigu Aparam raajatam pushpam taamrajam suitable for worshiping Lord Shiva is given Pushpam panchavidham proktam also gives a list of owers that are to be cha parikeertitam| Sadaa yogyam by the text [Purvapaada, Kriyaapaada, munibhirnaradaadibhih| paraparottamam used for worship of deities and those that chedamapi trivarsham chaikavarshakam|| Chapter V Archanavidhi]. It states that chaiva madhyamam cha tathaadhamam|| are to be discarded [Chap. 33]. The owers rendered unsuitable by hairs, Tulasi ketaki padma karaveeram cha auspicious and inauspicious times to be worms and insects, those that have sauvarnam paramityuktamaparam noted for plucking of owers are also given maalati| chitravastrajam| 188 Classication of owers Asian Agri-History Vol. 20, No. 3, 2016 189

Vrikshagulmalataapushpamuttamam (Golden owers), Kulapushpa (those composed by Kerala author Ishanashiva applications of owers (Kashyap, 2001). parikeertitam|| belonging to particular class) in various dated to 12th c. AD. The text is divided into These include Sushruta Samhita, Charaka sections. Flowers (pushpa) has a similar four parts in 119 chapters. It mentions Samhita, Bhela Samhita, Ayurveda adhamam patratoyaadi madhyamam tu meaning in Sanskrit to English, and are briey of a special classication of owers S a u k h y a o f To d a r a n a n d a , a n d p h a l a t m a k a m | u t s r u s h t a m n a taken by some texts like the Matrikabheda not traced in other texts. Flowers are Ashtangahridaya of Vagbhata. The Koshas kriyaayogyam sadaa yogye paraapare|| Tantra, the Mahakalasamhita and other classied rstly into three classes named and Nighantus also offer certain – Simhasiddhanta Sindhu [IV.1012]. texts, to refer to menstrual blood. These are Agneya, Saumya (related to Soma), and classication of owers. The Rajanighantu classied in different ways, depending on Saumyaagneya. Further they are classied (Tripathi, 1998) classies owers into two The Sages like Narada and others have age and the qualications of a Shakti. The based on the three Gunas (predominant types namely, spoken of owers as being of ve classes Matrikabheda Tantra (Magee, 2011) characters) of Indian philosophy namely namely Para, Apara, Uttama, Madhyama, [Chapter XII] upholds 1000 Golden Sattvika, Raajasika and Taamasika [ISGP, Praphullam meelitam cheti dvividham and Adhama. Golden owers belong to owers as being superior than a broken Saamanyapaada, Section on Flowers, pushpamishyate|| Para class, those of multicolored cloth Bilva leaf offered to worship of Lord Shiva. vv.5961]. The text states that owers that Those that are fully opened or expanded (made articially) belong to Apara class, Several Tantric texts upheld three aspects are white are Sattvika, those that are (noted by synonyms such as Smita, those that grow on trees, creepers and of the Goddess (Shakti) being Para Vidya, reddish belong to Raajasika, while those Vinidra, Unnidra, Vikasita, Phulla and so climbers are best (Uttama), Those that Apara Vidya and Parapara Vidya. that are dark hued are Taamasika. Flowers on) and those that are closed or unblown bring about fruits (later) are medium Likewise the mantras used to propitiate the that are yellow (Raajasattva) and black or (noted by synonyms such as Sanidra, (Madhyama) class, and those that are divine form of Goddess are also classied dark hued (Tamoraja) are also mentioned Supta, Meelita and so on). leaves and grow in water bodies are of low as Uttama, Madhyama, and Adhama. indicating a combination of Gunas. A long (Adhama) class. Based on this aspect probably a vefold list of owers that are suited for worship of The Madanaparijata as quoted by text of classication developed with Flowers Shaiva, Shakta, and Vaishnava rituals is Simhasiddhantasindhu mentions a list of In case of worship of Durga, the list of made of gold and jewels (Para class), those given. The text also states that one must owers that are used in worship of Lord owers to be used is quoted from several of silver or copper or cut pieces of reject owers bereft of fragrance, touched Vishnu. Bharata's Natyashastra (Kavi, Puranas. The Yogini Tantra is quoted variegated cloth (according to some texts) by impure men, those that have been stolen 1956) also mentions several applications mentioning the owers not to be used for (Apara class), and other three varieties as from somewhere, that have marks of nails of owers in rituals connected with dance, worship of Mahalakshmi while the Varahi mentioned above. or worms, those that are covered by spider gestures and so on. Sage Parashara in his Tantra, Kulaavali Tantra are quoted in webs around them, that have been already Vrikshayurveda (Sircar and Sircar, 1996) context of owers that are to be discarded The Ishanashivagurudevapaddhati worn on head of someone, those that have classies owers based on various factors. and not used in worship of Goddess [ISGP] (Shastri, 1990) is a compendium of faded and are old [Saamanyapaada, They are mentioned as below. Tripura. The Jnanamala Tantra is quoted encyclopedic nature based on Shaiva Section on owers, vv.67]. for owers used in worshipping Lord Agamas and other Tantric works Based on stem. Flowers that develop Vishnu. Likewise the Jnanarnava Tantra is Flowers in some Post–Vedic texts singly or in clusters at leaf axil are also quoted for its views on owers that are Several Post Vedic texts also offer certain Kuksipusha. Those borne singly or in not used in worship. The Brihat Nila The Sages like Narada and others have spoken of owers as being of details of classication of owers. The clusters on stem are Kandapushpa. Those Tantra [II.7181] (Kak and Shastri, 1938) borne on inorescence at stem terminal are also describes a list of owers used in the ve classes namely Para, Apara, Brihat Samhita of Varahamihira (Bhat, th Vallari pushpa [V.4446]. worship of Goddess in her manifest forms. Uttama, Madhyama, and 1991), dated to about 6 c. AD devotes a chapter on Kusumalatadhyaya. Works of It also mentions about Vajrapushpa Adhama. Tatraadhishitaanabhedena pushpantu medicine provide various information (Diamond owers), Suvarnapushpa trividham vidyaat| regarding curing, healing and therapeutic 190 Classication of owers Asian Agri-History Vol. 20, No. 3, 2016 191 yathaa kukshipushpancha Based on blooming. If they bloom Samantabhadra's text on Pushpayurveda, classied owers into four categories, kaandapushpancha vallaripushpancheti|| throughout the year they are called Sadaa Kumudendu states that based on these namely, Kottupu, Kodippu (Jasmine pushpa and if it blooms at particular time of owers, Rasasiddhi was achieved and varieties), Neerpu (Water owers like Based on sterility. Flowers having a year they are called Ritu pushpa (seasonal therefore terms it as 'Ahimsa Ayurveda'. Lotus, Lily), and Nilappu (Land owers). presence of ovary are called sterile owers owers) He gives a long line of teachers including They divided their lands into ve natural [Saphala]. Those having absence of ovary the previous Teerthankaras who geographical areas giving the names of are sterile owers [Nishphala]. Based on petal arrangements. If petals propagated Pushpayurveda. dominant owering trees such as Mullai (a are free from another it is called Muktadala Based on blossoming. Those owers in variety of Jasmine Forest area), Kurunji (polypetalous) and when they are united it King Bhoja of Dhara in his excellent which stamens protrude out with opening (a mountain ower Mountainous is termed Yuktadala [gamopetalous]. If treatise 'Charucharya' (Shukla, 2000) of petals are Vyakta (open) owers. Those regions), Marutham (a tree with red petals are arranged embracing each other it dated to 11th c. AD mentions several kinds that are closed with stamens in corolla tube owers Pastoral regions), Neytal (a water is termed Sansprishtadala and if petals are of owers to be used during different and not visible are Avyakta (closed) ower Sandy Sea shore areas), and Palai separate from one another it is called seasons throughout the year. He also owers. (evergreen tree owers in arid areas). The Sansphutadala. mentions the blossoming and uorescence Tamils also wore particular owers during Based on dominating inuence of Sun or period of different owers, their medicinal Another Ayurvedic text namely the military raids in ancient times and is a Moon. Flowers blooming at night when properties and thus upholds the benets of 'Kalyana Karakam'(Doshi, 1940) of queer custom not found anywhere else in Moon has its inuence are called Pushpayurveda. The Kshemakutuhalam U g ra d i t y a ch a r y a q u o t e s a wo r k India. These include Vetchi (Scarlet ixora Chandraakanta pushpa. Flowers which (Lakshmithathachar and Alwar, 2009) of 'Pushpayurveda' that prescribes provocation of war through attack and bloom during day when sun dominates are Kshemasharma, a work on dietetics and cattle raids), Karanthai (East Indian Globe preparation of Rasayana medicines with th called Ravikaanta pushpa. wellbeing dated to 16 c. AD also devotes 18000 kinds of owers. Jain Munis stand in thistle defending cattle raids), Vanchi a section to wearing of owers mentioning forefront as pioneers of oral therapy (Rattan palm invasion of enemy Based on petals and stamens. Flowers are a long list of owers describing their [Pushpayurveda]. One such text by territory), Nocchi (Chaste tree defence of classied into Samaganiya pushpa effects in alleviating the doshas [V.3254]. (Isomerous having equal numbers of Samantabhadrasvami has been quoted by fort), Thumbai (Bitter toombay frenzy of Someshvara's 'Manasollasa,' ( Gondekar, petals and stamens) and Vishamaganiya U g r a d i t y a c h a r y a . L i k ew i s e t h e battle), Vaakai (Siris tree Woman's tongue 192539) a text by the Western Chalukyan [Heteromerous having unequal number of encyclopedic cryptographic text victory) (Swaminathan, 2012). About king devotes a section to different types of petals and stamens]. 'Siribhoovalaya' (Shastry, 2003, 2006) by seven stages of ower development were owers in crafts, types of owers used in Kumudenu Muni a Jain author of recognized and each stage in the order of garlands for the king and royal nobles. The Based on position of ovary (on the Karnataka in Kannada numerals has development was indicated by terms such thalamus). Flowers are classied into four S h i v a t t a t v a R a t n a k a ra o f Ke l a d i extensive details of Pushpayurveda. In the as Nanai (oral primordium), Arumbu t y p e s o n t h i s b a s i s . T h e y a r e Basavaraja (Ramashastry and Shastry, seventh chapter, the text mentions 24 (young oral bud), Mugai (mature bud Tundamandala (Hypogynous) [petals and 1969) an encyclopedic text on various o w e r s u s e d f o r R a s a s i d d h i . with scent), Podhu (mature bud), Malar stamens below the ovary], Kumbha subjects deals on descriptions and 'Siribhoovalaya' [Chap. 9 and Chap.14] (open ower), Alar (pollinated ower), Vee Mandala (Epigynous) [petals, stamens properties of various owers that should be also deals on Pushpayurveda. The text (fertilized ower in which all parts other above ovary], Tungamandala [Perigynous] adorned by a king in different seasons as [Chap.14] refers to Pushpayurveda being than the ovary are about to fall). The [petals, sepals, stamens on circular disc well as those owers that are strung in developed by Jinadatta, Devendra Yati, owers were also classied based on their like thalamus with ovary fused with it] and garlands for his decoration [VI. 16. 2847]. color, texture, shapes and structure. Poet Vaatyamandala [petals, stamens united A m o g h a v a r s h a ( t h e k i n g ) , a n d K a p i l a r i n t h e S a n g a m w o r k forming a column round the style]. S a m a n t a b h a d r a . R e f e r r i n g t o Tamil Sangam literature is also rich in Kurunchipattu (Chellaiah, 1985a) description of several owers. The Tamils 190 Classication of owers Asian Agri-History Vol. 20, No. 3, 2016 191 yathaa kukshipushpancha Based on blooming. If they bloom Samantabhadra's text on Pushpayurveda, classied owers into four categories, kaandapushpancha vallaripushpancheti|| throughout the year they are called Sadaa Kumudendu states that based on these namely, Kottupu, Kodippu (Jasmine pushpa and if it blooms at particular time of owers, Rasasiddhi was achieved and varieties), Neerpu (Water owers like Based on sterility. Flowers having a year they are called Ritu pushpa (seasonal therefore terms it as 'Ahimsa Ayurveda'. Lotus, Lily), and Nilappu (Land owers). presence of ovary are called sterile owers owers) He gives a long line of teachers including They divided their lands into ve natural [Saphala]. Those having absence of ovary the previous Teerthankaras who geographical areas giving the names of are sterile owers [Nishphala]. Based on petal arrangements. If petals propagated Pushpayurveda. dominant owering trees such as Mullai (a are free from another it is called Muktadala Based on blossoming. Those owers in variety of Jasmine Forest area), Kurunji (polypetalous) and when they are united it King Bhoja of Dhara in his excellent which stamens protrude out with opening (a mountain ower Mountainous is termed Yuktadala [gamopetalous]. If treatise 'Charucharya' (Shukla, 2000) of petals are Vyakta (open) owers. Those regions), Marutham (a tree with red petals are arranged embracing each other it dated to 11th c. AD mentions several kinds that are closed with stamens in corolla tube owers Pastoral regions), Neytal (a water is termed Sansprishtadala and if petals are of owers to be used during different and not visible are Avyakta (closed) ower Sandy Sea shore areas), and Palai separate from one another it is called seasons throughout the year. He also owers. (evergreen tree owers in arid areas). The Sansphutadala. mentions the blossoming and uorescence Tamils also wore particular owers during Based on dominating inuence of Sun or period of different owers, their medicinal Another Ayurvedic text namely the military raids in ancient times and is a Moon. Flowers blooming at night when properties and thus upholds the benets of 'Kalyana Karakam'(Doshi, 1940) of queer custom not found anywhere else in Moon has its inuence are called Pushpayurveda. The Kshemakutuhalam U g ra d i t y a ch a r y a q u o t e s a wo r k India. These include Vetchi (Scarlet ixora Chandraakanta pushpa. Flowers which (Lakshmithathachar and Alwar, 2009) of 'Pushpayurveda' that prescribes provocation of war through attack and bloom during day when sun dominates are Kshemasharma, a work on dietetics and cattle raids), Karanthai (East Indian Globe preparation of Rasayana medicines with th called Ravikaanta pushpa. wellbeing dated to 16 c. AD also devotes 18000 kinds of owers. Jain Munis stand in thistle defending cattle raids), Vanchi a section to wearing of owers mentioning forefront as pioneers of oral therapy (Rattan palm invasion of enemy Based on petals and stamens. Flowers are a long list of owers describing their [Pushpayurveda]. One such text by territory), Nocchi (Chaste tree defence of classied into Samaganiya pushpa effects in alleviating the doshas [V.3254]. (Isomerous having equal numbers of Samantabhadrasvami has been quoted by fort), Thumbai (Bitter toombay frenzy of Someshvara's 'Manasollasa,' ( Gondekar, petals and stamens) and Vishamaganiya U g r a d i t y a c h a r y a . L i k ew i s e t h e battle), Vaakai (Siris tree Woman's tongue 192539) a text by the Western Chalukyan [Heteromerous having unequal number of encyclopedic cryptographic text victory) (Swaminathan, 2012). About king devotes a section to different types of petals and stamens]. 'Siribhoovalaya' (Shastry, 2003, 2006) by seven stages of ower development were owers in crafts, types of owers used in Kumudenu Muni a Jain author of recognized and each stage in the order of garlands for the king and royal nobles. The Based on position of ovary (on the Karnataka in Kannada numerals has development was indicated by terms such thalamus). Flowers are classied into four S h i v a t t a t v a R a t n a k a ra o f Ke l a d i extensive details of Pushpayurveda. In the as Nanai (oral primordium), Arumbu t y p e s o n t h i s b a s i s . T h e y a r e Basavaraja (Ramashastry and Shastry, seventh chapter, the text mentions 24 (young oral bud), Mugai (mature bud Tundamandala (Hypogynous) [petals and 1969) an encyclopedic text on various o w e r s u s e d f o r R a s a s i d d h i . with scent), Podhu (mature bud), Malar stamens below the ovary], Kumbha subjects deals on descriptions and 'Siribhoovalaya' [Chap. 9 and Chap.14] (open ower), Alar (pollinated ower), Vee Mandala (Epigynous) [petals, stamens properties of various owers that should be also deals on Pushpayurveda. The text (fertilized ower in which all parts other above ovary], Tungamandala [Perigynous] adorned by a king in different seasons as [Chap.14] refers to Pushpayurveda being than the ovary are about to fall). The [petals, sepals, stamens on circular disc well as those owers that are strung in developed by Jinadatta, Devendra Yati, owers were also classied based on their like thalamus with ovary fused with it] and garlands for his decoration [VI. 16. 2847]. color, texture, shapes and structure. Poet Vaatyamandala [petals, stamens united A m o g h a v a r s h a ( t h e k i n g ) , a n d K a p i l a r i n t h e S a n g a m w o r k forming a column round the style]. S a m a n t a b h a d r a . R e f e r r i n g t o Tamil Sangam literature is also rich in Kurunchipattu (Chellaiah, 1985a) description of several owers. The Tamils 192 Classication of owers Asian Agri-History Vol. 20, No. 3, 2016 193 enumerates about a 100 owers [vv. auspicious, inauspicious, which month Table 1. Names of owers with their common English and Latin botanical 6297]. Likewise the Tamil work which owers to be used for worship of equivalents. Maduraikanchi (Chellaiah, 1985b) Paschimamnaya, Uttaramnaya, Sanskrit Name of Common Botanical Name mentions about the festival Onam Siddhalakshmi, Urdhvamnaya, Neela ower/owering tree English Name celebrated in old Tamil Chera kingdom Sarasvati, Dakshinamnaya. (present Kerala) with gigantic ower Ajashringi Indian Ash tree/ Gurmar (Gymnema sylvestre)  Amra Sweet Mango (Mangifera indica) decorations on the ground in order to honur Pushparatnakara Tantram by Ankola Sage leaved Alangium (Alangium savifolium) King Bali who is believed to visit them on Bhupalendra Narasimha (Varnekar, Apamarga Prickly Chafower (Achyranthus aspera L.) that day. 1988) In 8 Patalas deals on owers to be used and discarded for worship. Arjuna Arjun tree (Terminalia arjuna) Arka Crown ower (Calotropis gigantea) Some treatises exclusively devoted to Ashoka Ashoka tree (Saraca asoca) ﬂowers  Parijatamanjari (Hultzsch, 1981) Text inscribed at Dhara [Epigraphia Ashvagandha Indian ginseng/Poison gooseberry (Withania somnifera) Bakula Indian Medlar/ Spanish cherry (Mimusops elengi) Ancient Indian literature is also replete Indica,VIII]. It mentions Chitraprayoga Bandhuka Midday ower/ Scarlet Mallow (Pentapetes phoenicea L.) with several texts dealing exclusively on denoting technique of getting different owers although many have not seen the Bilva Bengal quince/Bael (Aegle marmelos) owers on different trees. Brahmi Indian pennywort/ (Bacopa monieri L.) light of publication. Many of them are still Thyme leaved gratiola  Pupphajoni Sattha [Pushpayoni deposited in various manuscript Champaka Champak tree (Michelia campaca) repositories all over India. A brief shastra] (Jain, 2004) It deals on Chandana Sandalwood tree (Cinnamomum zeylanicum.) description of some of these are given budding of owers. Dadima Pomegranate (Punica granatum) below. Doorva Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon)  Pushpayurveda of Jain author Girikarnika Wild guava/Ceylon Oak (Careya arborea)  Pushpachintamani (Shastri, Samantabhadra Svami (Jain, 1981) Harichandana Red Sandalwood (Pterocarpus santanlinus, rd 19051915) 16 Fols, Nagari script, 484 It is supposed to have been written in 3 Linn) shlokas, Catalogue of palm leaf c. BC and deals on 18000 owers. Indivara Blue lotus (Nymphaea stellata Willd.) manuscripts in Durbar library, Nepal, Jambu Black plum/Black berry (Syzygium cunminini L.) HP Shastri (ed.) Deals on description Recent literature (Varadan, 1985; Sharma, Japa China rose (Hibiscus rosa sinensis L.) of various owers that are auspicious or 2015) also has elaborated on the science of Kadamba Bur ower tree (Neolamarckia cadamba/ inauspicious for worship of Lord Shiva, Pushpayurveda that much needs to be (Anthocephalus cadamba) Kalpavriksha Silkcotton tree (Terminalia bellerica) Lord Vishnu, Durga, DakshinaKali, researched for the origins of the science Kamala Indian lotus (Nelumbo nucifera, Gaertn.) Nilasarasvati , and also those that are from ancient Sanskrit literature, especially the Vedic, Epic, Puranic sources. All these Kahlara White Water lily/Nilofar (Nymphaea alba L.) not to be used, the fruits of worshipping Bilva Bengal quince/Bael (Aegle marmelos) texts deal on various types of owers. For these deities with special owers. Brahmi Indian pennywort/ (Bacopa monieri L.) the convenience of readers the Sanskrit Thyme leaved gratiola  Pushpa Maahaatmyam (Varnekar, name of ower / owering tree, common Champaka Champak tree (Michelia campaca) 1988) Deals on different types of English Names and botanical names are Chandana Sandalwood tree (Cinnamomum zeylanicum.) owers to be used or not to be used, presented in table 1. Dadima Pomegranate (Punica granatum) Doorva Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon) Girikarnika Wild guava/Ceylon Oak (Careya arborea)

Continued... 192 Classication of owers Asian Agri-History Vol. 20, No. 3, 2016 193 enumerates about a 100 owers [vv. auspicious, inauspicious, which month Table 1. Names of owers with their common English and Latin botanical 6297]. Likewise the Tamil work which owers to be used for worship of equivalents. Maduraikanchi (Chellaiah, 1985b) Paschimamnaya, Uttaramnaya, Sanskrit Name of Common Botanical Name mentions about the festival Onam Siddhalakshmi, Urdhvamnaya, Neela ower/owering tree English Name celebrated in old Tamil Chera kingdom Sarasvati, Dakshinamnaya. (present Kerala) with gigantic ower Ajashringi Indian Ash tree/ Gurmar (Gymnema sylvestre)  Amra Sweet Mango (Mangifera indica) decorations on the ground in order to honur Pushparatnakara Tantram by Ankola Sage leaved Alangium (Alangium savifolium) King Bali who is believed to visit them on Bhupalendra Narasimha (Varnekar, Apamarga Prickly Chafower (Achyranthus aspera L.) that day. 1988) In 8 Patalas deals on owers to be used and discarded for worship. Arjuna Arjun tree (Terminalia arjuna) Arka Crown ower (Calotropis gigantea) Some treatises exclusively devoted to Ashoka Ashoka tree (Saraca asoca) ﬂowers  Parijatamanjari (Hultzsch, 1981) Text inscribed at Dhara [Epigraphia Ashvagandha Indian ginseng/Poison gooseberry (Withania somnifera) Bakula Indian Medlar/ Spanish cherry (Mimusops elengi) Ancient Indian literature is also replete Indica,VIII]. It mentions Chitraprayoga Bandhuka Midday ower/ Scarlet Mallow (Pentapetes phoenicea L.) with several texts dealing exclusively on denoting technique of getting different owers although many have not seen the Bilva Bengal quince/Bael (Aegle marmelos) owers on different trees. Brahmi Indian pennywort/ (Bacopa monieri L.) light of publication. Many of them are still Thyme leaved gratiola  Pupphajoni Sattha [Pushpayoni deposited in various manuscript Champaka Champak tree (Michelia campaca) repositories all over India. A brief shastra] (Jain, 2004) It deals on Chandana Sandalwood tree (Cinnamomum zeylanicum.) description of some of these are given budding of owers. Dadima Pomegranate (Punica granatum) below. Doorva Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon)  Pushpayurveda of Jain author Girikarnika Wild guava/Ceylon Oak (Careya arborea)  Pushpachintamani (Shastri, Samantabhadra Svami (Jain, 1981) Harichandana Red Sandalwood (Pterocarpus santanlinus, rd 19051915) 16 Fols, Nagari script, 484 It is supposed to have been written in 3 Linn) shlokas, Catalogue of palm leaf c. BC and deals on 18000 owers. Indivara Blue lotus (Nymphaea stellata Willd.) manuscripts in Durbar library, Nepal, Jambu Black plum/Black berry (Syzygium cunminini L.) HP Shastri (ed.) Deals on description Recent literature (Varadan, 1985; Sharma, Japa China rose (Hibiscus rosa sinensis L.) of various owers that are auspicious or 2015) also has elaborated on the science of Kadamba Bur ower tree (Neolamarckia cadamba/ inauspicious for worship of Lord Shiva, Pushpayurveda that much needs to be (Anthocephalus cadamba) Kalpavriksha Silkcotton tree (Terminalia bellerica) Lord Vishnu, Durga, DakshinaKali, researched for the origins of the science Kamala Indian lotus (Nelumbo nucifera, Gaertn.) Nilasarasvati , and also those that are from ancient Sanskrit literature, especially the Vedic, Epic, Puranic sources. All these Kahlara White Water lily/Nilofar (Nymphaea alba L.) not to be used, the fruits of worshipping Bilva Bengal quince/Bael (Aegle marmelos) texts deal on various types of owers. For these deities with special owers. Brahmi Indian pennywort/ (Bacopa monieri L.) the convenience of readers the Sanskrit Thyme leaved gratiola  Pushpa Maahaatmyam (Varnekar, name of ower / owering tree, common Champaka Champak tree (Michelia campaca) 1988) Deals on different types of English Names and botanical names are Chandana Sandalwood tree (Cinnamomum zeylanicum.) owers to be used or not to be used, presented in table 1. Dadima Pomegranate (Punica granatum) Doorva Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon) Girikarnika Wild guava/Ceylon Oak (Careya arborea)

Continued... 194 Classication of owers Asian Agri-History Vol. 20, No. 3, 2016 195

Table 1 Continued Table 1 Continued Sanskrit Name of Common Botanical Name Sanskrit Name of Common Botanical Name ower/owering tree English Name ower/owering tree English Name Harichandana Red Sandalwood (Pterocarpus santanlinus, of Tuscany/ Maid Jasminium trichotomum Linn) of Orleans Indivara Blue lotus (Nymphaea stellata Willd.) Nalini Lotus ower (Onosma echioides, L.) Jambu Black plum/Black berry (Syzygium cunminini L.) Navamallika Shrubby Jasmine (Jasminum arborescens L.) Japa China rose (Hibiscus rosa sinensis L.) Neelotpala Blue lotus (Nymphaea stellata Willd.) Kadamba Bur ower tree (Neolamarckia cadamba/ Neytal Red and Blue water lily (Nymphaea stellata Willd.) (Anthocephalus cadamba) Nipa Burower tree (Neolamarckia chinensis/ Kalpavriksha Silkcotton tree (Terminalia bellerica) Adina cordifolia Roxb.) Kamala Indian lotus (Nelumbo nucifera, Gaertn.) Nocchi Chaste tree (Vitex negundo) Kahlara White Water lily/Nilofar (Nymphaea alba L.) Palai Pala Indigo plant (Wrightia tinctoria Roxb.) Kanakakamala (Euphonbia thomsoniana) Panasa Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus Karanthai East Indian Globe Thistle (Sphaeranthus indicus L.) Lam.) Karnikara Maple leaved Bayur tree / (Pterospermum acerifolium) Paribhadraka Indian Coral tree (Erythrina orientalis) Kanaka Champa Parijata Night Jasmine (Nycthanthes arbortristis L.) Karavira Indian oleander (Nerium indicum) Plaksha Peepul / Fig tree (Ficus infectoria Roxb.) Kasturi Wild turmeric (Moschus moschiferus L.) Priyala Chironjia tree (Buchanania latifolia R.) Ketaki Fragrant screw Pine (Pandanus odoratissimus) Pundareeka Lotus ower (Nelumbium speciosum) Kharjoora Silver date palm/Toddy palm (Phoeni dactylifera l.) Pushkara Lotus Flower (Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.) Kimshuka Bastard teak/ Bengal kino (Butea monosperma) Rajeeva Blue lotus (Nymphaea stellata Willd.) Kokanada Red Water lily (Nymphaea rubra) Rambha Banana/Plantain (Musa paradisiacal L.) Kokanada/Aravinda Lotus ower (Nelumbo nucifera) Santanavriksha Progeny tree (unknown) Kovidara Mountain Ebony (Bauhinia variegate) Saugandhika Heavenly Lotus (Cymbopogan citrates Kumuda Blue Water lily (Nymphaea nouchali Burm f.) Stapf.) Kunda Star Jasmine (Jasminum multiorum Shireesha Woman's tongue (Albiza lebbeck) pubescens) Sthalakamala Changeable Rose (Hibiscus mutabilis) Kurabaka Red /Yellow Amaranth (Barleria prionitis L.) Tagara Indian valerian (Valeriana jatamansi/ Kuranta Porcupine ower (Barleria prionitis) Valeriana wallichii) Kurunji Neelakurunji (Strobilanthes kunthiana) Tamarasa Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.) Kuvalaya Fragrant water Lily/Blue lotus (Nymphaea esulenta L.) Thumbai Bitter toombay (Leucas aspera Willd.) Lodhra Lodh tree (Symlocus eracemosa) Tilaka Red bead tree (Adenanthera pavonina) Madhavi Helicopter ower (Hiptage benghalensis, L.) Tulasi Holy Basil (Ocimum sanctum) Mallika Sambac jasmine (Jasminum sambac) Utpala Indian Blue lotus (Nymphaea stellata Willd.) Malati Clove scented echites (Aganosma calycina) Vanaja Cowpea/Horsegram plant (Dolichos biorus, L.) Mandara Indian Coral tree/ Tiger's claw (Calotropis gigantea) Vaakai Siris tree Woman's tongue (Albizia lebbeck L.) Marutam Indian Laurel tree (Terminalia tomentosa) Vanchi Rattan palm (Calomus rotang L.) Muchukunda Hathipaila (Pterospermum acerifolium) Vasanti Three live caper (Crataeva nurvala) Mullai (Belle of Arabian Jasmine (Jasminum sambac L.)/ Vetchi Scarlet ixora (Ixora coccinea L.) India/Grand Duke Jasminium auriculatum/

Continued... 194 Classication of owers Asian Agri-History Vol. 20, No. 3, 2016 195

Continued... 196 Classication of owers Asian Agri-History Vol. 20, No. 3, 2016 197

Arya Ravi Prakash and Joshi KL. 2005. Hultzsch E. 1981. Parijatamanjari Natika of Lakshmithathachar MA and Alwar MA Tamil Sangam literature is also Rigveda Samhita, With English translation Madana, Dhar Prashasti of Arjunavarman, (Eds.), Shankar R. (Translator). 2009. rich in description of several according to HH Wilson and Sayanacharya Epigraphia Indica, Vol. VIII, [190506], Kshemakutuhalam of Kshemasharma, owers. The Tamils classied Bhashya, Vols. IIV, Parimal Publications, Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi. Foundation for Revitalization of Local Health owers into four categories, New Delhi. Traditions (FRLHT) Bangalore. J a i n A c h a r y a R a j k u m a r. 1 9 8 1 . namely, Kottupu, Kodippu Bhat M Ramakrishna. 1991. Varahamihira Samantabhadra Svami ka Ayurveda Grantha Magee Mike. 2011. Matrikabheda Tantra, (Jasmine varieties), Neerpu Brihat Samhita, Motilal Banarasidass Kartritva, Jain Antiquary 34 (1): 7 16. Prakasha Publishing (ebook). (Water owers like Lotus, Lily), Publishers, New Delhi, Vols. III. Jain Jagdish Chandra. 2004. History and Mehendale MA. 1986. The Flora in the and Nilappu (Land owers). Bhatt GP. 1993. Skandha Puranam, With Development of Prakrit Literature. Manohar Aranyakaparvan of the Mahabharata. Annals English translation, 20 Vols, Motilal Publishers, New Delhi. of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Banarsidass Publishers, New Delhi. Sanskrit LXVII: 233242. Joshi KL. 2001. Text and Translation by Dutt, Conclusions text from Venkateshwar Press, Bombay. MN. Agni Puranam,Vols. 12, Parimal Mishra Mandan. 1988. Sriman Mahabharata, From the above discussion, it is seen that Bhattacharya V, Raghunatha Chakravarti, Publications, New Delhi. (Notes) With commentary of Caturdhara the literature available on oricultures and a n d R a m a k r i s h n a K av i M . 2 0 0 1 . Nilakantha Tika, Namanukramanika and notes Samurtaarchanaadhikara (Atri Samhita), Joshi KL. 2004. Atharvaveda Samhita (AV) by Mishra, Mandan, Vols. IIX, Nag owers is vast. Flowers were produced in Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanam Publication with Sanskrit text, English translation Publishers, New Delhi, Numbers in Slokas great diversity by planting them and were Series No. 489, Tirupati. according to W. D. Whitney and indicate the Parva, Adhyaya and shloka. categorized on basis of botanical state, Sayanacharya Bhashya, Parimal Publications, nature, characteristics, colors and feeling Bimali ON and Joshi KL. 2005. Vamana New Delhi. M i s h r a P M a d h u s u d h a n a . 1 9 3 4 . Puranam, Parimal Publications, New Delhi. Kavyamimamsa of Rajashekhara with t h e y g e n e r a t e d i n i n d i v i d u a l s . Kak Ramachandra and Shastri Harabhatta. Classication of these owers and their Madhusudani commentary, Chowk hambha Chellaiah JV. 1985a. Pattuppattu Ten Tamil 1938. Kashmir Merchantile Press, Srinagar. Sanskrit series, Varanasi. usage has been well dealt in ancient Idylls, Tamil University, Thanjavur, treatises. These may shed new light on Kurunchippattu. pp. 191220. Kale MR. 2002. Ritusamhara of Kalidasa, Mudholakara Srinivasa Katti (ed.). 1991. Sanskrit text with English translation and cultural history of various periods and S r i m a d Va l m i k i R a m a y a n a , w i t h Chellaiah JV. 1985b. Ibid., Maduraikanchi, notes, New Delhi. bring about new avenues in the commentariesTilaka of Rama, Ramayana pp.221282. preservation and promoting of these ower Kale MR. 2010. Kalidasa's Abhijnana Shiromani of Shivasahaya and Bhushana of species in localities if researched well. Deshpande NA. 1992. Padma Puranam, with Shakuntalam Text with translation, Motilal Govindaraja, Parimal Publications, New English translation, Motilal Banarsidass Banarsidas Publishers, Delhi. Delhi. Acknowledgement Publishers, New Delhi. Kashyap Tara. 2001. Literature concerning Parthasarathi RB. 1998. Vaikhanasiya Doshi Sakharam Govindji Raoji. 1940. owers, Flowers an Indian perspective, I would like to thank the Secretary, Mythic Kashyapa Jnaanakaandam, Tirumala Tirupati Kalyanakarakam of Ugradityaacharya, International Centre for Indian Art and Cultural Society, Bangalore and Hon. Secretary, Devasthanam Publication Series No. 492, Sholapur, Published by Author. Studies, pp. 5 11. Kannada Sahitya Parishat, Bangalure for Tirupati. providing the necessary references. Gondekar GK. 19251939. Maanasollasa by Kavi M Ramakrishna. 1956. Bharata Chalukya king Someshwaradeva, Vols. IIII, Natyashastra, Gaekwad Oriental Series, Parthasarathi RB, and Bhattacharya References Oriental Institute,Baroda. hp://www. Baroda. MKSS. 1997. Vaikhanasiya Khiladhikaara ﬂowersoﬁndia.net/botanical.html. (Bhrigu Samhita), Tirumala Tirupati Amirthalingam M and Sudhakar P. 2013. Krishnamurthy KH. 1996. A Botanical Devasthanam Publication Series No. 490, Plant and Animal Diversity in Valmiki's account of Valmiki's Panchavati, Indian Gupta Anandaswarup. 1968, Vamana Tirupati. Ramayana, C. P. R. Environmental Education Puranam, All India Kashiraj Trust, Varanasi. Journal of History of Science 31(2): 131156. Centre, Chennai. 196 Classication of owers Asian Agri-History Vol. 20, No. 3, 2016 197

Phatasimha Gosvami Lakshmi Narayana Kadambari with Chandrakala and Vidyotini Swaminathan Santanam. 2012. Flowers in Tripathi Indradeo. 1998. Rajanighantu with Deekshita. 1970. Simhasiddhantasindu of commentary, Kashi Sankrit Series No. 151, T a m i l C u l t u r e , F r o m B l o g Introduction of Vishwanath Dwivedi, Gosvami Shri Shivananda Bhatta , Rajasthan Chowkhambha Sanskrit Sansthan, Varanasi. tamilandvedas.com/2012/08/25/owersinta Chowkhambha Sanskrit series, Varanasi. Oriental Research Institute Series No.115, Also see Kadambari Kathamukha of milculture/. Varadan KP. 1985. Introduction to Jodhpur. Banabhatta, English translation by Pushpayurveda. Ancient Science of Life 4 Chakravorthy JNS. 1965. Notes by Kane, P. V., Tagare GV and Shastri, JL. 1998. Narada (3): 153157. Durgaprasad and Parab Kashinatha Oriental Book Agency, Shukrawar Peth, Pune. Puranam, 5 Vols. , With English translation, Panduranga. 1887. Karpooramanjari of Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, New Delhi; Varnekar Shridhar Bhaskar. 1988. Sanskrit Rajashekhara with commentary of Vasudeva, S h a s t r i M M T G a n a p a t i . 1 9 9 0 . Sanskrit Edition by Shastri, Hrishikesh. Vanmaya Kosha, Vol. 2, Bharatiya Bhasha Nirnaya Sagar Press, Bombay. Also Ghosh, M. I s h a n a s h i v a g u r u d e v a p a d d h a t i o f 1975, Chaukhambha Sanskrit Series, Varanasi. Parishad, Kolkata. 2005, Karpooramanjari The Prakrit play of Ishanashivagurudeva, Vols. III, Bharatiya Rajashekhara, English translation, Cosmo Vidya Prakashan, New Delhi. Publications, New Delhi. S h a s t r i H a r a g o v i n d a . 2 0 1 3 . Rai Pradeep Kumar. 2010. Mundamala S h i s h u p a l a v a d h a o f M a g h a w i t h Tantra, Prachya Prakashan, Varanasi. Sarvaankasha Sanskrit commentary by Mallinatha and 'Maniprabha' Hindi Ramashastry R and Shastry S Narayana commentary, Chowkhambha Sanskrit series, Swamy (eds). 1969. Shivatattva Ratnakara of Varanasi. Keladi Basavaraja (16941714 AD), Vol. IIII, Oriental Research Publication No. 112, Shastri Raghunatha. 2014. Meru Tantra, Oriental Research Institute, University of Khemraj Shrikrishnadass Publishers, Mumbai. Mysore. Shastry TV Venkatachala. 2003 and 2006, Sampath RN and Padmanabhan Seetha. 'Siribhoovalaya' of Kumudendu Muni, Vols. 1974 and 1982. Padma Samhita, Vols. I III, Pustaka Shakti Prakashana, Bangalore. (Jnana, Yoga and Kriya Pada) and Vol. II (Charya Pada), Pancharatra Parishodhana Sheshadri KG. 2014. Garland making art in Parishad, Madras. ancient Indian texts, Shodh Prabha Journal of Sri Lal Bahadur Shastri Rashtriya Sanskrit Sharma PV. 2015. Pushpayurveda, Vidyapeetha, Delhi, April 2014. pp.8794. Chaukhambha Sanskrit Series, Varanasi. Sabharatnam Shivacharyar SP. 2015. Shastri Bishwanarayan. 1991. Kalika K a m i k a A g a m a [ P u r v a p a a d a a n d Puranam, 3 Vols, Nag Publishers, Delhi. Uttarapaada] Text with English translation posted online, Himalayan Academy Shastri HP. 19051915. A Descriptive Publications. Catalogue of Palm leaf manuscripts and selected paper manuscripts in Darbar Library, Shukla Ganesh. 2000. Chaarucharya of King Nepal, 2 Vols. Baptist Mission Press, Kolkata. Bhoja Sanskrit text with Hindi translation, CCRAS, Delhi. Shastri JL. 1970. Shiva Puranam, With English translation, Vols. IIV, Motilal Sircar NN and Sircar Roma. 1996. Banarsidass Publishers, New Delhi. Vrikshayurveda of Parashara, Sri Satguru Shastri Krishna Mohana. 1961. Banabhatta's Publications, Delhi. 198 Classication of owers 199