University of Alberta Cultural Identity and Transnational Networks in a Chinese Diaspora Society in Sibu, Sarawak, Malaysia by Hsu, Yu-tsuen A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Anthropology ©Hsu, Yu-tsuen Fall 2012 Edmonton, Alberta Permission is hereby granted to the University of Alberta Libraries to reproduce single copies of this thesis and to lend or sell such copies for private, scholarly or scientific research purposes only. Where the thesis is converted to, or otherwise made available in digital form, the University of Alberta will advise potential users of the thesis of these terms. The author reserves all other publication and other rights in association with the copyright in the thesis and, except as herein before provided, neither the thesis nor any substantial portion thereof may be printed or otherwise reproduced in any material form whatsoever without the author's prior written permission. Abstract This research investigates transnational networking and cultural identity in a Chinese diaspora community in Sibu, Sarawak. In particular, I focus on the surge in public expressions of cultural identity among Chinese sub-ethnic groups in this bazaar town since the late 1970s. The activism of Chinese culture is a consequence of the rise of ethnic nationalism against the pro-Malay policy by the Malaysian Government. However, the economic growth and rapid urbanization from the early 1970s has also played an important role. In Part I of the dissertation, I analyze the historical and ethnographic background of the Sibu Chinese. The migration of Chinese people to Sibu resulted from the expansion of the capitalist world economy. The first Chinese pioneers came to Sibu and established their traditions in the 1850s. The most populous sub-ethnic group, the Foochow, arrived in Sibu in 1901; this group had a special rural and Christian background. They have taken the dominant economic and political positions in the Sibu bazaar since the 1960s. A common Chinese culture takes shape under the influence of common cultural centers and the acculturation between sub-ethnic groups. In Part II, I explore three major representations of Chinese cultural identity in Sibu. First of all, Sibu Chinese have engaged in the organization of the sub-ethnic groups since the 1930s. They are the base for the federations of Chinese associations at the local, state and national levels. They also make efforts to expand the transnational networks of their sub-ethnic groups. The Sibu Foochow take the lead in the transnational network among their counterparts all over the world. Second, the Foochow showed how they cherish their pioneers through the construction of memorial parks and a cultural hall in 2001. However, other non-Foochow regional-language-based communities and sub-groups of Foochow soon constructed their memorial parks to express their own historical interpretations. Thirdly, the surname associations have become newly emergent associations in Sibu since the late 1970s. These associations build connection among their surname-sakes in Sibu and eventually expanded their connections around the world spatially and to the apical ancestors in China historically. Acknowledgments This dissertation is made possible by the wholehearted support from the University of Alberta, the host country of my fieldwork, and many others. My study in Edmonton was enjoyable. I especially appreciate my supervisor Dr Jean DeBernardi for her careful and timely instruction on the dissertation. Committee members Dr Gregory Forth, Dr Kathleen Lowrey and Dr Helen Vallianatos in the Department of Anthropology, Dr Ryan Dunch in the Department of East Asian Studies, as well as Dr Sharon Carstens in the Department of Anthropology at Portland State University give me critical opinions on my dissertation. I would like to thank the following institutions and persons for their funding on my Ph.D. program, including the Ministry of Education of the Republic of China (the Taiwan Government) with a three-year full funding grant (2006-2009), the Edward Chang Memorial Scholarship (2008), the Professional Development and Travel Grant from the Graduate Students’ Association at the University of Alberta (2009), and the Dissertation Fellowship for the Republic of China Student Abroad offered by the Chiang Ching-kuo Foundation for Scholarly Exchange (2010-2011). The host country, Malaysia, provided me the research permit and a one-year visa for the research. I would like to thank the State Planning Unit, Chief Minister’s Department, Sarawak. The Faculty of Social Science at the Universiti Malaysia Sarawak gave me generous local academic support. I appreciate the assistance from Dr Ling Haw Kee, Dr Daniel Chew and Dr Elena Gregoria Chai. The Sibu Chinese community gave my friendly rapport. I would especially like to thank Chua Cheen Chong, Penghulu Chua Hiong Kee, Shirley Kueh, Huang Fu Chiu, Ho Ming Seng, Jamie Hiing, Kapitan Hong Wing Huong, Kong Sien Han, Lau Ping, Ling Swee Hing, Penghulu Soon Choon Hoo, Teo Joo Hung, John Ting, Tiong Yiong Ching, Wong Chung Tiew, Wong Meng Chuo, and Wong Meng Lei for their granting me access to literary and statistical materials. I have benefited from the knowledge and advice of so many friends and specialists in Sibu. I cannot list all their names in this acknowledgement, but I hope that they accept my thanks. The writing-up of this dissertation was done in Hong Kong, Edmonton and Taiwan, from January 2010 to February 2012. The International Center at the University of Alberta offered me a Study Abroad Tuition Waiver Award for the exchange program with the Chinese University of Hong Kong (CUHK) from January to June 2010. I appreciate the guidance of my local advisor Dr Tan Chee Beng, in the Department of Anthropology at the CUHK. I also benefited from the Overseas Chinese Collection in the Library of CUHK. I finished the first draft of the dissertation while on a return trip to Edmonton from September 2010 to May 2011. The offices in the Department of Anthropology were under renovation at this time, but my supervisor Dr Jean DeBernardi kindly found an office in the Department of East Asian Studies for me. I would like to thank Dr Mikael Adolphson for the arrangement. I built friendships with contract instructors Neill Walker, Isaka Yukiko, Lee Insuk and Dr Darryl Sterk in the Department of East Asian Studies. They provided me strong support during the most difficult time. I appreciate the editors of the dissertation, Dr Darryl Sterk and Chris Brainerd, for their carefully proofreading on the drafts. Finally, I would like to thank my family and friends for their support of my grand adventure of knowledge. Contents Abstract Acknowledgement List of Tables List of Figures Introduction………………………………………………………………………… 1 One Festival, Multiple Identities…..……………………………………………........ 1 The Torch from Bukit Cina………………………………………………………… 5 Beyond the Torch: Unity and Diversity………………………………………... 9 Political Identity……………………………………..………………………………. 9 Cultural Identity……………………………………………………………………... 14 Geographical Position of Sibu………………………………………………………. 18 Research Questions…………………………………………………………….......... 19 Research Methodology……………………………………………………………… 20 Overview………………………………………………………………………..….. 24 Chapter 1. The Establishment of Chinese Culture in Sibu…………………… 27 A Brief History of Chinese in Sarawak……………………………………………… 28 Gold Rush in West Borneo………………………………………………………. 30 Rajah Brooke…………………………………………………………………… 30 The Rise of Singapore…………………………………………………………… 34 After the War…………………………………………………………………… 35 Chinese Population in Sarawak and Sibu…………………………………………… 36 Chinese Sub-ethnic Groups in Sarawak and Sibu…………………………………… 39 Fujian Province………………………………………………………………… 40 Guangdong Province ..………………………………………………………… 45 Hainan Province…………………………………………………………………. 48 Population by Sub-ethnic Groups in Sarawak and Sibu…………………………… 49 Chinese Pioneers and Their Traditions…………………………………………….. 52 Cantonese and Hokkien Graveyard Pavilion……………………………….…… 54 The Forever Peaceful Pavilion…………………………………………………... 58 Supra-factional Organization and Eng Ann Teng……………………………… 62 Concluding Remarks………………………………………………………………… 64 Chapter 2. The Foochow in Sibu: Settlements, Religions and Developments….. 66 Christianity and the Foochow Migration to Sibu……………………………………. 67 Methodist in China and Foochow……………………………………………….. 69 Wong Nai Siong, Chinese Revolutionary and the Immigration Project………… 70 Incorporation into the Methodist Network in Singapore………………………... 73 Economic Strategy of Rajah Brookes and the Foochow’s Prewar Expansion………. 74 Exemption of Loan………………………………………………………………. 75 Expansion of the Foochow before WWII………………………………….......... 76 Diversified Religious Affiliations of the Foochow………………………………….. 78 Christian Foochow………………………………………………………………. 78 Chinese Traditional Religion……………………………………………………. 82 The Economic Expansion of the Foochow after WWII……………………………... 84 Partnership and the Foochow in Sibu Bazaar…………………………………… 85 Managing Economic and Social Capital……………………………………………. 88 Bank of the Foochow Chinese…………………………………………………... 88 Timber Industry………………………………………………………………….. 90 Pursuing Political Power………………………………………………………… 91 Recent Expansion of the Foochow…………………………………………………... 92 Concluding Remarks………………………………………………………………… 94 Chapter 3. A Localized Sibu Chinese Culture………………………………… 96 The Interaction with Chinese Cultural Centers…………………………………….. 97 Singapore……………………………………………………………………….