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Christian Missionaries in Mongolia After 1990

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God on the steppe: Christian missionaries in Mongolia after 1990 Aleksandra Wazgird Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment (60 credits) of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in History of Religions Department of Culture Studies and Oriental Languages Faculty of Humanities UNIVERSITY OF OSLO Spring 2011 3 Foreword Working on this thesis has been a rewarding and inspirational journey and I owe a big part of it to the people who have helped me on the way. I would first and foremost like to thank my supervisor, Hanna Havnevik, for being a true inspiration and for offering constructive and invaluable feedback throughout the work on this thesis. This thesis would have not been possible without the people who provided me both with the materials and with the concepts for understanding them. In this respect, my deep gratitude goes to my informants in Mongolia, who have given generously of themselves, their time and resources. I want to thank them for their warmth and hospitality and for their directness and openness during our conversations and discussions. I would like to thank Marla and Daria, two fantastic Mongolian women very big hearts, for offering me their wisdom and insight without which this study would have been all the poorer. I am also deeply indebted to Soso in Norway and her family in Mongolia for their practical help during my fieldwork. A huge thank you goes to my family and friends, for continued support throughout what sometimes must have seemed like never ending studies. In particular, I need to thank my brother. Although younger on paper, he often seems to be more grown up and put together than me. Finally I wish to thank Espen for his encouraging enthusiasm, patience and advice. I could not have completed this thesis without you. 4 Note on transliteration For transliteration of historical names and terms I follow Christopher Atwood’s Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire. Contemporary Mongolian words are transliterated from Cyrillic according to the scheme proposed by Rita Kullman and Dandii- Yamadyn Tserenpil in Mongolian Grammar, published under the auspices of the School of Mongolian Language and Culture at the National University of Mongolia and Institute of Language and Literature, Academy of Sciences, Mongolia. Kullman and Tserenpil believe this method keeps the pronunciation as close to Cyrillic as possible. 5 Contents Foreword.....................................................................................................................................................3 Note on transliteration.................................................................................................................................4 Contents.......................................................................................................................................................5 Introduction.................................................................................................................................................7 Research Methods..................................................................................................................................9 Outline of chapters................................................................................................................................12 Socio-economical situation in Mongolia after 1990.............................................................................12 Chapter 1 History of religions in Mongolia before 1990............................................................................................18 The pre-imperial period........................................................................................................................18 The Mongol Empire period...................................................................................................................19 Christianity in the Mongol Empire..................................................................................................22 The post-imperial period.......................................................................................................................24 Christian mission in the post-imperial period..................................................................................27 The Mongolian People’s Republic period ............................................................................................30 Chapter 2 Modernization and religious change in Mongolia......................................................................................33 The classical theories of modernization and Christian mission.............................................................34 Multiple modernities.............................................................................................................................35 The West, the East and the new Mongolian identity.............................................................................36 Multiple modernities and religion.........................................................................................................38 Is there such a thing as a common communist context?........................................................................39 The dimensions of secularization..........................................................................................................40 Secularization or revitalization?...........................................................................................................43 Concluding remarks..............................................................................................................................45 Chapter 3 Religious scene in Mongolia after 1990.....................................................................................................46 Legal context – the legislated freedom of religion................................................................................46 Religious revival...................................................................................................................................53 Buddhism........................................................................................................................................53 Shamanism......................................................................................................................................60 Concluding remarks..............................................................................................................................62 Chapter 4 Christianity in Mongolia after 1990...........................................................................................................64 Evangelical Protestants.........................................................................................................................65 The beginnings ...............................................................................................................................65 South Korean missionaries..............................................................................................................69 Denominations.................................................................................................................................70 Churches, education and national leadership training......................................................................73 Christian community.......................................................................................................................76 Media ..............................................................................................................................................78 Humanitarian work..........................................................................................................................80 The Roman Catholic Church................................................................................................................83 The Jesus Christ Church of Latter-Day Saints......................................................................................86 6 The Seventh-day Adventist Church .....................................................................................................88 The Russian Orthodox Church..............................................................................................................90 Concluding remarks..............................................................................................................................91 Chapter 5 Contextualization of Christianity in Mongolia...........................................................................................92 The analytical usefulness of the concept of ‘syncretism’......................................................................93 Missionaries and contextualization – a historical perspective...............................................................95 Traditional religio-political relations and present-day contextualization of Christianity in Mongolia 98 The missionary understanding of syncretism and the issues of power and agency in the Mongolian context................................................................................................................................................101 Translation of Christian terminology and the Bible into Mongolian...................................................108 Concluding remarks............................................................................................................................113 Conclusion...............................................................................................................................................114
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