Indian Art and Culture

E-book for CSAT and IAS Mains 1 INDEX

• Puppet forms 3 • Painting Styles 19 • Dance forms 29 Classical 31 Folk 40 Tribal 53 • Theater forms 62 • Music 77 • Indian Architecture 82 • Indian Literature 114 • Religions 131

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Puppet Forms of India

3 Puppet Forms of India

• A form of theatre or performance involving manipulation of puppets. • The process of animating inanimate performing objects. • Used both as entertainment – in performance – and ceremonially in rituals and celebrations such as carnivals. • Originating in India 4000 years ago, where the main character in Sanskrit plays was known as ―Sutradhara‖, ―the holder of strings‖. • Stories mainly from puranic literature, local myths and legends. String Puppet

Shadow Puppet

Glove Puppet

Rod Puppet

4 www.iasknowledge.in Puppet Forms of India 1. String Puppets • Jointed body and limbs that allow movement. • Made of wood, or wire, or cloth stuffed with cotton, rags or saw dust and are usually small. • Manipulated by operating the control as well as by loosening or pulling the relevant string. • Regional variations: Andhra Pradesh (Koyya Bommalata), Assam (Putala Nach), Karnataka (Sutrada Gombeyata), Maharashtra (Kalasutri Bahulya), Rajasthan (Kathputli), Orissa (Gopalila), Tamil Nadu (Bommalatam) and West Bengal (Tarer or Sutor Putul).

5 www.iasknowledge.in Puppet Forms of India 1. String Puppets Kathputli, Rajasthan • Carved from a single piece of wood. • Large dolls that are colorfully dressed. • Costumes and headgears are designed in the medieval Rajasthani style. • Uses highly dramatized version of the regional music. • Oval faces, large eyes, arched eyebrows and large lips. • Wear long trailing skirts and do not have legs. • Manipulated with strings attached to puppeteers fingers.

Kundhei, Orissa • Made of light wood. • Have no legs but wear long flowing skirts. • Have more joints and are, therefore, more versatile, articulate and easy to manipulate. • Music of Odissi dance. • Puppeteers hold a wooden prop, triangular in shape, to which strings are attached. 6 www.iasknowledge.in Puppet Forms of India 1. String Puppets Gombeyatta, Karnataka • Styled and designed like the characters of Yakshagana, have joints at the legs, shoulders, elbows, hips and knees. • Music is dramatic; blends folk and classical elements. • Manipulated by five to seven strings tied to a prop.

Bommalattam, Tamil Nadu • Techniques of both rod and string puppets. • Made of wood • Strings are tied to an iron ring which the puppeteer wears like a crown on his head. • Are the largest, heaviest and the most articulate of all. (A puppet may be as big as 4.5 feet). • Manipulation Jointed arms sometimes manipulated by rods (because heavy).

7 www.iasknowledge.in Puppet Forms of India 2. Shadow puppet • Flat figures cut out of leather, treated to make it translucent. • Pressed against the screen with a strong source of light behind it. • The manipulation between the light and the screen make silhouettes or colourful shadows, as the case may be, for the viewers who sit in front of the screen. • Prevalent in Orissa. Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.

8 www.iasknowledge.in Puppet Forms of India 2. Shadow puppet

Togalu Gombeyatta, Karnataka • Small in size. • Regional music used. • The puppets differ in size according to their social status, for instance, large size for kings and religious characters and smaller size for common people or servants.

Tholu Bommalata, Andhra Pradesh • Large in size and have jointed waist, shoulders, elbows and knees. • The classical music of the region. • Coloured on both sides. Hence, throw coloured shadows on the screen.

9 www.iasknowledge.in Puppet Forms of India 2. Shadow puppet

Ravanachhaya, Orissa • Small in size and are in one piece with no joints. • Made of deer skin and are conceived in bold dramatic poses. • Not coloured, hence throw opaque shadows on the screen. • Apart from human and animal characters, many props such as trees, mountains, chariots, etc. are also used.

10 www.iasknowledge.in Puppet Forms of India

3. Glove puppet

• The head is made of either papier mache, cloth or wood, with two hands emerging from just below the neck. • The rest of the figure consists of a long flowing skirt. • The movements are controlled by the human hand the first finger inserted in the head and the middle finger and the thumb are the two arms of the puppet. • Popular in Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal and Kerala. • Dialogues play an important role here.

11 www.iasknowledge.in Puppet Forms of India 3. Glove puppet Pavakoothu, Kerala • Presented usually in a play form. Their occurrence is almost confined to a few local villages. • Uses the narrative format prevalent in Kathakali. • The puppets, found in Palghat district, are more than four centuries old. They are carved delicately on woods, up to two feet high and beautified with colour paints, gilded tin, transparent corals and peacock feathers. • The puppeteer manipulates puppets sitting on an elevated platform and use instrumental music, such as, Chenda drums, conch shell, etc. • Puppeteers perform together for an hour or two in the evening in front of a brass oil-lamp. • The episodes used are from Mahabharata.

12 www.iasknowledge.in Puppet Forms of India 3. Glove puppet Bener Putul, West bengal • Means dolls of commercial people. • Belong to the scheduled caste of the old palanquin- bearers (Kahar). They are normally from among land-less labour. • The puppets are one and a half foot high, with terracotta heads and wooden arms. • The puppeteers sing songs during the show and play Domru (small drums) to attract crowd. • The music is based on either common folk tunes or even popular Hindi or Bengali songs, full of robust humour and sarcasm. • The puppets have anklets fixed on arms, which are used to keep rhythm by clapping. • There are pairs of male and female puppets used by the puppeteers with two hands. • The themes are based on social events like linguistic differences, escapade of lover- couples, or even family planning. • The puppeteer starts early in life and roams from fair to fair, charging money for each song.

13 www.iasknowledge.in Puppet Forms of India 3. Glove puppet Sakhi Kundhei, Orissa • The puppeteers are poor agricultural labour, running small shops for livelihood. • They perform Sakhi Natch showing the dalliance of Krishna with Radha and the milkmaids. • The puppeteers, belonging to a subcaste of Rajput, claim to have migrated from Vrindaban. • The puppet for Radha is with anklets round her waist, called Chandra Badani (moon-faced) and the music draws heavily on folk melodies accompanied by Dhol (barrel-shaped drum). • The puppets, gaudily dressed, have definite expressions to depict emotions. The puppeteer operates with right hand and plays the dhol with left hand, while singing the lyrics. • One puppeteer, with another playing the drum, often manipulates the puppets. • Treats Radha and Krishna as common village boy and girl. • The songs are from medieval poetry, using folk melodies popular in the village.

14 www.iasknowledge.in Puppet Forms of India 3. Glove puppet Gulabu & Sitabu, Uttar Pradesh • The puppeteers, sitting in an open space, use resplendent dolls and mount shows around the theme of two women : Gulabo and Sitabo. • The narrative, recited in a singsong voice, is about the quarrel between Sitabo, the helpless wife and Gulabo, the beautiful mistress of the same man, around petty social happenings. • The songs are interspersed with bawdy jokes and caustic humour, often reflecting the local incidents. The puppets are made of papier-mache with tinsel jewellery.

15 www.iasknowledge.in Puppet Forms of India

4. Rod puppet

• Extension of glove-puppets, but often much larger and supported and manipulated by rods from below. • Found mostly in West Bengal and Orissa.

16 www.iasknowledge.in Puppet Forms of India 4. Rod puppet

Putul Nautch, West Bengal • Costumed like the actors of Jatra, a traditional theatre. • Carved from wood and follow the various artistic styles of a particular region. • Used to be of human size, but existing puppets vary from 3 to 4 feet in height. • Music of Jatra theatre (drum, harmonium and cymbals). • Puppeteers themselves sing and deliver the stylized prose dialogues along with a group of musicians. • Manipulated by a bamboo-made hub tied firmly to the waist of the puppeteer on which the rod holding the puppet is placed. • Puppeteers move and dance imparting movements to puppets.

17 www.iasknowledge.in Puppet Forms of India 4. Rod puppet

Rod puppets, Orissa • Much smaller in size, sbout twelve to eighteen inches. • Hands are tied to strings instead of rods. (because they are small). • The music blends folk tunes with classical Odissi tunes. • Most of the dialogues are sung. • The Orissa rod-puppeteers squat on the ground behind a screen and manipulate.

Yampuri, Bihar • In one piece and have no joints. • Describes Yampuri (the house of Death). • The show begins with appearance of the death-god Yama and his messenger, followed by their record-keeper Chitragupta. One by one, the people (supposedly after death) are marched in front of Yama to receive their doles of punishment. • The narrative is meant primarily to put the fear of heaven and hell in people for their current deeds.

18 www.iasknowledge.in Painting Styles in India

19 Painting styles in India

• Paintings are basically two types: Murals: large scale paintings generally attached to the floor of palaces and caves. Miniatures: small scale which are done on mainly cloth or paper. • Can be categorized into seven special group: Rajasthani painting Madhubani painting Tanjore painting Mughal painting Bengal style of art Patta chitra Warli art

20 www.iasknowledge.in Painting styles in India

Madhubani • Also known as Mithila painting. • Originated in Madhubani village in Bihar. • According to mythology, this tradition commenced when Janakraj, father of rani sita asked his painters to paint the moments of marriage ceremony of Sita with Lord Rama. • Traditionally done by Madhubani‘s women on mud walls, later started on cloth, canvas and handmade papers. • Also depict other Hindu devotional stories. • Natural objects like moon, sun, tulsi etc is also found as theme. • No empty space is left, gaps are filled by different geometrical motifs, floral, animals, and bird pictures. • Are of three kinds : Brahmin style, Tatoo style and Kshatriya style. • Done with twigs, brushes, fingers, matchsticks, and nib pens using natural dyes and colors. • Eye-catching geometrical patters. 21 www.iasknowledge.in Painting styles in India

TANJORE • Originated form Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu around 16th century. • Widely popular as home décor item. • A unique art-form where precious stones and gold foils were used. • Initially used to depict Hindu Gods and Goddesses in grandeur. • Figures are large and the faces are round and divine. Lace or thread is also used to decorate the jewellery. • A mixture called "muk" is prepared using chalk powder and African gum in a ratio of 2:1 and applied in places around the stones and other areas to give an embossed look. • Most of the paintings would depict the Child Krishna and his various pranks, paintings of other deities were also created. • Changing with time - for example, the figures are no longer round. • Presiding deities of various famous temples are also being depicted in the paintings. 22 www.iasknowledge.in Painting styles in India

RAJASTHANI

• Developed and flourished during the 18th century in the royal courts of Rajasthan. • The most important themes are from the life of Lord Krishna, the Great epics of Ramayana and the Mahabharata, landscapes and human beings. • Used on the walls of palaces, interior chambers of the forts, havelis and the like. Schools of Rajput Painting: • The Mewar school that contains the Chavand, Nathdwara, Devgarh, Udaipur and Sawar styles of painting. • The Marwar school comprising the Kishangarh, Bikaner, Jodhpur, Nagaur, Pali and Ghanerao styles. • The Hadoti school with the Kota, Bundi and Jhalawar styles. • The Dhundar school of Amber, Jaipur, Shekhawati and Uniara styles of painting.

23 www.iasknowledge.in Painting styles in India

MUGHAL

• Exclusive combination of Indian, Persian and Islamic styles. • Evolved as well as developed during the rule of Mughal Emperors in India, between 16th to 19th century. • Themes like battles, court scenes, receptions, legendary stories, hunting scenes, wildlife, portraits, etc. are used. • Developed when Humayun returned to India from exile, and brought great Persian artists; Abd-us-samad and Mir-Sayyid Ali. • Most famous example of the Mughal style of art is the Tutinama Painting; `Tales of a Parrot`, which is presently in the Cleveland Museum of Art. • Under Akbar it experienced growth on a large-scale. Since Akbar was interested in tales, the paintings were based on Ramayana, Mahabharata and Persian epics. • Under Jahangir it saw more and more refinement in brushwork, along with the use of much lighter and subdued colors. The main themes of the Mughal paintings revolved around the events from Jahangir's own life, along with portraits, birds, flowers, animals, etc. • One of the most popular examples of Mughal paintings of this time include the pictorial illustrations of the Jehangir-nama, the biography of Emperor Jahangir. 24 www.iasknowledge.in Painting styles in India

BENGAL STYLE

• Flourished during the British Raj in the early 20th century. • Was associated with Indian nationalism, but also promoted by many British arts administrators. • Started in reaction reacting against the academic art styles previously promoted in India, by Indian artists such as Raja Ravi Varma and in British art schools. • Due to influence of Indian spiritual ideas in the West, the British art teacher Ernest Binfield Havell encouraged students to imitate Mughal miniatures. • This led to a strike by students and complaints from the local press, including from nationalists who considered it to be a retrogressive move. • Havell was supported by the artist Abanindranath Tagore. • Tagore's best-known painting, Bharat Mata (Mother India), depicted a young woman, portrayed with four arms in the manner of Hindu deities, holding objects symbolic of India's national aspirations.

25 www.iasknowledge.in Painting styles in India

WARLI ART • Warli is the name of a tribe, which resides in Thane district of Maharashtra on the northern outskirts of Mumbai and extends up to the Gujarat border. • This art was eventually discovered in the early seventies, and became popular for its unique simplicity and fervor for life. • Helical shapes of men and women and concentric circular designs in Warli Paintings are symbols of the circle of life. • The harmony and balance portrayed is thought to mean the harmony and balance of the universe of discourse. 26 www.iasknowledge.in Painting styles in India

KALAMKARI

• Done by using kalam (pen). • Has two subtypes:  Mausalipatnam style paintings focus on the Islamic aesthetics and the ripe fruits is used to color the paintings.  Srikalahasti style draes paintings on the hindu mythology and the color is drawn from raw fruits. PATTACHITRA • Traditional painting of Orissa, India. • Based on Hindu Mythology and inspired by Jagannath and Vaishnava cult. • Natural colours are used in fully old traditional way by Chitrakaras that is Oriya Painter • Is painted on canvas (Patta). Carefully done craftsmanship, rich colors, unique designs & creative motifs, & simple themes, which are chiefly mythological in origin on canvas. • Paintings on the cave walls of Khandagiri and Udayagiri, Konark temple, and many other temples in Orissa. 27 www.iasknowledge.in Painting styles in India

PAHARI • Developed and flourished during 17th-19th centuries stretching from Jammu to Almora and Garhwal, in the sub-Himalayan India, through Himachal Pradesh, and each creating stark variations within the genre, ranging from bold intense Basohli Painting, originating from Basohli in Jammu and Kashmir, to the delicate and lyrical Kangra paintings, which became synonymous to the style before other schools of paintings developed, which reached its pinnacle with paintings of Radha and Krishna, inspired by Jayadev's Gita Govinda. • Gave birth to a new idiom in Indian painting, and grew out of the Mughal painting. • Though this was patronized mostly by the Rajput kings who ruled many parts of the region.

28 www.iasknowledge.in Dance forms in India

Classical Dance - Folk Dance - Tribal Dance 29

Dance forms in India

• Dance is a form of art, where the body is used as a medium of communication. • The dance heritage of India is at least 5000 years old. • The wall paintings of Ajanta and Ellora, the sculptures of Khajuraho stand ample evidence for popularity of Indian dances from ancient times. • Nataraja, the dancing Lord Shiva, is the supreme manifestation of Indian dance.

30 www.iasknowledge.in Classical Dance in India oBharatnatyam - Tamil Nadu oKathak - Uttar Pradesh oKathakali – Kerala oKuchipudi- Andhra Pradesh oManipuri – Manipur oMohiniattam – Kerala oOdissi – Orissa oSattriya - Assam

31 www.iasknowledge.in Classical Dance in India

Bharatanatyam • Bhava (expression), Raga (music), Tala (rhythm) and Natya (classical theater). • It originates in South India. • It consists of multiple items: Nritta– pure dance movements Abhinaya– dramatic art of storytelling Nritya– combination of nritta & abhinaya • Performed on Carnatic music. • Costume are made of silk saris with gold embroidery and has a lot of pleats. • Necklace, Bangles and head ornaments are used as jewelry. • Bells mounted on woven pads are worn on the feet.

32 www.iasknowledge.in Classical Dance in India

Kathak

• Name is derived from Katha (story) and Katthaka (who tells stories). • It originates from North India. • There are three main gharanas or schools: Lucknow,  Jaipur Benares • Dance progresses from slow to fast pieces. Has Footwork & spins and includes abhinaya-expression. • Performed on Hindusthani music provided by Tabla, Sitar, Santoor. • Costume includes  Ghungroos or bells on the ankles  Female- lehenga choli or chudidaar kameez  Male- bare chest and dhoti or kurta churidar 33 www.iasknowledge.in Classical Dance in India

Kathakali

• It originates from Kerala state. • Attractive make-up of characters and elaborate costumes are used. • Performance is a combination of five elements: Natyam (expression), Nritham (dance), Nrithyam (enactment), Geetham (vocal) and Vadyam (instruments) • Carnatic music is used with Manipravalam as language of songs. • Elaborate makeup is used: Green face color- noble characters (Pacha) Green with red streaks- characters with evil streaks Red face color- excessively evil characters Women have yellow face color • Costumes are elaborate and differ according to character. 34 www.iasknowledge.in Classical Dance in India

Kuchipudi • It originates from Andhra Pradesh. • It shares many common elements with Bharatanatyam. • In Tarangam (a unique kuchipudi dance)- dancer dances on plate with diyas in the hands and vessel of water on the head. • Carnatic music is used. • Costumes are similar to Bharatanatyam. • Costume also include ‗Katcham‘ (long fold) at the back of the costume. • Female characters wear ornaments and jewelry. 35 www.iasknowledge.in Classical Dance in India

Manipuri • It originates from Manipur state. • Few features in its performance are:  Movements are subtle and aim at devotion and grace  Rounded movements without jerks and sharp lines  Dancers feet never strike the ground hard • Music is provided by a singer, ‗Pung‘ (drum), cymbals and flute. • Costume includes:  Female- dress called patloi and lehenga called kumin. Transparent odni is worn on the head and covers the face.  Male- usually saffron dress depicting Lord Krishna. • Dancers do not wear ankle bells in this dance form. 36 www.iasknowledge.in

Classical Dance in India

Mohiniattam

• Its name is derived from: Mohini- temptress and Attam- dance • It‘s a graceful dance performed only by women. • It has influences from Bharatanatyam and Kathakali. • Music includes Vocal (called chollu), Veena, flute, Maddalam & Idakka. • It is characterized by realistic makeup and simple dressing. • Costume includes white or cream sari with gold border and is profusely pleated. • Mainly gold ornaments are used as jewelry.

37 www.iasknowledge.in Classical Dance in India

Odissi

• It originates from Orissa. • Consists of three schools: Mahari, Nartaki Gotipua • Main feautres of performance are: Tribhangi- independent movement of head, chest and pelvis Chauka- basic square stance • Odissi music is used. • Costume feautres Sari- beautiful cloth wrapped around body in traditional style in bright shades of orange, purple, red or green. • Jewelry includes: Tikka (forehead ornament) Allaka (headpiece where tikka hangs) Ear covers in intricate shapes with jumkis (bell shaped earrings) hanging from them Chains Two sets of bangles (thin bracelets) worn on upper arm & wrist. 38 www.iasknowledge.in Classical Dance in India

Sattriya

• It originated in Assam state. • Performances are based on mythological stories and is performed by both men and women. • It is recognized as one of the classical dance forms of India in 2000. • Devotional songs called borgeets are used. • Instruments used are khols (drums), taals (cymbals) and flute. • Costume are made of pat (type of silk). • Ornaments are based on traditional Assamese designs.

39 www.iasknowledge.in Folk Dance in India

• Indian culture includes a treasure of a variety of folk dances. • The diversity in culture and tradition is reflected in the variety of Indian folk dances.

40 www.iasknowledge.in Folk Dance in India

Padayani (Kerala) • One of the most colourful and enchanting dances of Southern Kerala. • Associated with the festival of certain temples. • These temples are formed in the districts of Alleppey, Quilon, Pathanamthitta and Kottayam districts. • The main kolams (huge masks) presented in Padayani are Kali, Kalan , Yakshi (fairy), Pakshi (bird), etc. • The literal meaning of Padayani is military formations or rows of army. • The performers consist of dancers, singers and instrumentalists.

41 www.iasknowledge.in Folk Dance in India

Kaikottikali, Kerala • Also known as Thiruvathirakali. • Dance performed by women, in order to attain everlasting marital bliss, on Thiruvathira day in the Malayalam month of Dhanu (December- January). • The sinuous movements executed by a group of dancers around a nilavilakku, embody 'lasya' or the amorous charm and grace of the feminine. • The dance follows a circular, pirouetting pattern accompanied by clapping of the hands and singing.

42 www.iasknowledge.in Folk Dance in India

Karakattam, Tamil Nadu • One of the most essential parts of a ritual, dedicated to Mariamma, the goddess of health and rain. • It is performed by men, wherein they balance pots filled with uncooked rice, surrounded by a tall conical bamboo frame covered with flowers. • Drums and long pipes form the musical instruments accompanying the dance. • Karakattam is popular in villages during temple festivals.

43 www.iasknowledge.in Folk Dance in India

Kummi, Tamil Nadu • Kummi means to dance while clapping hands to a rhythm, accompanied by songs in popular tunes. • Women form a circle and dance during the Maariamman and Kaanum Pongal festivals for ten consecutive days.

Yakshgana, Karnataka • Yakshgana is a folk theatre form of Karnataka and it is an ancient art. • The original form of Yakshgana involves the use of recitative modes of poetry, melodies of music, rhythm and dance techniques, colourful costumes and graceful make up.

44 www.iasknowledge.in Folk Dance in India

Chhau, West Bengal • Originated from the Purulia distrct . • Mostly performed in the open space or ground field during the night. • It is a mask dance performed only by the male dancers. • The masks are made up from the clay and paper. • It is mythological, as it is mainly based on various episodes of the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata. • As the singer complete the invocation song, a host of drummers and musicians start beating the Dhol and the Dhamsa.

45 www.iasknowledge.in Folk Dance in India

Dalkhai, Orissa • The 'Dalkhai' is a dance performed by women of the tribes from the Sambalpur district of Orissa. • It is quite a virile dance rendered during the time of festivals. • The men generally play the musical instruments and the drummers often join the dance.

Namagen, Himachal Pradesh • The autumnal hue is celebrated in September by a dance performance called Namagen. • The most striking dance amongst these is the Gaddis. • The costumes are largely woollen and richly studded ornaments of silver are worn by women.

46 www.iasknowledge.in Folk Dance in India

Bhangra, Punjab • One of the most popular dances of India. • Performed during Baisakhi usually by the men in Punjab. • It includes tricks and acrobatic feats. • The songs include recitation of meaningless 'bolis', words, such as hoay, hoay. • The drummer usually in the centre of the circle, is surrounded by men dressed in lungis and turbans. • The dance performed by the women folk of Punjab is called the 'Gidha'. • In the Gidha, at a time a woman or a pair of women dance while the others clap in rhythm. The dance is performed in the festival of Teeyan to welcome the rains.

47 www.iasknowledge.in Folk Dance in India

Ghoomer Dance • Famous and a community dance of women in Rajasthan. • It is performed on various auspicious occasions like fairs & festivals. • It is called as `Ghoomer`, from the `ghoomna` of Ghaghra i.e. the flowing of Ghaghra, a long skirt of the Rajasthani women. • Women from any age group, may it be the young or old can participate in Ghoomer dance. • While dancing, the dancers move in a circular direction with clockwise and anti-clockwise steps.

48 www.iasknowledge.in Folk Dance in India

Bihu, Assam • The Bihu dance is performed in the Bihu festival, celebrated for the arrival of spring in the Assamese New Year. • The dance is performed in an open space during daytime.

Cheraw (Bamboo) Dance, Mizoram • The most popular and colourful dance of the Mizos. • Long pair of horizontal bamboo staves are tapped open and close in rhythmic beats by people sitting face to face on the ground. • Because bamboos are used for the dance, people sometimes call it the BAMBOO DANCE.

49 www.iasknowledge.in Folk Dance in India

Burra Katha Dance, Andhra Pradesh • Burra' is a special instrument used by two performers who dance encourage the main story teller by exclamation and questions. • Demands oratory as well as dancing skills on the part of the performers. • Three people to enact the story telling. • Main artiste is dressed in a colourful attire with a garland round his neck and a tambura slung across his shoulder, the other two artistes dressed similarly question the narration to alert a sleepy audience. • The two accompanying artistes have a drum and hand taal. • The theme of the story could be anything that has happened or is happening.

50 www.iasknowledge.in Folk Dance in India

Garba Dance, Gujrat • This dance form has connection with Shakti-Puja. • It is played in a circular form performed by ladies on the nine nights of Navaratri festival, Sharad Purnima, Vasant Panchami, Holi etc. • The word Garba is derived from the word `Garbha Deep` (a lamp inside a perforated earthen pot). • In this folk dance, the women place the pot known as Garba with the lamp on their heads and move in circular direction, singing and clap at the same time.

51 www.iasknowledge.in Folk Dance in India

Dandia-Ras, Gujrat • Also known as the `stick` dance. • This dance is also a feature of most welcomed festival, Navratri. • The Ras is simple and is generally performed by a group of young people who move in typical style in measured steps around a circle, accompanied by a singing chorus and a host of musical instruments like the dhol, cymbals, zanz and shehnai.

52 www.iasknowledge.in Tribal Dances in India

• Performed by tribal people/adivasi, who possess a culture, distinct from the pan Indian population. • Completely different from Indian folk dances. • Each tribe possesses its own distinguishable dance traditions interwoven with the life of the people who dance it.

53 www.iasknowledge.in Tribal Dances in India

Kaadar Nritham • Only women take part. • Primitive dance of Kaadar tribes of the forest of Kochi area. • The performers arrange themselves in a semicircle. They hold the tip of their cloths in their hands to the level of the waist and wave it to various rhythms of the dance. • It is a very simple but elegant tribal dance in slow steps.

Elelakkaradi • A highly heroic group – dance. • Almost the whole community of men, women and children participate. • Very common with the tribal called Irular of Attappadi in Palakkad district. • The dance brings out the fight of the people against the wild bears which often attack their tribal hamlets. • Dancers move out in rhythmic steps, with vociferous shouts and war cries and keep time to the beatings of the primitive drums.

54 www.iasknowledge.in Tribal Dances in India

Kaanikkar Nritham • Group dance of the kanikkar tribes from Tamil Nadu. • Performed as a ritual offering. • The steps of the dancers perfectly synchronize with the waving of the hands and beating of drums.

Paravalli Kali • Mixed dance of the aboriginals of dense forest of Travancore area. • Both men and women participate. • They dance holding arms together, or shoulder to shoulder, linked in a backlock posture. • The men and women change their positions which amazing speed. • The entire group of dancer sings songs and move swift rhythm in a circle. • The linked arms swing to the rhythm in a fascinating wavelike movement.

55 www.iasknowledge.in Tribal Dances in India

Man Kali • It is mainly of two kinds  The Ramayana episode in which Sita is being enchanted by Maricha in the guise of a golden deer is enacted in graceful movements.  One man takes the role of a deer while another that of a hunter. The deer hopes about and jumps around. The hunter follows in close steps and his movements and gestures suggest drawing the bow, aiming it, hurling the spear, brandishing some wooden log, etc. • The whole dance is performed to the rhythm of wild percussion instruments.

Paniyar Kali • Performed by tribal in hilly forests of Wayand district. • Highly masculine and only men participate. • Around eight or ten dancers stand in a circle with hands linked together. • They have around with rhythmic flexions of the body and while moving stamp the ground in perfect rhythm to the loud beat of the primitive percussion instruments called Karu, Para, Udukku, etc. • As the dance gathers momentum the circle is swiftly expanded and contracted and the dancers utter peculiar cries which gradually run up to a high pitch.

56 www.iasknowledge.in Tribal Dances in India

THAVALA KALI • Boys jump one above the other in succession, imitating the leaps of the frog.

EDAYA NRITHAM • Dance of the tribal shepherds. • Both men and women participate. • One of the shepherds sing. This is repeated in chorus by all the rest. • As the singing is going in, one of them imitate the special sounds of shepherds driving their sheep. • Someone of the group crying successively to imitate the wild animals that try to attack the sheep and also the thief who tries to robe them while the other members of the group very adeptly bring out the terror on the faces of the lamps and their mournful walings.

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58 Theatre forms in India

• At least 5000 years old tradition in India. • According to legend the very first play was performed on heaven when the gods, having defeated the demons, were enacting their victory. • Hindu theorists conceived of plays in two types of production: Lokadharmi (realistic), which involved the reproduction of human behavior on the stage and the natural presentation of objects, Natyadharmi (conventional), which is the presentation of a play through the use of stylized gestures and symbolism and was considered more artistic than realistic. • Indian theatre can be divided into three distinctive kinds: the Classical or the Sanskrit theatre, the Traditional or the Folk theatre and the Modern theatre.

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Bhand Pather, Kashmir • Unique combination of dance, music and acting. • Biting satire, wit and parody characterize the form. • Music is provided with surnai, nagaara and dhol. • The actors are mainly from the farming community and the impact of their way of living, ideals and sensitivity in the drama is discernible. • Sometimes masks are also used in the performance

Nautanki, Uttar Pradesh • Important centres are Kanpur, Lucknow and Haathras. • The meters used in the verses are: Doha, Chaubola, Chhappai, Behar-e-tabeel. • Initially only men acted in Nautanki but nowadays, women have also started taking part in the performances. • Among those remembered with reverence is Gulab Bai of Kanpur.

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Swang, Haryana and Western UP • Musical folk-drama evolved in 18th century. • Has stories in verse sung in various mode (classical, semi-classsical, folk). However gradually prose has been included in it too enacted as dialogues. • The softness of emotions, accomplishment of rasa alongwith the development of character can be seen in this theatre form. • Two important styles of Swang are from Rohtak and Haathras. In the style belonging to Rohtak, the language used is Haryanvi (Bangru) and in Haathras, it is Brajbhasha. • Initially cast was all male but women have started participating. • Swang means impersonation. The Nautanki of UP, Khyal of Rajasthan are in this tradition

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Naqal, Punjab • Continues the Swang tradition. • Naqal translates as mimicry or imitation and the naqalchi is the mimic. Relies heavily on improvisation by the naqalchi. • Centuries-old village tradition, very popular at weddings. • Solo performance of group of 2-3 dressed in rustic clothes. • Perform a series of skits, in a small space, each lasting 10 mins or so. Made up of quick repartee, gentle satire. • Subject-matter is purely social, like hilarious situations from the everyday. This form is purely secular.

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Bhavai, Gujrat • Traditionally performed during Navratri before the shrine of Amba Mata or before a lamp symbolizing the deity. • Important centres are Kutch and Kathiawar. • Instruments used in Bhavai are: bhungal, tabla, flute, pakhaawaj, rabaab, sarangi, manjeera, etc. • In Bhavai, there is a rare synthesis of devotional and romantic sentiments.

Rasleela, Uttar Pradesh • Based exclusively on legends of Lord Krishna • Believed that Nand Das wrote the initial plays based on the life of Krishna. • The dialogues in prose combined beautifully with songs and scenes from Krishna's pranks.

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Jatra • Born and nurtured in Bengal • Performed at fairs in honour of gods, or religious rituals and ceremonies • Krishna Jatra became popular due to Chaitanya's influence. Later, however, worldly love stories too, found a place in Jatra. • The earlier form of Jatra has been musical. Dialogues were added at later stage. • The actors themselves describe the change of scene, the place of action, etc

Nachya, Chhattisgarh, Vidarbha • Influenced by Ganda musicians and entertainment form Gammat • Select a situations from life of agricultural community and improvise. No written text is followed. • Treatment is humourous and satirical • Play begins with invocation of Ganesh and Saraswati. • In one form of nachya, the Jokkad Pari, the performers dance with flaming torches.

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Maach, Madhya Pradesh • The term Maach is used for the stage itself as also for the play. • Songs are given prominence in between the dialogues. • Dialogues are called bol and rhyme in narration is termedvanag. • Tunes of this theatre form are known as ranga.

Tamaasha, Maharashtra • It has evolved from the folk forms such as Gondhal, Jagran and Kirtan. • The female actress is the chief exponent of dance movements in the play, (unlike other theatre- forms). She is known as Murki. • Classical music, footwork at lightning-speed, and vivid gestures make it possible to portray all the emotions through dance

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Bhaona, Assam • Cultural glimpses of Assam, Bengal Orissa, Mathura and Brindavan can also be seen. • Bhaona is a presentation of Ankia Naat. • The Sutradhaar, or narrator begins the story, first in Sanskrit and then in either Brajboli or Assamese. • Ankiya naat are one-act plays interspersed with Sanskrit verses. They were composed for common people in simple language. A close link with Sanskrit theater can be seen.

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Dashaavtar, Konkan & Goa • The performers personify the ten incarnations of Lord Vishnu-the god of preservation and creativity. • The ten incarnations are Matsya (fish), Kurma (tortoise), Varaha (boar), Narsimha (lion-man), Vaman (dwarf), Parashuram, Rama, Krishna (or Balram), Buddha and Kalki. • Apart from stylized make-up, the Dashavatar performers wear masks of wood and papier mach.

Krishnattam, Kerala • Came into existence in the mid17th century A.D. in Calicut. • Krishnattam is dance-drama presenting the story of Krishna in a cycle of eight plays performed for eight consecutive days. The plays are Avataram, Kaliamandana, Rasa krida, kamasavadha, Swayamvaram, Bana Yudham, Vivida Vadham, and Swargarohana.

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Mudiyettu, Kerala • Celebrated in the month of Vrischikam (November-December). • Usually performed only in the Kali temples of Kerala, as an oblation to the Goddess. • It depicts the triumph of goddess Bhadrakali over the asura Darika. • The seven characters in Mudiyettu-Shiva, Narada, Darika, Danavendra, Bhadrakali, Kooli and Koimbidar (Nandikeshvara) are all heavily made-up. • In 2010, Mudiyettu was included in the UNESCO Intagible Cultural Heritage List.

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Theyyam, Kerala • Word 'Theyyam' is derived from 'Daivam' meaning God. Hence it is called God's dance. • Theyyam is performed by various castes to appease and worship spirits of ancestors, folk- heores, deities of diseases etc. • Distinguishing features is the colourful costume and awe-inspiring headgears (mudi) nearly 5 to 6 feet high made of arecanut splices, bamboos, leaf sheaths of arecanut and wooden planks and dyed into different strong colours using turmeric, wax and arac. • Face is always painted in an orange base- colour.

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Koodiyaattam / Kutiyattam, Kerala • Based on Sanskrit theatre traditions. • Characters of this theatre form are: Chakyaar (actor), Naambiyaar (instrumentalists) and Naangyaar (those taking on women's roles). The Sutradhar (narrator) and the Vidushak (jesters) are the protagonists. • Vidushak alone delivers the dialogues. • Emphasis on hand gestures and eye movements makes this dance and theatre form unique. • Koodiyaattam was included in the UNESCO Intagible Cultural Heritage List as a Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.

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Yakshagaana, Karnataka • Based on mythological stories and Puranas • Most popular episodes are from the Mahabharata i.e. Draupadi swayamvar, Subhadra vivah, Abhimanyu vadh, Karna-Arjun yuddh and from Ramayana i.e. Raajyaabhishek, Lav-kush Yuddh, Baali-Sugreeva yuddha and Panchavati.

Burrakatha • A storytelling technique used in villages of Andra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. The troupe consists of one main performer and two co- performers. • It is a narrative entertainment that consists of prayers, solo drama, dance, songs, poems and jokes. • The topic will be either a Hindu mythological story or a contemporary social problem. • Harikatha, also known as Katha Kalakshepa, is a variant which narrates tales of Lord Krishna, other Gods and saints.

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Therukoothu, Tamil Nadu • Literally means "street play". It is mostly performed at the time of annual temple festivals of Mariamman (Rain goddess) to achieve rich harvest. • There is a cycle of eight plays based on the life of Draupadi.

RAMMAN, Uttarakhand • Combining theatre, music, historical reconstructions, and traditional oral and written tales, the Ramman is a multiform cultural event • Celebrated every year in Baisakh month (april) in the courtyard of the temple of Bhumiyal Devta situated in Chamoli district, Uttarakhand. • Mask dance performed exclusively by the Bhandaris (Ksatriya caste). • Included in the UNESCO Representative list of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.

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Pandavani • Chattisgarh and in the neighboring tribal areas of Orissa and Andhra Pradesh. • Musical narration of tales from the Mahabharata with one lead narrator-singer, enacting and singing with an ektara. • No use of stage props or settings, it mainly relies on mimicry and rousing theatrical movements. Sometimes the singer-narrator breaks into an impromptu dance, at the completion of an episode or to celebrate a victory with the story being retold. • During a performance, as the story builds, the tambura becomes a prop, sometimes it becomes to personify a gada, mace of Arjun, or at times his bow or a chariot, while others it becomes the hair of queen Draupadi or Dushshasan thus helping the narrator-singer play all the characters of story. • Teejan Bai is most renowned singer to this style.

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Khyal, Rajasthan • Derived from khel (play), khyal probably took shape as a musical dance-drama in the early eighteenth century. • Based on mythological, historical, or popular romantic tales, emphasizing qualities of heroism, self-sacrifice, and nobility. • Types of khyal are identified by the kind of stage used or the musical variations selected. In the Turra Kilangi khyal is performed on an elaborately decorated stage, while the Kuchamani khyal is simpler in presentation but has specific music and dance steps. • Highly improvisatory in nature, with loosely structured plots and witty dialogue, khayal requires an intimate audience–actor relationship. • Its primary attraction is its soulful singing, accompanied by the nakkara and dholak (both percussion), sarangi (bowed instrument), and sometimes shehnai (wind instrument). • Prompters with a copy of the dramatic text are always on the stage. This is a convention that Khyal shares with Maach of MP where they are known as pustakji. • [Note: Not to be confused with 'Khayal' - a type of hindustani classsical vocal rendition].

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Bhagat, Uttar Pradesh • Mainly in Agra and Mathura. • Considered as a parent form of Nautanki and is 400 yrs old. • Initially consisted of dramatized devotionaal singing by devotees of the Vaishnava sect. Later tales of romance, valour and kings added. • Religious rituals at the beginning and end provide a frame for the performance. At the beginning an actor playing Ganesh dances on the stage, who is then worshipped by the other actors. • Language of the bhagat is a mix of Hindi, Urdu, Braj.

Veedhi Natakam, Andhra Pradesh • Presented during the religious festivals in praise of 'Bhagavan'. Thus the performances were called 'Bhagavathams'. • Veedhi in Telugu means street; an open place. So Veedhi Natakam is any dramatic performance presented in a street.

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GENERIC FEATURES of TRADITIONAL THEATRE-FORMS • Songs and the art of singing have an important role to play. • There is a classical element in these theatre forms too, which takes on regional, local and folk coloring. • There are certain conventions of presentations depending upon and changing according to the form and size of the stage or the platform and other available situations. • There is no such thing as episodes. There is always continuity in its theme, structure and presentation. • There is direct and intimate communication between the actors and the audience. • Characters keep changing their place on the stage to be more impressive and to give the situation a greater significance. This technique also reduces the chance of boredom through repetition and stillness. • Dialogue delivery is usually carried out in a high pitch. This helps the actors in reaching out to a larger audience. The artists always add something or the other to the original dialogue on their own. The changes brought through improvisations, make the spectators ecstatic and help in building a rapport with the audience

76 www.iasknowledge.in Music of India

77 www.iasknowledge.in Music of India

• Includes multiple varieties of folk, popular, pop, classical music and R&B. • India's classical music tradition, including Carnatic and Hindustani music, has a history spanning millennia and developed over several eras. • It remains fundamental to the lives of Indians today as sources of spiritual inspiration, cultural expression and pure entertainment.

78 www.iasknowledge.in Music of India Classical Music in India Hindustani (North Indian) Music Carnatic (South Indian) Music  Continuity back to Vedic times (6,000 BC)  Of more recent origin  Codified in a large number of ancient and  Codified in medieval texts written by musicologists, medieval music treatises the influential ones among whom studied in North  Developed independently of folk music, albeit India and thereafter returned to South India to occasionally importing folk or regional elements, fashion Carnatic music out of the prevalent metamorphosing them suitably regional musical forms to be found in South India  Raga based, mostly improvised  Composition based, mostly fixed  Capable of intense expression in very slow speeds  A fairly quick tempo from the start, so lacks the intensity, introspection, microtones and several  Vast range of ornaments, particularly during slow ornaments found in Hindustani music passages  Notes are not held for long and are mostly quitted  Subtle use of microtones in slow passages by a characteristic oscillation using indeterminate  Steady, long-held notes, mostly approached and/or pitch quitted by little ornamental phrases  Constant and fairly fast tempo throughout  Gradual building up of tempo from very slow to  No convention of time or season very fast  Percussion accompanist does not enunciate  Convention of time and season rhythmic cycle clearly, so a second percussionist  Clear enunciation of rhythmic cycle by percussion and/or a timekeeper showing and/or clapping out accompanist (in dominant present day forms like beats (in which the audience joins) is necessary Khayal, Sadra, Thumri, Bhajan etc.)  Contrary to advocated argument, has Muslim  True to Hindu traditions: so-called ―Persian influences influences‖ fully integrated within its essential and

ancient grammatical format 79 www.iasknowledge.in

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Uttarakhandi folk music • On subjects related to nature. • Primarily related to the various festivals, religious traditions, folk stories and simple life of the people of Uttarakhand. • Musical instruments include the dhol, damoun, turri, ransingha, dholki, daur, thali, bhankora and masakbhaja. Tabla and harmonium are also used, but to a lesser extent. • The main languages are Kumaoni and Garhwali.

Lavani • Lavani comes from the word Lavanya which means beauty. • Originated in the arid region of Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh. It has in fact become a necessary part of the Maharashtrian folk dance performances. • Traditionally, the songs are sung by female artistes, but male artistes may occasionally sing Lavanis. • The dance format associated with Lavani is known as Tamasha. • Lavani is a combination of traditional song and dance, which particularly performed to the enchanting beats of 'Dholak', a drum-like instrument. • Women wears nine-yard saris. They sings in a quick tempo.

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Rajasthani • Rajasthan has a very diverse cultural collection of musician castes, including Langas, Sapera, Bhopa, Jogi and Manganiyar (lit. the ones who ask/beg). • Rajasthan Diary quotes it as a soulful, full-throated music with Harmonious diversity. • The haunting melody of Rajasthan evokes from a variety of delightfully primitive looking instruments. • The stringed variety include the Sarangi, Rawanhattha, Kamayacha, Morsing and Ektara. • Percussion instruments come in all shapes and sizes from the huge Nagaras and Dhols to the tiny Damrus. • The Daf and Chang are a big favourite of Holi (the festival of colours) revellers. Flutes and bagpipers come in local flavours such as Shehnai, Poongi, Algoza, Tarpi, Been and Bankia.

Ganasangeet • Eg: Apni Azadi Ko Hum Hargis Mita Sakte Nahin, ajadee hoyni tor, Kadam kadam badhaye jaa, Vande Mataram etc. • Generally sung in chorus carrying some social message. • The songs are usually about Freedom, community strength, patriotism. • Due to the British occupation in India, a lot of protest songs about anti-imperialism/pro-socialism

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82 Indian Architecture

• Third millennium BC. Indus Valley Civilization • On indus river bank. • Walled cities for security. • Rectangular grid pattern of layout with roads cutting at right angles. • Burnt mud-bricks as building material. • Evidence of big building which perhaps were public buildings, administrative or business centres, pillared halls and courtyards. • No evidence of temples. • Public buildings include granaries to store grains. • ‗Great Bath‘ - public bathing place shows the importance of ritualistic bathing and cleanliness in this culture. It is still functional and there is no leakage or cracks in the construction. • Most of the houses had private wells and bathrooms. • Dominant citadal - treated as evidence of some kind of political authority ruling over the cities. • Evidence also of fortifications with gateways enclosing the walled cities which shows that there may have been a fear of being attacked. 83 www.iasknowledge.in Indian Architecture

The Mauryan Period • Ashoka, first Mauryan to "think in stone". • Mostly indigenous in origin, some exotic forms show the influence of Greek, Persian and Egyptian cultures. • Beginning of the Buddhist School of architecture in India. • Ashokan pillars were lofty free standing monolithic columns erected on sacred sites. Originally there were about thirty pillars but now only ten are in existence, of which only two with lion capitals stand in situ in good condition at Kolhua and Laurya Nandangarh respectively. • Sarnath pillar - finest pieces of sculpture of the Ashokan period. • The Chinese traveller Fa-hien was so impressed by Ashoka‘s palace near Patna that he stated that "it was made by spirits" and that its carvings are so elegantly executed "which no human hands of this world could accomplish". • Its existence was pointed out during the excavations at Kumrahar, near Patna, where its ashes have been found preserved for several thousand years. • Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador of Selucas Nikator who visited the Mauryan court described Chandragupta Maurya‘s palace as an excellent architectural achievement 84 www.iasknowledge.in Indian Architecture

THE STUPAS • SANCHI STUPAS:  hemispherical in shape with a low base.  symbolized the cosmic mountain.  inscription by the ivory carvers of Vidisha on the southern gateway throws light on the transference of building material from perishable wood and ivory to the more durable stone.

• AMARAVATI STUPA:  built in 2nd or 1st century BC was probably like the one at Sanchi  but in later centuries it was transformed from a Hinayana shrine to a Mahayana shrine.

• GANDHARA STUPA:  further development of stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut.  the base, dome and the hemisphere dome are sculpted.  stupas of Nagarjunakonda in Krishna valley were very large.  Maha Chaitya of Nagarjunakonda has a base in the form of Swastika, which is a sun symbol.

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The Gandhara School Of Art (50 B.C. TO 500 A.D.): • From Punjab to the borders of Afghanistan was an important centre of Mahayana Buddhism up to the 5th century A.D. • Imbibed all kinds of foreign influences like Persian, Greek, Roman, Saka and Kushan. • Origin can be traced to the Greek rulers of Bactria and Northwest India. • During the reign of Kanishka that the art received great patronage. • Also known as the Graeco- Buddhist School of Art since Greek techniques of Art were applied to Buddhist subjects. • Most important contribution- evolution of beautiful images of the Buddha and Bodhisattavas, which were executed in black stone and modelled on identical characters of Graeco-Roman pantheon. • ―Gandhara artist had the hand of a Greek but the heart of an Indian." • Most characteristic trait - depiction of Lord Buddha in the standing or seated positions. • Seated Buddha is always shown cross-legged in the traditional Indian way. • Typical feature - rich carving, elaborate ornamentation and complex symbolism. • Tallest rock-cut statue of Lord Buddha - Bamiyan (Afghanistan) - 3-4 century AD.

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The Mathura School Of Art( 50 B.C. - 500 A.D.): • At the holy city of Mathura between 1-3 A.D. • Established tradition of transforming Buddhist symbols into human form. • Buddha‘s first image can be traced to Kanishka‘s reign (about 78 A.D.). • Earliest sculptures of Buddha were made keeping the yaksha prototype in mind. • Strongly built - right hand raised in protection and left hand on the waist. • The figures do not have moustaches and beards as in the Gandhara Art. • Seated figures are in the padmasana posture. • Not only produced beautiful images of the Buddha but also of the Jain Tirthankaras and gods and goddesses of the Hindu pantheon. • Although of indigenous origin, but greatly influenced by the Gandhara School of Art. • Guptas adopted, further improvised & perfected Mathura School of Art. • Observed at - Sarnath, Sravasti and even as far as Rajgir in Bihar.

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The Amravati school of art (200 b.C. - 200 a.D.): • On the banks of the Krishna River in modern Andhra Pradesh. • Largest Buddhist stupa of South India. • Construction began in 200 B.C. and was completed in 200 A.D. • Stupendous stupa could not withstand the ravages of time • Its ruins are preserved in the London Museum.

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Mughal Architecture

• Mughal architecture is the architectural style developed by the Mughals in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries throughout the extent of their empire in the Indian subcontinent. • It was an amalgam of Islamic, Persian, and Indian architecture The Mughal Emperors gave a new direction and impetus to architecture. Examples of the style can be found in India, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Bangladesh. • The Mughal dynasty was established after the victory of Babur at Panipat in 1526. During his five- year reign, Babur took considerable interest in erecting buildings, though few of which have survived. • His grandson Akbar built widely, and the style developed vigorously during his reign. Among his accomplishments were a tomb for his father Humayun, the Agra Fort, and the fort-city of Fatehpur Sikri. Akbar's son Jahangir commissioned the Shalimar Gardens in Kashmir. • Mughal architecture reached its zenith during the reign of Shah Jahan, who constructed the Jama Masjid, the Red Fort, the Shalimar Gardens in Lahore, and the most famous Mughal monument, the Taj Mahal, as well as many other fine examples of the style. • While Shah Jahan's son Aurangzeb commissioned some buildings such as the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore, his reign corresponded with the decline of Mughal architecture and the Empire itself. • Under Jahangir the Hindu features vanished from the style; his great mosque at Lahore is in the Persian style, covered with enameled tiles. At Agra, the tomb of Itmad-ud-Daula, which was completed in 1628, was built entirely of white marble and covered in pietra dura mosaic. • Jahangir also built the Shalimar Gardens and Nishat Bagh, and their accompanying pavilions on the shore of Dal Lake in Kashmir. He also built a monument to his pet deer, Hiran Minar in Sheikhupura, Pakistan and due to his great love for his wife, after his death she went on to build his mausoleum in Lahore. 90 Indian Architecture

Mughal Architecture Shah Jahan • Rather than building huge monuments like his Taj Mahal predecessors, Shah Jahan built elegant • The Taj Mahal, the "teardrop on the cheek of monuments. eternity" (Rabindranath Tagore), was completed in • The force and originality of their building style 1648 by the emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal. gave way under Shah Jahan to a delicate • Its longest plane of symmetry runs through the entire elegance and refinement of detail, illustrated in complex except for the sarcophagus of Shah the palaces erected in his reign at Agra and Jahan, which is placed off centre in the crypt room below the main floor. Delhi. • This symmetry extended to the building of an entire • The Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque) in the Agra Fort mirror mosque in red sandstone, to complement the and The Jama Masjid at Delhi are imposing Mecca-facing mosque place to the west of the buildings, and their position and architecture main structure. • The Taj Mahal (1630–1648) in Agra, India and the have been carefully considered so as to produce Shalimar Garden (1641–1642) in Lahore, Pakistan, a pleasing effect and feeling of spacious are two sites which are on the world heritage list of elegance and well-balanced proportion of parts. UNESCO. • Shah Jahan also built the Tomb of Jahangir and • The Taj is considered to be one of the most beautiful monuments of the world and was included in the sections of the Lahore Fort that include the Moti New Seven Wonders of the World list Masjid, Sheesh Mahal, and Naulakha pavilion which are all enclosed in the fort.

• He also built a mosque named after himself in Thatta called Shahjahan Mosque. • Another mosque was built during his tenure in Lahore called Wazir Khan Mosque, by Shaikh Ilm-

ud-din Ansari who was the court physician to the emperor. 91 Indian Architecture

Mughal Architecture Aurangzeb and later Mughal architecture • In Aurangzeb's reign (1658–1707) squared stone and marble was replaced by brick or rubble with stucco ornament. • Srirangapatna and Lucknow have examples of later Indo-Muslim architecture. • He made additions to the Lahore Fort and also built one of the thirteen gates which was later named after him (Alamgir). • Aurangzeb also built the Badshahi Mosque which was constructed in 1674 under the supervision of Fida'i Koka. This mosque is adjacent to the Lahore Fort and is the last in the series of congregational mosques in red sandstone and is closely modeled on the one Shah Jahan built at Shahjahanabad. • The red sandstone of the walls contrasts with the white marble of the domes and the subtle intarsia decoration. • Additional monuments from this period are associated with women from Aurangzeb's imperial family. • The construction of the elegant Zinat al-Masjid in Daryaganij was overseen by Aurangzeb's second daughter Zinat-al-Nisa. • The tomb of Aurangzeb's sister Roshan-Ara, who died in 1671, and the garden surrounding it were neglected for a long time and are now in an advanced state of decay. • Bibi Ka Maqbara was a mausoleum built by Prince Azam Shah, son of Emperor Aurangzeb, in the late 17th century as a loving tribute to his mother, Dilras Bano Begam in Aurangabad, Maharashtra. • The Alamgiri Gate, built in 1673 A.D., is the main entrance to the Lahore Fort in present day Lahore. It was constructed to face west towards the Badshahi Mosque in the days of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. • Another construction of Mughal era is the Lalbagh Fort (also known as "Fort Aurangabad"), a Mughal palace fortress at the Buriganga River in the southwestern part of Dhaka, Bangladesh, whose construction started in 1678 during the reign of Aurangzeb.

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Mughal Architecture

Mughal gardens Mughal gardens are a group of gardens built by the Mughals in the Islamic style of architecture. This style was influenced by Persian gardens and Timurid gardens. Significant use of rectilinear layouts are made within the walled enclosures. Some of the typical features include pools, fountains and canals inside the gardens. The famous gardens are the Char Bagh gardens at Taj Mahal, Shalimar Gardens of Lahore, Delhi and Kashmir as well as Pinjore Garden in Haryana.

93 Indian Architecture

TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE OF INDIA

• India's Hindu temple architecture is developed from the creativity of Sthapathis and Shilpis, both of whom belong to the larger community of craftsmen and artisans called Vishwakarma (caste). • A small Hindu temple consists of an inner sanctum, the garbha graha or womb-chamber, in which the idol or deity is housed, often called circumambulation, a congregation hall, and sometimes an antechamber and porch. The garbhagriha is crowned by a tower-like shikara. • All the Hindu temples in India follows the architecture defined in Shilpa Shastras. • However, there are artistic variations in terms of construction of shikara depending on regional culture

SHIKHARA

MANDAPA

VIMANA garbha-griha 94 www.iasknowledge.in Indian Architecture

History of Temple Architecture

• Representation of the macrocosm (the universe) as well as the microcosm (the inner space). • The Ashtadhyayi of Panini, the great grammarian of the 5th century BCE speaks of images that were used in Hindu temple worship. The ordinary images were called pratikriti and the images for worship were called archa. • Patanjali, the 2nd-century BCE author of the Mahabhashya commentary on the Ashtadhyayi, tells us more about the images. • Deity images for sale were called Shivaka etc., but an archa of Shiva was just called Shiva. Patanjali mentions Shiva and Skanda deities. • There is also mention of the worship of Vasudeva (Krishna). • Some images could be moved and some were immoveable. • Panini also says that an archa was not to be sold and that there were people (priests) who obtained their livelihood by taking care of it. • Panini and Patanjali mention temples which were called prasadas. • The earlier Shatapatha Brahmana of the period of the Vedas, informs us of an image in the shape of Purusha which was placed within the altar. • The Vedic books describe the plan of the temple to be square. This plan is divided into 64 or 81 smaller squares, where each of these represent a specific divinity.

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TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE OF INDIA Nagara architecture • Nagara temples have two distinct features : . In plan, the temple is a square with a number of graduated projections in the middle of each side giving a cruciform shape with a number of re- entrant angles on each side. . In elevation, a Sikhara, i.e., tower gradually inclines inwards in a convex curve. • The projections in the plan are also carried upwards to the top of the Sikhara and, thus, there is strong emphasis on vertical lines in elevation. • Style is widely distributed over a greater part of India, exhibiting distinct varieties and ramifications in lines of evolution and elaboration according to each locality. • An example of Nagara architecture is the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple. (detailed image on next page).

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TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE OF INDIA Dravidian architecture • Four following parts, differing only according to the age in which they were executed: . The principal part, the temple itself, is called the Vimana (or Vimanam). It is always square in plan and surmounted by a pyramidal roof of one or more stories; it contains the cell where the image of the god or his emblem is placed. . The porches or Mandapas (or Mantapams), which always cover and precede the door leading to the cell. . Gate-pyramids, Gopurams, which are the principal features in the quadrangular enclosures that surround the more notable temples. . Pillared halls or Chaultris—properly Chawadis -- used for various purposes, and which are the invariable accompaniments of these temples. • Contains temple tanks or wells for water (used for sacred purposes or the convenience of the priests), dwellings for all grades of the priesthood are attached to it, and other buildings for state or convenience. Structure of a typical Drvaidan viman

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TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE OF INDIA

Badami Chalukya architecture • Originated during 450 CE in Aihole and perfected in Pattadakal and Badami. • Between 500 and 757 CE, Badami Chalukyas established the foundations of cave temple architecture, on the banks of the Malaprabha River. Those styles mainly include Aihole, Pattadakal and Badami. • Built out of sandstone cut into enormous blocks from the outcrops in the chains of the Kaladgi hills. • At Badami, Chalukyas carved some of the finest cave temples. Mahakuta, the large trees under which the shrine nestles. • In Aihole, known as the "Cradle of Indian architecture," there are over 150 temples scattered around the village. • Pattadakal is a (World Heritage Site), where one finds the Virupaksha temple; it is the biggest temple, having carved scenes from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Other temples at Pattadakal are Mallikarjuna, Kashivishwanatha, Galaganatha and Papanath.

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TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE OF INDIA Gadag Architecture style • Also called Western Chalukya architecture. • Flourished for 150 years (1050 to 1200 CE); in this period, about 50 temples were built. • Some examples are the Saraswati temple in the Trikuteshwara temple complex at Gadag, the Doddabasappa Temple at Dambal, the Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi, and the Amriteshwara temple at Annigeri. which is marked by ornate pillars with intricate sculpture. • This style originated during the period of the Kalyani Chalukyas (also known as Western Chalukya) Someswara I.

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TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE OF INDIA Kalinga architecture style • The design which flourished in eastern Indian state of Odisha and Northern Andhra Pradesh are called Kalinga style of architecture. • The style consists of three distinct type of temples namely Rekha Deula, Pidha Deula and Khakhara Deula. • Deula means "temple" in the local language. The former two are associated with Vishnu, Surya and Shiva temple while the third is mainly with Chamunda and Durga temples. • The Rekha deula and Khakhara deula houses the sanctum sanctorum while the Pidha Deula constitutes outer dancing and offering halls.

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TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE OF INDIA Māru-Gurjara temple architecture • Originated somewhere in 6th century in and around areas of Rajasthan. • Shows the deep understanding of structures and refined skills of Rajasthani craftmen of bygone era. • Has two prominent styles: Maha-Maru and Maru-Gurjara. • Scholars believe that Māru-Gurjara temple architecture is entirely Western Indian architecture and is quite different from the North Indian temple architecture. • This further shows the cultural and ethnic separation of Rajasthanis from north Indian culture. • There is a connecting link between Māru-Gurjara architecture and Hoysala temple architecture. In both of these styles architecture is treated sculpturally.

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CAVE ARCHITECTURE OF INDIA

AJANTA CAVES • Located near village of Ajintha in Aurangabad. • Discovered by the British officers while hunting a tiger in 1819 AD. • 30 cave temples at Ajanta are set into the rocky sides of a crescent shaped gorge in the Inhyadri hills of the Sahyadri ranges. • 5 caves are Chaitya-grihas, & rest are Viharas(monasteries). • Caves were constructed in two phases, first group around 200 BC and second group around 600 AD. • Depicts a large number of incidents from the life of the Buddha (Jataka Tales).

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CAVE ARCHITECTURE OF INDIA ELLORA CAVES(5th -13th Cen AD) • Located in Aurangabad city. • 3 major religion of india- Hinduism, Buddhism & Jainism. • Buddhist Caves: Built around 5th-7th century AD Cave 10 is famous and known as Carpenter‘s Cave or Vishvakarma Cave with a 3.3m high seated Buddha at the far end. Cave 11 has the images of Durga and Ganesh also a Buddha shrine, it is belived that it was converted in to hindu temple after being deserted by buddhist. • Hindu Caves: 6th and 8th century AD. Cave 16 also known as Kailasa Temple which is a multi storeyed temple carved out of a single rock, built by Rashtrakuta emperor Krishna I. • Jain Caves: Belongs to Digambara faction. Total 5 caves. Most notable are cave 30 (Chotta Kailash), cave 32 (Indra Sabha), and cave 33 (Jagannath Sabha). 107 www.iasknowledge.in Indian Architecture

CAVE ARCHITECTURE OF INDIA

ELEPHANTA CAVES • Network of sculpted caves located on Elephanta Island, or Gharapuri (literally "the city of caves") in Mumbai Harbour. • The island, located on an arm of the Arabian Sea, consists of two groups of caves—the first is a large group of five Hindu caves, the second, a smaller group of two Buddhist caves. • The Hindu caves contain rock cut stone sculptures, representing the Shaiva Hindu sect, dedicated to the god Shiva. • Dated to between the 5th and 8th centuries, although the identity of the original builders is still a subject of debate. • Hewn from solid basalt rock. All the caves were also originally painted in the past, but now only traces remain. • The island was called Gharapuri and was a Hindu place of worship until Portuguese rule began in 1534. • The Portuguese called the island Elephanta on seeing its huge gigantic statue of an Elephant at the entrance. The Statue is now placed in the garden outside the Bhau Daji Lad Museum at Byculla in Mumbai. • This cave was renovated in the 1970s after years of neglect, and was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987 to preserve the artwork. It is currently maintained by the Archaeological Survey of India.

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CAVE ARCHITECTURE OF INDIA

BHIMBETAKA CAVES • Located near Bhopal in the Raisen District - Madhya Pradesh. • First referred in the archeological records in 1888 AD as Buddhist site. Later discovered by Dr Vishnu Wakankar in 1957-58. • More than 700 shelters. Bhimbetka group (243) & Lakha Juar group (178). • Rock paintings can be traced back to the Stone Age era, closely 30000 years old. • Excavations revealed history of continuous habitation from early stone age (about 10000 years) to the end of stone age (c. 10,000 to 2,000 years).

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110 Vedic Literature

111 www.iasknowledge.in Vedic Literature Vedas • The earliest known literature in India. • The Vedas were written in Sanskrit. • In the Vedic Period, the text transmission happed by oral tradition. • In post Vedic period the text were captured in the written format. • The word „Veda‟ literally means knowledge. • In Hindu culture, Vedas are considered as eternal and divine revelations. • They treat the whole world as one human family Vasudev Kutumbakam. • There are four Vedas, namely, the- Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva Veda. • Each Veda consists of the Brahmanas, the Upanishads and the Aranyakas. • The Rig Veda, Sama Veda and the Yajur Veda are collectively known an Traji. • In later years the Atharava Veda was incorporated in this group.

RIG VEDA

SAMA VEDA TRAJI Four Vedas YAJUR VEDA

ATHARVA VEDA 112 www.iasknowledge.in Vedic Literature Vedas

RIG VEDA Praise of GODS

Origin of Music-Sabda YAJUR VEDA Brahma Nad Brahma

SAM VEDA Vedas of Worship

Various branches of Science, Ayurved, ATHARVA VEDA economics including Vedic Math

113 www.iasknowledge.in Vedic Literature Vedas Rigveda Yajurveda • Oldest of all Vedas. • One of the most important Vedas, is • It is believed that these recitations are considered to be composed between the natural outpouring of Vedic rishis 1000 and 600 BC experiencing a mentally transcendental • Yajur means sacrifice or worship. stage. • Concerned mostly with rites and • Some of the well-known rishis are mantras of different sacrifices. It gives Vasistha, Gautama, Gritasamada, Vamadeva, Vishvamitra and Atri. directions for the performance of the yajnas. • Contains 1028 hymns or mantras. • It has both poetic and prose renderings. • The hymns of each mandala are called as suktas, intended for various sacrificial • Being a treatise on rituals, it is the most rituals. popular of the four Vedas. • Structured in 10 books, known as • Shukla (white) and Krishna (black) are Mandalas, compiled at different time the two main versions of the Yajurveda. periods between 1700-1100 BC. • The Krishna Yajurveda has four branches • Contains the Sanskrit hymns about the (Shakas) origin of the world, praise of the gods, prayers for life, prosperity in the form of 1.Taittiriya Shaka poetry. 2.Maitrayani Shaka • The Gayatri Mantra, the highly valued 3.Caraka-Katha Shaka universal prayer is a hymn of Mandala 3 4.Kapisthala-Katha Shaka of the Rigveda. • Shukla Yajurveda has two branches

1.Vajasaneyi Madhyandina 2.Vajasaneyi Kanva 114

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Samaveda • Sama means melody or songs. • It has 1549 stanzas and is taken almost entirely from Rigveda except few stanzas • Sama Veda prescribes the tunes for the recitation of the hymns of the Rig Veda. • Also called as the book of Chants (Saman). • This book is an evidence of the development of Indian music during this period.

Artharvaveda • Also known as the Brahma Veda • The Artharvaveda is text belong to the poets Atharvan and Angirasa. • It has total 760 hymns and some hymns are in common with the Rigveda. • It contains treatment for ninety-nine diseases. • It has two branches, the Paippalada and the Saunaka.

115 www.iasknowledge.in 116 Vedic Literature Vedanta • Prasthatrayi refers to three holy books.

The Upanishads

The Brahma-Sutra

The Bhagvad Gita

• They form the Scriptural Trinity of the Sanatan Dharma or the Hinduism. • If ever a controversy arises on any philosophical issue in Hinduism, the interpretation of the Prasthantrayi is final and binding. • If there is a difference in the statements of the Prasthantryi and any other book of Hinduism, the former is considered supreme. • Generally the fundamental philosophy pronounced in the Prasthantrayi is referred to as the Vedanta

117 www.iasknowledge.in Vedic Literature Vedanta Upanishads • The Upanishads are a continuation of the Vedic philosophy, and were written between 800 and 400 B.C. They elaborate on how the soul (Atman) can be united with the ultimate truth (Brahman) through contemplation and mediation, as well as the doctrine of Karma-- the cumulative effects of a persons' actions • The word Upanishad consists of three parts: . Upa (near), . Ni (down), and . Shad (sit). • 'sitting near a teacher and receiving the secret teachings.' • The Upanishads more clearly set forth the prime Vedic doctrines like Self-realization, yoga and meditation, karma and reincarnation, which were hidden or kept veiled under the symbols of the older mystery religion. • The Upanishads became prevalent some centuries before the time of Krishna and Buddha • Upanishad means Brahma-knowledge by which ignorance is loosened or destroyed. 118 www.iasknowledge.in

Vedic Literature Vedanta The Brahma-Sutra

• Teachings of Vedanta are set forth in a systematic and logical order. • Also known as Vedanta Sutra, Uttara-mimamsa Sutra, Shariraka Sutra and the Bhikshu Sutra. • Consists of 555 aphorisms or sutras, in 4 chapters, each chapter being divided into 4 sections each. • The first chapter (Samanvaya: harmony) explains that all the Vedantic texts talk of Brahman, the ultimate reality, which is the goal of life. • The second chapter (Avirodha: non-conflict) discusses and refutes the possible objections against Vedanta philosophy. • The third chapter (Sadhana: the means) describes the process by which ultimate emancipation can be achieved. • The fourth chapter (Phala: the fruit) talks of the state that is achieved in final emancipation. • Indian tradition identifies Badrayana, the author of the Brahma Sutra, with Vyasa, the compiler of the Vedas.

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Bhagavad Gita

• Part of the Sanskrit epic Mahabhaarata (200 BC to 200 AD). • 700 verses in 18 chapters. • A conversation between Lord Krishna and his close friend Arjuna in the middle of the battle field just before the start of the Kurushetra battle. • Arjuna loses his heart and refuses to fight his eachers and relatives, and Krishna revives him by his wise words of wisdom. • Presents a synthesis of the Brahmanical concept of Dharma, theistic bhakti, the yogic ideals of liberation hrough jnana, and Samkhya philosophy.

120 www.iasknowledge.in Vedic Literature Puranas • The Puranas are post-Vedic texts which typically contain a complete narrative of the history of the Universe from creation to destruction, genealogies of the kings, heroes and demigods, and descriptions of Hindu cosmology and geography. • There are 18 canonical Puranas, divided into three categories, each named after a deity: Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. There are also many other works termed Purana, known as 'Upapuranas.' • Some of the well known Puranas are Brahma, Bhagvat, Padma, Vishnu, Vayu, Agni, Matsya and Garuda. • The Puranas follow the lines of the epics, and the earliest Puranas were compiled in the Gupta period. • They are full of myths, stories, legends and sermons that were meant for the education of the common people. • These Puranas contain important geographical information/ histories and deal with the mysteries of creation, re-creation and dynastic genealogies. • This period also saw the compilation of various smritis or law books written in verse. • The phase of writing commentaries on the smritis begins after the Gupta period. • Amarasimha the Sanskrit Lexicographer, states that a Purana should describe five topics; (1) Sarga (Creation) (2) Pratisarga (Secondary creation) (3) Vemsa (Geneology) (4) Manvantara (Manu periods) and (5) Vamsanucarita (dynastic history) 121 www.iasknowledge.in

Vedic Literature Itihasa Ramayana • The Ramayana is one of the great Hindu epics. • It is ascribed to the Hindu sage Valmiki and forms an important part of the Hindu literature (smṛti). • It depicts the duties of relationships, portraying ideal characters like the ideal father, ideal servant, the ideal brother, the ideal wife and the ideal king. • The name Ramayana is a tatpurusha compound of Rāma and ayana ("going, advancing"), translating to "Rama's Journey". • Consists of 24,000 verses in seven books (kāṇḍas) and 500 cantos (sargas). • Tells the story of Rama (an avatar of the Hindu Supreme-GodVishnu), whose wife Sita is abducted by the king of Ravan. Thematically, the Ramayana explores human values and the concept of dharma. 122 www.iasknowledge.in Vedic Literature Itihasa Mahabharata • The Mahabharata is a more complex work which covers almost every aspect of life and living. • It is the longest existing epic consisting of 1,20,000 shlokas. • Said to be the story of an ancient battle between two branches of a family, the Bharatas. • Said to be composed around 400 B.C. • Also known as Jaya or victory, the Mahabharata is said to have been composed by the great sage Vyasa, the compiler of the Vedas. • Vyasa taught the Mahabharata to his son Suka. • It is said Narada taught it to the gods or devas while Suka taught it to the gandharvas, the rakshasas and the yakshas. • Vaisampayana, one of Vyasa‟s chief disciples, narrated the story at a great sacrifice conducted by Janamejaya, the descendent of the Pandavas and it spread further. 123 www.iasknowledge.in Vedic Literature Itihasa Mahabharata • It is in the form of a dialogue between King Dhritarashtra and Sanjaya his advisor and chariot driver. • Sanjaya narrates each incident of the Kurukshetra War, fought in 18 days, as and when it happened. • Dhritarashtra sometimes asks questions and laments the destruction caused by the war, to his sons, friends and kinsmen. He also feels guilty, because he was partly responsible. • Sanjaya begins with a description of the earth, the other planets, and gives an elaborate list of the kingdoms, tribes, provinces, cities, towns, villages, rivers, mountains, forests, etc. of Bharatavarsha. • He also explains the military formations adopted on each day, the death of each hero and the details of each battle. 124 www.iasknowledge.in

Brahmanas and Aranyakas

• After the four Vedas, a number of works called the Brahmanas were developed. • It gives detailed explanation of Vedic rituals and instructions and deal with the science of sacrifice. • Aranyakas are the latter portions of the Brahmanas. • The final parts of the Aranyakas are philosophic books named Upanishads. • Each of the four Vedas have their own Brahmana books. • Provides detailed information of the social, political and religious life of the people. • The Arayankas deal with soul, birth and death and life beyond it. • These were studied and taught by men in Vanprastha i.e. Munis and the inhabitants living inside the forests. • All these works were in Sanskrit. Initially they were handed down orally and were put to writing much later.

VEDA ARANYAKA BRAHMANA RIG Aitereya, Kousitaki Aiterya, Kousitaki YAJUR Taittiriya, Brhad Taittiriya, Kanva Satapatha, Madhyandin Aranyaka, Maitr Ayania Satpatha SAMA TalvakAra, PancavimSa, VamSa, Arseya, SadvimSa, ChAndoghya, Mantra, Daivata, Jaiminiya, Samavidhana, Samhitopanishad

Gopatha ATHARVA 125 www.iasknowledge.in Ashtadhyayi

• Written by Panini ,a famous Sanskrit grammarian from Pushkalavati, Gandhara of ancient Indian. • He is mostly famous for his Sanskrit grammar Ashtadhyayi. • He formulated 3,959 rules of Sanskrit morphology, syntax and semantics in the grammar. • The Ashtadhyayi is the initial text of the grammatical branch of the Vedanga. • It is one of the most important auxiliary academic texts of Vedic

126 www.iasknowledge.in Indica

• Writeen by Megasthenes, a Greek traveler, historian, diplomat, geographer and author. • He visited India at the time of Mauryan Empire in 304 BC. • Considered as the first foreigner Ambassador to India. He stayed in India for a long time. • The hellenistic king Seleucus I sent him to India as an ambassador to the court of King Chandragupta Maurya of Mauryan Empire. • His famous work Indica is the first Western well known account of India. • Provides detail account of the social, political and economic life of India to the Greek world which was the source to work by the later historian like Diodorus, Strabo. • He mentioned about the culture, history and religion of India. In his work he also described a caste system. • He referred about Himalayas and the island of Sri Lanka

127 www.iasknowledge.in Manu Samhita

• Written by Saint Manu. • It is believed that Manu was the ancient teacher of sacred rites and laws. • He was a religious practitioner and a scholar in astrology. • Also known as the Manu-Smriti or Manava- Dharmasastra • It is a famous Sanskrit text about code of law and Dharmasastra textual of Hinduism. • Talks about the principles, morals, duties and schedules that a person should follow in its life. • Has total 12 Chapters and 2685 Shlokas (verses). • It formed the root of Hindu law. • Considered as one of the oldest important texts during the time of 200 BC and 200 AD. • According to Hindu ritual, the Manu Smriti records the words of Brahma.

128 www.iasknowledge.in Arthashastra

• Written by Kautilya/ Chanakya who was the Prime Minister of Chandragupta Maurya. • It describes the art of running a kingdom: how to appoint ministers, officials, and judges; how to collect and keep revenues; how to wage war; how to manipulate and/or make treaties with neighboring kings. • Its pragmatic “the-ends-justify-the-means” suggestions have often been compared to the 16th-century writings of the Italian political philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli. • The book explained in detail how a king in financial need might “replenish” his treasury: by taking more grain from farmers and more gold from traders or (this with several variations) by proclaiming a tree, a shrub, a house the site of a spectacular miracle and then living on the donations given by believers. • In addition to all this, the book also included lists of magical potions and spells to be used against enemies or in case of a revolt.

129 www.iasknowledge.in Kamasutra

• Written between 400 BCE and 200 CE on human sexual behavior in Sanskrit literature by Vātsyāyana. • A portion of the work consists of practical advice on sexual intercourse. • It is largely in prose, with many inserted anustubh poetry verses. • "Kāma" which is one of the four goals of Hindu life, means sensual or sexual pleasure, and "sūtra" literally means a thread or line that holds things together, and more metaphorically refers to an aphorism (or line, rule, formula), or a collection of such aphorisms in the form of a manual. • Contrary to popular perception, especially in the western world, Kama sutra is not just an exclusive sex manual; it presents itself as a guide to a virtuous and gracious living that discusses the nature of love, family life and Famous kamasutra scenes other aspects pertaining to pleasure oriented on the wall of hindu temple faculties of human life. in Khajuraho,India • The Kama Sutra is the oldest and most notable of a group of texts known generically as Kama 130 Shastra. www.iasknowledge.in Religions in India

131 Religions in India

Hinduism

• The Hindu religion, exactly like the country of its birth, is unique. • Where Christians have the Bible and the Muslims their Koran, Hindus can pick from a whole range: the Vedas, the Upanishads, the Bhagwad Gita, the Mahabharata or the Ramayana.

Major Hindus Deities • Vishnu, Shiva, Brahma, Lakshmi, Parvati, Saraswati, Durga, Rama, Hanuman, Krishna or Ganesha are some of the most popular deities. • You may worship any of them or just concentrate on the Supreme Spirit which is believed to be enshrined in every person. • Some Hindus begin the day with a visit to the neighborhood temple; others adhere to fasts and rituals. While some go on pilgrimages and bathe in holy rivers; still others declare all rituals redundant. • Hinduism thrives and revels in all its contradictions. Within its elastic structure, it allows great flexibility and is much more tolerant than any other religion of the world.

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Hinduism Concepts and Beliefs

Atman Though casually described as the self, atman is actually the eternal within us. You could call it the spirit or soul that is enshrined in every human being. When an individual attains moksha, his atman is believed to merge with the divine or the universal consciousness. Dharma Derived from the Sanskrit root dhara (to bear, to support, to maintain), dharma literally means `that which is established by law, duty or custom'. When used in the context of Hinduism, it implies an order of values which links the individual to the social and the cosmic. Hindus believe that each act bears certain consequences in individual, social, ethical and cosmic terms. A dharmic act, therefore, is one that brings positive results. Four Ashrams The four ashrams or stages of life prescribed for a Hindu presume that a person will live to a good 100 years. The first 25 years are set aside for learning, the next for life as a householder, then comes the quarter dedicated to self-control and abstinence and the last quarter involves renunciation or withdrawal from the world. Karma Actions or deeds performed by an individual in a lifetime. In fact, karma is believed to accrue from past births. Moksha simply cannot be attained till one has neither good nor bad deeds to one's credit. 133 www.iasknowledge.in Religions in India

Hinduism Concepts and Beliefs Mantra A sacred syllable or ritual incantation which is believed to have the power to convert word into reality, like the root mantra Om which is supposed to be the sound of the vibration of the world when it was being created. Maya Generally the illusion that this tangible world is the real world and success herein the ultimate goal of life. According to Hinduism the real world is the world of the soul, not of the body and the senses. Moksha Final release or liberation of a soul from the endless cycle of death and rebirth. Samadhi The internal ecstasy attained through meditation by a yogi (someone who has renounced the world to lead a life of meditation). This is usually the final stage of ecstasy when the soul transcends the human body to merge with the cosmos. Samsara The endless cycle of death and rebirth which believes that a soul is reincarnated till it has evolved enough to attain moksha. Samskaras A Hindu is expected to perform certain rituals throughout this life from the moment of conception of life to death. Numbering to about 40, these samskaras include a child's naming ceremony, marriage and the funeral rites performed by the off-spring of the dead. 134 www.iasknowledge.in Religions in India

Hinduism Concepts and Beliefs Tantra Religious texts that describe an esoteric path to enlightenment. However, tantra is usually understood as a term with negative connotations. In this context it refers to sorcerous practices that centre around the cult of the goddess and may involve sexual orgies. Yantra A symbolic diagram used as an aid to meditation usually associated to tantra. A condensed symbol of the cosmos; abstract lines, shapes and colors go into the making of a yantra. Yoga Yoga can broadly be described as the method of attaining the ultimate goal (liberation of soul from the body) by mastering the body, the senses and the mind through physical exercises and meditation. (see Yoga under Healing Systems of India) Sadhus, the Wandering Hermits A sight peculiar to India and Hinduism is that of saffron-clad hermits with matted locks who often travel from one holy place to another with scarcely a possession in the world.

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Hinduism Gods & Goddesses Brahma Brahma is the first of the powerful Hindu Trinity of Creator-Preserver-Destroyer. The creator of life, he said to be Prajapati, the creator of the Vedas . He is often depicted as a wise old bearded man standing on a lotus, which has led to his being referred to as one 'born of a lotus'. Saraswati The goddess of learning and wisdom, Saraswati is the consort of Brahma. She is believed to have invented the Sanskrit language and is the patroness of the arts and sciences. Floating on a lotus, she is often shown playing the veena (a stringed musical instrument). Vishnu or Narayana One of the three most powerful Hindu gods, Vishnu is the second of the Trinity of Creator-Preserver-Destroyer. When Vishnu is asleep on the coils of Ananta (the many- headed snake), the universe is in a state of dissolution. When he wakes up, the universe evolves. The cycle goes on thus., and it goes on forever. Periodically, Vishnu descends to earth to protect truth and virtue and to destroy evil. His earlier avatars (incarnations) were in animal forms. In his seventh, eighth and ninth incarnations, Vishnu appeared as Rama, Krishna and Buddha respectively. 136 www.iasknowledge.in Religions in India

Hinduism Gods & Goddesses Lakshmi Vishnu's consort, Lakshmi, is the Goddess of wealth, plenty and prosperity. Bedecked with jewellery, she is shown sitting on a lotus. When Vishnu appeared on earth in the form of Rama, she faithfully followed as his wife Sita. In Vishnu's avatar as Krishna, she became both Radha and Rukmini. Shiva Shiva, the most-feared of the Hindu gods, has the aspect of an ascetic and is the destroyer in the great Trinity. He has many roles to play. He is the Great Yogi meditating on Mount Kailasa (in the Himalyas). He is Nataraja (Lord of Dance), creating and destroying. He is Bhooteshwar, the lord of wandering spirits and lost souls. He is Pashupatinath, the lord and protector of all animal life. In another aspect he is the seed of life and his phallic symbol is worshipped in many temples. The cobra, the bull Nandi, the trishul (trident) and the linga (phallus) are all symbols of Shiva. Shakti Shiva's spouse is Shakti (Energy) in the forms of Uma, Parvati and Durga. While Shiva stays aloof meditating on Mount Kailash, his power to act is embodied the form of the goddess or Devi. In her beneficent form she is Parvati, while in her terrifying form she appears as Kali. The cult of Shakti worship is especially strong in North India and in the eastern state of West Bengal. 137 www.iasknowledge.in Religions in India

Hinduism Gods & Goddesses

Ganesha The elephant-headed god, son of Shiva and Parvati, is known for his wisdom and brings prosperity. His birthday is considered the most auspicious day of the year and Hindus always invoke his name before beginning any new enterprise. Rama Vishnu in his avatar as Rama is referred to as Purshottam, the perfect man whose each act is governed by dharma. The purpose of the incarnation was to rid mankind of the menace of the powerful, ten-headed demonking Ravana. Krishna The most human of the Hindu gods, as a child he delighted in stealing butter. As a youth wearing a crown of peacock feathers and dressed in yellow silk, he held cows spellbound as the flute-playing cowherd. As the beloved of all the gopis (milkmaids), he held them entranced with the magic of his flute and performed the rasleela (dance) with them. In his mature years, Krishna appears as an astute statesman and later the wise philosopher whose teachings are embodied in the Bhagwad Gita.

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Buddhism

• Around 530 BC a young prince named Siddhartha Gautama challenged the ideas of the Brahmin priests and created a new world religion. • Born in 563 BC into the warrior caste, he lived in luxury in his family‟s palaces and never experienced pain, suffering, or death • He married a beautiful woman and they had a son. • One day while riding in his chariot outside the palace walls, Gautama saw a sick man, an old man, and a dead man. • He realized that life was an endless cycle of pain and that the only way to escape that cycle was to seek wisdom. • He left his family when he was about 29 and became a homeless wanderer with five other men who were also seeking wisdom. • Gautama tried to find wisdom through physical suffering and harsh discipline but instead he gained only pain. • At last, after days of meditating deeply in the shade of a tree, Gautama felt that the truth had come to him. • At this point, he became known as “The Enlightened One,” or Buddha.

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Religions in India

Buddhism Four Noble Truths

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Buddhism

• By following the Eightfold Path, anyone could attain nirvana-- which was the release from all pain and suffering

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Buddhism

• Buddha taught his followers to treat all living things (humans, animals, and even insects) with kindness and love • Buddha eliminated the caste system, the rituals associated with Hinduism, and the ancient language (Sanskrit) of the Vedas and Upanishads • Concerned with all human beings---women as well as men, and lowborn as well as highborn • Primarily a monastic religion---young men leave their families to become monks dedicated to the Eightfold Path and achieving enlightenment (and, eventually, nirvana) • The most important symbol in Buddhism is the Wheel of Life which depicts the cycle of birth and life • The eight spokes symbolize the Eightfold Path • Buddhist teachings & beliefs were recorded

in a collection called the Tripitaka 142 www.iasknowledge.in Religions in India

sikhism

Sikhism is perhaps the second youngest world religion, about 531 years at the end of the millennium. Nanak, the founder of Sikhism, was born a Hindu and belonged to the Punjab where he lived between 1469-1539. Since Punjab was home to both Hindus and Muslims, Nanak grew up observing the ill-will between the two religious communities.

Nanak The Holy Figure Nanak's closest associates were, Mardana, an aged Muslim, and Bala, a Hindu peasant. Together the three visited many Hindu and Muslim shrines. Nanak even made the pilgrimage to Mecca. Inspired by his insight into the unity of both religions, Nanak began to preach his message of peace and harmony. He attracted many disciples and followers and soon came to be known as Guru Nanak. A new religious tradition was thus born. The term Sikh is derived from the Sanskrit word shishya (disciple).

Nanak Was A Social Reformer But more than just forming a new religion, Guru Nanak was a social reformer. He saw the plight of Hindu lower castes and insisted that every person was alike. Nanak stressed that enlightenment could be achieved through devotion to god. To abolish the caste system he named each one of his followers Singh, or lion, and established langars (communal eating places). These langars defied the Hindu norm that a low born person could not eat along with a high born. 143 www.iasknowledge.in Religions in India

sikhism Acknowledged As A Guru Nanak

Angad Dev, who started putting together the Guru's writings, succeeded Guru Nanak as the leader of the Sikhs. He also introduced a script already being used by some Punjabis as the official script of the Sikhs and called it Gurmukhi or the language of the guru.

It was the fifth Guru, Arjun Dev, who commenced the building of the Golden Temple at Amritsar. This temple is the holiest shrine of the Sikhs and every Sikh tries to visit it once in his lifetime. Arjun Dev also collected the poems of Nanak, Kabir and other saints and compiled them to form the scripture of the Sikhs, called Adi Granth ('The First Book') or Guru Granth Sahib ('Book of the Lord').

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sikhism The Khalsa

The spread of Sikhism so alarmed the Muslims of India that they soon came to be persecuted. The fifth Guru Arjun Dev was put to death by the Mughals on a charge of sedition in 1606. Later, Guru Tegh Bahadur was executed in Delhi by the order of Emperor Aurangzeb. These two executions forced the Sikhs to realize that they needed to organize themselves into a fighting force.

The 10 th and last Guru, Govind Singh, summoned a huge assembly of Sikhs on Baisakhi day in 1699. He reminded them of their two martyred gurus and the need to unite and wage a war against the Mughals. He then unsheathed his sword and demanded: "Is there anyone in this Sangat (assembly) who is willing to offer his head for his Guru and Religion?“

Everyone stayed silent in fear till the Guru had repeated his demand thrice. Eventually a Hindu stepped forward. The Guru took him into a tent and emerged with a bloody sword. The same thing happened four more times. After the fifith man had volunteered and stepped into the tent, the Guru emerged with all five of them alive. These five men were proclaimed the Panj Pyares (the five beloved ones) by the Guru.

The Guru then went on to declare that all members of the Khalsa brotherhood should be fearless and ready to give their lives for their faith

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sikhism

Teachings & Beliefs • As we have said before, Sikhism takes the best from both Hinduism and Islam. • Sikhs believe in one God. • Rituals and idol worship are not part of this faith. • Sikhs should earn their living by honest means and hard work. • People should share what they earn with the poor. • Sikhism has no place for the caste system. All Sikhs are equal: the men add Singh (lion) to their names while the women add Kaur (princess).

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sikhism The Five K’s (Unique Identity - Discipline & Spirituality) Kesh (uncut hair): Sikhs do not cut hair or beards to demonstrate their Love and obedience to their faith. DON’Ts Kachera: • Shaving or cutting of undershot to represent modesty & fidelity Hair Kanga: • Eating Halal ( Kutta ) wooden comb to keep uncut hair neat and clean meat Kara: • Adultery bracelet, made of steel worn on dominant hand, a reminder of noble actions, a symbol of eternity • Use of tobacco or Kirpaan: intoxicants (Smoking, ceremonial knife symbolizing freedom, liberty Drugs, Alcohol etc) and justice  Never to be used as an offensive weapon

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islam

• On the surface, Islam seems as dissimilar to Hinduism as chalk and cheese. After all, Hinduism evolved gradually as a way of life while Islam was founded by a historical person, the Prophet Mohammad. • According to Hindu mythology, Hinduism icons the existence of many God and Goddesses, Islam strictly adheres to the concept of one god. • Hindus worship painted and sculpted images of their gods; Muslims regard idolatry as the most grievous sin. • While the Hindu temple is enclosed on three sides and there is an air of mystery in the dark inner sanctum, the Muslim mosque is open on all sides, exposed to light and air. While Hindus agree that a person cannot become a Hindu, Muslims regard the conversion of non-Muslims as a meritorious deed.

Hindu Islamic- The Two Religions Co-existed This said, it is amazing to note the extent to which these two religions have entwined. For all those who harp upon the differences, a look down history will show that Muslims are very much a part of India and well-integrated into our social fabric. Whether it's art, craft, architecture, poetry, music, dance or such towering personalities as Kabir, Nanak, Rumi, Amir Khusrau and Akbar, they are all proof that these two religions can and have co-existed. 148 www.iasknowledge.in Religions in India

islam The Advent of Islam • Islamic influence first came to be felt in the 7 th century with the advent of Arab traders. This was followed by sporadic raids into India by Muslim traders, but the first Muslim kingdom was established in Delhi at the end of the 12 th century. • The Muslims gradually spread their rule to the south and the east. During the reign of Alauddin Khilji, only the southern part of India remained outside their power. With the coming of the Mughals in 1506, Islam seeped deeper into India. Akbar's (1556-1605) policy of religious tolerance brought the Hindus and Muslims still closer together.

The Five Pillars of Islam • A good Muslim is to assert that 'There is no God but Allah, and Mohammad is his Prophet.„ • The devout should pray, preferably five times a day. • Acts of charity should be performed. • A fast must be observed from dawn to dusk throughout the month of Ramadan. The Ramadan is a holy month for Muslims because the Prophet received his divine revelation in this month. • A pilgrimage to Mecca at least once during one's lifetime is a must.

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islam Festivals Urs An urs is usually the birthday of a Sufi saint which is celebrated at the grave or dargah of the saint. Some of India's most venerated sufis are Salim Chishti in Fatehpur-Sikri (Uttar Pradesh), Moin-ud-din Chishti in Ajmer (Rajasthan) and Nizam-ud-din Auliya in Delhi. The urs at their dargahs are often an occasion for melas (fairs), qawwalis (hymns in praise of Allah and his prophet Muhammad) and much frenetic dancing. Eid Id is celebrated twice very year and the two are separately referred to as Id-ul-Fitr and Eid-ul-Zuha (Bakr-Id, when goats are traditionally slaughtered to make special preparations). Id-ul-Fitr marks the end of Ramadan, the Muslim month of fasting. Id-ul- Zuha commemorates Abraham's attempt to sacrifice his son. Muharram Muharram mourns the murder of Imam Hussain, grandson of the Prophet, at Karbala. Though it is an occasion for mourning, a colorful memorial procession is led through the streets of Delhi, Agra, Lucknow and Hyderabad, to name a few. Decorated and brightly colored tazias of bamboo and paper are carried as replicas of the martyr's tomb. The procession proceeds to the frenzied beating of drums and heart-renting cries of 'Hussain, Hussain !' A peculiar practice here is that young men armed with leather whips often lash themselves repeatedly. 150 www.iasknowledge.in Religions in India

Jainism

• Mahavira, the Indian sage was born in 599 BC. He was commonly known as Vardhamana, his childhood name. • His birth place was Kundalagrama in Vaishali district near Patna of modern day Bihar, India. • He was born in a royal Hindu family on the 13th day under the rising moon of Chaitra. • His father King Siddartha was a kshatriya ruler and mother Queen Trishala was a princess from the royal family of Lichchhavi clan. Mahavira was married to Yashoda. The birthday of Mahavira is celebrated as Mahavir Jayanti in the world, the most important religious holiday of Jains. • Mahavira established the Jainism, an Indian religion. Jainism advised the path of non-violence towards all living beings. According to Jain tradition, he was the last and 24th Tirthankara. The meaning of Tirthankara is a Jain holy teacher. • At the age of thirty in 569 BC, Mahavira abandoned home and gave up his worldly possessions including his clothes and lived an extremely austere life. He spent twelve years as an ascetic and used to meditate most of his time. At the age of 42, in 557 BC he attained omniscience. 151 www.iasknowledge.in Religions in India

jainism As per Jainism, one must perform the following ethical principles not only in thought, but also in words (speech) and action to attain the enlightenment and ultimately liberation from all bonding. It is also called as observing the Mahavrata ('Great Vows'). These vows are: 1. Nonviolence (Ahimsa) - to cause no harm to any living being; 2. Truthfulness (Satya) - to speak the harmless truth only; 3. Non-stealing (Asteya) - to take nothing not properly given; 4. Chastity (Brahmacharya) - to indulge in no sensual pleasure; 5. Non-possession/Non-attachment (Aparigraha) - to detach completely from people, places, and material things. 152 www.iasknowledge.in Follow us on: www.iasknowledge.in https://www.facebook.com/IASKnowledge 153