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International Journal of Research and Review Vol.7; Issue: 12; December 2020 Website: www.ijrrjournal.com Review Article E-ISSN: 2349-9788; P-ISSN: 2454-2237

Ancient History of

Dr. (Prof.) Roopam Kumar Guptai , Ratan Lal Guptaii

iPhD (Management), MD (), ACME, MHA, MSc, DIH, MBBS, Professor (Anatomy) & Medical Superintendent, C. U. Shah Medical College , Dudhrej , Surendranagar, Gujarat. 363 001 iiM.A. (Labour & Social Welfare), Research Scholar in Indian History, Retd. Human Resource Executive, Tata Motors

Corresponding Author: Roopam Kumar Gupta

ABSTRACT dearth of primary sources, unreliable secondary sources and numerous The history of and different healing hypotheses. A hospital is a place for have been extensively studied and receiving medical or surgical care. The published, but the history of ‘Hospitals’ or the authors aim to review the existing literature place where these healing activities were on this topic and present a lucid account, actually carried out, often escapes attention of medical historians. In this review article the steering away from unnecessary factual authors have presented a lucid account of the details, dates and scholarly differences, but of Hospitals from approx. 6500 at the same time trying to bring about the BC to 650 AD. Beginning with the etymological charisma of the past ‘achievements’ in an investigation of the word ‘Hospital’, the author innovative style and through a new describes in detail the Neolithic ‘Cave paradigm. Hospitals’, Ancient Indian ‘Ayurvedic Medical Schools’ of Takshila and Kasi, the Buddhist Etymology of the word ‘Hospital’ ‘Monastic Hospitals’ in Srilanka, Mesopotamian Etymology is the study of the history ‘ of Life & Healing’, Tibet’s ‘Palace of words. Etymologically, the journey of the hospitals’, Greek Temple Hospitals word ‘Hospital’ started as ‘Hospes’ ‘’, Roman Military Hospitals ‘Valetudinaria’, Medicity ‘Basilias’, and and was modified to ‘hospitalis’, ‘hospitale’ ‘’ of Gondeshapur. This endeavour and finally to ‘hospital’. Latin ‘hospes’, reviews the ancient to means ‘a stranger, foreigner, or a guest’, and highlight the charisma of the past the noun form derived from this word is ‘achievements’ in an innovative style and ‘hospitium’ which means ‘hospitality’. through a new paradigm. ‘Hospes’ is also the root for few English words like host, hospitality, , Keywords: History of Hospital, Asclepeions, and . They are related partially by Valetudinaria, Basilias, function too and there are similarities in the words used for Hospital in different INTRODUCTION languages. The German word is 'Spital', the “Whoever wishes to foresee the French use ‘hôpital’, in Irish it is ‘ospidéal’, future must consult the past”- Machiavelli. in Hindi and Urdu it is ‘Haspataal’ or There is a lot of literature available ‘Aspataal’, in Turkish it is ‘Hastane’ and in on ‘’ and the other Polish language it is ‘szpital’. ‘Healing Therapies’ that is often referred to by the contemporary and The Prehistoric ‘Cave Hospitals’ . However the ‘Ancient History of ‘’ must be as old as the Hospitals’ (approx. 6500 BC to 650 AD) is human race itself. The power of ‘self- not adequately researched, perhaps due to

International Journal of Research and Review (ijrrjournal.com) 1 Vol.7; Issue: 12; December 2020 Roopam Kumar Gupta et. al. Ancient history of hospitals. awareness’ is endowed to the Homo have been found in Nyero rock paintings of Sapiens, to take care of themselves and their Eastern Uganda. [5] loved ones if they were not well. The clear evidences of Hospitals would invariably exist in being successfully performed and the any crude form, if ‘Surgical Procedures’ and coincidence of proximity to mysterious ‘Treatment’ of the diseased took place. The caves in Peru and cave paintings of witch- oldest surgical procedure known is doctors inside the caves, lends support to the ‘trephination’ and we have archaeological hypothesis that the first hospitals in the evidence in the form of trephined skulls prehistoric times of ‘cave men’ were indeed discovered from ‘Neolithic period’. At a the ‘cave hospitals’. burial site dating to 6500 BCE, in , there were forty trephined skulls found Ancient Indian ‘Ayurvedic Medical together. [1] Many of the skulls showed Schools’ healing signs, indicating that the is sacredly considered to spent their post-operative time somewhere be as old as ‘Brahma’ the Hindu God of recovering, while the wounds healed and Creation. The practice may have started in then lived for years after the . [2] pre historic times when people started to There is evidence of prehistoric trephination become conscious of their health and being commonly performed in the Cusco became aware that they had to take region, of Andean highlands. This is the measures to improve and preserve their same region where mysterious caves called lives. By the time of Indus Valley ‘Naupaiglesia’ have been discovered with Civilization, Ayurveda was the established interesting geometry, especially flat smooth system of healthcare. Archaeologists have surfaces, made by high found stag-horn and cuttlefish bone .[3] This coincidence leads to the suggesting that vegetables, animals and question, if these caves were used as minerals were used as sources for drugs. [6] hospitals for surgeries? Along with Indus Valley people placed great emphasis , was also practiced on personal hygiene and used cosmetics like during this period as archaeologists have collyrium for preventing and curing eye found Neolithic teeth in Mehgarh, . [7] There are no documented Baluchistan province, showing clear signs evidences, but the excavations of the of drilling, using flint-tipped drills and archaeological sites at Harappa and bowstrings. [4] Mohenjo Daro, show a high degree of town In prehistoric communities there planning, awareness and practice regarding were medicine men, witch doctors or and , therefore the ‘shamans’ who were in charge of the tribe’s strong possibility of one of the buildings health, practiced plant based , being used as a ‘Hospital’, exists. carried out rudimentary surgeries like The knowledge of Ayurveda is trephinations and of course, used spells and believed to have been passed on through charms to ward off evil spirits. In the cave ‘Shruti and Smriti’ from ‘Brahma’ through a of Lascaux, France, where Neanderthals and chain of great Sages like ‘’ and early Homo Sapiens lived 30,000 years ago, ‘Dhanvantri’, eventually to ‘Maharshi there is a cave painting depicting a ‘Dis- Charak’. There is no consensus on the dates emboweled bison’ and bird-headed human when Maharshi Charak lived but few figure, which is interpreted by researchers claim this as 200-100 BC. [8] He archaeologists as a ‘shaman’, a kind of wrote “Charak Samhita”, which is priest or healer with powers including the considered as an encyclopaedia of Ayurveda ability to communicate with spirits of other and he is hailed as the Father of Indian worlds. Similar paintings of witch doctors medicine. The place where the Sages Atreya and Maharshi Charak taught and practiced

International Journal of Research and Review (ijrrjournal.com) 2 Vol.7; Issue: 12; December 2020 Roopam Kumar Gupta et. al. Ancient history of hospitals. the art of Ayurveda, was ‘Taxila’ or until 1197. It was devoted to Buddhist ‘TakshShila’ the ancient world’s first studies, but it also trained students in international university that existed approx. medicine. [12] 400-500 BCE to 550 CE. [9] The University was undoubtedly the first ‘Teaching Buddhist Sinhalese ‘Monastic Hospitals’ Hospital’ for Ayurvedic medicine and The art of healing was promoted in surgery that was studied for up to seven Buddhism, with Buddha himself years. This famous university not only emphasizing that health was among the attracted medical students from far off most precious goods a person can possess. places in and from foreign countries In one iconic story in the ‘Vinaya Pitaka’, like Babylonia, Egypt, Phoenicia, Syria, the Buddha comes across a with Arabia, China and Greece. ‘Jivaka’, the dysentery who has been abandoned by his great to Gautama Buddha and an fellow monastics. After caring for the monk expert in pulse reading is also said to have with Ananda’s help, the Buddha admonishes studied Ayurveda in TakshaShila University the sangha. “Whoever would tend to me,” for seven years. he says, “should tend to the sick.” Buddha Maharshi ‘Sushruta’, often referred first taught medicine to his ‘sangha’ and to as the “Father of Surgery,” was an then he allowed to visit patients and influential physician in ancient India (circa to carry medicines with them as described in 600 BCE) who is still revered today for the the ‘Dulwa-smangzhi’, in Vinaya Pitaka. He critical development of Ayurvedic surgical later taught the ‘Gyud-shi’, which are the procedures and his work ‘Sushruta four medical ‘tantras’ that laid the Samhita’. [10] It describes ‘shalya tantra’, foundation of the Tibetan medical system. the practice of surgery and it is the oldest This system focuses on the direct healing of known document on surgery in the world. the ’s body and mind with the help of The book describes more than 300 surgical the appropriate medicines, diet, behaviour procedures, including plastic reconstruction and therapies in order to pacify the result of surgery (like Rhinoplasty) and the removal mentally negative passions. The second of cataracts. It also describes over 120 rock edict of King Asoka states that surgical instruments including ‘tubular’ functioned as hospitals in early instruments (endoscopy) and more than Indian society. King Asoka established 1,120 diseases, , and conditions. [11] hospitals for men and animals (3rd century However there is no mention of the BC) and the old Buddhist medicine of ‘Hospital’ with the ‘Operation Theaters’ Mahavagga (4th century BC), was where he performed his great surgeries. We practiced. [14] may certainly conclude that the ‘Surgical The earliest Monastic hospitals can Hospital’ was also very developed be traced back as far as the 5th Century BC, technically to match the brilliance of the to the ancient ‘Sinhalese’ (Sri Lankans). ‘Father of Indian Surgery’. He is known to Excavations have revealed three hospitals have practiced medicine in northern India situated in Buddhist monasteries in along the banks of the Ganges River, near Anuradhapura, Madirigivi and Polonnaruva. . It may be inferred that Maharshi According to the ‘Mahavamsa’, written in Sushruta taught and practiced in the the 4th century B.C., King ‘Pandukabhaya’ university at ‘Benares’ or ‘Kasi’ which was had ‘Sivikasotthi Sala’ or ‘lying in homes’ a famous school of medicine, moulded on as hospitals built in various parts of the the lines of Taxila by students from Taxila. country. ‘’ is a mountain peak near It flourished from 7th B. C. to 12 AD. Anuradhapura in . Several Another ancient was the significant artifacts were discovered in Nalanda University, founded in 427 AD in ancient hospital site like medicine grinders northeastern India (Bihar), and it survived of granite, vessels, medical instruments of

International Journal of Research and Review (ijrrjournal.com) 3 Vol.7; Issue: 12; December 2020 Roopam Kumar Gupta et. al. Ancient history of hospitals. bronze and a medicinal trough of stone this early period included bandaging and ‘Behethoruwa’ (Medicine bath ). This is making plasters for wounds. The Asus made carved in the shape of the human body; the house calls and many patients were treated length is 7 feet and the width is 2 ½ feet. A in their home. Buddha image was in the middle of the For the Asipu, , referred hospital complex. The structures include a to as ‘House of Life’ (per ankh) are known room, a large patient waiting to have been established in as hall, two separate rooms presumably used early as 2200 BC. These institutions could for examining patients, an inner court with a perform amazing feats with magic and could Buddha Shrine, with a corridor leading to 32 call upon the power of the gods. Magic was residential rooms for in-house patients. Each so relevant that healing amulets played an of these rooms measures 3.96m x 3.96 important role in treatments, especially one meters. There was also a ‘Jantaghara’ or a called the ‘Eye of Horus’. The symbolic room where steam and hot water shape ‘Rx’ continues to be used at the was administered in the hospital building. beginning of all medical prescriptions by The remains of a separate building, which physicians even today. The hieroglyphic could be the of the hospital, are script found under the statue of chief visible in the northern side beyond the physician ‘Wedjahorresnet’, now in the hospital. [15,16] Gregorian Egyptian Museum at Vatican, states that the King Darius commanded him Mesopotamia and Egypt’s ‘House of Life’ to return to Egypt to establish the bureau of The ancient Mesopotamians used a the ‘House of Life’ for the exercise of balance of rational science and magic for healing. [18] Thus we may conclude that the healing. At around 3500 B.C., there were ‘House of Life’, were the earliest hospitals two kinds of medicine men in in Mesopotamia and Egypt. Mesopotamia–the asipu who practiced the The first architect of the great more ritual or magical side of medicine and pyramids ‘Imhotep’ who lived in Egypt the asu who practiced therapeutic medicine, during the reign of pharaoh ‘Djoser’ (2667- composed of surgical and herbal treatments. 2648 BC) was also his ‘vizier’ or chief Although modern-day scholars refer to the minister. Imhotep is also hailed as founder asipu as a 'witch doctor' or expert in ‘white of Egyptian medicine and as the author of magic’ and the asu as a 'medical the scroll ‘Smith papyrus’ which is practitioner,' the Mesopotamians regarded considered the oldest treatise on trauma. the two with equal respect. The asu kept Imhotep was considered as the ‘inventor of cots in their places of for the healing’ and after his death, he was elevated treatment and recovery of patients; had to the position of a god of medicine and surgical and pharmacological equipment; healing. [19] At the temple of Heliopolis, a and though there were no large facilities that major city of ancient Egypt, they discovered could be termed as hospitals, these facilities gravestones of the doctors. Engraved on resembled small . The asu were them are inscriptions as “superintendent of trained in schools associated with temples of the secrets of health of the house of Thoth”, the goddess of medicine and healing called “the greatest of doctors”, “eye specialist to Gula and would remain always associated the palace.” From the hieroglyphics found with some temple complex. The practices of on the tomb of doctor Iry, we learn that he asu were later regulated by the famous Code was called “keeper of the king’s rectum.” of Hammurabi. [17] Asu used medical There was also a “keeper of the king’s right manoeuvres such as inspection, eye,” and “keeper of the kings left eye.” and in order to obtain Ancient Egyptian medicine was later information from the patient’s body and adopted by the Greeks who purified it from used the concept of syndromes. Practices in its magic concepts. [20]

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Chinese Healer Monks on ‘House Calls’ and Bila Gaje attained immortality and still In China there were Buddhist exist in a forest of sandalwood. It is ‘healer-monks’ who worked as therefore inferred that the palace of the King missionaries, translators, and advisers across ‘Yumbu Lakhar’ must have housed the first medieval Asia and there was a huge inter- ‘Buddhist Hospital’ of Tibet. [22] regional trade in medicinal substances such as herbs, animal products, gemstones, relics, Greek Temple Hospitals ‘Asclepeions’. and other magical materials. Buddhist In Homer's Iliad, was the healing became popular in the early physician healing the soldiers wounded on medieval period (3rd to 8th century C.E.) the battlefield at Troy. He was considered among both the common people and the the son of Apollo, the patron God of elite. A network of monastic , Medicine. Asclepius was so an expert in the , and asylums were established art of surgery, that he was known to have across the empire. The concept of ‘Medicine the ability to return the living from the dead. Buddha (Bhaishajyaguru)’ became an He was later elevated to the status of the important part of the medieval Chinese Gods. In , around 350 BCE, healing practice. The Medicine Buddha temples known as ‘Asclepieia’ were mantra is held to be extremely powerful for dedicated to him as the healer-god healing of physical illnesses and purification ‘Asclepius’, and they functioned as centres of negative karma. Chinese medicine of medical advice, prognosis, and healing, includes Acupuncture, Tai Chi and Herbal where patients and would flock to medicines. Physicians during this time did seek spiritual and physical healing. Over not have offices or one exact area where 300 asclepieia have been discovered they treated patients. So, these individuals throughout ancient Greece, the famous ones travelled to the patient’s , and treated at Trikka, , island of , Athens, them at home on ‘house calls’. This is very Corinth and Pergamon. It was peculiar to different from today’s society where doctors have presence of dogs and non-venomous have their own offices in hospitals or snakes, known as ‘Aesculapian snake’ at medical facilities. [21] these temples. The treatment practised was of two stages- Katharsis & Incubation. The Tibetan ‘Palaces’ as Buddhist Hospital initial step of ‘Katharsis’, or purification, It has been mentioned in a Bon text consisted of a series of cleansing baths and titled “Jam-ma tsa-drel” (200 B.C.), that purgation, accompanied by a cleansing diet, there lived twelve scholars of Bon tradition which lasted several days. The next step of including a medical scholar, who treated ‘Incubation’ or ‘Dream Therapy’ was diseases through medication and therapy. performed at an “Abaton” or This indicates that there were Tibetan “Enkoimeterion,” which was a dormitory physicians even prior to the advent of located in the . Patients would be Buddhism in Tibet. The introduction of induced into a dream-like state of sleep Buddhist medicine happened when in 245- known as ‘enkoimesis’, and this practice 364 A.D., two monks Biji Gaje and Bila was known as ‘incubatio’, or ‘Temple Gaje, went to Taxilla and studied medicine Sleep’. Asclepius or his daughters, Hygea under the great Physician Atreya and then and Panacea, would come in their dreams visited Magadha to study under Kumara and tell them how to cure their ailment. The Jivaka. The Tibetian King Lha Thotho-Ri- patients would interpret the dream with the Nyantsen, invited both to his Palace in help of the priests and perform the ritual that Tibet. He requested them to remain there to was mostly to visit the baths or a teach and practice medicine, and he gave his gymnasium. daughter YidkyiRolcha as a bride to Biji In the Asclepieion of Epidaurus, Gaje. It is believed in Tibet that Biji Gaje there are three large marble boards dating

International Journal of Research and Review (ijrrjournal.com) 5 Vol.7; Issue: 12; December 2020 Roopam Kumar Gupta et. al. Ancient history of hospitals. back to 350 BC having the names, case kitchen, staff quarters, and washing and histories, complaints, and cures of about 70 latrine facilities. [24] patients who had been successfully treated Marcus Terentius Varro (116BC– there. It includes realistic details of surgical 27BC) a Roman scholar who was patronized cures, such as the draining an abdominal by Augustus, knew the importance of abscess or the removal of traumatic foreign micro-organisms in the pathogenesis of body, perhaps under the influence of disease long before Louis Pasteur ‘enkoimesis’ which could have been opium. formalised the germ theory of disease and These asclepeion was also the first Greek his guidance was used for the designing of Medical School. The ‘Father of Medicine’ the valetudinarian. “When building a (470-360 BCE) is said to have hospital special care should be taken to received his medical training at an place it at the foot of a wooded hill where it asclepeion on the isle of Kos. Claudius is exposed to health-giving winds. Care Galenus or (129-210 AD), one of the should be taken where there are swamps in most accomplished of all medical the neighbourhood, because certain tiny researchers of ancient times, treated and creatures which cannot be seen by the eyes studied at the famed asclepeion at breed there. These float through the air and Pergamon. [23] enter the body by the mouth and nose and cause serious disease.” [25] The Roman Roman Military Hospitals valetudinarian, set pioneering standards in ‘Valetudinaria’ Hospital Infection Control Practices. The Romans established hospitals ‘valetudinaria’ for the treatment of their sick Roman Medi-cities ‘Basilias’ slaves and injured soldiers; their care was Around A.D. 325, with important because it was upon the integrity becoming an accepted in the Roman of the legions that the power of ancient Empire, the construction of a hospital in was based. Latin term valetudinarian every town was begun. The first is derived from ‘valetudo’, or "good health". Christian hospital in the eastern Byzantine They were built in the time of Emperor Empire (Asia Minor- modern day Turkey) Augustus, as military hospitals within each was built by , or Saint legion. The concept was to isolate the Basil the Great, the of Caesarea in diseased from the community till he was Cappadocia. Therefore these hospitals were normal again. Initially the valetudinaria called as Basiliad, Basileias or Basileiados. were ‘field hospitals’ or ‘flying military They resembled a town that included camps’ and began as a small cluster of tents housing for doctors and nurses, separate and fortresses dedicated to wounded buildings for various types of patients and soldiers. Over time, the temporary forts separate section for lepers. There were few developed into permanent facilities. The basilias with libraries and training activities original hospitals were built along major where doctors compiled their medical and , and soon became part of Roman fort pharmacological studies into manuscripts. . They were usually placed near The hospital staff included the Chief the outer wall in a quiet part of the Physician (archiatroi), professional nurses fortification. A standard valetudinarium was (hypourgoi) and the (hyperetai). a rectangular building consisting of four John Chrysostom, the bishop of wings, connected by an entrance hall that , in 398-404 AD developed a could be used as a centre. Each Basilia in Constantinople, and many basilias legion's hospital was constructed to arose in other cities, some run by monks, accommodate 6% to 10% of the legion's some supported by wealthy citizens and 5,000 men. The building also included a they also received privileged treatment large hall, reception ward, dispensary, from the government. Between 420 and 650

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AD, the hospitals became more numerous of Medicine into the literary language of the and larger, like the ones found in Ephesus, - ‘Pahlavi’. He also sent , and Jerusalem (of 200 beds). The the famous physician ‘Borzouye’ to invite famous basilia of Sampson Xenon, was built Indian and Chinese scholars to by physician Saint Sampson, in the late . These visitors helped fourth century in Constantinople. It was a translate Indian texts on medicine and complex of elaborate buildings where Chinese texts on herbal medicine to be patients were treated in wards by specialized taught at Gundeshapur. Interestingly the physicians. It may be noted that the Greek was known as word ‘Hospital’ signifies the etymological ‘bimaristan’, which is a compound of link between ‘Hotel, Hospitality and “bimar” (sick or ill) and “stan” (place). The Hospital’ as these structures catered to the most notable Indian doctor who contributed ‘travellers’, strangers, orphans, sick and to the development of the medical school at poor. In fact the ‘basiliad’ was a social Gundeshapur, was Mankah. Thus welfare endeavour. The Roman ‘basilias’ Gundeshapur developed into a uniquely were indeed the earliest professionally tolerant and peaceful meeting point for the administrated hospitals. study of the philosophical and medical traditions of Persians, Greeks, Indians, The ‘Bimaristan’ of Gondeshapur Zoroastrians, Jews and Nestorians. In fact The Persian mythology ascribes the Harith bin Kalada, the Prophet Mohammed's introduction of medicine to Persia to physician, was also trained at Gundeshapur. ‘Jamshid’ who was the fourth king of . [26] Elgood writes that ‘to a very large ‘Gundeshapur’ was one of the major cities extent, the credit for the whole hospital in of the Persian system must be given to Persia’. [27] empire. The Sasanian King Shāpur I, The history continues with founded the city as a garrison town after tremendous intellectual activity, culminating defeating a roman army and later made it his in the ‘Golden era of Islamic Medicine’ but capital. ‘Gund-dēz-i Shāpūr’, means as the period of Ancient History by "military fortress of Shapur”. Shāpur I 's consensus extends till the coming of wife, was the daughter of ‘Aurelian’ the (650 AD), the scope of this article concludes Roman Emperor, who lived in the capital here. with him. She had brought with her two Greek physicians, who settled in the city CONCLUSION and taught Hippocratic medicine. Thus the journey of rediscovering Gundeshapur soon had a teaching hospital the ‘Ancient History of hospitals’ comes to with a library. It provided systemized an end. It began with hypothesis that medical treatment to patients and the hospitals existed as ‘Cave Hospitals’ in scholars of the academy imparted formal prehistoric times as early as the Neolithic medical of the highest standards era, where surgeries like trephination were where medical students were required to performed and witch doctors healed the work in the hospital under the supervision sick. The discussion followed to the Ancient of the medical faculty. The Arabic text, the Indian ‘Ayurvedic Medical Schools’ during ‘Tārīkh al-ḥukamā’ records that medical 7th century BC of Takshila and Kasi where students had to pass exams in order to and Sushruta taught medicine and practice as accredited Gondeshapur surgery. Then Buddhist ‘Monastic physicians. The emperor Khusraw I, (A.D. Hospitals’ in Srilanka of 3rd Century BC, 531-579) gave refuge to various Greek especially the oldest ruins of Mihintale philosophers fleeing religious persecution Hospital was described. The ancient by the and ordered these Mesopotamian ‘House of Life & Healing’ refugees to translate Greek and Syriac texts that used magic charms in temple hospitals,

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Chinese ‘’ system and Tibet’s https://www.historyofayurveda.org/library/a Palace hospitals in 2nd century BC was ncient-university-takshashila discussed. The Before Christ era ended with 10. Joshua J. Mark. Sushruta. 2018. Available descriptions of the Greek Temple Hospitals from https://www.ancient.eu/sushruta/ ‘asclepeions’ and Roman Military Hospitals 11. Singh V. Sushruta: The father of surgery. National journal of maxillofacial surgery. ‘valetudinaria’. The Anno Domini or "In the 2017 Jan;8(1):1. year of Our Lord" era started with Roman 12. All India Council for Technical Education Medi-cities ‘Basilias’. The journey was cut (AICTE) Ancient Universities in India, short with a short description of the available from https://www.aicte- ‘Bimaristans’ of Gondeshapur as the scope india.org/downloads/ancient.pdf of this review extended till 650AD when the 13. Pasang Y. Arya. Gyud-shi Oral transmission Ancient History period is considered to have Available at https://www.tibetanmedicine- paved the way for the Medieval period. edu.org/index.php/events/3-gyud-shi-oral- After this long journey through time, it will transmission be appropriate to end with the disclaimer, as 14. Rattini K. Who was ? Available quoted by Sir Winston Churchill - “History from https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture is written by the victors." /people/reference/ashoka/

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