Literacy: Learning for Life. L’alphabétisation, Une leçon pour la vie.

L’alphabétisation, Une leçon pour la vie. Literacy: Learning for Life.

Strategies for Students with Special Education Needs Prepared by: Stacy Sullivan Community Coordinator, Sudbury Frontier College Sean Cousins Master’s Student (Humanities) Laurentian University

Based on: Learning Disabilities: A Trainer’s Guide (2002) By Lorna Bona (Frontier College) Frontier College is generously funded by the Ontario Ministry of Education.

This project was partially funded by a Parents Reaching Out (PRO) Grant. The views expressed in this guide are those of Frontier College, and do not necessarily reflect those of the Ontario Ministry of Education. Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication Sullivan, Stacy, 1984-, author Strategies for Students with Special Education Needs / Stacy Sullivan and Sean Cousins. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-0-921031-44-4 (pbk.) 1. Special education--Canada. 2. Exceptional children. 3. Learning disabilities. I. Cousins, Sean, 1980-, author II. Title. LC3984.S95 2015 371.90971 C2015-902643-1

© Frontier College Press, 2015 1

Contents

Introduction...... 2 What is a Student with Special Education Needs? ...... 3 Learning Strategies ...... 3 Learning Environment ...... 4 Communication Exceptionalities...... 5 Learning Disabilities...... 5 Common Misconceptions about . Students with a Learning Disability...... 5 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder...... 7 Dyslexia...... 8 Dyscalculia...... 9 Autism Spectrum Disorder...... 10 Deaf and Hard of Hearing...... 11 Language Impairment...... 12 Speech Impairment...... 13 Behaviour Exceptionalities...... 14 Intellectual Disabilities...... 16 Giftedness...... 16 Mild Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities...... 16 Physical Exceptionalities...... 17 Blind and Low Vision...... 17 Cerebral Palsy...... 18 Motor Disorder...... 19 Spina Bifida...... 19 Muscular Dystrophy...... 20 Acquired Brain Injury...... 21 Epilepsy...... 21 Tourette Syndrome...... 23 Special Education Process, Programs and Services in Ontario ...... 24 Identification, Placement and Review Committee (IPRC)...... 24 Individual Education Plan (IEP)...... 25 Accommodations, Modifications and Alternative Expectations...... 26 Acronym Glossary...... 27 Appendix 1...... 28 Appendix 2...... 29 Appendix 3...... 30 Resources...... 31 Endnotes...... 33 2

Introduction

This guide is a tool for parents, teachers, tutors and other caregivers to help them understand the exceptionality that a child faces; it will also give some tips on how to help with school work. This guide will not help you diagnose the child, but can be a resource after diagnosis. The language around Learning Disabilities has changed in recent years to minimize the labelling of a person. For example, we now talk about a “student WHO HAS a speech impairment,” instead of saying a “speech impaired student,” thereby leaving the student as a person who has some challenges with speech, instead of being defined by the exceptionality. Frontier College’s philosophical approach to tutoring learners—Student Centered Individualized Learning (SCIL)—recognizes the unique strengths and learning needs of all learners. Learners who live with an exceptionality or exceptionalities have learning needs and interests that may require parents, teachers, tutors and other caregivers to develop accommodations or changes in their approach to help these students build upon their strengths as learners. This guide is based on an internal Frontier College document created by Lorna Bona entitled: Learning Disabilities: A Trainer’s Guide (2002).

How to Use This Guide

This guide can be used as a resource for parents, teachers, tutors and other caregivers to look up a single exceptionality in order to get a brief summary and learn some strategies for working with a child; or the reader may read the guide from beginning to end. Please feel free to use this guide however it suits you, as you strive to help a child reach the maximum potential in his/her academic, social and emotional lives! This guide was created with children and youth in mind, but the strategies can be adapted for adults. Be aware that adults have, in many cases, developed strategies that work well for them. It is wise to have a conversation with a person to discuss strategies that they find work for them, and then try a few more if needed. Not all strategies given in an area are going to work for every individual; it will be a process of trying a strategy to see if it helps, and moving on if it is not effective. 3

What is a Student with Special Education Needs?

You may be familiar with this term them to learn than most children . or have heard about it and are not of the same age. A student with quite sure of its meaning and special education needs or relevance to your role as a parent. “exceptional pupil2” may have a The phrase “student with special communicational, behavioural, education needs1” refers to children intellectual, or physical who have learning difficulties or exceptionality, or they may . disabilities that make it harder for have multiple exceptionalities. Learning Strategies

Some of the most useful strategies out the student’s strengths, and for people with special education not dwelling on their weaknesses, needs come from Frontier College’s a sense of trust and a positive Student Centered Individualized atmosphere emerge where the Learning (SCIL) method, specifically student can feel more at ease. the following points3: A student who has special education • Learning is based on the . needs will also need help in other needs of the learner, defined . areas. Structure and sequence is by the learner very important. Have everything • Every person can learn you will need ready before sitting • Learning begins with attention down to work. Avoid jumping from to the learner’s strengths and one topic to another as this can successes rather than deficiencies cause confusion and frustration. As and failures well, help your child with organizing their notes and planning for By keeping these three things deadlines. in mind, working with a student with special education needs will Other useful strategies include: be much easier. Encouragement • Use visual aids, but make sure and understanding are key when they are not distracting working with your child. Even small • Try not to talk and write at the successes can make a difference to same time; write it down and a child who frequently deals with then explain failure and frustration. By pointing 4

• Speak slowly and give one • Repeat or re-phrase material . instruction at a time (e.g., . if not understood instead of saying, “Let’s work . • Have the student repeat on pages 8-10 in the reader . or re-phrase the lesson or and then we’ll do these instruction colouring pages” say, “Let’s . • Ensure the student is attentive turn to page 8 in the reader.”) before giving instructions or help • Ensure the student fully • Summarize key points and . understands any instructions have the student copy or . or sequences; break it down write them down into mini-steps if necessary and • Allow time for the student to present them one at a time think about what is being learned • Provide lots of repetition . • Give lots of feedback and review

Learning Environment

Even if your homework area is not . • Build in success each visit in an ideal location, there are . • Spend time organizing notebooks some things that can help students • Ensure the child or youth knows with special education needs to what to do better focus4: • Allow the child or youth to • Reduce distractions. Face away pre-read a passage before from the main part of the room practising orally when working • Help the student to set up and • Keep work area clear–have only use an agenda the required materials on hand • Provide immediate feedback . • Find a quiet area on academic and social skills 5

Communication Exceptionalities

Learning Disabilities Common Misconceptions about Students with a “The Ontario Ministry of Education Learning Disability defines learning disability as one of a number of neurodevelopmental 1 Learning Disabilities are disorders that persistently and caused by poverty, health significantly has an impact on the problems, or a bad diet.. abilityo t learn and use academic A learning disability is not the result 5 and other skills”. Learning disabilities of lifestyle choices or social class.7 It are not caused by factors such as is evidence of “faulty writing”8 in the cultural or language differences, brain. Like other exceptionalities, inadequate or inappropriate however, a learning disability can . instruction, socio-economic status be negatively affected by socio- or lack of motivation. However, any economic factors. one or a combination of these factors may make the impact of 2 Learning disabilities do not learning disabilities worse. For really exist; it is only a category further information about the meant to refer to “lazy” or conditions for a learning disability, “unmotivated” individuals. please see Appendix 3: Conditions Research shows that learning for a Learning Disability. disabilities are biologically 9 Strategies for children who determined. At the moment, have Learning Disabilities6 genetics is assumed to have something to do with whether . • Create a comfortable learning or not a person is likely to have . environment a learning disability. • Provide constructive feedback frequently 3 Learning disabilities are only school problems. • Use a consistent approach to support your child Some people who have . • Provide instructions in a format learning disabilities only have that is easy to remember (e.g., difficulties in reading, writing, . emphasize steps and stages in or mathematics; but most people the proper order) who have learning disabilities have difficulties that interfere in multiple • Allow child to select reading and areasf o life, including being social writing materials that capture with friends and family, as well their interests as doing everyday activities such • Remove any distractions as shopping, working at a job, and • Plan for “mini-breaks” participating in sports. 6

4 All it takes to create a 7 Individuals who have a learning disability is to have learning disability also have one bad teacher. ADD/ADHD (or vice versa).. Rumours and speculation have There is no connection between circulated for years that bad teaching learning disabilities and ADD/ was the reason why students ADHD.11 A person who has a . demonstrated difficulties in reading learning disability may also have and writing. Quality of instruction ADD/ADHD (or vice versa), but . does play a role in student this is not always true. achievement levels, but learning 8 disabilities have a genetic origin Learning disabilities are to them. Early intervention is very identified as a result of testing. important to a student’s success. A learning disability is an exceptionality that is given to a 5 Learning disabilities only student or learner only after a affect children; adults grow series of observations, curriculum- out of learning disabilities. . based assessments, informal tests, The effects of learning disabilities and standardized activities show continue into adulthood and that there is a difference between may intensify as adults face more academic achievement and demands and deal with different intellectual skills. It is important and more difficult tasks.10 that a student has a full assessment done; there is a range of activities 6 Individuals who have a that go into a diagnosis. learning disability are “dumb.” Many students who have learning disabilities display average scores on IQ tests. These tests do not provide opportunities for students to demonstrate their abilities to read, write or do mathematical calculations in different ways. 7

Attention Deficit/ ignored. For instance, if a child who Hyperactivity Disorder has ADHD is asked to find his sister Quick Facts in a playground, you may find that Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity child a few moments later staring Disorder (ADHD) is a diagnosis all around him and then carefully 4 to 12% applied to children and adults studying an anthill without regard who consistently display certain for his sister. He might have started of school-aged characteristic behaviours over a out by looking for his sister, but students are period of time. Keep in mind that instantly, the colours, sounds, identified as it is important to consult with the movements, people and things educators and clinicians who have distracted him. having ADHD diagnosed a student with ADD/ ADHD to assist in determining the Strategies for children who A diagnosis is done exceptionality of the student. The have ADHD by a physician or most common behaviours fall into • Remove all distractions from . psychologist, who three categories12: the work area gathers information 1. Inattention: have a hard time • Use a cubicle in a corner, facing from the child, keeping their mind on any one the child away from windows parents and teachers. and other people (this could thing and may get bored with a They use behavioural task after only a few minutes simply be a tri-fold science . checklists, interviews 2. Hyperactivity: always seem to be board around a desk) in motion; they can’t sit still and • Place only needed material . and observations. may feel constantly restless on the desk (one pencil, one Inclusion of Exceptional 3. Impulsivity: seem unable to curb piece of paper, one book) Learners in Canadian Schools, their immediate reactions or • Keep the noise and interruptions 2010 (p 90-91) think before they act. to a minimum • Help a student get started on a One thing to remember about project or assignment (break the children who have ADHD is they project down) may seem as though they are not paying attention, but the • Give frequent, but short, breaks opposite is true. People who have • Provide clear written and verbal ADHD pay attention to everything instructions around them and are unable to • Be flexible and patient determine which items require • Give the student choice when their attention and which can be possible 8

Quick Facts Dyslexia • Lack of awareness of different sounds in words and rhymes Dyslexia is a language-based learning disability. Students with dyslexia • Difficulties with organizing . 15 to 20% experience difficulties with language their thoughts skills such as reading, spelling, writing, of the general and pronouncing words. It is referred Writing Difficulties population lives to as a learning disability because • Difficulties with organizing ideas with a language- dyslexia can make it very difficult for • Poor spelling a student to succeed academically . based learning • Poor letter formation and . in the typical/traditional spatial organization disability. instructional environment.13 It is an inherited condition that does not Mathematics Difficulties arise from a physical condition or • Memorizing math facts developmental disability. In Ontario, 70 to 80% . a student who has dyslexia may • Difficulty understanding the of students be identified by the Ministry of correct order of steps when Education as an exceptional pupil solving problems with a learning who has a “learning disability”;14 • May switch digits within numbers disability however, not all students who have receiving special dyslexia may meet the criteria for Strategies for children who Special Education resources. have Dyslexia education • Set realistic and developmentally The effects of dyslexia will vary appropriate goals support have depending on the child. The deficits in International Dyslexia Association • Provide extra time on activities reading skills. Disability Ontario Branch lists the • Read written questions or following challenges that a child instructions aloud Dyslexia is the most with dyslexia may show15: • Direct focus away from spelling common cause of spelling, and place emphasis on content reading, and writing Reading Difficulties • Offer recording devices to difficulties. • Difficulty learning sounds . support learning Reproduced with permission of letters • Increase the font size to from “The International • Separating words into sounds accommodate needs of the Dyslexia Association Ontario Branch” • Slow and inaccurate reading learner • Poor reading comprehension • Arrange for the child to answer homework questions orally . Speaking and Listening and have someone write the Difficulties answer down • Delayed spoken language • Use (if available) voice recognition • Does not understand . software for writing and print-to- when spoken to speech software for reading texts 9

Dyscalculia • Understanding times tables Quick Facts Dyscalculia is a specific learning • Remembering the names of disability in mathematics.16 shapes such as squares and Individuals who have dyscalculia triangles It is estimated that tend to have problems not only • Understanding fractions approximately with math, but struggle with • Understanding square roots activities such as being able to tell • Distinguishing which is a larger . 3.6 % time, judging left/right orientation, or smaller number playing by the rules in games and of the world’s • Understanding percentages much more.17 population lives • Copying numbers to paper Dyscalculia has varying degrees . The student may also have anxiety with dyscalculia. of severity; however, if the student when asked to do math. That is roughly has persistent difficulty with the equivalent of one or several of the following Strategies for children who have learning expectations, there is a Dyscalculia19 216,000,000 high probability the student has • Play dice games dyscalculia18: people! • Play games that involve some • Understanding concepts related type of numbers Researchers have described four sub-forms to time, including days, weeks, • Be patient months, seasons, etc. of dyscalculia: semantic • Try to show numbers visually retrieval dyscalculia; • Understanding basic and • Use a variety of visual aids where procedural dyscalculia; complex math concepts and appropriate visuospatial dyscalculia; rules • Use “math manipulatives” (e.g., numeric dyscalculia • Doing basic math, such as counters, pictures, blocks, etc.) addition and subtraction Dyscalculia Forum, 2012. 10

Autism Spectrum of language, social skills, and Disorder motor skills before age ten.23 . This disorder is quite rare.24 Autism is a spectrum disorder because children who have this 5. Pervasive Development disorder range from mild (high Disorder not otherwise functioning) to severe (low specified (PDD-NOS) appears functioning). Children on the after the age of 3, with Autism Spectrum show impairment symptoms that are similar to 25 in communication skills, social Autism, but to a lesser degree. interactions and repetitive patterns Students who are identified . of behaviour, although the degree along the spectrum often show of impairment varies for each child. unusual and distinct behaviours, including: an obsession with one There are five disorders in the interest, needing a strict routine, Autism Spectrum: showing repetitive behaviours 1. Autism “affects the functioning . and struggling with change. They of the brain and is believed . sometimes have unusual responses 26 to be genetic in origin, although to textures or sounds. diagnosis is based on a child’s Strategies for children who behaviours and must be evident have ASD before the child is three . years old.”20 • PAMELA–to enhance 27 2. Asperger Syndrome is communication characterized by children who • P–use puppets, games . are “hypersensitive to sensory and music stimulation.”21 • A–anchor instruction . 3. Rett Syndrome almost with visual cues exclusively affects female • M–maintain joint attention* children; children usually . and use symbolic play develop normally up to the . • E–echolalia (repetition . age of four years followed by . of speech) a sudden regression.22 • L–learn through modelling • A–adapt teaching 4. Children who are diagnosed with Childhood Disintegrative *Joint attention (or shared Disorder are characterized by attention) is the shared focus . 28 at least two years of normal of two individuals on an object. development, followed by loss . 11

• Use concrete examples Early detection can be very Quick Facts • Do hands-on activities important to a child’s success in • Use a visible daily schedule school; it has been found that (this is sometimes done with a students who have problems with The ratio of Velcro strip and individual pieces their hearing often fall behind in children with that describes a child’s day. The language skills, but often do well in 32 child can remove each piece as science and math. Autism Spectrum it happens, but can see what is There are many devices that help Disorder is coming up) students who are hard of hearing in • Remove textures child finds the classroom. Cochlear implants three males unpleasant are surgically implanted electronic to one • Teach good listening skills devices that use small electrical currents to stimulate the cochlea, female. allowing some speech recognition; Deaf and Hard of Hearing Inclusion of Exceptional Learners these devices are often an option in Canadian Schools (p. 126) A person who is deaf cannot for students who have severe or process any linguistic information, profound deafness.33 Students even with the help of a hearing who have some hearing loss may aid, whereas a person who is hard use hearing aids to assist them; 90% of hearing often finds success some of these students may use with a hearing aid.29 There are four an amplification system in the of parents whose categories of hearing loss: mild, classroom. There are three types . children are deaf moderate, severe and profound of amplification systems: . or hard of hearing or deaf.30 There are some warning (1) An FM system is linked directly signs that may indicate that a child to a student’s hearing aids, (2) have hearing. is struggling with their hearing: speakers are placed throughout the Inclusion of Exceptional Learners classroom, or (3) a speaker is placed in Canadian Schools, 2010 (p 134) • a child does not respond to his directly on the student’s desk. or her name • they are consistently asking for Many students use speech reading you to repeat information (or lip reading), in combination • they turn their head to one side with cochlear implants or to hear (one ear works better amplification systems, to enhance than the other) their understanding. It is important to remember that students will • they talk too loud, or too soft become fatigued and frustrated (they cannot judge the volume . when they are having trouble of their voice) communicating, they may become 31 • the child has recurring earaches disruptive or inattentive.34 12

Strategies for children who have 2. Phonology: a child’s ability to Deafness or Hard of Hearing combine sounds to form words, • Provide a quiet environment and manipulate blends to form understandable speech. For • Face child when speaking to example, the child may say . them and keep your hands . “twee” instead of “tree.”37 away from your mouth 3. Syntax: how a child applies • Do not turn your back while grammar rules and makes talking sentences. For example, a child • Get the child’s attention before may say “what he is doing?” speaking to them instead of “what is he doing?” • Repeat and rephrase information 4. Semantics: understanding or directions the meaning of language. For • Speak naturally (over-enunciating example, a child would not makes speech reading more understand that the metaphor difficult)35 “take your best shot,” is meant to • Use visual aids (e.g., write down be encouraging. They may think key information or directions) it literally means to use their fists. • Be patient– students can get 5. Pragmatics: the child may have fatigued when they have been . problems with using language lip reading all day in a socially acceptable way, or may not be able to appropriately Language Impairment respond to social encounters. Children who regularly have Strategies for children who have difficulty expressing their needs, Language Impairment38 ideas, or information, and/or do • Allow the child to ask questions not understand what others say, and be willing to repeat may have an exceptionality known instructions as “language impairment.”36 • Avoid long periods of work A language impairment can affect • Get the child’s attention before speech in different ways, such as: speaking 1. Morphology: a child’s ability . • Use simple explanations and avoid to understand and use parts . using overly complicated ideas of speech. 13

• Offer written instructions. 4. Distortions: when incorrect with activities to help guide . sounds are made in speech the student because the child places their • Limit the use of abstract or tongue or lips in the wrong symbolic words position to make a sound. • Check for understanding by 5. Addition of sounds: when a . asking your child to repeat . child adds extra sounds between what has been said blended sounds in a word • Be careful of overcorrecting 6. Dysfluency: when speech . your child’s language; it may is interrupted by repetition, discourage them from speaking prolonged sounds, words, in the future phrases or syllables; this is . often referred to as stuttering.40 Speech Impairment Strategies for children who have Students who have a speech Speech Impairment impairment have trouble forming sounds, but have no problems with • Give your child time to think understanding language. The first about a question and formulate three years are an important time in an answer the development of a child’s speech • Praise often and language.39 • Model proper speech patterns and sounds There are many types of speech • Encourage your child to talk impairments that affect students: • Resist the urge to interrupt or 1. Articulation problems: when finish a child’s sentence students cannot make a • Do not allow other students or particular sound because of siblings to tease a child about problems with the coordination their speech of facial muscles 2. Omission errors: when students leave sounds (often blends) out of words 3. Substitution: when students use another sound in place of a sound that they cannot make; children who have this type of impairment are said to have a lisp. 14

Behaviour Exceptionalities

When talking about a behavioural emotional disorders. Having exceptionality there is some some of these characteristics confusion over what it means does not always indicate a and which students fall under behavioural exceptionality. The this category. That confusion is frequency, intensity, or duration because there is no agreement of the behaviours must be taken on what exactly a behavioural into account, and whether the exceptionality is, but there is . behaviours appear and persist in some accepted understanding. different settings and with different people. They are not generally due In Ontario, behavioural to intellectual or health factors. exceptionalities are defined by the Ministry of Education as follows: Some examples Behaviour: A learning disorder of commonly characterized by specific behaviour identified behavioural problems over such a period of exceptionalities time, and to such a marked degree, and of such a nature, as to adversely Childhood Depression affect educational performance, Childhood depression is a disorder and that may be accompanied by that has increased dramatically one or more of the following: over the past 10 years. Students • an inability to build or to who have childhood depression maintain interpersonal may regularly appear sad, show relationships; limited academic gain, may not sleep well, and harbour feelings • excessive fears or anxieties; of worthlessness or hopelessness. • a tendency to compulsive Educators and parents need to reaction; recognize these symptoms and • an inability to learn that cannot refer the student for a thorough be traced to intellectual, sensory, mental health evaluation. or other health factors, or any Treatment for childhood combination thereof.41 depression usually involves psychotherapy and medication, Behavioural disorders affect social but adults can also be very helpful relationships and academic progress. by assisting the learner to develop The characteristics listed above social skills and encouraging an may appear to varying degrees in increase in activity level.42 children who have behavioural/ 15

Reactive Attachment hostile to authority figures. These Disorder (RAD) behaviours must be present for RAD is a condition that is believed at least six months and may be to arise from a failure to bond with accompanied by temper tantrums, other humans very early in life. RAD aggression towards peers, and 46 may develop in the very young deliberately annoying others. because of the lack of nurturing and Strategies for children who have attention in places like shelters for Behaviour Exceptionalities abandoned or orphaned children during wars or other crises; or • Establish supportive because of deliberate abuse; or interpersonal relationships because their parents are too • Create a warm atmosphere (show self-involved and time-driven to acceptance without giving in to provide the necessary emotional the child’s aggression) support for a newborn.43 • Establish routines and set clear limits of behaviour Conduct Disorder • Determine why the child is acting Children who demonstrate great out in a particular situation (Are difficulty following rules, throw they frustrated? Confused? Angry?) temper tantrums, destroy property, • Keep a sense of humour bully or regularly act in deceitful ways may express patterns of • Remove objects that may distract behaviour that is indicative of the child conduct disorder.44 Treatment for this • Model and coach appropriate disorder involves both behavioural social skills therapy and psychotherapy and • Set up a reward system. For happens over a long period of time. example, set a timer to go off at The earlier a child who has conduct regular intervals. Every time the disorder is identified and receives timer goes off, the student earns treatment, the better likelihood points if they are on task. Choose for a positive outcome and a more a reward for a certain number of productive adult life.45 points (and allow some choice).

Oppositional Defiance Disorder (ODD) Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) may exist in a child or adolescent who is persistently oppositional, negative, and/or 16

Quick Facts Intellectual Disabilities

Giftedness Mild Intellectual 2-5% of Students who are identified and Developmental school-aged as gifted are those who show Disabilities children are advancement in a particular area . Mild intellectual and developmental of the curriculum. Keep in disabilities are conditions where a identified as mind that they “may also have child has a significant delay in their gifted. accompanying disabilities and development. These children acquire should not be expected to have language, motor skills and social Gifted learners need strengths in all areas.”47 This is an skills more slowly than their average to be with their exceptionality that sometimes . counterparts. These students have intellectual peers for goes unnoticed, especially among “limitations in three or more of [the “young boys, adolescent girls, following areas]: self-care, receptive part of the school students from diverse cultural and expressive language, learning, day to stimulate their groups and students with a mobility, self-direction, capacity for learning; they also disability.”48 These children often independent living, and economic need to be with their have an advanced vocabulary. . self-sufficiency.”50 These students are same-age peers to They are often curious, can think . disadvantaged in the formal school in an abstract way and learn system, but tend to thrive in the stimulate their social quickly. What you must remember community.51 and emotional learning. is that these children are advanced Strategies for children who Inclusion of Exceptional Learners intellectually, not emotionally. have a Mild Intellectual and in Canadian Schools, 2010 Students who are gifted are Developmental Disability (p 73 & p 76) different from their classmates . in three ways: (1) they learn new • Repetition will help them . skills very quickly, (2) they have learn new concepts “Intellectual a deeper understanding of new • Use lots of praise disabilities” is material, and (3) they have a varied • Provide immediate feedback range of interests.49 replacing “mental • Apply learning to everyday Strategies for children with situations retardation.” Giftedness • Take breaks and have the student Developmental delays • Find out what challenges or write or tell you about what they interests the child and provide have learned and the questions are diagnosed before 52 them with opportunities to they may have a student reaches the exploret i • Colour code notebooks53 age of 18. • Consider co-op placements to • Highlight key text so student . Inclusion of Exceptional discover what they enjoy can focus on important Learners in Canadian Schools, information only 2010 (p 90-91) • Use simple instructions, one . at a time, repeat as necessary 17

Physical Exceptionalities

Physical exceptionalities are . Blind and Low Vision defined by the Ontario Ministry . Students can experience a problem of Education as a condition . with their vision at any age. that requires special support Students who have been identified to have the same academic with a vision disability or blindness achievement as a child’s peers.54 require modifications in four areas: Children who have these conditions (1) Presentation of information may experience limitations to their – for example, oral presentation strength, speed, endurance, and of information allows children to motor function. Some children absorb information without tiring may have a combination of them. conditions. Children who have (2) Classroom environment and physical disabilities must be given organization – a classroom needs to opportunities to integrate into the be kept clear and furniture cannot whole learning environment. be moved around without the child While no list is complete, the knowing. following conditions and traits . (3) Learning resources – some may be found in varying degrees . people may require Braille learning in a child identified as having a resources, or other assistive physical disability: technology to help them with their • nervous system disorders classroom tasks. • musculoskeletal conditions • chronic health conditions • seizures 18

(4) Assessment55 – when doing Cerebral Palsy assessment tasks, a student may Cerebral palsy is a condition . need extra time and technology, . causedy b injury to the brain or somebody to assist them. before, during, or after birth, and . Strategies for children who are is mostly characterized by a motor Blind or have Low Vision disorder. It is not progressive, nor . is it contagious. Students who . • Do not move furniture without have cerebral palsy have limited the student’s knowledge mobility, which creates barriers . • Stress legibility of their writing, to their learning that must be not the size overcome. Some students may be • Use audio books or technology mobile, while others may require a when possible to avoid fatigue . wheelchair. in the student • Enlarge print for student Strategies for children who have (minimum of 18-pt font) Cerebral Palsy • Keep floors clear • Create an environment that . does not hinder mobility with . a wheelchair

Signs of a Vision Problem A child: • Is squinting or closing one eye • Holds objects very close, or very far • Needs rest after a short period of reading • Cannot remember things that they have seen • May complain of blurred vision or headaches • Turns their head while reading across a page

Children with Exceptionalities in Canadian Classrooms, 2005 (p 371) 19

• Make sure the floor is clean • Reward efforts and free from rugs or elevated • Provide frequent breaks to . surfaces that may cause the child avoid fatigue to trip • Teach skills to address needs • Use antibacterial cleaners; . • Focus on successes and keep students with infections improvements away from a child who has • Teach and encourage cerebral palsy self-advocacy for the student to • Work on verbal communication articulate needs to avoid injuries skills using role playing activities • Ensure safety by providing • Secure any necessary special adequate space for the child . adaptive tools such as pencil to walk around grips, and slanted writing surfaces • Develop and practice a plan . • Allow the child to stretch and for emergency evacuations . be as mobile as possible during to ensure safety homework time Spina Bifida Motor Disorder Spina Bifida occurs in the spinal Motor disability and paralysis are column when one or more typically classified according to the vertebrae do not close during 56 limbs involved in the condition. prenatal development. It is not a These are the terms generally used: progressive condition and generally • Paraplegia: both legs are involved manifests itself in three basic forms. The resulting condition varies from • Quadriplegia: all four limbs . minor to severe. are involved • Diplegia: legs involved more . • Spina Bifida Occulta is the than arms most common form and is the • Hemiplegia: one side of the body mildest.57 This form of Spina involved Bifida usually does not result in any visible effect and can only be Strategies for children who have detected by x-ray. Motor Disorder • Meningocele is considered a • Implement recommendations more serious form of Spina Bifida provided by Occupational and where the covering of the spine Physical Therapists sticks out from the defect in the • Use assistive devices as spine, creating a sac of fluid. This prescribed (e.g., orthopedic . condition is usually corrected chair, desk, etc.) after birth and most people do not have major difficulties.58 20

• Spina Bifida with degrees. The most common form Mylemeningcele is the most of childhood muscular dystrophy severe condition in which a sac is Duchenne MD.59 Affecting more containing nerves and parts of boys than girls, Duchenne MD is the spinal cord protrude. This generally noticeable between the type of Spina Bifida usually ages of three and five, and can be results in an irreversible disability, seen as the child begins to walk. such as lower body paralysis This disorder, which progresses or bladder and bowel control quickly, starts with the weakening difficulties. This form of Spina of the pelvis and progresses to a Bifida is often accompanied by stage where the child is bedridden. hydrocephalus, an enlargement Lifespan estimates for children who of the head caused by an have Duchenne MD are around 20 excessive collection of fluid in years old, although recent medical the brain that, if not diagnosed interventions have increased this and treated in time, can cause age. Treatments include physical brain injury. Usually, the medical therapy and respiratory therapy, . response to hydrocephalus is . as well as medications.60 the instalment of a short tube . in the spinal column to help . Strategies for children who have the fluid drain. Muscular Dystrophies • Supportive seating: a sturdy Strategies for children who have chair with arms to support Spina Bifida upright posture and getting up • Special desk/chair for work successfully (similar to the needs • Use of orthopedic pencils/ of an elderly person) crayons • Raised desktop: height should • Special transportation accommodate the height of the • Assistance with moving materials supportive chair from one place to another • Special pencil grips: to help control writing Muscular Dystrophies • Note-taking: allow more time, use of a tape recorder or computer Muscular dystrophies include a • Access: allow extra time to get large group of inherited diseases places that can affect people at various • Communication: be supportive, stages of life. These diseases are understanding and consistent characterized by skeletal muscle with your words and actions wasting and weakness to varying 21

Acquired Brain Injury • Limit the number of people that the child deals with each day Acquired brain injury (ABI) is any type of sudden injury that causes • Provide the student with a temporary or permanent damage to written schedule and keep . the brain after birth. Motor vehicle the schedule as consistent . accidents, near drowning, violence- as possible related incidents and sport-related • Provide an area to keep supplies, injuries are among the leading books, etc., away from the child’s causes.61 ABI can have a serious work area effect on a student’s cognitive, behavioural/emotional and physical Epilepsy well-being. Cognitively, students may experience difficulties with attention, Epilepsy is not a disease but rather processing, judgment, anticipation, a symptom of a brain disorder perception, problem solving, transfer that leads to seizures. There are of learning, memory initiation, several types of seizure, the two and fatigue. As for behaviour and most common being tonic-clonic 62 emotion, individuals may experience and absence seizure. In a tonic- agitation, disinhibition, sudden clonic seizure, an individual loses outbursts of anger, and impulsivity, consciousness, often convulses, as well as have general difficulty and may fall. Breathing may stop controlling their emotions. Physical temporarily. The individual may difficulties may include central even lose bowel and bladder and peripheral nervous system control, or bite the tongue. After disruption, as well as orthopaedic an episode (usually 1 to 5 minutes) complications. Individuals may also the person regains consciousness, experience difficulty in other areas but may experience confusion, such as fine and gross motor skills, headaches and drowsiness. Absence speech, hearing, vision, taste, smell, seizures, on the other hand, are muscle spasticity, contracture, very brief and often go unnoticed. paralysis and physical fatigue. They may occur several times a day, usually when the person is Strategies for children who have sedentary, and are characterized by Acquired Brain Injury what is often called a “clouding of • Reduce auditory and visual the consciousness,” during which stimulation (use study carrels or the individual’s eyes may stare room dividers) blankly or the hands move aimlessly. Return to normal is usually abrupt. • Structure the child’s activities The other forms of epilepsy— and schedule to limit the idiopathic and symptomatic number of changes, and reduce epilepsy—occur with less frequency, unstructured time 22

and individuals with these forms abilities of the person to find out can often function quite normally whether the strategies below are between seizures. needed. Many people of average intelligence have seizures. These People who have epilepsy may strategies are also helpful for a experience memory deficits, which student who has a dual diagnosis can affect their ability to complete (usually a developmental disability). tasks, remember job duties, or recall daily actions or activities. Strategies for children who have These deficits may be caused by Epilepsy a side-effect to medications or • Provide written or pictorial from recent seizure activity. They instructions, or prompts with may have difficulty managing verbal cues their time, which can affect their • Offer refreshers ability to complete tasks within a specified time frame. It may also be • Use a chart to describe steps to difficult to prepare for, or to begin complicated tasks some, work activities. It is possible • Use voice recordings of verbal to trigger seizures when stress is instructions not properly managed. Situations • Label items on the desk that create stress can vary from • Divide large assignments into person to person, but could likely several small tasks involve heavy workload, unrealistic • Provide a checklist of timeframes, shortened deadlines, or assignments conflict among peers or with other persons. • Supply an electronic or handheld organizer, and train on how to Epilepsy may be a condition that use effectively only affects a child’s performance • Use a wall calendar for a short time around the seizure. • Provide praise and positive You will need to investigate the reinforcement 23

Tourette Syndrome • Allow the child to feel comfortable before beginning Tourette Syndrome is a neurological any activity disorder that usually manifests itself in childhood, and is frequently • Show concern about the child characterized by motor and/or and not the symptoms; treat them vocal tics. In a small percentage of as individuals and distinguish cases, the sounds are obscenities them from their condition or curses (called “Coprolalia”). • Instead of paper and pencil tasks, Although the condition was long offer the child an opportunity to thought to be limited to these share thoughts or do an activity manifestations, a recent and more with the aid of a computer or careful study of Tourette Syndrome word processing program suggests that significant behavioural • Do not stress timed responses; features may also be involved, allow child to do work at their such as hyperactivity, obsession, own pace and rhythm 63 and indiscriminate rage. Although • Eliminate sources of distraction Tourette Syndrome seems to be a or discomfort, lifelong disorder, symptoms have • Find a quiet location to spend been known to disappear for time and do work long periods or even disappear altogether, with or without • Prepare activities that do not medication. exploit motor or vocal tics

Strategies for children who have Tourette’s Syndrome • Provide advanced notice of changing focus; for example, . “in two minutes we will be...” 24

Special Education Process, Programs and Services in Ontario

Special Education programs and team works to identify a student’s services include accommodations exceptionality and then creates and modifications to a student’s an Individualized Education Plan educational program that are (IEP) that will drive the student’s different from those given to classroom learning. For students the general student population. who have been identified as Accommodations and modifications exceptional, the IEP must also are explained further below, but indicate the student’s placement, generally they refer to changes which includes64: in instruction, the classroom environment, or student • A regular class with indirect assessment. In Ontario, to become support identified as requiring Special • A regular class with resource Education services, a student and assistance his/her parents must go through • A regular class with withdrawal the Identification, Placement and assistance Review Committee (IPRC) process • A special education class with to develop an Individualized partial integration Education Plan (IEP) that will specify • A special education class strategies to help the student learn full-time successfully. The IPRC process is Working with an IPRC is the only described below. This process may process by which a student can be different outside of Ontario. be identified as “exceptional” and therefore become entitled to Special Identification, Education programs and services. Placement and Review Your child may still be able to receive Committee (IPRC) extra help through the school and have an IEP, but the IPRC is the The Identification, Placement official method of legally entitling and Review Committee (IPRC) students to Special Education. The consists of the principal, teacher, IPRC may be delayed until the child Special Education teacher, other has been assessed, but an IEP can still professionals and parents. This be put in place. 25

A parent can start the IPRC process An IEP will identify a student’s by writing a letter to the principal current level of functioning, long- requesting an IPRC review. A parent is and short-term goals, instructional entitled to be present and participate strategies and accommodations in all IPRC discussions. A parent also to be made for the student, and has the right to have a representative assessment procedures required at an IPRC meeting to speak on the for the student. It will also identify parent’s behalf, or provide support. the team members and their Check in with your local Learning rolesn i the completion of the Disabilities Association to see if they Individual Education Plan.66 An IEP have this service available. is completed and signed within 30 school days of placement in After making its decision, the Chair a Special Education program. IEPs of the IPRC must send a written help the teacher understand a decision to the parent. A parent child and what they need to be may take home and review the successful, and help the student to IEP that is presented by the IPRC set goals and outline the steps to before signing; it must be signed these goals. within 15 days, and the decision will be implemented after 30 days. The IEP process involves the The committee meets annually following five phases: to update and change the IEP, as necessary. 1. Gather information 2. Set the direction 3. Develop the IEP as it relates to Individual Education the student’s special education Plan (IEP) program and services An Individual Education Plan (IEP) 4. Implement the IEP is “a written plan developed for an 5. Review and update the IEP67 exceptional student that describes the adaptations (accommodations For further details, please see and modifications) and services to Appendix 1: Overview of the IEP be provided” to a student to ensure Process a successful learning environment.65 26

Accommodations, Examples of Accommodations for Modifications and examples of each of these types. Alternative Expectations Modifications: are changes made to A student’s IEP will specify the expectations of the curriculum whether their learning will require to meet a student’s needs. A teacher accommodations (AC), modifications may teach different curriculum (MOD) or alternative expectations content to a student, change the (ALT). expected amount of material that they are required to learn, change the Accommodations: are strategies, level of thinking required, or lower supports and services to help the grade level expectations. For the student with their learning.68 example, a Grade 5 student with an This may come in the form of identified exceptionality may work on assistive technology or more time the Grade 3 math curriculum. to complete a task. There are no changes to the student’s grade-level Alternative expectations: help curriculum, just strategies put in students to learn skills that are place to help with learning. Any not actually part of the Ontario accommodations are categorized Curriculum. Examples of this on the IEP as instructional, include: “speech remediation, social environmental, or assessment skills, orientation/mobility training, accommodations.69 See Appendix 2: and personal care programs.70” 27

Acronym Glossary

Page # Abbreviation Relevant Sections

21 ABI Acquired Brain Injury Acquired Brain Injury

Attention Deficit Attention Deficit 7 ADD Disorder Hyperactivity Disorder

Attention Deficit Attention Deficit 7 ADHD Hyperactivity Disorder Hyperactivity Disorder

Autism Spectrum Autism Spectrum 10 ASD Disorder Disorder

Attention Deficit Individualized Hyperactivity 25 IEP Education Plan Disorder; Special Education Process

Identification Placement What is Exceptionality; 24 IPRC and Review Committee Special Education Process

5 LD Learning Disabilities Learning Disabilities

Oppositional Defiance Behaviour 15 ODD Disorder Exceptionalities

Pervasive Development Autism Spectrum 10 PDD-NOS Disorder–Not Disorder Otherwise Specified

Reactive Attachment Behaviour 15 RAD Disorder Exceptionalities

Student Centered What is Exceptionality; 2 SCIL Individualized Learning Tutoring Strategies 28

Appendix 1: Overview of the Individual Education Plan (IEP) Process71 1. Gathering Information • Review student’s record • Consult with parents, student, staff and other professionals • Gather information from observations • Conduct further assessments, if necessary • Consolidate and record information

2. Set the Direction • Establish IEP team • Begin work on IEP • Indicate student’s areas of strength and areas of need on the IEP

3. D evelop the IEP as it Relates to the Student’s Special Education Programs and Services • Determine modifications, accommodations and/or alternative expectations • Determine teaching strategies and assessment methods • Record evaluation results and reporting • Consult with parents/students • Secure principal’s approval

4. Implement the IEP • Share completed IEP with IPRC • Put IEP into practice • Make any adjustments necessary

5. Review and Update the IEP • Review regularly and record any revisions • Update at the beginning of each reporting period 29

Appendix 2: Examples of Accommodations72 Instructional Accommodations – adjustments in teaching strategies required to enable the student to learn and to progress through the curriculum.

• Peer tutoring • Assistive technology • Manipulatives • Note-taking assistance • Graphic organizers • Large-size fonts • Duplicated notes • Non-verbal signals • Tracking sheets • Contracts • Organization coaching • Uncluttered format • Reinforcement incentives • Time-management aids • Repetition of • Partnering • Mind maps information • Alternative • More frequent breaks • Extra time for processing communications systems

Environmental Accommodations – changes or supports in the physical environment of the classroom and/or the school

• Alternative work space • Minimizing of background noise • Strategic seating • Quiet setting • Proximity to instructor • Use of headphones • Reduction of stimuli • Special lighting • Study carrel • Assistive devices

Assessment Accommodations – adjustments in assessment activities and methods required to enable the student to demonstrate learning

• Extended time limits • Prompts to return • Uncluttered format • Verbatim scribing student’s attention to task • Computer options • Oral responses • Alternative • Extra time for processing • Alternative settings communication systems • Reduction in number . • More frequent breaks • Assistive technology of tasks • Assistive devices • Large-size font 30

Appendix 3: Conditions for a Learning Disability

Learning disability is a neurodevelopmental disorder that: • Affects the ability to perceive or process information in an effective and accurate manner in students who have assessed intellectual abilities that are at least in the average range • Results in (a) academic underachievement that does not match with the intellectual abilities of the student (which are at least in the average range) and/or (b) academic achievement that can be maintained by the student only with extremely high levels of effort and/or with additional support • Results in difficulties in the development and use of skills in one or more of the following areas: reading, writing, mathematics, work habits and learning skills; • May typically be associated with difficulties in one or more cognitive processes, such as phonological processing; memory and attention; processing speed; perceptual-motor processing; visual-spatial processing; executive functions (e.g., self-regulation of behaviour and emotions, planning, organizing of thoughts and activities, prioritizing, decision making); • May be associated with difficulties in social interaction; or with various other conditions, disorders or exceptionalities • Is not due to uncorrected hearing and/or vision problems; intellectual disabilities; socio- economic factors; cultural differences; lack of proficiency in the language of instruction; lack of motivation or effort; gaps in school attendance or inadequate opportunity to benefit from instruction.73 31

Resources

Bennet, S., Dworet, D., & Weber, K. (2008). Special Education in Ontario Schools (6th ed.) . St. David’s, ON: Highland Press.

Dyscalculia.org (2015). MLD Symptoms. Retrieved from: http://www.dyscalculia.org/ diagnosis-legal-matters/math-ld-symptoms.

Dyslexic Speld Foundation (2014). What is Dyscalculia. . Retrieved from: https://dsf.net.au/what-is-dyscalculia/.

Encyclopedia of Mental Disorders (2015). Childhood Disintegrative Disorder. Retrieved from: http://www.minddisorders.com/Br-Del/Childhood-disintegrative-disorder.html

Hutchinson, Nancy L. (2010). Inclusion of Exceptional Learners in Canadian Schools: A Practical Handbook for Teachers, Third Edition. Toronto, ON: Pearson.

International Dyslexia Association Ontario Branch (2015a). What is Dyslexia. . Retrieved from: http://www.idaontario.com/about-us/what-is-dyslexia/.

International Dyslexia Association Ontario Branch (2015b). Is My Child Dyslexic? Common Traits of Dyslexia. Retrieved from: . http://www.idaontario.com/about-dyslexia/is-my-child-dyslexic/

Kane, J. (2012). Five Misconceptions about Learning Disabilities. Retrieved from: . http://www.pbs.org/newshour/rundown/five-misconceptions-about-learning-disabilities/

Kaufmann, J. M. (2005). Characteristics of emotional and behavioural disorders of children (8th ed.) Columbus, OH: Merrill/Prentice Hall.

Learning Disabilities Association of America (2015). Dyscalculia. Retrieved from: . http://ldaamerica.org/types-of-learning-disabilities/dyscalculia/.

Lewis, T. J., Heflin, J., & Digangi, S. (1991). Teaching students with behaviour disorders: Basic questions and answers. Reston, VA: Council for Exceptional Children.

National Institutes of Health (no date). What is attention deficit hyperactivity disorder? Retrieved from: http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/attention-deficit- hyperactivity-disorder/index.shtml 32

Nidirect Government Services (2014). What are Special Education Needs? . Retrieved from: http://www.nidirect.gov.uk/what-are-special-educational-needs.

Ontario Ministry of Education (2001). Special Education: A Guide for Educators. . Toronto, ON: Queen’s Printing Press.

Ontario: Ministry of Education (2004). The Individual Education Plan (IEP): A Resource Guide. Toronto, ON: Queen’s Printing Press.

Ontario Ministry of Education (2014, August 26). Identification of and Program Planning for Students with Learning Disabilities. Policy/Program Memorandum No. 8. p. 1-2. Retrieved from the Ministry of Education web site: . http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/extra/eng/ppm/ppm8.pdf

Ontario Ministry of Education (no date). The Identification, Placement and Review Committee: Identifying the Needs of Exceptional Pupils. Retrieved from: . http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/general/elemsec/speced/identifi.html

Ontario Ministry of Education (no date). Special Education. Retrieved from: . http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/parents/speced.html

Powell River Brain Injury Society (2015). What is Acquired Brain Injury? Retrieved from: . http://braininjurysociety.com/information/acquired-brain-injury/what-is-abi/.

Silver, Larry B. (2002). What is ADHD? Is It a Type of LD? Retrieved from: . http://www.ldonline.org/article/5800?theme=print

Special Education Support Service (no date). Strategies for Learning and Teaching. . Retrieved from: http://www.sess.ie/categories/specific-learning-disabilities/dyscalculia/ tips-learning-and-teaching.

Spina Bifida and Hydrocephalus Association of Ontario (2011). Spina Bifida Information: What is Spina Bifida? Retrieved from: http://www.sbhao.on.ca/spina-bifida.

Tourette Canada (2015). What conditions and challenges are associated with TS? . Retrieved from: https://www.tourette.ca/what-conditions-are-associated-with-ts.

Wikipedia (2015). Joint Attention. Retrieved from: . https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_attention

Winzer, Margret (2005). Children with Exceptionalities in Canadian Classrooms, Seventh Edition. Toronto, ON: Pearson. 33

Endnotes

1 Nidirect Government Services (2014). What are Special Education Needs? . Retrieved from: http://www.nidirect.gov.uk/what-are-special-educational-needs/

2 Ontario Ministry of Education (no date). Special Education. . Retrieved from: http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/parents/speced.html

3 Ms. Ruth MacDonald, Elliot Lake Secondary School, Elliot Lake, Ontario.

4 Ms. Ruth MacDonald, Elliot Lake Secondary School, Elliot Lake, Ontario.

5 Ontario Ministry of Education (2014). Policy and Program Memorandum #8: Identification of and Program Planning for Students with Learning Disabilities. Retrieved online: . https://www.edu.gov.on.ca/extra/eng/ppm/ppm8.pdf

6 Bennet, S., Dworet, D., & Weber, K. (2008). Special Education in Ontario Schools (6th ed.) . St. David’s, ON: Highland Press.

7 Kane, J. (2012). Five Misconceptions about Learning Disabilities. Retrieved from: . http://www.pbs.org/newshour/rundown/five-misconceptions-about-learning-disabilities/.

8 Silver, Larry B. (2002). What is ADHD? Is It a Type of LD? Retrieved from: . http://www.ldonline.org/article/5800?theme=print.

9 Kane, J. (2012). Five Misconceptions about Learning Disabilities. Retrieved from: . http://www.pbs.org/newshour/rundown/five-misconceptions-about-learning-disabilities/.

10 Kane, J. (2012). Five Misconceptions about Learning Disabilities. Retrieved from: . http://www.pbs.org/newshour/rundown/five-misconceptions-about-learning-disabilities/.

11 Silver, Larry B. (2002). What is ADHD? Is It a Type of LD? . Retrieved from: http://www.ldonline.org/article/5800?theme=print.

12 National Institutes of Health (no date). What is attention deficit hyperactivity disorder? Retrieved from: http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/attention-deficit- hyperactivity-disorder/index.shtml.

13 International Dyslexia Association Ontario Branch (2015a). What is Dyslexia. . Retrieved from: http://www.idaontario.com/about-us/what-is-dyslexia/.

14 Bennet, S., Dworet, D., & Weber, K. (2008). Special Education in Ontario Schools (6th ed.) . St. David’s, ON: Highland Press. 34

15 International Dyslexia Association Ontario Branch (2015b). Is My Child Dyslexic? Common Traits of Dyslexia. Retrieved from: . http://www.idaontario.com/about-dyslexia/is-my-child-dyslexic/.

16 Dyslexic Speld Foundation (2014). What is Dyscalculia. . Retrieved from: https://dsf.net.au/what-is-dyscalculia/.

17 Dyscalculia.org (2015). MLD Symptoms. . Retrieved from: http://www.dyscalculia.org/diagnosis-legal-matters/math-ld-symptoms.

18 Learning Disabilities Association of America (2015). Dyscalculia. Retrieved from: . http://ldaamerica.org/types-of-learning-disabilities/dyscalculia/.

19 Special Education Support Service (no date). Strategies for Learning and Teaching. Retrieved from: http://www.sess.ie/categories/specific-learning-disabilities/dyscalculia/ tips-learning-and-teaching.

20 Hutchinson, Nancy L. (2010). Inclusion of Exceptional Learners in Canadian Schools: A Practical Handbook for Teachers, Third Edition. Toronto, ON: Pearson: p. 126.

21 Hutchinson, Nancy L. (2010). Inclusion of Exceptional Learners in Canadian Schools: A Practical Handbook for Teachers, Third Edition. Toronto,ON: Pearson: p. 131.

22 Hutchinson, Nancy L. (2010) Inclusion of Exceptional Learners in Canadian Schools: A Practical Handbook for Teachers, Third Edition. Toronto, ON: Pearson: p. 126.

23 Encyclopedia of Mental Disorders (no date). Childhood Disintegrative Disorder, Retrieved from: http://www.minddisorders.com/Br-Del/Childhood-disintegrative-disorder.html.

24 Hutchinson, Nancy L. (2010). Inclusion of Exceptional Learners in Canadian Schools: A Practical Handbook for Teachers, Third Edition. Toronto, ON: Pearson: p. 126.

25 Hutchinson, Nancy L. (2010). Inclusion of Exceptional Learners in Canadian Schools: A Practical Handbook for Teachers, Third Edition. Toronto, ON: Pearson: p. 126.

26 Hutchinson, Nancy L. (2010). Inclusion of Exceptional Learners in Canadian Schools: A Practical Handbook for Teachers, Third Edition. Toronto, ON: Pearson: p. 127.

27 Hutchinson, Nancy L. (2010). Inclusion of Exceptional Learners in Canadian Schools: A Practical Handbook for Teachers, Third Edition. Toronto, ON: Pearson: p. 129.

28 Wikipedia  (2015). Joint Attention. Retrieved from: . https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_attention.

29 Winzer, Margret (2005). Children with Exceptionalities in Canadian Classrooms, Seventh Edition. Toronto, ON: Pearson: p. 315. 35

30 Hutchinson, Nancy L. (2010). Inclusion of Exceptional Learners in Canadian Schools: A Practical Handbook for Teachers, Third Edition. Toronto, ON: Pearson: p. 132.

31 Hutchinson, Nancy L. (2010). Inclusion of Exceptional Learners in Canadian Schools: A Practical Handbook for Teachers, Third Edition. Toronto, ON: Pearson: p. 133.

32 Hutchinson, Nancy L. (2010). Inclusion of Exceptional Learners in Canadian Schools: A Practical Handbook for Teachers, Third Edition. Toronto, ON: Pearson: p. 133.

33 Winzer, Margret (2005). Children with Exceptionalities in Canadian Classrooms, Seventh Edition. Toronto, ON: Pearson: p. 335.

34 Hutchinson, Nancy L. (2010). Inclusion of Exceptional Learners in Canadian Schools: A Practical Handbook for Teachers, Third Edition. Toronto, ON: Pearson: p. 133.

35 Winzer, Margret (2005). Children with Exceptionalities in Canadian Classrooms, Seventh Edition. Toronto, ON: Pearson: p. 349.

36 Ontario Ministry of Education (2001). Special Education: A Guide for Educators. . Toronto, ON: Queen’s Printing Press: p. A19.

37 Bennet, S., Dworet, D., & Weber, K. (2008). Special Education in Ontario Schools (6th ed.) St. David’s, ON: Highland Press.

38 Bennet, S., Dworet, D., & Weber, K. (2008). Special Education in Ontario Schools (6th ed.) St. David’s, ON: Highland Press.

39 Winzer, Margret (2005). Children with Exceptionalities in Canadian Classrooms, Seventh Edition. Toronto, ON: Pearson: p 96.

40 Winzer, Margret (2005). Children with Exceptionalities in Canadian Classrooms, Seventh Edition. Toronto, ON: Pearson: p. 110-111.

41 Ontario Ministry of Education (2001). Special Education: A Guide for Educators. Toronto, ON: Queen’s Printing Press: p. A18.

42 Bennet, S., Dworet, D., & Weber, K. (2008). Special Education in Ontario Schools (6th ed.) St. David’s, ON: Highland Press: p 114.

43 Bennet, S., Dworet, D., & Weber, K. (2008). Special Education in Ontario Schools (6th ed.) St. David’s, ON: Highland Press: p 115.

44 Bennet, S., Dworet, D., & Weber, K. (2008). Special Education in Ontario Schools (6th ed.) St. David’s, ON: Highland Press: p 116.

45 Lewis, T. J., Heflin, J., & Digangi, S. (1991). Teaching students with behaviour disorders: Basic questions and answers. Reston, VA: Council for Exceptional Children: p. 46. 36

46 Kaufmann, J. M. (2005). Characteristics of emotional and behavioural disorders of children (8th ed.). Columbus, OH: Merril/Prentice Hall: p 112.

47 Hutchinson, Nancy L. (2010). Inclusion of Exceptional Learners in Canadian Schools: A Practical Handbook for Teachers, Third Edition. Toronto, ON: Pearson: p 73.

48 Hutchinson, Nancy L. (2010). Inclusion of Exceptional Learners in Canadian Schools: A Practical Handbook for Teachers, Third Edition. Toronto, ON: Pearson: p 74.

49 Hutchinson, Nancy L. (2010). Inclusion of Exceptional Learners in Canadian Schools: A Practical Handbook for Teachers, Third Edition. Toronto, ON: Pearson: p 74.

50 Hutchinson, Nancy L. (2010). Inclusion of Exceptional Learners in Canadian Schools: A Practical Handbook for Teachers, Third Edition. Toronto, ON: Pearson: p 108.

51 Hutchinson, Nancy L. (2010). Inclusion of Exceptional Learners in Canadian Schools: A Practical Handbook for Teachers, Third Edition. Toronto, ON: Pearson: p 113.

52 Winzer, Margret (2005). Children with Exceptionalities in Canadian Classrooms, Seventh Edition. Toronto, ON: Pearson: p 206.

53 Hutchinson, Nancy L. (2010). Inclusion of Exceptional Learners in Canadian Schools: A Practical Handbook for Teachers, Third Edition. Toronto, ON: Pearson: p 112.

54 Ontario Ministry of Education (2001). Special Education: A Guide for Educators. Toronto, ON: Queen’s Printing Press: p. A20.

55 Hutchinson, Nancy L. (2010). Inclusion of Exceptional Learners in Canadian Schools: A Practical Handbook for Teachers, Third Edition. Toronto: Pearson: p 139.

56 Bennet, S., Dworet, D., & Weber, K. (2008). Special Education in Ontario Schools (6th ed.) St. David’s, ON: Highland Press. p 181.

57 Spina Bifida and Hydrocephalus Association of Ontario (2011). Spina Bifida Information: What is Spina Bifida? Retrieved from: http://www.sbhao.on.ca/spina-bifida.

58 Spina Bifida and Hydrocephalus Association of Ontario (2011). Spina Bifida Information: What is Spina Bifida? Retrieved from: http://www.sbhao.on.ca/spina-bifida.

59 Bennet, S., Dworet, D., & Weber, K. (2008). Special Education in Ontario Schools (6th ed.) St. David’s, ON: Highland Press. p 181.

60 Bennet, S., Dworet, D., & Weber, K. (2008). Special Education in Ontario Schools (6th ed.) St. David’s, ON: Highland Press. p 181.

61 Powell River Brain Injury Society (2015). What is Acquired Brain Injury? Retrieved from: http://braininjurysociety.com/information/acquired-brain-injury/what-is-abi/. 37

62 Bennet, S., Dworet, D., & Weber, K. (2008). Special Education in Ontario Schools (6th ed.) St. David’s, ON: Highland Press. p 182.

63 Tourette Canada (2015). What conditions and challenges are associated with TS? . Retrieved from: https://www.tourette.ca/what-conditions-are-associated-with-ts.

64 Ontario Ministry of Education. (2004). The Individual Education Plan: A Resource Guide. p. 21-22. Retrieved from: https://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/general/ elemsec/speced/guide/resource/iepresguid.pdf.

65 Hutchinson, Nancy L. (2010) Inclusion of Exceptional Learners in Canadian Schools: . A Practical Handbook for Teachers, Third Edition. Toronto, ON: Pearson: p 7.

66 Hutchinson, Nancy L. (2010). Inclusion of Exceptional Learners in Canadian Schools: A Practical Handbook for Teachers, Third Edition. Toronto, ON: Pearson: p 52.

67 Ontario Ministry of Education (2004). The Individual Education Plan: A Resource Guide. Retrieved from: https://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/general/elemsec/ speced/guide/resource/iepresguid.pdf.

68 Hutchinson, Nancy L. (2010). Inclusion of Exceptional Learners in Canadian Schools: A Practical Handbook for Teachers, Third Edition. Toronto, ON: Pearson: p 3.

69 Ontario Ministry of Education. (2004). The Individual Education Plan: A Resource Guide. p. 28. Retrieved from: https://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/general/ elemsec/speced/guide/resource/iepresguid.pdf.

70 Ontario Ministry of Education. (2004). The Individual Education Plan: A Resource Guide. p. 26. Retrieved from: https://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/general/ elemsec/speced/guide/resource/iepresguid.pdf.

71 Ontario Ministry of Education. (2004). The Individual Education Plan: A Resource Guide. p. 10. Retrieved from: https://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/general/ elemsec/speced/guide/resource/iepresguid.pdf.

72 Ontario Ministry of Education. (2004). The Individual Education Plan: A Resource Guide. p. 28-29. Retrieved from: https://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/general/ elemsec/speced/guide/resource/iepresguid.pdf.

73 Ontario Ministry of Education (2014, August 26). Identification of and Program Planning for Students with Learning Disabilities. Policy/Program Memorandum No. 8. p. 1-2. . Retrieved from the Ministry of Education web site: . http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/extra/eng/ppm/ppm8.pdf. Literacy: Learning for Life. L’alphabétisation, Une leçon pour la vie.

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