Networks: Vol. 12, Issue 1 Spring 2010

Independent Reading and the ‘Social Turn’: How Adolescent Reading Habits and Motivation Relate to Cultivating Social Relationships

Matthew Knoester University of Evansville

Abstract Research suggests that independent reading outside of school is a strong indicator of school and reading success. However, studies also suggest that student recreational reading significantly decreases in the middle school years. This article explores some of the reasons adolescent students choose to read independently or are reluctant to do so. In this teacher research study the author interviewed his former students, their parents, and their current teachers about what motivates adolescents to read or not to read. Evidence from this study suggests that independent reading is intimately connected to various social practices, despite commonly held views that describe independent reading as a solitary activity. Teaching strategies to encourage student motivation are shared.

Broaddus, 2001). These studies have found When other kids get excited about books, that students who achieved high scores on that turns kids onto a book. If I can hype reading assessments, among other indicators a book [and say] ‘you’ve got to read this of literacy learning, appeared to have high book,’ and they trust me, they’ll read it. intrinsic motivation to read, and often chose The main motivator is seeing other kids to read on a regular basis outside of school. enjoying a book and hearing another kid Krashen (2004), in his review of literature on talk about a book and say, ‘I want to read independent reading, writes: that book.’ The relationship between reported free -Sara Jones, middle school teacher voluntary reading and literacy development is Recent research suggests habits of not large in every study, but it is remarkably independent reading, or students choosing to consistent. Nearly every study that has read on their own time, are strong indicators examined this relationship has found a of school and reading success (McKool, 2007; positive correlation, and it is present even Krashen, 2004; Allington & McGill-Franzen, when different tests, different methods of 2003). Scholars also find that recreational probing reading habits, and different reading significantly decreases in the middle definitions of free reading are used (p. 11). school years (Ivey & Broaddus, 2001; McCoy, Given the complex relationships among 1991). A growing number of researchers are independent reading habits, literacy learning, focusing on crucial questions relating to and school success, more research on student motivation and reading habits in the independent reading practices and reading middle school years (Hughes-Hassell & motivation during adolescence is needed. Rodge, 2007; Krashen, 2004; Ivey &

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Networks: Vol. 12, Issue 1 Spring 2010

It is important to note first that various plants, geographical knowledge, and other scholars have defined independent reading materials and knowledge for survival. somewhat differently. Krashen (2004), for Independence, in this case, and in others I example, prefers the term “free voluntary will offer, is more of an ideal than a reality reading”. Hughes-Hassell and Rodge (2007) when describing human behavior. It should use the term “leisure reading.” Anderson, et perhaps be no surprise that the language of al. (1988) use the phrase “reading outside of independence has been overused and in fact school” and Manzo & Manzo (1995) prefer misused in mainstream discourse leading to “recreational reading.” These terms are not misunderstandings, including some in always interchangeable. Krashen, for relation to reading research and literacy example, assumes that “free voluntary education. reading” can and does take place in schools, while Anderson, et al., do not focus on Despite references to independence as a reading in school. Nevertheless, each of these romantic ideal, theorists have recently scholars refers to habits and behaviors, developed a more social view of human whether in or out of schools, that involve nature and activity. In cognitive science, students choosing what and how often they education, anthropology, and other fields, read. scholars have drawn on the work of Russian psychologist, Lev Vygotsky, who argued, “it is In this article, I will focus on the term not nature, but society that above all else “independent reading,” since it is often used must be considered to be the determining in research on reading, as well as in teaching factor in human behavior” (as cited by manuals. However, independent reading is Wertsch, 1985, p. 118). Human nature and rarely defined (Knoester, 2008; Serravallo & cognition cannot be understood by looking Goldberg, 2007; Keene & Zimmerman, 1997; solely at one person’s behavior, language use, Fountas & Pinnell, 1996). What then is or sense making, apart from consideration of understood by the term “independent social context. Teachers and parents may reading”? Taken alone, “independence” is desire students to be independent in the sense most commonly used in relation to notions of of growing stronger, more self-reliant, and freedom from control (Merriam-Webster, able to take on more responsibility. However, 2003). This meaning is closely associated researchers studying independent reading, with notions of individual reason, liberty, and and educational leaders who author literacy the ability to self-govern; a language, and set teaching guides, have unfortunately left the of values that became dominant during the notion of independence untroubled. French Revolution, and to political discourse in the United States, such as in The This article, based on ten case studies, Declaration of Independence. suggests that overvaluing independence in relation to reading may be contributing to The notion of “independence” is a value persistent misunderstandings of students’ closely associated with United States history reading habits while ignoring social aspects and continues to influence common sense of literacy. Following the methodology and understandings. In describing American findings sections, I describe and suggest how character, for example, historians allude to independent, or voluntary reading, is part of a the rugged individualist - the independent process of cultivating relationships, despite cowboy, pioneer, or settler (Wilson, 1991; the fact that participants in the study often Tindall & Shi, 1993). But with romantic characterized reading as a solitary activity. I portrayals aside, a careful consideration then connect independent reading as a social reveals that survival in the early days of construct with the New Literacy Studies United States history included dependence on movement, which Gee (1999) refers to as a collaboration, especially for European “social turn” in literacy research and theory. immigrants, who relied on Native American While other studies on independent reading groups for trade, agricultural customs and and motivation are consistent with the finding

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Networks: Vol. 12, Issue 1 Spring 2010 that independent reading contains crucial habits and interests of their children had social elements, these studies do not focus on changed over time. At the time of this study this crucial connection, nor point out the the students were in the 5th, 6th, or 7th grades. counter-intuitive notion that independent The school served a student population that reading is part of a social process (Guthrie, reflected the urban neighborhood in which it McRae, & Klauda, 2007; Ng, et al., 1998; was situated: approximately 65% of the Gambrell, 1996; Almasi & Gambrell, 1994). I students were African-American, 20% were then draw a contrast between the findings of European-American, 10% were Latino/a, and this study and current research on reading 5% were Asian-American. Approximately half that ignores the crucial social aspects of of the students at Thoreau qualified for free or independent reading practices. Finally, reduced lunch. Thoreau was a small school, teaching strategies consistent with the serving approximately 200 students in grades findings of the study are presented. K-8, and there were eleven homeroom teachers, in addition to support staff and Methodology student teachers. Site and Participants I taught the six students who were selected for As a fourth and fifth grade teacher for many the study for two years (Albert, Mitch, Kobe, years, before turning to educational research Sean, Toni, and Maria), and the other four and undergraduate teaching, I often thought students (Jason, Elizabeth, Kevin, and James) about how I could encourage the development for one year. In the case of two of the students of a love for, and commitment to, (Jason and Elizabeth), I also taught an older “independent reading” among my former sibling in years past. In addition to the students. Over the years, I assigned reading as interviews, I kept in touch with these students part of homework assignments. However, my and the school by sending periodic postcards thinking about these assignments changed to the school, as well as spending at least one over time, as I implemented and assessed full week volunteering full-time at the school various approaches. I wondered how these each year after I left. assignments either inhibited students’ The ten students were chosen based on interest in reading or created opportunities discussions with their current homeroom or for encouragement from teachers, peers, and literacy teachers (whom I call “Sara” and family members to develop positive reading “Michael”), to roughly represent the range of habits. I did not realize from the outset of this abilities and interests, including enthusiasm study, however, that I would be compelled to and reluctance, found among the students at rethink, and redefine, the commonly used Thoreau School. According to their term, “independent reading”. homeroom teachers, although their reading The students chosen for this study were my abilities varied, all of the target students could former students from one or two years prior read most books at grade level, based on to the beginning of the study, when I taught a running records conducted by their teachers combined fourth and fifth grade class at a (Clay, 1999). small public school, “Thoreau School,” in a Data Collection and Analysis large city in the eastern part of the United States. All names used in this study are For this study, I generated and collected ten pseudonyms to protect the anonymity of the sets of interviews, each consisting of a middle participants. I chose to work with my former school or fifth grade student, his or her students since I was familiar with their parent, and the students’ homeroom teacher. reading habits and the various reading The interviews were carried out in person or assignments they had completed in the past, by telephone, and not in the presence of the and I was interested in asking them to reflect other participants, yet I consider them “sets” on various literacy experiences, as well as of interviews because the line of questioning hear from their parents how the literacy largely focused on the ten students’ interests

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Networks: Vol. 12, Issue 1 Spring 2010 and literacy practices. I examined each set of theories that accounts for all data. interviews to build a fuller picture of each Throughout this process, I coded each student as a reader, not just from “snapshots” sentence of the interview transcripts. I sorted in the classroom or at home, but in terms of the codes into categories. I was admittedly habits and abiding interests and practices. surprised by my findings – specifically the Each interview lasted between one half hour extent to which social interactions were and an hour. Recordings, and later connected to reading. transcripts, were made of each interview. This research design provided several key I asked each student about their reading advantages. First, few studies compare practices and other interests in and out of interviews or surveys of students about school, choice and availability of reading reading with those of their parents and/or materials, reading habits, availability of their teachers. This study did both. This reading materials, preferred times and places comparison allowed me to corroborate for reading; reading practices beyond books student responses with those of adults who (e.g., church, cooking, instruction manuals, intimately knew the reading habits of these video games), social affiliations, self- adolescents. Second, this design allowed me perceptions as readers, and feelings about to probe deeper into the possible social reading. Parents and teachers were asked interactions around reading that may have similar questions in relation to the focal taken place between students, peers, siblings, students. parents, and teachers. For example, a parent may have mentioned a particular social I inquired into possible motivations and uses interaction not mentioned by a student. for reading using a combination of open- Third, my relationship with the participants ended interview questions and follow-up allowed me to corroborate interview data with questions to clarify meaning or expand on my own knowledge of particular student participants’ responses. I asked whether reading habits, and ask follow-up questions students were motivated to read assignments that may have drawn out a more detailed from teachers or parents, whether they read response, based on my knowledge of the because they enjoyed reading, or if it was participants. After narrating a general because reading was connected to another overview of my findings, I explore interest or activity. I asked about reading independent reading as a social practice. habits during the school week and over the weekend, in school, and over the summer. I Findings inquired into what counted as reading, and what genres of reading were valued in school Each of the parents and students interviewed and at home. I asked about kids’ feelings in this study reported having books and other about reading and how these related to their reading material in their homes, all of the future goals (see Appendix for a sample list of students had gone to a public library with a interview questions). parent in the last four months, every student had a quiet place in their home for reading or In analyzing the data, I relied on grounded doing homework, and each parent expressed theory methods (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; a strong desire for their children to read more Glaser, 1978; Glaser, 1998), a methodology outside of school. These findings are not used to test a pre-existing theory, but consistent with those of Compton-Lilly rather to develop a theory grounded in the (2003), who also examined the reading specific data generated in the study. The activities and habits of urban families. theory is inductively reached through a process of open and theoretical coding, Each of the ten participants read from a constant comparison of codes, writing of variety of materials on at least a semi-regular theoretical memos about the codes, sorting basis. Six of the ten students’ parents reported the memos, and creating a hierarchical set of that their children usually read without being

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Networks: Vol. 12, Issue 1 Spring 2010 asked to do so, including during the summer. Four boys enjoyed comic books and graphic The remaining four did read on a regular novels. basis, but parents said they had to apply pressure, which sometimes resulted in A somewhat surprising finding was the conflict. These four boys - Mitch, Albert, amount of reading parents reported their James, and Jason - reported that they either children did compared to what they did as did not like to read or only “sometimes” liked children. Eight of the ten parents said their to read. The remaining six students reported child read more than they did at their age. that they liked to read or sometimes liked to Toni’s mother responded to whether Toni read. All but three sets of parents and read more or less than she did by saying: students reported that the students went So much more. The first book I liked was through phases of reading more or less. One Siddhartha in high school. You know you had parent, for example, reported that her to read Jane Ayre. That got me to love daughter, Elizabeth, was in the midst of a “dry reading. Yeah, [now] I read all the time. I spell” after being highly engaged with a think that’s great that at this school, she gets particular author for several months. to find the book she wants to read. When I Elizabeth could not seem to find another book was a kid, I didn’t like the books they picked. she was interested in reading. Five parents or students reported that students read at least Sentiments about being able to choose books one half hour each day (Kobe, Maria, Toni, were echoed several times by parents. It was Sean, and Jason). Mitch and James’s parents only the mother of Albert and the father of reported that they read for about a half hour Jason who reported that their boys read five days per week - often only under duress. considerably less than they had when they Elizabeth formerly read five or six days per were children. week but was now down to two. Kevin and When asked if they felt confident about their Albert read two or three days per week, Albert reading ability, all of the students felt “pretty read only under duress and Kevin read for at good,” “good,” or “okay.” As mentioned least one hour 2 to 3 days a week and previously, these students were chosen to according to his father “got upset when he roughly represent their age peers at Thoreau was interrupted while he was reading.” School in terms of their reading interests and A wide variety of sources were mentioned for habits. While some research studies have finding books and other reading materials. suggested that reading ability correlates with Eight of the families, all but those of Mitch the amount of “independent reading.” My and Albert, reported that they regularly used intention was not to question or test this public libraries to find books. The source research finding, but to identify other factors most frequently mentioned was the Scholastic related to interest or identity that might lead Publications Book Fair held twice each year at students to read or not read outside of school. Thoreau School. Other sources included the Of course, it is impossible to ignore ability. school library, bookstores, friends, teachers, Albert and James had a history of low grocery stores, or receiving books as gifts. All confidence and ability compared to their of the students reported regularly reading at peers. Both of their mothers tied the difficulty least one text other than books; this included they had getting the boys to read to their low the boys who reported, “not liking to read.” confidence levels. Nevertheless, the boys Four students read information on the could read and understand most texts at their internet. Four students read video game grade level, according to their teachers, and manuals or magazines connected to video the boys themselves said they were “pretty games. One student said he liked to read Yu- good” at reading, while James added that he gi-oh and magic cards, as well as the mail. was “getting better.” Meanwhile, other One girl liked to read the newspaper, and students, such as Kobe and Toni, had also three girls subscribed to and read magazines. struggled as readers and had previously read below grade level. During the time of these

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Networks: Vol. 12, Issue 1 Spring 2010 interviews, however, they were reading at As Toni’s mother pointed out, some books levels commensurate with classmates. address topics of interest to both parents and students. Kevin, for example, was seemingly “Independent Reading” as a Social obsessed with books and magazines about Practice sports, so much so that his teacher, Michael, Most striking in the data were the numerous insisted that Kevin begin to read books on examples in which reading books and other other topics. However, it is no coincidence forms of reading were tied to social that Kevin’s father is a sports fanatic and the interactions. In my set of interviews, I noticed two of them discuss sports regularly. students seemed to love to talk about Students also read about topics that they enjoyable reading material and made could discuss with their friends, peers, and connections to what they read. For example, siblings. Albert read and played Yu-gi-oh or when asked whether Toni discussed what she magic cards with his friends; Jason, Kevin, read, her mother replied, “Yeah, she does. A James, and Mitch read and conversed about couple times a week she’ll tell. If it’s a great sports; Elizabeth’s mother said Elizabeth book she’ll volunteer, especially if she thinks began reading Beacon Street Girls after I’ll like it.” Maria’s mother said, “Yes. Without meeting the author and shared and discussed asking, she tells me.” And Kobe’s mother these books with a “gaggle of girls who were replied, “Yes, sometimes. He explains what he mesmerized.” The parents of Mitch, Albert, read, he just tells me. He likes to talk about Kevin, Elizabeth, and Jason all reported that what he understands. Sometimes I don’t have their children frequently read and talked time to listen.” Sean’s mother shared with me about books that had been recommended by how Sean seemed to know and share a lot older siblings. Meanwhile, the students with about what he read. When asked if Sean younger siblings reported reading to or talked about what he read she said, “Yeah, recommending books to younger brothers just this morning, at the doctor’s office. The and sisters. In all of the interviews, doctor was asking questions and he was adolescents seemed to remember who had referring to things he read. The doctor was so recommended a particular book long after impressed.” they had read the book. Almost all of the students and parents also When I was their teacher, I asked students to spoke fondly about reading aloud. Some write in either diary- or letter-style in their students still loved being read to by their journals each week. I responded in writing - parent. Elizabeth’s mother said, making connections to things I enjoyed about She’s not totally comfortable with chapter the book, if I had read it or asking questions if books. If I read out loud with her, that’s I had not. Three parents believed that the totally acceptable. Right now we’re reading A book journal had a strong positive impact on Wrinkle in Time together. You know, their children’s reading. Seven of the Elizabeth has always been a girl who wanted adolescents enjoyed the book journals and to be read to orally. Even from when she was wished they were still doing them. The three very young. She wanted to be told stories. She reported that they were glad they were not wanted to be read to. doing them and strongly objected to the “writing part” of the journal. Maria’s mother said, “Sometimes she reads to me. Yes, and sometimes I read to her in both In analyzing the data and noticing the many languages [English and Spanish].” Toni’s social connections involving reading, I was mother volunteered, “I like those books intrigued that when I asked the students and [realistic fiction] and I’ll read it to her, like their parents what they thought motivated The Beekeeper. I read it to her. I love the students to read, not a single participant characters. I read to her less now, but we still referenced social aspects of reading. The most read together.” common responses began with “I don’t

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Networks: Vol. 12, Issue 1 Spring 2010 know,” and then other responses emerged— behavior (Glaser, 1978, p. 93). In this study, Sean’s mother referred to Sean’s desire for the core variable and central concern knowledge. Mitch’s mother said the main appeared to be cultivating relationships using motivation was fear of punishment. The books or other texts. Put differently, the parents of Albert, Elizabeth, Maria, Toni, central theory that emerged from these data Jason, and James said that interest in and this analysis was that choosing to read, particular books was their children’s main for these adolescents, was connected to motivation. The fact that none of the parents desires to cultivate relationships. or students identified social aspects as motivating reading was consistent with my I define “cultivating relationships” as enjoying own previous assumptions. Only upon the company of another person, and hoping analyzing the data did I recognize the many and strategizing for this to occur again. This social interactions that accompanied reading. involves taking risks, which may result in This is consistent with the theoretical claims rejection. I chose the word “cultivating” discussed earlier - recreational reading is because this activity implies agency on the widely misunderstood as a solitary activity. part of one who is forming or building a relationship. Thus, the term “independent In contrast, Sara Jones, homeroom teacher to reading” might be a misnomer. Recreational six of the students and a teacher with over reading, or free-choice reading, might be twenty-five years of teaching experience, better understood as cultivating relationships recognized the powerful social aspects of through literature. reading. Sara identified her most successful techniques for getting students interested in By “relationship” I reference a friendship or books: association with one of a variety of individuals. These individuals might be When other kids get excited about books, that parents, peers, teachers, other adults, or turns kids onto a book. If I can hype a book younger students or siblings. The strategies [and say] “you’ve got to read this book,” and used for cultivating one type of relationship they trust me, they’ll read it. The main may be very different from strategies used for motivator is seeing other kids enjoying a book other relationships and these strategies may and hearing another kid talk about a book and be in conflict. For example, by cultivating say, “I want to read that book.” relationships with adults, adolescents may risk endangering relationships with peers. Sara has witnessed the power of reading and Peer relationships may be fragile and literacy as a social act. She also indicated her adolescents may be careful to protect these understanding that cultivating relationships relationships by not risking rejection and may be part of what turns kids on to reading. choosing to read and discuss books that are It’s useful for teachers to ask themselves popular within peer groups. Book selection questions such as, “What are kids interested can be sensitive and strategic for adolescents. in?” “What do kids identify with?” “Is there literature available that fits each child’s Adolescents strategically selected, read, emerging identity?” “Are there groups of discussed, and avoided literature based on the students who will find particular books and relationships they hoped to cultivate. The topics to be socially acceptable?” strategies they used to cultivate different types of relationships varied. For example, Discussion: What is boys collaboratively read Yu-gi-oh cards, “Independent” about comic books, or choose humorous books – Independent Reading? often books that might not be considered funny by adults. Students strategically The generation of theory in a grounded cultivated relationships with their parents theory study, such as this one, occurs around asking them read aloud before bedtime, or, as a core category or core variable that accounts was the case with Kevin, reading books or for most of the variation in a pattern of

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Networks: Vol. 12, Issue 1 Spring 2010 magazines on topics of shared interest. and cultural (and we can add historical, Adolescents, who chose to cultivate political, and economic) practices of which relationships with younger students or they are but a part. (Gee, 1999: p. 3). siblings, allowed the younger students to choose picture books and then read them The New Literacy Studies (NLS) movement aloud. If an adolescent hoped to cultivate a has been characterized by ethnographies and relationship with an adult other than his or theories of how people in various contexts use her parent, the student might read a book reading and writing, especially outside of recommended to them by the adult. Students school settings (Heath, 1983; Street 1984, might also strategically elect to avoid reading 1995; Taylor & Dorsey-Gaines, 1988; Barton, particular texts if reading got in the way of 1994; Barton & Hamilton, 1998; Cope & cultivating desired relationships. If students Kalantzsis, 2000). The present study can be did not wish to display vulnerability or if the seen as part of the NLS movement, which reading material was not enjoyable, students represents a paradigm shift in research on would avoid reading while still hoping to reading and literacy. As mentioned above, the cultivate the relationship using other means. participants in this study did not notice or report social motivations for reading. This is I realize that understanding independent perhaps because viewing reading as a social reading as part of a process of cultivating activity runs counter to current common- relationships is not unproblematic, or even sense understandings of why people read. easy to observe. Cultivating relationships This is true for teachers, parents, and may not be conscious or intentional. For students, but it is also largely true among example, adolescents may pick up a book not researchers and theorists outside of the NLS thinking or planning to talk about the book movement. There are those who recognize with someone else. Or, they might imagine reading as social, but in other ways. For talking or learning about a book topic for an example, Smith (1998) argued, “reading is not interaction with someone they have never met a solitary activity.” By this he meant: (such as a celebrity or someone they would like to be). Or, they may never talk about Readers are never alone. Readers can join the literature they have read, particularly if they company of the characters they read about— did not find it compelling. Nevertheless, in that is the reason we read stories of people this study, I found students who enjoyed with whom we can identify or of situations in reading: 1) discussed books, 2) read in areas which we would like to be…when we read we of shared interests, 3) read along with friends can also join the company of authors. We can and family members, and 4) read aloud to share ideas and experiences with them, often younger children and siblings. in considerably more comfort and security than the authors were in when they had their Independent Reading and the Social ideas and experiences or wrote their books Turn (Smith 1998, p. 24). In an article entitled “The New Literacy Smith identified compelling reasons for Studies and the Social Turn,’” Gee (1999) reading, and articulated a commonly held argues there are currently fourteen view of reading as “social.” However, he did intellectual movements, some overlapping, not address the many other ways in which that reject the prevailing approach to studying reading is social, such as those found in this human nature and behavior through a largely study. individualistic and biological lens. One of these insurgent movements has been called In a recent article examining leisure reading the “New Literacy Studies.” Gee writes, activities among adolescents, researchers surveyed seven hundred and fifteen middle The New Literacy Studies are based on the school students about their leisure reading view that reading and writing only make habits (Hughes-Hassell & Rodge, 2007). The sense when studied in the context of social survey included a question about possible

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Networks: Vol. 12, Issue 1 Spring 2010 motivations for reading, with ten possible explore common interests and share opinions responses. Possible responses included “for and understanding. fun,” “for escape,” and “I get attached to characters.” None of the possible motivations Buddy reading (Gramstorff, 2000) involves were related to social interactions or students at different ages and abilities reading cultivating relationships and not surprisingly, regularly over extended periods of time, the researchers did not report a connection allowing students to develop social between leisure reading and cultivating social relationships focused around literature and relationships. Seeing “leisure reading” as tied reading. to cultivating relationships runs counter to Finally, it is difficult to underestimate the common understandings about reading, importance of a school or community library including those held by some researchers. that offers a wide selection of books, There are exceptions. Several scholars have magazines, electronic media, knowledgeable specifically identified social aspects of literacy librarians, and comfortable places to read and and have connected these to motivation perhaps even to talk about books and other (Short & Pierce, 1990; Hepler & Hickman, literature (Krashen, 2004; Foertsch, 1992; 1982; Manning & Manning, 1984; Appleby & Snow, et al., 1991). Krashen (2004, 2005) and Conner, 1965). These studies are consistent others have argued that a wide variety of with the findings of the present study. literature, including non-fiction, fiction with multicultural characters in urban settings, Conclusions comic books, and magazines are crucial to encouraging students of all socioeconomic Teaching practices most effective in backgrounds to voluntarily read. Libraries encouraging students to read must draw upon and classroom teachers could also learn from the powerful motivational impact of social bookstores that display books in attractive processes for cultivating relationships. As settings, using props including posters, and previously mentioned, students who enjoy artfully arranging books, to encourage reading: 1) discuss books, 2) read in areas of perusal. interest among family members and friends, 3) read along with friends and family In this essay I reviewed recent research that members, and 4) read aloud to others, suggests habits of independent reading including younger children and siblings. I will outside of school are strong indicators of conclude with literacy teaching practices that school and reading success. I then conducted are supported by this study: a study to explore why and how adolescent students choose to read independently or are As I mentioned above, one assignment I used reluctant to do so. Upon interviewing in my teaching with considerable success is adolescent students, their parents, and their interactive book journals. Interactive book current teachers about possible motivations journals involve dialogue between teachers for these adolescents to read or not to read and students, among students, and could and analyzing the data, I found evidence involve larger groups of people using online suggesting that independent reading is forums which would allow students to intimately connected to various social cultivate rich relationships via reading and practices despite commonly held views that writing (see http://daemonwolfbooks.livejour independent reading is a solitary activity. And nal.com/ as an online example). there are several teaching techniques that Second, literature circles (Daniels, 2002) seem to be supported by this analysis. involving book discussions in small groups Possible limitations to this study include the allow students to engage in social interaction fact that I knew the participants. My unique around books. Although much more relationships with the participants as the structured than a typical “book club” among students’ former teacher and the teachers as adults, literature circles allow students to former colleagues, may have affected

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Networks: Vol. 12, Issue 1 Spring 2010 interview responses - perhaps influencing Bertland, L. (1988). Usage patterns in a middle participants to say what they thought I school library: A circulation analysis. School wanted to hear. Another limitation to the Library Media Quarterly, 16, 200-203. study was the small number of participants. Calkins, L. (1996). Motivating readers during More research is needed to examine the ways conferences, teach the reader, not the reading. in which “independent reading” is social, and Instructor, 106(3), 38-40. the ways in which teachers, parents, and students can use this knowledge to create Clay, M. (2000). Running records: For classroom environments where students enjoy reading teachers. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. and develop rich reading habits. The notion of Cohen, K. (1999). Reluctant eighth grade readers “cultivating relationships” should also be enjoy sustained silent reading. California further theorized, as it seems clear that this Reader, 33(1), 22-25. process requires knowledge and expertise on the part of children. How might adults better Compton-Lilly, C. (2003). Reading families: The understand this basic human activity? How literate lives of urban children. New York: might adults help students become more Teachers College Press. successful with these endeavors? And how Cope, B., & Kalantzis, M. (2000). Multiliteracies: might those adults who want to encourage Literacy learning and the design of social their students and children to read more, futures. London: Routledge. better understand how literacy is related to-- and might be encouraged or facilitated—with Cullinan, B. (2000). Independent reading and a more nuanced understanding of how school achievement. School Library Media th children cultivate relationships? Research, (3) Retrieved January 15 , 2008, from www.ala.org/ala/aasl/aaslpubsandjour References nals/slmrb/slmrcontents/volume32000/ALA_ pr int_layout_1_202791_202791.cfm Allington, R. & McGill-Granzen, A. (2003). The impact of summer setback on the reading Cushman, E., Kintgen, E., Kroll, B., & Rose, M. achievement gap. Phi Delta Kappan, 85(1), (2001). Literacy: A critical sourcebook. 68-75. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s. Almasi, J. F. & Gambrell, L.B. (1994). Daniels, H. (2002). Literature circles: Voice and Sociocognitive conflict in peer-led and choice in book clubs and reading groups. teacher-led discussions of literature. Reading Portland, ME: Stenhouse Publishers. research report Number 12. ED369069. Ediger, M. (2001). Reading: Intrinsic versus Anderson, R., Fielding, L., & Wilson, P. (1988). extrinsic motivation. ERIC, ED 458566. Growth in reading and how children spend Feitelson, D. & Goldstein, A. (1986). Patterns of their time outside of school. Reading book ownership and reading to young Research Quarterly, 23, 285-304. children. The Reading Teacher, 39(4), 924- Appleby, B. & Conner, J. (1965). Well, what did 930. you think of it? English Journal, 54, 606-612. Foertsch, M. (1992). Reading in and out of school. Barton, D. (1994). Literacy: An introduction to the Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of ecology of written language. Oxford: Education. Blackwell. Fountas, I. & Pinnell, G. (1996). Guided reading: Barton, D., & Hamilton, M. (1998). Local Good first teaching for all children. literacies: Reading and writing in one Portsmouth, NH: Heinnemann. community. London: Routledge. Gambrell, L. B. (1996). Creating classroom cultures that foster reading motivation. Reading Teacher, 50(1), 14-25.

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Guthrie, J. T., McRae, A. & Klauda, S. L. (2007). reader’s workshop. Portsmouth, NH: Contributions of concept-oriented reading Heinemann. instruction to knowing about interventions for Kim, J. (2004). Summer reading and the ethnic motivations in reading. Educational achievement gap. Journal of Education for Psychologist, 42(4), 237-250. Students Placed at Risk, 9(2), 169-188. Ivey, G. & Broaddus, K. (2001). Just plain Knoester, M. (2008). [Review of the book reading: A survey of what makes students Conferring with readers: Supporting each want to read in middle school classrooms. student’s growth & independence]. Retrieved Reading Research Quarterly, 36(4), 350-77. , August 10 2008, from www.lib.msu.edu Ivey, G. & Broaddus, K. (2000). Tailoring the fit: /corby/reviews/posted/serravallo.htm Reading instruction and middle school Krashen, S. (2005). The “decline” of reading in readers. Reading Teacher, 54(1), 68-78. America, poverty and access to books, and the Gee, J.P. (1999). The New Literacy Studies and use of comics in encouraging reading. the “social turn.” ERIC, ED 442118. Teachers College Record. Retrieved January Glaser, B. & Strauss, A. (1967). The discovery of 20, 2008 from www.tcrecord.org grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative Krashen, S. (2004). The power of reading: research. New Brunswick: Adline Insights from the research. Portsmouth, NH: Transaction. Heinemann. Glaser, B. (1978). Theoretical sensitivity. Mill Love, K. & Hamston, J. (2003). Teenage boys’ Valley, CA: Sociology Press. leisure reading dispositions: Juggling male Glaser, B. (1998). Doing grounded theory: Issues youth culture and family cultural capital. and discussions. Mill Valley, CA: Sociology Educational Review, 55(2), 161-77. Press. Manning, G. & Manning, M. (1984). What models Gramstorff, C. (2000). Project MURALS: A buddy of recreational reading make a difference? reading/cross-aged literacy curriculum. San Reading World, May, 375-80. Francisco, CA: San Francisco Education McCoy, D. (1991). Surveys of independent Fund. reading: Pinpointing the problems, seeking Greaney, V. (1980). Factors related to amount and the solutions. Paper Presented at Annual type of leisure reading. Reading Research Meeting of the College Reading Association. Quarterly, 15, 337-57. Crystal City, VA. Greaney, V. & Hegarty, M. (1987). Correlates of McKool, S. (2007). Factors that influence the leisure-time reading. Journal of Research in decision to read: An investigation of fifth Reading, 10, 3-10. grade students’ out-of-school reading habits. Reading Improvement, 44(3), 111-113. Heath, S. B. (1983). Ways with words. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Malach, D. & Rutter, R. (2003). For nine months kids go to school, but in the summer this Hepler, S.I. & Hickman, J. (1982). The book was school goes to kids. Reading Teacher, 57(1), okay. I love you: Social aspects of response to 50-54. literature. Theory into Practice, 21, 278-83. Merriam-Webster. (2003). The merriam-webster Hughes-Hassell, S. & Rodge, P. (2007). The dictionary [Electronic Version]. Springfield, leisure reading habits of urban adolescents. MA: Merriam-Webster, Inc. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 51(1), 22-33. Morris, N. & Kaplan, I. (1994). Middle school parents are good partners for reading. Journal Keene, E. O. & Zimmerman, S. (1997). Mosaic of of Reading, 38(2), 1-17. thought: Teaching comprehension in a

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Morrow, L. M. & Weinstein, C. S. (1986). Taylor, D. (Ed.) (1997). Many families, many Encouraging voluntary reading: The impact of literacies: An international declaration of a literature program on children’s use of principles. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. library centers. Reading Research Quarterly, Taylor, D., & Dorsey-Gaines, C. (1988). Growing 21(3), 330-346. up literate: Learning from inner-city families. Ng, M. M., Guthrie, J. T., VanMeter, P., Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. McCamm, A. & Alao, S. (1998). How do Tindall, G. B. & Shi, D. E. (1993). America: A classroom characteristics influence intrinsic narrative history. New York: W.W. Norton & motivations for literacy? Reading Psychology, Co. 19(4), 319-398. Tunnell, M. & Jacobs, J. (1989). Using “real” Pressley, M. (2002). Reading instruction that books: Research findings on literature-based works: The case for balanced teaching (2nd reading instruction. The Reading Teacher, ed.). New York, NY: Guilford Press. 42(7), 470-477. Serravallo, J. & Goldberg, G. (2007). Conferring Verhoeven, L. & Snow, C. (Eds.). (2001). Literacy with readers: Supporting each student’s and motivation: Reading engagement in growth & independence. Portsmouth, NH: individuals and groups. Mahwah, NJ: Heinemann. Lawrence Earlbaum Associates. Short, K.G. & Pierce, K.M., eds. (1990). Talking Vjiie, J. & Krashen, S. (1996). Comic book about books: Creating literate communities. reading, reading enjoyment, and pleasure Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. reading among middle class and chapter I Shor, I. (1992). Empowering education: Critical middle school students. Reading teaching for social change. Chicago: Improvement, 33(1), 51-54. University of Chicago Press. Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thought and language. Smith, F. (1998). The book of learning and Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. forgetting. New York: Teachers College Wang, J. & Guthrie, J. (2004). Modeling the Press. effects of intrinsic motivation, extrinsic Snow, C., Barnes, W., Chandler, J., Goodman, I. motivation, amount of reading, and past & Hemphill, H. (1991). Unfulfilled reading achievement on text comprehension expectations: Home and school influences on between U.S. and Chinese students. Reading literacy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Research Quarterly 39(2), 162-186. Press. Watkins, M. & Edwards, V. (1992). Snow, C., Burns, M., & Griffin, P. (Eds.). (1998). Extracurricular reading and reading Preventing reading difficulties in young achievement: The rich stay rich and the poor children. Washington, D.C.: National don’t read. Reading Improvement, Winter, Academy Press. 236- 242. Street, B., (Ed.). (1995). Social literacies: Critical Wertsch, J. (1985). Vygotsky and the social approaches to literacy in development, formation of mind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard ethnography and education. London: University Press. Longman. Wilson, J. R. (1991). Forging the American Street, B. (1984). Literacy in theory and practice. character: Readings in United States history Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. to 1877. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

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Appendix

In the case of the two teachers interviewed, I sent to them via electronic mail, and before the first full-length interview, a list of questions I was planning to ask, so they could prepare data that may be relevant to the interviews. The questions were:

1.) How do you see (student’s name) as a reader?

2.) What do you think motivates (student) to read or not to read?

3.) Tell me about (student) in the classroom.

4.) What particular academic strengths or weaknesses do you see in (student)?

5.) How might his/her academic identity be related to his/her social identity?

6.) What strategies do you think work best with turning kids on to reading at this age?

7.) Are there particular kinds of homework that work best?

8.) How important do you think reading is to school success?

9.) How have your thoughts on these topics changed over time and the course of your

career?

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