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New Concept of Mass-Energy Equivalence European Journal of Scientific Research ISSN 1450-216X Vol.26 No.2 (2009), pp.161-175 © EuroJournals Publishing, Inc. 2009 http://www.eurojournals.com/ejsr.htm New Concept of Mass-Energy Equivalence Bahjat R. J. Muhyedeen Department of Chemistry, College of Science, University of Baghdad, Jadriyah Baghdad, Iraq, Amman, Jordan, Retired in August 2007, Previously Professor of Quantum and Nuclear Chemistry, MRSC E-mail: [email protected] Abstract The correct meaning of E=mvv and E=mcc have been discussed. The discussion has shown that the second v and c are conversion factors and not v2 and c2 in these two equations respectively. These velocities (v and c) are used to convert the momentum units to energy units. The first v and c in both equations should be multiplied with the mass to form the momentum term. The essential issue is the momentum and not the mass where it is an absolute quantity and it will not give any indication while the momentum give a clear vision about the moving mass. The speculative Lorentz factor has also discussed to be incorrect to be used in special relativity to increase the mass of the materials through changing their velocities. The concept of conversion between mass and energy is discussed in chemical and nuclear reactions to show it is incorrect and the annihilation reactions of electron-positron are pseudo processes. A new non-relativistic mass-energy equivalence is used E=mbc as an alternative, where b is a derived universal constant and equal to 0.624942 x 108 m/s which gives to E m = 1.87354x1016 J / Kg or 1AMU= 194.18 MeV. The ratio of mbc/mc2 is equal to (194.18) / (931.49) = 0.209 which gave 41.7 MeV for the Total Kinetic Energy (TKE) of fission fragments of experimental value 29.4-37.8 MeV rather than 200 MeV given by 2 E=mc . The magnetic constant of charged field µoB was calculated from Maxwell formula and found to be equal to 3.265 x 10-6 N/A2 and it was larger than magnetic constant of electromagnetic field µo by 2.56 Keywords: E=mc2, E=mbc, Mass-Energy Equivalence, new mass-energy equivalence, photon, frequenton, states of matter, speed of light-charged particle velocity constant, b, magnetic constant µoB, relativistic mass, relativity, types of energy 1. Introduction Our present understanding of energy comes from different time periods, different experimental results of science, and different theories and models. The substantial concepts of mass and energy and their relationship in the universe were continually changed through the history since the philosophers of the Greek, Roman, Arab, India and China. The inertia of motion was described in the 3rd century BC by the Chinese philosopher Mo Tzu, and in the 11th AC century by the Muslim scientist, Ibn al-Haytham Alhazen who stated Newton's first and second law of motion in 965-1039, Risala fi’l-makan (Treatise on Place) (i.e. before 650 year Newton laws), (Salam, 1984) and Avicenna he also stated Newton's first New Concept of Mass-Energy Equivalence 162 and second law of motion in 980-1037 in his book: Ibn Sīnā's, Kitab al mayl (Theory of Inclination) (Espinoza, 2005). But the most acceptable mathematical definition for mass and energy was written by Gottfried Leibniz over the period 1676-1689 to express his theory vis viva of conservation of energy (from Latin for living force) (Mackie’s, 1845) and the theory of the conservation of momentum by Isaac Newton (British) in 1687 and René Decartes (French) in 1645 (Gullberg, 1997). These two theories were considered as a controversial at that time but later they were understood as a complementary. The mass concept is usually related to the energy. The mass is a fundamental concept in chemistry and it is a central concept of classical mechanics and related subjects. The concept of energy and its transformations is extremely useful in explaining and predicting most natural phenomena. Energy transformations in the universe over time are characterized by various kinds of potential energy which has been available since the Big Bang, later being released (i.e. transformed to more active types of energy such as kinetic or radiant energy), when a triggering mechanism is available. In the duration from 19th century to 20th century the mass-energy concept became more realistic for both issues and a lot of scientists shared in crystallization of the concepts to understand deeply the secret of the universe. In 1804 John Dalton stated his simple Atomic Theory. In the early 20th century the scientists started investigation the atom structure after the discovery of the electron, theorized by G. Johnstone Stoney (1874) and discovered by J. J. Thomson (1897), the proton theorized by William Prout (1815) and discovered by Ernest Rutherford (1919) and the neutron discovered by James Chadwick (1932). The theoretical and experimental researches on the energy, atom, waves and particles led to the branch of fundamental sciences that deals with atomic and subatomic systems which we today call quantum mechanics. It is the basic mathematical framework of many fields of physics and chemistry, including condensed matter physics, solid-state physics, atomic physics, molecular physics, computational chemistry, quantum chemistry, particle physics, nuclear physics, quantum chromodynamics and quantum gravity. The foundations of quantum mechanics were established during the first half of the 20th century by Max Planck, Albert Einstein, Ernest Rutherford, Niels Bohr, Louis de Broglie, Max Born, Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, John von Neumann, Paul Dirac, Wolfgang Pauli and others (Planck M. 1901-1908, Einstein, 1905, Rutherford, 1904-1933, Bohr, 1913, De Broglie, 1924, Bernstein, 2005, Heisenberg, 1925-1927, Schrödinger, 1926, Macrae, 1999, Dirac, 1928, Pauli, Wolfgang and Jung, 1955). The theoretical and experimental works in nuclear physics resulted in formation of Standard Model (1970 to 1973) (Agrawal et al, 1998; Bromley, 2000; Kane, 1987). Although the Standard Model well describes the elementary particles and composite particles, but it is still considered as a provisional theory rather than a truly fundamental one. Therefore, some new speculative theories beyond the Standard Model extruded attempts to remedy these deficiencies. According to Preon Theory -coined by Jogesh Pati and Abdus Salam in 1974- (Pati and Salam, 1974; Dugne et al, 2002), there are one or more orders of particles more fundamental than those found in the Standard Model called preons, which are derived from "pre- quarks" which look like “particle zoo model” that came before it. The interest in preons has vanished since the simplest models were experimentally ruled out in the 1980s. The Grand unification Theory attempts to combine the electroweak interaction (through BosonsW ± , Z o ) with the strong interaction (through Gluon) into a single 'grand unified theory' (GUT) (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2008). GUT predicts that at extremely high energies (above 1014 GeV), the electromagnetic, weak nuclear, and strong nuclear forces are fused into a single unified field (Parker, B 1993; Hawking S., 1988). Such a force would be spontaneously broken into the three forces by a Higgs-like mechanism. However, the non-observation of proton decay made it less important. The Supersymmetry tried to extend the Standard Model by adding an additional class of symmetries to the Lagrangian. These symmetries exchange fermionic particles with bosonic ones. In other words, in a supersymmetric theory, for every type of boson there exists a corresponding type of fermion, and vice-versa. Such symmetry predicts the existence of supersymmetric particles, abbreviated as sparticles, which include the sleptons, squarks, neutralinos and charginos. But these 163 Bahjat R. J. Muhyedeen particles are so heavy that they need more experiments to be verified, (Baer and Xerxes, 2006). As of 2008 there is no direct evidence that supersymmetry is a symmetry of nature (Martin, 1999; Lykken, 1996; Drees, 1996; Bilal, 2001; Arygres, 2001). String Theory is an incomplete mathematical approach to theoretical physics, whose building blocks are one-dimensional extended objects called strings, rather than the zero-dimensional point particles that form the basis for the standard model of particle physics, (Arygres, 2001; Cooper et al, 1995; Junker, 1996). The string theory, mainly M-theory out of five string theories, suggest that all "particles" that make up matter and energy are comprised of strings, measuring at the Planck length ( meter), that exist in an 11-dimensional universe to prevent tears in the "fabric" of space using the uncertainty principle, whereas our own existence is merely a 4-brane, inside which exist the 3 space dimensions and the 1 time dimension that we observe, (Schwartz, 1998; Troost, 2005; Witten, 2005). String theory is formulated in terms of an action principle, either the Nambu-Goto action (using the principles of Lagrangian mechanics) or the Polyakov action (using conformal field theory), which describes how strings move through space and time. These strings vibrate at different frequencies which determine mass, electric charge, color charge, and spin. A string can be open (a line) or closed in a loop. As a string moves through space it sweeps out a two- dimensional surfaces f(τ,σ) called a world sheet. One particularly interesting prediction of string theory is the existence of extremely massive counterparts of ordinary particles due to vibrational excitations of the fundamental string. Another important prediction is the existence of a massless spin-2 particle behaving like the graviton. The main aim of this theory is to treat the universe through the quantum mechanic and classical mechanic. In my previous article I have discussed the idea of conversion of mass to energy and vice versa and I showed it is incorrect neither in the chemical nor in nuclear reactions. The annihilation reactions of electron-positron are pseudo processes in addition to that if they occur they will break the laws of conservations.
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