Index

Abitibi greenstone belt pegmatites, Air conditioning; lithium’s use in 99, 182, Quebec, Canada 89 197, 198, 201 Absorbant, adsorbent; lithium’s use as an Air drying with CaCl2 374 83, 99, 176, 182, 197, 198, 200, 201 Albite’s conversion to chlorite 266, 267 Absorption of moisture by CaCl2 346, 365, Alcohols as boron or lithium solvents 115, 370–372, 374–378, 432, 433 116, 126–129, 136–140 Abundance of Li in the earth’s crust 1, 97, 98 Al Hayat sector, Bikita deposit Acid leach processes, lithium ores 59, 171, 61–63, 65, 156, 157 172 Alkali (near Bristol Lake), California Acid roast process, ore 284, 285 161–164, 169–172 Alkali metals’ properties 211–214 Activated carbon, use with lithium solutions Allan potash mine’s CaCl2 brine, Saskatch- 161, 170, 175 ewan, Canada 245, 246 Activity coefficients, lithium, CaCl2 Altai Mountains lithium pegmatites, China, solutions 212, 420, 427, 430 Russia 92, 95, 96 Adsorption, reaction; lithium on clays, rocks Altmark gasfield’s dolomitization brine, 3, 10, 18, 21, 34, 44 Germany 45, 265 Aerosols, sea 306, 309, 310 Alto Ligonha’s lithium pegmatites, Afar Depression’s thermal CaCl2 springs, Mozambique 2, 91 276, 277, 291–298, 321 Alumina, aluminum hydroxide adsorption Afghanistan’s Hindukush Mountain lithium of lithium 5, 132, 140–144 pegmatites 2, 56–57, 97 Aluminum; lithium’s use in production, African Rift Valley 322 alloys 99, 182, 188–190, 196 ’s lithium pegmatites (excluding characteristics, deposits 4, 53, Bikita) 2, 3, 91–92, 169, 204 58, 62, 67, 70, 73, 77, 78, 90–92, 94, Age of calcium chloride 281, 285, 150, 154, 155, 168, 171 287, 291, 299 Amboy, Amboy Crater, Bristol Lake, Age of lithium brine deposits 8, 16–18, 27, California 285, 352 28, 33 American Lithium Chemicals, San Antonio, Age of lithium pegmatites 53, 60, 61, 68, 79, Texas 99, 165 83, 85, 90, 92 American Potash and Chemical Co., Trona, Agricultural uses of CaCl2 376–378 California 58, 99, 133, 165, 203

459 460 Index

11 Amesite and chlorite’s conversion by CaCl2 d B 261, 264 268 Bagdad Crater (Cinder Cone; Amboy Ammonium chloride– pressure Crater), Bristol Lake 285 leach process 167 Ballasting tires with CaCl2 brine 272 Analacite’s conversion by CaCl2 to hydrous Bangkog Cuo Lake, China, high-lithium glass 268 brine 38, 39, 41 Analyses, CaCl2 products 384, 385, 430 Barite with CaCl2 occlusions 332 Analyses, lithium concentrates, products Barroso–Alvao and Guarda lithium 170, 184, 187, 210 pegmatites, Portugal 2, 3, 94, 95 Angara- Basin’s high-lithium, CaCl2 Basalt; leaching, adsorbing lithium; forming brine, Russia 45, 142, 259, 318 CaCl2 by sea water 238, 268, 269, Anhydrite’s solubility in CaCl2 335 273, 290, 311, 335 Anorthite’s conversion to albite, epidote, exchange processes for lithium ores etc. 265, 267, 268 161–164, 166, 169–171, 173, 174 Anorthite’s solubility in CaCl2 335 Batteries, lithium’s use in 82, 99, 182, Antarctica 294, 295, 298–311, 322, 383 190–195 Antarcticite 237, 298, 300, 305, 311, 326 Beecher Lode spodumene pegmatite, South Antimony–gold with CaCl2 Dakota 84, 85, 166 occlusions 332 Belgium’s Variscan Foreland CaCl2 Antofagasta, Chile 11, 109, 112, 114, 126, groundwater 315 132 Bentonite, effect of CaCl2 on 336, 337 Apatite in lithium pegmatites 60, 73, 81, 96 Bentonite, leaching lithium from 172 Apatite with CaCl2 occlusions 333 Berea Formation CaCl2 brine, Michigan Apatite’s reaction with CaCl2 335 Basin 252–254 Appalachian oil or gasfield CaCl2 brines, Bernic Lake lithium pegmatite, Manitoba, groundwater 260, 265, 318 Canada 2, 3, 55, 56, 68–78, Aracuai–Itinga lithium pegmatites, Brazil 150–155 2, 90 Beryl recovery from lithium pegmatites 53, Aragonite’s reaction with CaCl2 335 61, 62, 83, 90, 155 Archambault–Oliver’s spodumene Bessemer City, North Carolina 2, 81, 99, CO2 –pressure leach process 166 163, 164 Arcs: Aleutian, Central American, Kurile, Best Bet spodumene mine, Northwest Sunda; lithium in 45, 46 Territories, Canada 90 Argentina’s lithium pegmatites 2, 91 Big Mack petalite deposit, Ontario, Canada Arkansas oil or gas field CaCl2 brines 2, 45, 54, 85–89 47, 136, 142, 262, 264, 267 Big Whopper petalite deposit, Ontario, Arquena de Minerios e Metais Ltd, Brazil Canada 53, 56, 85–88, 171 91, 168 Bihar, Rajasthan’s lepidolite pegmatite, Asal, CaCl2 Lake, thermal springs, Ethiopia India 56, 94 270, 271, 291–295, 297, 298, 322 Bikita, Zimbabwe lithium pegmatite 2, 3, ’s lithium pegmatites 59–61 52, 53, 56, 57, 61–68, 155–157, Australia’s Queensland CaCl2 groundwater 165, 204 314 Bikitaite 4, 62, 87 Austria’s Koralpe spodumene deposit 2, 3, , effect of CaCl2 solutions on 336 92 Bischoffite from high-lithium brines 110, Avalon Ventures, Ontario, Canada 53, 87 113, 124, 125 Index 461 Bischoffite deposits 321, 320, 327–329 Burial depth of lithium pegmatites as they Bismuth minerals with CaCl2 occlusions formed 50, 52, 61, 83 334 Butyl (or n-Butyl) lithium 99, 131, Black Hills lithium pegmatite district, South 177, 180, 183, 197 Dakota 56, 82–85, 166–169, 204 Blasting lithium ore 146, 150, 155, 158 d13C 261, 265, 315 Bleaches, sanitizers, lithium ’s Cadiz Lake, California 33, 45, 283, 284, use in 199 286, 288, 290, 291, 345, 351 Bob Ingersol lepidolite mine, South Dakota with CaCl2 occlusions 333 83, 84 Calcite reactions to form CaCl2 259, 334 Boiling points of CaCl2 solutions 339, 350, Calcite’s solubility in CaCl2 334, 335 353–356, 424, 425, 430 Calcium chloride groundwater 256, 257, ’s high-lithium salars and springs 272, 279, 287, 311–318, 346, 347 27–29 Calcium Chloride Group, Bristol Lake, Bolivia’s lithium pegmatites 91 California 350 Bonneville Flats high-lithium end Calcium chloride in occlusions 238, liquor, Utah 28, 31, 32, 36, 37, 45 244, 259, 311, 321, 332–334 Border zones in lithium pegmatites 52, 65, Calcium chloride lakes 345–352 66, 71 Calcium chloride precipitation of sulfate Boric acid; lithium co- or by-product 110, from groundwater 113, 239, 249, 112, 118, 119, 124, 126 264, 265, 293, 321, 349 Boron in calcium chloride brines, deposits Calcium chloride product specifications 264, 265, 329 288, 384, 385 Boron in lithium deposits 10, 18, 20, 21, 25, Calcium chloride’s reactions with minerals 27–29, 38, 52 335–337 Boron extraction from high-lithium brines California’s oil or gas field CaCl2 brines 115, 116, 126–130 260, 262 Bougouni area’s lithium pegmatites, Mali California Salt Co., Bristol Lake, California 2, 92 350 Brackish water containing CaCl2 287, 346, Canada’s calcium chloride brines 244–246, 348, 350 251, 256, 314, 345 Brasileira de Litio 91, 168, 203 Canada’s lithium pegmatites 2, 3, 55, 56, Brazil’s lithium pegmatites 2, 3, 56, 90, 91, 68–78, 85–90, 150–155, 165, 166, 168, 204, 206 169–171, 205, 206 Briner’s grade CaCl2 344, 373, 385 Canadian Shield’s dolomitization brine 256, Briquetting 108, 116, 129 314 Bristol Lake, California 33, 45, 283–290, Canals for CaCl2 brine 246, 347 311, 341, 345–352 Carbon dioxide with lithium or CaCl2 Bromine in evaporating sea water, CaCl2 deposits 49, 83, 96, 311 brines 239, 241, 246, 252, 253, 260, Carbon dioxide–pressure leach process for 264, 274, 281, 321 spodumene 166 Bromine in tachyhydrite deposits 321, 329 Cargil Co., Bristol Lake, California 351 Bromine recovery from CaCl2 brines 45, Carlsbad, New Mexico potash deposits, 264, 338–341 brine 239–241, 244, 259 Buck and Pegli lithium pegmatite, Carnallite decomposition brine 237, 238 Manitoba, Canada 89 Carnallite deposits 237–239, 320–331 462 Index Carnallite from high-lithium brines 110, Chile’s high-lithium playas, salars 10–21, 113, 124 108–130 Carpathian potash deposit’s dolomitization Chilled rolls for flaked CaCl2 350, 352 brine, Russia 136, 258 China’s high-lithium brines 38–43, 135 Cascade Range’s thermal CaCl2 springs, China’s lithium pegmatites 2, 3, 56, 92, 93, Washington 276 203–205 Caspian Depression’s dolomitization brine, Chita Oblast’s lithium pegmatites, Urals, Russia 258 Russia 94 Cassiterite in lithium pegmatites 53, 74, 76, Cia Brasileira de Litio 91, 203, 204 79, 83, 90, 91, 148, 155, 171 Clay, high-lithium 97, 98, 172, 173 Catal Lagoon, Salar de Hombre Muerto, Clay, impervious for solar 100, 101, Argentina 22, 24,25 106, 110, 111, 337 Catalyst, lithium’s use as a 99, 197, 199 Clay minerals, effect of CaCl2 on 336, 337, Catamarca Province’s lithium pegmatites, 369 Argentina 2, 91 Clayton Valley, Nevada 2, 3, 5–10, 21, 99, Cat Lake-Winnipeg River lithium pegmatite 101–108, 201, 203 area, Manitoba, Canada 68, 85, Clinoptillite, effect of CaCl2 solutions on 89 335 ’s CaCl2 groundwater, Columbite in lithium pegmatites 79, 83, 89, Russia 312, 313, 318 91 Caustic soda by-product, lithium ore lime- Coagulation of sediments, products with roasting process 159, 160, 165, 171 CaCl2 337, 369, 373–376, 378 Celestite production at Bristol Lake 287, Coastal CaCl2 aquifers 238, 247, 273, 276, 289 312, 313, 315–317 Cementing well casings with CaCl2 cement Coastal sabkhas, brine pools’ dolomitization 369 brine 238, 247, 258 Ceramics, lithium’s use in 99, 182, 185, Commercial CaCl2’s properties 289, 384, 187, 188 385 Cerro Prieto geothermal, solar brine, Companhia Brasileria do Litio 91, 168, 203 Mexico 14, 15, 37, 274, 275, 279 Concrete, CaCl2’s use in 359, 360, 368, 369, Cesano’s medium-lithium geothermal brine, 377 Italy 42, 44, 141 Concrete’s corrosion by CaCl2, 362, 364, Cesium or pollucite recovery from lithium 365, 368, 369 pegmatites 69, 83, 92, 150, 152, 154, Congo’s tachyhydrite deposit 318–320, 155, 165, 168 327–329 Chabazite’s solubility in CaCl2 335 Consumption statistics for CaCl2, U.S. Cheleken, Turkmenia CaCl2 hot springs 381 277 Copper minerals with CaCl2 occlusions 333, Chemetall GmbH 75, 99, 101, 111, 112, 334 114, 115, 157, 160, 174, 201, 203 Cordillera de Domeyko, Salar de Atacama, Chemicals from CaCl2 374, 377 Chile 10, 13, 17, 20 Chemicals, lithium 174–179 Cordillera de la Sal, Salar de Atacama, Chepica de1 Salar, Salar de Atacama, Chile Chile 10, 13, 16, 17, 20, 21 111, 112, 114 Core zones in lithium pegmatites 52, 65 Cherryville spodumene mine, North CORFO, Corporacion de Fomento de la Carolina 163 Production, Chile 108, 110, 112, 118 Index 463

Corrosion inhibitors for CaCl2 brines or Depth of lithium pegmatites when formed solids 346, 354, 358, 362–365, 384 50–52, 61, 83 Cory potash mine’s CaCl2 brine, Saskatoon, Properties Co., Bristol Lake, Canada 245, 246, 345 California 350 Costa Rica Rift vents 44, 46 Detroit River Formation’s CaCl2 brine, Cost of CaCl2 381, 382 Michigan 248, 253–255, 342 Covas de Barroso spodumene pegmatites, Deuterium 37, 245, 246, 251, 253, 256, 280, Portugal 56, 57, 94, 95 299, 301–303, 331 Crimean Steppe’s CaCl2 groundwater, Disk granulators for CaCl2 356 Russia 318 Dnieper–Donets Basin’s CaCl2 brine, Cronembourg’s high-lithium geothermal Russia 258 brine, 42, 44, 141 Dolerite, fractured, Antarctica 305–310 Cyprus Foote Minerals 75, 102, 201 Dolime, slaked (magnesium precipitant) 341 Cyprus Ophiolite Formation’s CaCl2 Dolomitization reaction, brines 37, 45, groundwater 315 238–264, 266, 269, 272, 273, 289, Czechoslovkia’s lithium pegmatites 2, 97 310, 311 Don Juan Pond, Antarctica 45, 283, 294, dD 15, 37, 245, 246, 251, 253, 256, 280, 295, 298, 300–303, 305–311, 322, 299, 301–303, 331 333 Dabuxun Saline Lake, China 135, 279 Double Lakes area CaCl2 brine, Texas 312, Dale Lake (near Bristol Lake), California 314 284, 289 Dow Chemical Company 338–345, 383 Dalol Salt Pan, Ethiopia 291–295 Dredging lithium solar ponds 104, 106 Danakil Depression, Ethiopia 273, 276, 277, Drilling , CaCl2’s use in 269 291–298 Drugs, lithium’s use in 180, 199 Danby Lake, California 33, 283, 284, 289, Drum granulator for CaCl2 356 291 Dryers for CaCl2 solids 350, 353–357 Da Qaidam Lake, China 38, 40, 41, 135, 279 Drying agent, CaCl2 as a 370–378 , Israel, Jordan 2, 31, 32, 37, 38, Dundee Formation’s CaCl2 brine, Michigan 45, 142, 143, 145, 278, 281–283, Basin 252–254, 342 312, 313 Dust control with CaCl2 365–367 Dead Sea’s thermal CaCl2 springs 270, 271, Dust reduction in solid CaCl2 products 355, 278 356 Deep ocean vent brine’s d6Li, d7Li 46 Deicing with CaCl2 358–365 East Pacific Rise vents 42, 269, 270, 272 Delta Chemical Co., Cadiz Lake, California Edison spodumene mine, South Dakota 84, 352 166 Density of CaCl2 solutions 308, 346, 347, Electric conductance, CaCl2 solutions 420, 383, 393, 408–411, 430, 432–434 427 Density of CaCl2 –NaCl solutions 339, El Tatio geyser field, Chile 10, 14, 17, 18, 412–418 20, 44 Density of lithium, its minerals and Emerald Fields Resources Corp., Canada solutions 43, 54, 58, 59, 167, 211, 54, 87 214, 217, 218 England’s CaCl2 groundwater 45, 256, 277, Density vs temperature, Salar de Atacama 312, 315 brine 130 England’s oil or gas field CaCl2 brines 260 464 Index

English River lithium pegmatites, Ontario, Fluidized bed dryer-granulator for CaCl2 Canada 85–87 355 English Zeichstein Formation 45, 256, 277, Fluorine-containing lithium pegmatites 92, 315 96, 167 Enthalpy, CaCl2 solutions 427, 431 Fluorite with CaCl2 occlusions 332, 333 Entrained brine in solar pond l00–102, Fluorite solubility in CaCl2 335 120, 124, 125 FMC Corp. 81, 99, 131, 160, 164, 201, 203 Environmental factors, deicing CaCl2 Food processing with CaCl2 344, 373, 374, 361–365 385 Environmental uses of CaCl2 375 Foote Minerals Co. 34, 75, 79, 99, 101, 108, Epidote conversion to chlorite 267 112, 160, 163, 164, 201, 203 Etta spodumene mine, Black Hills, South Formation pressure, temperature, lithium Dakota 55, 83, 84 pegmatites 50–52, 61, 83, 96 4, 50, 51, 53, 56, 57, 59, 62, 67, Fractional crystallization, high-lithium 69, 73, 78, 87, 94, 157 magma 49–53 ’s lithium pegmatites 2, 92, 93 France’s lithium pegmatites 2, 92 Evaporation plants for CaCl2 brine Freeze–thaw deterioration of concrete by 339–341, 350–353, 355, 357 CaCl2 364, 365 Evaporation plants for lithium brines 5, 34, Freezing points of CaCl2 solutions 358, 361, 36, 133, 134, 146, 159–162, 165, 383, 385, 386, 388–398, 402–406, 167, 170–172 410, 434 Evaporation rates at CaCl2 lakes 287, 306, French medium-lithium geothermal brines 321, 322, 347 42, 44, 141 Evaporation rates at high-lithium playas 8, Fresh water fossils, CaCl2 deposits 291, 320, 25, 29, 100, 102, 108, 110, 113 327, 328 Fresno, California oil or gas field CaCl2 Fault zones with CaCl2 occlusions 333 brines 260 Feldspar conversion to albite 264, 266–268, 310 Galapagos Spreading Center vents 270, Feldspar recovery from lithium pegmatites 272 53, 83, 149, 153, 157, 167, 171 Garnet as a lithium by-product 171 Ferrar dolerite, Antarctica 305–310 Garnet with CaCl2 occlusions 335 Ferric chloride– complex Gas drying with CaCl2 370–372, 374, 36, 139, 160 375 Filer Formation CaCl2 brine, Michigan General Chemicals Group 344, 383 Basin 249, 251, 252, 339, 341, 342 German CaCl2 groundwater, thermal Finland’s lithium pegmatites 92 springs 256, 257, 277, 279 Fire clay, high-lithium, alumina 97 German oil or gas field CaCl2 brines 45, Flaked calcium chloride 343, 344, 350, 260, 265 352–354, 384, 385 German Zechstein Formation potash Flint clay, high-lithium 98 deposits 256, 257 Flocculation of clay with CaCl2 336, 337, Glaserite from high-lithium brines 104 365, 367, 369, 378 Glass inclusions in Olivine’s d7Li 46 Flotation of lithium ores 53, 83, 91, 121, Glass, lithium’s use in 99, 181–185 133, 134, 148, 149, 157–159, 163, Glauberite, formed with CaCl2 239, 255, 165, 167–171 290 Index 465 Glazes and enamels, lithium’s use in 185, Hand sorting lithium ores 53, 66, 83, 187, 188 155–157 Gold deposits with CaCl2 occlusions 333 Harding and Pidlite lithium mine, New Golmud River (with CaCl2), Qarhan Salt Mexico 55, 85 Lake, China 279, 298 Hardness of lithium minerals 54, 58, 59, Goubet el Kharab, Ethiopia 292, 297 150, 158 Govindpal area’s lithium pegmatites, India Harvesting salts 100, 104, 107, 113, 120, 2, 94 121, 123–125, 347, 349 Granite with CaCl2 occlusions 333 Harz Mountains CaCl2 springs, Germany Granular CaCl2 343, 355–357, 384, 385 277 Granular lithium carbonate 108, 116, 129 Hatchobaru and Kyshu’s geothermal brine, Grease, lithium’s use in 83, 99, 182, 196 Japan 42 7 lakes’ d Li 46 Heat evolved in dissolving solid CaCl2 358, Great ’s CaCl2 thermal springs, 362, 427, 429, 430 Utah 271, 276 Heat of dilution, strong CaCl2 solutions 358, Great Salt Lake’s high-lithium brine, Utah 427, 429, 430 2, 21, 31, 32, 35–37, 45, 46, 112, Heavy media separation 152, 153, 157, 158, 137, 139, 140, 146 163, 166, 167 Greece’s Filiatra CaCl2 groundwater 315 Hectorite 4, 10, 97, 98 Greenbushes’ spodumene pegmatite, Heletz–Kokhav oilfield dolomitization Australia 59–61, 146–150, 203 brine, Israel 265 Greenstone with CaCl2 occlusions 333 Hiddenite 54 Groundwater with calcium chloride 256, High-CaCl2 groundwater 311–318 257, 272, 279, 287, 311–318, 346, High-CaCl2 lakes 281–311, 345–352 347 High-intensity magnetic separators 148, Groundwater with medium-to-high lithium 149, 153, 154 45, 142, 259, 312, 313, 318 High-iron spodumene 54, 55, 75, 159, 160 Guarda area’s lithium pegmatites, Portugal High-lithium clay 97, 98, 172, 173 2, 3, 56, 94, 95, 168, 169, 204 High-lithium groundwater 45, 142, 259, Guemes, Salta province, Argentina 132 318 Guilietti’s Lake, thermal springs, Ethiopia High-sulfate Salar de Atacama brine 20, 21, 271, 291–296 114, 118 Gulf of California rift-fault system 280 Hill Brothers Chemical Co. 350, 352, 383 Gulf of Mexico oil or gas field CaCl2 brines Hindukush Mountain Range’s lithium 260, 261, 264 pegmatites, Afganistan 2, 56, 57, 97 Gulf of , Ethiopia 291, 292, 297 History of the lithium industry 98, 99 Guogaling Cuo Lake, China 39 Holding ponds for CaCl2 brine 347, 350 Gwalia Consolidated Ltd. 59, 146, 203 Homogenization temperature of occlusions Gypsum with CaCl2 or lithium lakes, brine 332–334 287, 290, 298, 299 Humates (organics) in brine, lithium salts Gypsum solubility in CaCl2 brine 353 134, 135 Humectant, CaCl2’s use as a 378 Halite with CaCl2 occlusions 244, 321, 332, Humidity at CaCl2 lakes 287, 306, 321, 346, 333 352, 422 Hallman-Beam spodumene mine, North Humidity at high-lithium lakes 100, 108, Carolina 81 113 466 Index Hydraulic seal for solar ponds 100 Jordan Rift Valley 381 Hydrochloric acid’s use to form CaCl2 311, Jordan River 278, 282, 283 357 Juan de Fuca Ridge vents 42 bombs, 6Li conversion to tritium 99, 165 Kainite from high-lithium brine 110 Hydrogen sulfide 42, 259, 271, 299, 303, Kama River area’s dolomitization brine, 304, 311 Russia 259 Kansas oil or gas field CaCl2 brines 262 Iceland’s CaCl2 thermal springs 270, 272, Kaolin in weathered lithium pegmatites 54, 321 59, 91 Illinois Basin dolomitization brine 259 conversion to 255 Inclusions containing CaCl2 238, 244, 259, Kaolinite, effect of CaCl2 solutions on 337 311, 321, 332–334 Karibib-Omaruru districts’ lithium Inclusions in lithium pegmatites 52, 83, 96 pegmatites, 2, 91, 169 Index of refraction, CaCl2 solutions 410 Kazakhstan’s CaCl2 lakes 294, 295, 298 India’s Ennur CaCl2 groundwater 315, 317 Kentucky’s oil or gas field CaCl2 brines 262 India’s lithium pegmatites 2, 56, 94 Kerosene drying with CaCl2 370, 373 Indonesian thermal CaCl2 vents 269 Keystone district lithium pegmatites, Black Industrial uses of CaCl2 359, 374, 375 Hills, South Dakota 82 Industrial uses of lithium 196, 197, 200 K-Feldspar recovery from lithium ores 53, Intermediate zones in lithium pegmatites 52, 83, 149, 153, 167, 171, 177 65, 66, 71 Kiao Qaidam Lake, China 40 Intermetmin Ltd., Namibia 169 Kings Mountain lithium pegmatites, North Iodine in brines 239, 252, 253, 260, 264, 272 Carolina 2, 3, 55, 79, 81, 99, 159, Iodine recovery 264, 339 160, 163 Ion exchange extraction of lithium 138, 141, Kirgiztan’s lithium pegmatites 97 172 Kokhav oil field, Israel 265 Ion exchange of soils with CaCl2 336, 337 Koktokay lithium pegmatite, Xinjiang– Ion exchange to form CaCl2 238, 268, 290, Uygur province, China 2, 92 311, 314, 315, 318 Kola Peninsula’s lithium pegmatites, Russia Ionization constants of CaCl2 solutions 427 2, 96 Irkutsk’s potash dolomitization brine, Komuni CaCl2 hot springs, Japan 276 Russia 242, 259 Koralpe lithium pegmatite, Austria 2, 92 Ishibu-Iwachi CaCl2 hot springs, Japan 276, Kunzite 54, 82 277 Isotopes of lithium 34, 44–46, 98, 99, 165, d6Li, d7Li 34, 44–46, 98, 99, 165, 200, 256, 200, 256, 265 260, 265 Israel’s CaCl2 groundwater 312, 316, 317 Laguo Co Lake, China 38, 41 Israel’s oil or gas field CaCl2 brines 46, 260, Lake Adijdata, Ethiopia 47 265, 312, 313, 317 Lake Asal, Ethiopia 270, 271, 291–295, Israel’s thermal CaCl2 springs 270, 277, 297, 298, 322 278, 282, 283, 317 Lake Bonney, Antarctica 299, 300, 302, Italy’s high-lithium geothermal brines 42, 309, 310 44, 141 Lake Giulietti, Ethiopia 271, 291–296, 322 Lakes, high-CaCl2 281–311, 345–352 Japan’s thermal CaCl2 springs 276, 277, 321 Lakes, high-lithium 5–43, 101–135, 288 Index 467

Lake Tiberias thermal CaCl2 springs, Israel 4, 78, 79, 154 270, 271, 278, 281–283 Lithium adsorption, reaction with rocks 3, Lake Vanda, Antarctica 45, 294, 298–311 10, 18, 21, 34, 44 La Motte spodumene pegmatite, Quebec 89, Lithium alkyls 99, 177, 196, 197, 199 179, 203 Lithium aluminum hydride 177 La Negra, Salar de Carmen, Chile 112, 114, 176, 177 115 Lithium, average content in rocks 1, 97, 98 Lanigan potash mine CaCl2 brine 246 Lithium batteries 82, 99, 182, 190–195 Lava flow, Bristol Lake, California 285 176, 183, 197, 198 Leaching CaCl2 from rocks 238, 239, 251, Lithium carbonate production 34, 107, 108, 255, 264–269, 289, 318, 321, 334 110, 114–117, 126–131, 134, 135, Leaching lithium from rocks 1, 3, 5, 10, 21, 149, 159–173, 177, 182 42, 43, 52 Lithium carbonate specifications, analyses Lead–zinc deposits formed by thermal 170, 210 vents 269, 273, 277 Lithium carbonate’s solubility 108, 134, Lead zinc minerals with CaCl2 occlusions 135, 212–216 333, 334 Lithium carnallite from high-lithium brines Leakage in solar ponds l00–102, 106, 110, 110, 113 113 Lithium chloride 116, 131, 132, 171, 176, Lee Chemical Co., Cadiz Lake, California 183, 197, 210 351, 352, 383 Lithium Corporation of America (LCA or Lepidolite deposits 53, 61–75, 82, 83, 89, Lithco) 81, 99, 160, 162, 163, 201 91–94, 96 83, 176, 200 Lepidolite processing 53, 155–157, 165, production 99, 108, 129, 167, 168 159, 160, 165, 171, 175, 176, 182 Lepidolite’s properties 4, 56, 58, 67, 78 Lithium ion rechargeable batteries 191, Leslie Salt Co., Bristol Lake, California 350 193–195 Licons ( phosphate) 56, 133–135, Lithium isotopes 34, 44–46, 98, 99, 165, 203, 204 200, 256, 260, 265 Lime or limestone roast of lithium ores Lithium leaching from rocks 1, 3, 5, 10, 42, 157–160, 165, 167, 168, 171 43, 52 Lime precipitation, CaCl2 brine 338–341, Lithium loss during boron extraction 115, 344 116, 129, 130 Lime precipitation, lithium brine 102–104, Lithium metal 98, 160, 177–179, 180, 183, 106, 107, 116, 117, 127, 129, 161, 188–190, 192–196, 211, 212 162, 164, 170 Lithium Metals Technologies, Inc. Limestone–HCl reaction to form CaCl2 (Limtech) 177 311, 357 Lithium phosphate precipitation 34, Liners (membranes) for solar ponds 101, 133–135, 143, 145 106, 113, 118, 123 Lithium polymer batteries 191, 193–195 Liquid CaCl2 specifications 384, 385 Lithium potassium sulfate from Liquid extraction of lithium brines 115, 116, high-lithium brine 104, 110 126–130, 136–140 Lithium recovery from batteries 173, 174 LithChem International 173, 179 Lithium’s average content in rocks 1, 79, 78 Lithian , 71–73, 75, 78, 89, 110, 126, 134, 135, 93 161–165, 171–173 468 Index

Lithium’s use as a catalyst 99, 197, 199 Marshall Formation CaCl2 brine, Michigan Lithium’s uses 83, 99, 180–201 Basin 252, 254, 338 Longview-Beecher lithium pegmatite, Martin Marietta Magnesia Specialties Co. South Dakota 84, 166 344 Lorraine Basin’s dolomitization brine, Massif Central’s lithium pegmatites, France France 257 2, 92 Los Patos River, Salar de Hombre Muerto, Matsushiro area’s CaCl2 thermal springs, Argentina 22, 24 Japan 277 Louisiana oil or gas field CaCl2 brines 261 Maywood Chemical Co. 83, 99 Low-sulfate Salar de Atacama brine 20, Medicine, lithium’s use in 177, 180, 199 113, 118, 124 Melting temperature of lithium and alkali Ludington, Michigan 339, 344, 345 metals 211 Melting temperatures of lithium minerals Magma flow to form lithium pegmatites 1, 50–52, 149, 181, 185 47–54, 60, 61, 68, 69, 82, 96 Melting temperature of occlusions 332–334 Magmatic fluid 1, 37, 50–52, 238, 280, 322, Membranes for lithium extraction 138, 145 389 Membrane liners for solar ponds 101, 106, Magnesium chloride brine, solid 110, 124, 113, 118, 123 239–250, 289, 299, 310, 338–341, Metabasalt’s d6Li 46 344 Metal deposits formed by CaCl2 thermal Magnesium Corporation of America 383 vents 269, 273, 276, 277, 291, 298 Magnesium precipitation from CaCl2 brine Metalloy Corp. 160 338–341, 344 Metallurgical uses of CaCl2 375, 377 Magnesium precipitation from high-lithium Metallurgy, lithium’s use in 179, 188–190, brine 102–104, 106, 107, 116, 117, 196, 200 127, 129, 161, 162, 164, 170 Meteoric water, reaction with CaCl2 brine Magnesium sulfate from lithium brines 110, 113, 239, 249, 264, 265, 293, 321, 349 126, 145 Meteorites’ d6Li, d7Li 46 Magnetic separation 148, 149, 152–154, Methane with CaCl2 or lithium deposits 42, 156 49 Mahai Lake, China 38, 40 Mica recovery from lithium ore 53, 83, 153, Mali’s lithium pegmatites 2, 3, 92 154, 167, 171 Manganese oxide, lithium adsorbent 144, 145 Mica’s reaction with CaCl2 335 Manic depression, lithium’s use in treating Michigan Basin 45, 141, 247–255, 259, 180, 199 338–345 Manitoba, Canada’s lithium pegmatites 56, Michigan’s oil or gas field CaCl2 brines 260, 68–78, 85, 89, 90 261, 264 Manono and Kitotolo lithium pegmatite Microlite recovered from lithium pegma- districts, Zaire 91 tites 53, 61, 83 Manteen lithium pegmatite, South Dakota Mid Ocean (Atlantic) Ridge thermal vents 84, 166 46, 270, 273 Map, world; location of some lithium Mid Ocean Ridge basalt’s d6Li, d7Li 45, 46 deposits 2 Migmatites with CaCl2 occlusions 334 Marine carbonates’ d6Li 46 Minas Gerais province’s lithium pegmatites, Marine clastic sediments’ d6Li, d7Li 46 Brazil 2, 90 Marine fossils; CaCl2 deposits 290, 291, 322 Minera de Pegmatite, Portugal 169 Index 469

Mineral deposits with CaCl2 occlusions 238, North Carolina’s lithium pegmatites 53, 75, 244, 259, 311, 321, 332–334 79–82, 157–165, 203 Minerals, lithium 1, 4, 54–59, 67, 73, 74, North Dakota’s oil or gas field CaCl2 brines 76–78 45, 261 Minerex, Austria 92 North Fiji Basin vents 42 Minsal (now SQM S.A.) 118, 210 North Korea’s lithium pegmatites 169 Mirabilite, thenardite near CaCl2 lakes 306, Northwest Territories’ CaCl2 groundwater, 309, 310, 314 Canada 314, 315 Molybdenite in lithium pegmatites 89 Northwest Territories’ lithium pegmatites, Molybdenum minerals with CaCl2 Canada 2, 90 occlusions 334 Norwegian–Danish Basin’s Zechstein brine Mono Lake, rivers’ lithium iostopes, 243 California 33, 34, 46 Noumas, Norrabees areas’ lithium (Na–), effect of CaCl2 pegmatites, South Africa 2, 92 solutions on 336, 337 Nuristan, Afghanistan’s spodumene Moose No. 2 spodumene mine, Northwest pegmatite 2, 56, 57, 97 Territories, Canada 90 Montebrasite 4, 56, 58, 78, 94, 154 dl8O 15, 37, 245, 246, 251, 253, 261, 265, Mount Sdom CaCl2 Springs, Dead Sea, 280, 299, 301, 302, 315, 331 Israel 278, 312, 313, 383 Ocean rift or subduction zones 1, 42, 44, 45, Mozambique’s lithium pegmatites 91, 206 238, 247, 266–277 Mullet Island CaCl2 brine, Salton Sea, Occlusions containing CaCl2 238, 244, 259, California 280, 281 311, 321, 332–334 Occlusions in lithium minerals 52, 83, 96 Desert’s CaCl2 groundwater, Ohio’s oil or gas field CaCl2 brines 262 Namibia 312, 317 Oil or gas field’s lithium, CaCl2 brines 45, Namibia’s CaCl2 lakes 294, 312, 317 46, 238, 247, 260–266 Namibia’s lithium pegmatites 2, 3, 91, 169, Oil and gas industries’ use of CaCl2 359, 204–206 369–373 Nakai Trough 44 Oklahoma’s oil or gas field CaCl2 brines National Chloride Company of America 260, 262 346, 350, 352, 383 Ontario and Quebec, Canada’s lithium Natrolite’s solubility in CaCl2 335 pegmatites 23, 89, 90, 99 n-Butyl lithium 99, 131, 177, 180, 183, Onyx River, Lake Vanda, Antarctica 299, 197 303 Niagra limestone CaCl2 brine, Michigan Open pan evaporators for CaCl2 brine 350, 252, 254 352, 353 Nickel–copper–platinum minerals with Open pit mining 90, 92, 106, 115, 155–159, CaCl2 occlusions 334 163, 166 Niobium in lithium pegmatites 59, 92, 167 Ophiolite’s reaction with CaCl2 335 Non-rechargeable lithium batteries 194, 195 Organic lithium compounds (other than Non-zoned lithium pegmatites 50, 53, 55, butyl lithium) 177, 196, 197, 199 75, 80, 81, 89, 94 Organics in lithium, CaCl2 brines 115, 116, North Afar Rift thermal CaCl2 springs, 134, 135, 161, 170, 175, 261, 311 Ethiopia 273, 276, 277, 292, 293, Origin of high-lithium brines 8, 9, 17–21, 297, 298, 321 29–34, 37, 38 470 Index

Origin of lithium pegmatites 49–52, 60, 61, Physical properties of CaCl2 –NaCl 68, 69 solutions 412–417, 425, 429, 430, Origin of tachyhydrite 321, 322 433, 434 Orinoco River sediments’ d6Li 46 Physical properties of lithium and its Osmolality, CaCl2 solutions 410 compounds 34, 44, 46, 50–52, 181, Othake, Kyushu, Japan’s geothermal brines 185, 200, 202, 206, 211, 212, 214 42 Physical properties of solid CaCl2 426, 435 Owens River, Lake, California 29, 33, 34 Pits, trenches for CaCl2 brine seepage, Bristol Lake 346, 347, 349 Pacific Lithium Ltd. 135, 173, 203 Plagioclase conversion to albite 264, 265, Pala District’s lithium pegmatites, 267, 268, 310, 311 California 55, 82 Plagioclase’s reaction with CaCl2 266, 268, Pakeagama Lake spodumene pegmatite, 335 Ontario, Canada 89 Platinum minerals with CaCl2 occlusions Pan de Azucar rail station, Chile 109, 114 334 Paradox Basin, Colorado 14, 45, 243, 244, Podlasie Basin gasfield’s dolomitization 248, 250, 263 brine, Poland 265 Paris Basin’s dolomitization brine, France Pollucite recovery from lithium pegmatites 257 62, 67, 68, 72, 83, 152, 154, 155 Parma Formation CaCl2 brine, Michigan Polyhalite reaction to produce calcium Basin 252, 254 chloride 239, 255 Salar, Bolivia 23 Polylithionite 4, 58 Pelletized calcium chloride 343, 384, 385 Portugal’s lithium pegmatites 2, 3, 56, 94, Pelletized lithium carbonate 108, 116, 129 95, 168, 169, 204–206 Pennsylvania’s oil or gas field CaCl2 brines Potash (potassium chloride) deposits 262 320–331, 339 Permeability of soils, effect of CaCl2 on 337 Potash end liquor lithium, CaCl2 brine Petalite deposits 53, 61–68, 85–89, 35–37, 45, 46, 112, 124, 137–139, 150–157, 204 141–143, 145, 237–259, 263, Petalite characteristics 4, 56, 58, 67, 68, 78 311–318 Petalite conversion to spodumene or eucryp- Potash from lithium brines 104, 110, tite and quartz 50–52, 58, 69, 94 112–114, 118–124, 135 Petalite processing 53, 152–157, 168, 169, Potassium carbonate, lithium by-product 171 165, 166 PGE mineralization with CaCl2 occlusions Potassium lithium sulfate from high-lithium 334 brines 110 Phase data for CaCl2 322, 382, 383, Potassium schoenite from high-lithium 385–407 brines 112, 124–126 Phase data for lithium compounds 134–136, Potassium sulfate, lithium by-product 110, 143, 172, 202, 206, 212, 214–223 112, 118, 119, 124–126 pH of commercial CaCl2 solutions 341, 346, Prairie Evaporate Formation, Canada 251, 432, 434 256 Phosphate precipitation of lithium Precipitation of metals from ocean vents 133–135, 143, 145 269, 273, 276, 277, 291 Physical properties of CaCl2 solutions Preissac-Lacorne district’s lithium 408–435 pegmatites, Ontario, Canada 2, 89 Index 471 Presquile gas field dolomitization brine, BC, Quebec, Quebec Lithium Corp., Canada 89, Canada 265 90, 99, 165, 166, 203, 204 Pressure, temperature of initial lithium pegmatites 50–52, 61, 83, 96 Rain or snowfall at CaCl2 lakes 287, 293, Pre-wetted salt with CaCl2 361, 362 306, 346, 347 Prilling tower for granular CaCl2 355 Rain or snowfall at high-lithium lakes 8, 21, Primary spodumene 50–52, 54, 55, 59, 61, 25, 29, 100, 102, 108, 113 75, 81, 83, 89–97 Raman spectra 333, 334, 430 Pripyat Trough (or Deep’s) CaCl2 brine, Rare earth minerals with CaCl2 occlusions Russia 242, 244, 259 333, 334 Production capacity; lithium carbonate, ore Rare metals in lithium pegmatites 49–53 concentrates 203, 204 Raymor Resources Co. 89, 179, 203 Production capacity of natural CaCl2 383 Rechargeable batteries, lithium’s use in Production rate of lithium (by country) 205, 191–195 206 Reclamation of alkali soils with CaCl2 Production statistics for CaCl2 379–382 337 Product ponds for CaCl2 brine 350, 351 Red Lake’s CaCl2 brine, , Russia Product specifications for CaCl2 384, 294, 295 385 ’s lithium, CaCl2 thermal vent Product specifications for lithium carbonate, brine 38, 270, 272–277, 282, 283, ore concentrates 149, 210, 211 291–293, 297 Properties of lithium metal, compounds, Refrigeration brine, CaCl2’s use as a 374, alkali metals 54–59, 211, 212 378 Protolithionite 58 Relative humidity of CaCl2 solutions 422, Puga Valley’s high-lithium geothermal 426, 433 brine, India 44 Relative humidy at CaCl2 lakes 278, 306, Pug mill granulator for CaCl2 356 321, 346, 352, 422 Pumping CaCl2 brine 339, 342, 344, 346, Relative humidity at high-lithium lakes 21, 348, 350 100, 108, 113 Pumping high-lithium brine 16, 102–107, Reserves of lithium 2, 3, 10, 17, 25, 29, 36, 113, 118, 123 37, 61, 68, 75, 79, 81, 87, 89, 91, 92, Purification of CaCl2 brine 353, 357 98 Purification of high-lithium brine 107, 115, Reykjanes’s lithium, CaCl2 thermal vents, 116, 126–129, 134, 161, 164–166, Iceland 42, 270–272 168, 170–173 , Southern (Zimbabwe’s) lithium Purified lithium carbonate 177 pegmatites 2, 3, 52, 53, 56, 57, 61–68, 99, 155–157, 165, 204 Qaidam Basin, Da and Kiao Qaidam, China Richfield Formation’s CaCl2 brine, 38, 40, 41, 135, 279 Michigan 253, 254 Qarhan Lake, thermal CaCl2 springs, China Rift basins 37, 38, 42, 276, 280, 281, 135, 270, 277, 279, 294, 295, 298 291–293, 297, 298, 312, 313, Qinghai Lake’s medium-lithium brine, 321, 322, 332 China 2, 38, 135 Rio Grande de Lipez medium-lithium water, Quartz (silica) as a lithium by-product 83, Bolivia 28 153, 171 Rio Salado’s medium-lithium water, Chile Quartz with CaCl2 occlusions 333, 334 10 472 Index Rio San Pedro’s medium-lithium water, Salar de Pintatos, Chile 19 Chile 11, 13, 20 Salar de Pujsa, Chile 19 River water’s d6Li, d7Li 46 Salar de San Martin, Chile 19 Roast-acid leach process for spodumene Salar de Surrie, Chile 19, 21 161–164, 169–172 , Bolivia 2, 3, 9, 11, 23, Roast-limestone or lime leach process for 27–29 lithium ores 157–160, 165, 167, Safety considerations when handling CaCl2 168, 171, 172 378, 379 Rocanville potash mine’s CaCl2 brine 245 Sales price of CaCl2 381, 382 Rock leaching to produce CaCl2 brines 238, Sales price of lithium carbonate, ore 239, 251, 255, 264, 265–269, 289, concentrates 187 318, 321, 334 Salta, Argentina 11, 24, 132 Rock leaching to produce lithium brines 1, Salt cake (sodium sulfate), lithium 3, 5, 10, 42, 43, 52 by-product 161–165, 170 Roof scaling, bolting 150, 151 Salt crusts, Mono Lake’s d7Li 46 Room and pillar mining 150 Salt produced from CaCl2 brine 287, Rozna area’s lithium pegmatites, Czechslo- 338–342, 350, 351 vakia 2, 97 Salt porosity in high-lithium playas 13, 16, Rubican Mines, Namibia 169 25, 28, 29, 104, 108, 123, 131 Rubidium in evaporating sea water, Salt gradient solar ponds 305 tachyhydrite 241, 321 Salting-out process, boric acid, lithium Rubidium in lithium pegmatites 60, 61, 75, recovery 126, 145 83, 87, 89, 92, 165, 168, 171 Salt Lake (within Bristol Lake), California Russian CaCl2 groundwater 317, 318 287, 346 Russian lithium pegmatites 2, 3, 94–96, Salt mixtures with CaCl2 for deicing 203–205 361–363 Russian oil or gas field CaCl2 brines 266 Salton Sea, California, Mexico 2, 14, 37, 52, Russian potash deposits 242–244, 258, 259 141, 142, 274, 275, 279–281 Rwanda’s lithium pegmatites 91 Salt Range, India, Pakistan 242, 257, 258 San Antonio Chemicals, Texas 165 d34S 256, 280, 299, 306, 314, 329 San Joaquin, California oil or gas field Salar de Aguas Calientes, Chile 19 CaCl2 brines 260 Salar de Ascoton, Chile 19 San Louis Province lithium pegmatites, Salar de Atacama, Chile 2, 3, 5, 9–21, 99, Argentina 2, 91 108–131, 201 Saskatchewan, Canada potash deposits, Salar de Atacama’s rivers and streams 11, 13 CaCl2 brine 45, 244–246, 251, 256, Salar de Bellavista, Chile 19 345 Salar de Carmen, Chile 109, 112, 114, 118, Saudi Arabia’s Umm Er Radhuma CaCl2 126, 127 groundwater 318 Salar de Coipasa, Bolivia 11, 23, 27, 28 Scheelite minerals with CaCl2 occlusions Salar de Empexa, Bolivia 11, 23, 27, 28 334 Salar de Hombre Muerto, Argentina 2, 3, 5, Schoenite from lithium brine 112, 124–126 11, 21, 22, 24–27, 99, 131–133, Sdom well, springs, Dead Sea, Israel 278, 144, 202, 203 279, 283, 312, 313 Salar de Huasco, Chile 19 Searles Lake, California 2, 3, 5, 31–33, 58, Salar de Lagunas, Chile 19 59, 133, 165, 203 Index 473

Sea of Galilee thermal springs, Israel 278, Soil stabilization or compaction with CaCl2 279, 283 365–368 Sea water aerosol 309, 310 Solar evaporation of CaCl2 brine 346–352 Sea water evaporation, cooling 49, Solar evaporation of lithium brine 5, 36, 37, 238–241, 321 42, 43, 47, 48, 100–106, 108–126 Sea water’s lithium content, d6Li, d7Li 45, Solar ponds design and operation 100–102, 46, 49, 144, 145, 270 106, 113, 118, 120, 123 Sea water’s reaction with rocks 238, 247, Solar radiation 21, 100, 113 263–269, 272, 273 Solonopole and Quixeramobim lithium Sebka El Adhibate, Tunisia 47 pegmatites, Brazil 91 Secondary spodumene 50–52, 54, 55, 68 Solubility data for CaCl2 322, 382, 383, Seepage trenches, pits for CaCl2 brine 385–407 346–351 Solubility of lithium compounds 134–136, SEM analytical method 334 143, 172, 202, 206, 212, 214–223 Separation Rapids pegmatites, Manitoba, Solubility (leaching), lithium from rocks 1, Canada 57, 69, 85–89, 171 3, 5, 10, 21, 42, 43, 52 Sergipe tachyhydrite deposit, Brazil Solvent extraction of boron 115, 116, 320–327 126–130 Sergipite 237, 326 Solvent extraction of lithium 115, 116, 129, Setting time of concrete with CaCl2 addition 130, 136–140 368, 369 Solvent loss during boron extraction 116 Siberian Platform’s CaCl2 groundwater, Solvey process CaCl2 357 Russia 312, 313, 318 Solvey Process Co. 99, 157, 172 Siberian Platform’s dolomitization brine, South Africa’s lithium pegmatites 2, 92 Russia 259, 266 South Dakota’s lithium pegmatites 56, Silica (quartz) as a lithium by-product 83, 82–85, 166–169, 204 153, 171 Southern and Nigel sectors, Bikita Silica’s solubility in CaCl2 335 pegmatite 61, 62 Silver Peak, Nevada 2, 5, 6, 9, 10, 101, 103, Southern High Plains’ CaCl2 groundwater, 107, 201, 203 Texas 312, 314, 315 Single effect evaporators for CaCl2 brine Soviet Union’s lithium pegmatites 2, 3, 343, 353 94–96, 203–206 Smackover Formation oil or gas fields 2, 45, Specific conductance, CaCl2 solutions 410 47, 137, 142, 262, 266 Specific gravity, CaCl2 solutions 339, 383, Smectite, effect of CaCl2, conversion to 393, 408–411 illite 255, 337 Specific heat, CaCl2 solutions 339, 420–422 Smectite, lithium 4, 97 Specific gravity, heat of lithium metal 202, Sociedad Chilena de1 Litio Ltd. 112 211, 212 Sociedad Quimica y Minera de Chile Spodumene characteristics 4, 50–56, 67, (SQM) 118, 201 78, 80, 167 Sodium hydroxide by-product, lithium lime- Spodumene concentrates, analyses, price roast process 159, 160, 165, 171 186, 187 Sodium sulfate by-product, spodumene acid Spodumene concentration process roast process 161, 162, 164, 170 146–159, 163, 165–170, 203, 204 Soil, effect of CaCl2 solutions on 318, 336, a-Spodumene conversion to b-spodumene 337 50–52, 159, 160–167, 170, 171 474 Index Spodumene deposits 53, 54, 59–83, 89–92, Sulfate precipitation from lithium brines 94, 95, 97, 146–171 107, 113, 116, 117, 127, 129, 161, Spodumene, primary 50–52, 54, 55, 59, 61, 162, 164, 170 75, 81, 83, 89–97 Sulfate reducing bacteria 299, 306 Spodumene, conversion to Li2CO3 Sulfuric acid roast of lithium ores 161–164, 157–166, 169–171 170 Spodumene, secondary (psuedomorphs after Super-critical water, methane, CO2 in petalite) 50–52, 54, 55, 68, 78 forming lithium pegmatites 49–52, Spray evaporator–dryer–granulator for 83, 96 CaCl2 343, 357 Surface active agents, aid to CaCl2 Springs, inland thermal CaCl2, lithium 46, penetration 365, 368 270, 271, 276, 279 Surface tension, CaCl2 solutions 427 Springs, Mono Lake fresh water’s d7Li 46 Surrie, Salar de, high-lithium hot springs, Sqi (spodumene, quartz, feldspar inter- river 19, 21 growth) 67, 70, 78 Sweden’s Varutrask and Uto lithium SQM S.A. 109, 118–131, 201, 203 pegmatites 92, 98 87Sr/86Sr 253, 255, 261, 265 Swimming pool conditioner, lithium Starobin potash deposit’s dolomitization hypochlorite 199 brine, Russia 242, 249 Sylvania Formation’s CaCl2 brine, Steam Boat Springs, Colorado, Nevada 14 Michigan Basin 45, 249, 250, 252, Stebnik potash deposit’s dolomitization 254, 255, 339, 340, 342 brine, Russia 242, 244 Sylvinite from lithium brines 104, 110, Stecklenberg’s CaCl2 springs, Harz 112–114, 118–124, 135 Mountains, Germany 257 Sylvinite deposits 320–331 Stevensite, lithium 97 Syngenite formation to produce CaCl2 336 Stewart lepidolite mine, San Diego county, Synthetic CaCl2 357 California 82 Synthetic rubber, organo-lithium catalysts Stinking Spring, thermal CaCl2 spring, Utah for 99, 197 271 Stishovite’s reaction with CaCl2 336 Tachyhydrite 237, 298, 299, 318–332 St. Peter Formation’s CaCl2 brine, Michigan with CaCl2 occlusions 334 Basin 253, 254 Tanco, Tantalum Mining Corporation of Stratification in Lake Vanda 299, 301–304 Canada Limited 68, 150, 152 Strickland Quarry’s lithium pegmatite, Tanco spodumene deposit, Manitoba, Connecticut 55 Canada 52, 55, 56, 68–78, 150–155, Strip mining 90, 92, 106, 155, 156–159, 202, 204 163, 166 Tannur CaCl2 Springs, Lake Tiberias, Israel Strontium isotopic ratios 253, 255, 261, 278 265 Tantalum, tantalite recovery from lithium Sudeten Foreland’s dolomitization brine, pegmatites 53, 59, 61, 68, 75, 79, 83, Czechoslovakia 257 87, 89, 90, 92, 147–160 Sua Pan’s high-lithium brine, Botswana 31, Taylor Valley, Antarctica 299, 300, 311 45, 48 Temperature and pressure of depositing Sulfate precipitation by CaCl2 brines lithium pegmatites 50–53, 61, 83, 96 113, 239, 249, 264, 265, 293, Temperature, air at high-lithium playas 25, 321, 349 100, 108 Index 475

Temperature rise in dissolving CaCl2 358, Traverse Formation’s CaCl2 brine, 362, 427, 429, 430 Michigan Basin 252–254 Terrestrial fossils near CaCl2 deposits 281, Tremolite’s reaction with CaCl2 336 290, 291, 327 Trenches, seepage for CaCl2, Bristol Lake Tetra Technologies Co. 350–352, 383 346–351 Texas CaCl2 groundwater 312, 314, 315, 318 Triphylite 4, 83, 167 Texas oil or gas field CaCl2 brines 45, 47, Triple effect evaporators for CaCl2 brine 260, 261, 263, 264 339–341, 353 6 Texas thermal CaCl2 springs 279 Tritium, Li conversion to 99, 200 Thailand’s tachyhydrite deposit 328–331 Tsuramaki Spa’s CaCl2 hot springs, Japan Thermal CaCl2 springs (inland) 270, 271, 276 273, 276–279, 282, 283, 291–293, Tungussky Basin’s dolomitization brine, 296, 298, 317, 321, 322 Russia 259 Thermal gradients 50, 61, 305, 310, 311 Turkmenia’s oil or gas field CaCl2 brines, Thermal vents, deep-ocean medium-lithium thermal springs 266, 277 brine 42, 44–46, 238, 266–273 Thermodynamic properties of CaCl2 Ulexite in high-lithium lakes or salars 18, solutions 430, 431, 427, 435 20, 21, 24, 25, 27, 28 Thor lithium pegmatite, Northwest Ultraviolet light detection of eucryptite Territories, Canada 2 157 Tiberias CaCl2 thermal springs, Israel 270, Underground mining of lithium pegmatites 271, 278, 281–283 92, 150, 151, 155, 165, 166, 168 Tibet Lithium New Technology Co., United States’ CaCl2 production capacity Zabuye Lake, China 135 383 Tibet’s (Xizang Plateau’s) high-lithium United States’ CaCl2 production, brines 38–43, 135 consumption and price 380, 382 Tidal pool dolomitization brine 247, 317 United States’ lithium deposits 2, 5–10, Tin, cassiterite recovered from lithium 29–37, 75, 79–85, 101–108, pegmatites 53, 59, 61, 74, 87, 133–135, 137–142, 157–170 89–92, 155, 171 United States’ lithium production, Tin minerals with CaCl2 occlusions 334 consumption, exports and price Tin Mountain lithium pegmatite, South 203–209 Dakota 83 Unzoned lithium pegmatites 50, 53–55, 75, Tin-spodumene Belt, North Carolina 53, 75, 80, 81, 89, 94 79–82 Urals potash deposit’s dolomitization brine, Tire ballasting with CaCl2 solutions 359, Russia 259 372 Uranium minerals with CaCl2 occlusions Togo Matsuzaki CaCl2 hot springs, Japan 334 276 Uses of CaCl2 358–378 Topaz in lithium pegmatites 66, 77, 92 Uses of lithium 82, 83, 99, 180–200 Toxicity of lithium compounds 179, 180 Ushtagan (CaCl2) Lake, Kazakhstan 294, Toxicology of CaCl2 378, 379 295, 298 in lithium pegmatites 52, 60, Utah Hot (CaCl2) Spring 271 62, 70, 73, 149, 153, 154 Utah’s CaCl2 thermal springs 271, 276 Trans–Pecos region’s CaCl2 groundwater, Utah’s oil or gas field CaCl2 brines 261 Texas 318 Uto lithium pegmatite, Sweden 98 476 Index

Uzbekistan’s Tien–Shan lithium pegmatites Western Caucasus’ CaCl2 groundwater, 97 Russia 313, 318 West Virginia’s oil or gas field CaCl2 brines Vapor pressure of CaCl2 solutions 420, 261 422–424, 426 White Picacho lithium pegmatite district, Vapor pressure of solid CaCl2 426, 427 Arizona 84, 85 Varutrak lithium pegmatite, Sweden 92, 94 Wilkinson Co., Mayville, Michigan 344, Vegetation’s reaction to CaCl2 363, 364 383 Vents, ocean, with lithium, CaCl2 brine 42, World map of some lithium deposits 2 44–46, 238, 266–273 World production of lithium (by country) Ventura oil or gas field’s CaCl2 brines, 205, 206 California 260, 266, 321 Wright Valley, Southern Victoria Land, Vermiculite’s reaction with CaCl2 336 Antarctica 298, 300 Viscosity of CaCl2 solutions 339, 410, 417–420 Xizang (Tibet’s) high-lithium lakes, China Viscosity vs temperature, Salar de Atacama 38–43, 135 brine 130 X-ray diffraction lines, antarctite 311, 331 Volcanic rocks’ d7Li 46 Yashan Batholith, China 92, 93 Volga region’s CaCl groundwater, Russia 2 Yellowknife and Thor lithium pegmatites, 318 Northwest Territories, Canada 2, 90 Yellowstone, Norris springs, Wyoming 14 Wairakei’s geothermal brine, New Zealand Yichun lepidolite granite, China 56, 92, 93 42, 44, 141 Walker Lake, Nevada’s d7Li 46 Zabuye (or Zabuye Caka) high-lithium Wall zones in lithium pegmatites 65, 66, 71 Lake, China 2, 38, 41–43, 135 Waste gas or other sources of CaCl2 357 Zaire’s lithium pegmatites 2, 3, 91 Waste Gate Formation’s CaCl2 Zavitaya area’s lithium pegmatites, Russia groundwater, Maryland 318 2, 94 Water absorbed by solid CaCl2 372, 427, Zeichstein Potash Formation, dolomitiza- 432, 433 tion brine 45, 243, 256, 257, 277, Water content of depositing lithium 315, 332, 333 pegmatites 49–52, 56, 57, 67, 78, Zimbabwe Craton’s CaCl2 groundwater 318 82–84, 89 Zimbabwe’s (’s) lithium Water treating with CaCl2 357, 376 pegmatites 2, 3, 52, 53, 56, 57, Wekusko Lake spodumene pegmatite, 61–68, 155–157, 165, 204–206 Manitoba, Canada 56, 169–171 Zinc minerals with CaCl2 occlusions 333, Wells for CaCl2 brine 339, 342, 346, 348, 334 350 4, 55, 58, 94 Wells for high-lithium brine 102–106, 113, Zoned lithium pegmatites 50, 52–55, 61, 118, 123, 131 65, 66, 68, 71–73, 82, 85, 90–97