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Quaderni Del Dipartimento Di Scienze Giuridiche Dell'università Di Torino Quaderni del Dipartimento di Scienze Giuridiche dell’Università di Torino nuova serie 18 Simona Novaretti Le ragioni del pubblico: le “azioni nel pubblico interesse” in Cina Questo volume è stato pubblicato con il contributo del Dipartimento di Scienze Giuridiche dell’Università degli Studi di Torino. Novaretti, Simona Le ragioni del pubblico: le “azioni nel pubblico interesse” in Cina Quaderni del Dipartimento di Scienze Giuridiche dell’Università di Torino nuova serie, 18 Napoli: Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane, 2011 pp. XII+308; 24 cm ISBN 978-88-495-2294-5 © 2011 by Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane s.p.a. 80121 Napoli, via Chiatamone 7 00185 Roma, via dei Taurini 27 Internet: www.edizioniesi.it E-mail: [email protected] I diritti di traduzione, riproduzione e adattamento totale o parziale e con qualsiasi mezzo (compresi i microfilm e le copie fotostatiche) sono riservati per tutti i Paesi. Fotocopie per uso personale del lettore possono essere effettuate nei limiti del 15% di cia- scun volume/fascicolo di periodico dietro pagamento alla siae del compenso previsto dal- l’art. 68, comma 4 della legge 22 aprile 1941, n. 633 ovvero dall’accordo stipulato tra siae, aie, sns e cna, confartigianato, casa, claai, confcommercio, confesercenti il 18 di- cembre 2000. Associazione Italiana per i Diritti di Riproduzione delle Opere dell’ingegno (aidro) Via delle Erbe, 2 - 20121 Milano - tel. e fax 02-809506; e-mail: [email protected] a Matteo e Gabriele, e a Gisella «I cuori degli uomini tendono al proprio inte- resse personale, tuttavia, grazie al modello po- sitivo della legge, l’interesse personale si tra- sforma in generale. Questo spiega perché le po- tenti forze che guidano il mondo vanno co- stantemente in direzione della legge, senza che nulla o nessuno possano arrestarne il cammino. La legge è il principio fondante dell’interesse pubblico». Chen Liang (1143-1194), “Ren fa”. Ringraziamenti Le persone che mi hanno aiutata nel corso di questa ricerca sono molte, e a tutte va la mia gratitudine. Desidero ringraziare, in particolare, il Prof. Donald Clarke, il Prof. Hoyt Tillman, il Prof. Maurizio Scarpari e la Prof. Marina Timoteo per la disponibilità, la pazienza, e i preziosi consigli; il Prof. Zhang Lihong, la Prof. Fei Anling, la Prof. Stefania Stafutti e tutto il per- sonale del CASCC per avermi consentito di accedere a materiali e database altrimenti introvabili. Un ringraziamento speciale va, ovviamente, al Dott. Otto Malm- grem, alla Dott. Elisa Nesossi, all’Avv. Huang Jinrong, all’Avv. Wang Fang, al Dott. Hao Jinsong e all’Avv. Wang Zhenyu, che hanno vo- luto condividere con me le Loro esperienze sul campo, permetten- domi di andare oltre la «legge sui libri». Senza di loro questo lavoro non avrebbe visto la luce. Ringrazio, infine, tutti gli amici che hanno letto, corretto, criticato e incoraggiato la mia ricerca e – più di ogni altro – ringrazio Gigi, che mi supporta e sopporta sempre. Indice Introduzione 1 Capitolo I – Dall’interesse pubblico alle “azioni nel pub- blico interesse”: l’emergere di una nuova nozione di “pub- blico” in Cina 1. Introduzione 3 2. Le origini della nozione di interesse pubblico in Cina 13 2.1. I riferimenti occidentali 13 2.2. Le nozioni di “pubblico” e “interesse” nella Cina classica 18 2.3. Il discorso sugli interessi nella Cina maoista 27 2.4. Dalle riforme degli anni ’80 ai giorni nostri: verso un interesse pubblico pluralista? 30 Capitolo II – “Public Interest Litigation”: origine e diffu- sione di un modello 1. Società pluraliste e interessi diffusi: l’emergere delle “cause di tipo moderno” 37 2. Public interest litigation: definizioni a confronto 43 2.1. Le definizioni dottrinali di public interest litigation in Occidente 43 2.2. Definizioni dottrinali di “azioni nel pubblico interesse” in Cina 47 3. Origini, caratteristiche e globalizzazione della Public Interest Law 61 3.1. Il modello classico di public interest litigation 65 3.2. Law and Development e Human Rights: il volto internazionale del Liberal Legalism americano nel secondo dopoguerra 68 3.3. La convergenza tra Public Interest Law, Law and Development e Human Rights: verso la globalizzazione della Public Interest Law 72 3.4. La globalizzazione della Public Interest Law 74 X Indice Capitolo III – La cooperazione giuridica internazionale in Cina e le premesse alla nascita delle “azioni nel pubblico interesse” 1. Introduzione 83 2. L’ingresso di concetti, modelli e fondi stranieri in Cina, tra coope- razione internazionale e reazioni interne 98 2.1. L’ingresso della Repubblica Popolare Cinese nella comunità in- ternazionale 98 2.2. Il dibattito interno sulle riforme 103 2.3. La cooperazione giuridica internazionale nella Repubblica Po- polare Cinese 110 2.3. 2.3.1. La strategia di “legal empowerment” nella RPC: i pro- grammi di “accesso alla giustizia” della Fondazione Ford 119 Capitolo IV – Le prime “azioni nel pubblico interesse” e gli ostacoli strutturali all’uso delle corti per la tutela dei di- ritti sociali 1. Gli anni Novanta del XX secolo nella RPC: la scoperta dei diritti e l’emergere di nuove “contraddizioni” in seno alla società cinese 129 2. La nascita delle “azioni nel pubblico interesse” in Cina 132 2.1. La prima fase dello sviluppo delle “azioni nel pubblico inte- resse”: la scoperta dell’interesse pubblico da parte dei comuni cittadini cinesi, tra tutela sussidiaria e protezione diretta 134 2.2. “Azioni nel pubblico interesse” civili e Procure del Popolo 145 3. Gli ostacoli strutturali al successo in corte delle “azioni nel pub- blico interesse” 160 3.1. Il problema del diritto di azione 165 3.2. Le limitazioni alle azioni di gruppo 172 3.3. L’indipendenza del potere giudiziario e la professionalità dei giu- dici 179 Capitolo V – Le “azioni nel pubblico interesse” in Cina: quattro gongyi lüshi a confronto 1. La professionalizzazione delle gongyi susong 189 2. La professione legale in Cina 196 3. La tutela del pubblico interesse in Cina: quattro gongyi lüshi a con- fronto 216 3.1. “Ottenere il bene comune attraverso la protezione degli inte- ressi individuali”: lo Studio legale Dongfang per il pubblico in- teresse e il legal aid di Pechino 217 3.2. L’Ufficio di legal aid di Pechino per lavoratori migranti 228 3.3. Il Centro per il fondo di diritto e pubblico interesse 236 3.4. Lo Studio legale Yipai di Pechino 246 Indice XI Conclusioni 255 Bibliografia 261 Bibliografia in lingue occidentali 261 Bibliografia in lingua cinese 283 Introduzione Il processo di “riforma e apertura” (改革开放, gaige kaifang)1 inau- gurato da Deng Xiaoping nel 1978, e l’impegno, assunto dal PCC nel 1997, per trasformare la Cina in uno “Stato di Diritto” (法治, fazhi) non hanno solo portato all’edificazione di un “sistema socia- lista di leggi con caratteristiche cinesi” completo, come dichiarato, nel marzo 2011, dagli stessi leader della Repubblica Popolare; la (seconda) modernizzazione giuridica ha anche modificato radicalmente il tes- suto sociale di quel Paese, ridefinendo, grazie al riconoscimento e alla tutela di nuove tipologie di interessi, i rapporti tra gli individui e la relazione tra questi ultimi e il potere costituito. È, tuttavia, principalmente sul dato normativo e sul processo di produzione “top-down” delle regole che si sono concentrate, in que- sti anni, le analisi degli autori occidentali, in particolare italiani, men- tre poca attenzione è stata dedicata al momento applicativo, e al ruolo giocato dai cittadini e dagli intermediari sociali (segnatamente: le pro- fessioni legali) nello sviluppo, anche giuridico, della RPC. Il presente studio si propone di colmare, almeno in parte, tale la- cuna, e di esaminare la “law in action” cinese a partire da un istituto solo di recente comparso nella Repubblica Popolare: le “azioni nel pubblico interesse” (公益诉讼, gongyi susong), cause indirettamente ispirate alle public interest litigation statunitensi, ma da quel modello profondamente differenti, perché frutto della rielaborazione e dell’a- dattamento dei principi della Public Interest Law al contesto locale. Azioni “nuove” in più di un senso, per mezzo delle quali un cre- scente numero di ONG, studi legali o singoli avvocati ogni giorno ricorda al governo cosa significhi, in concreto, “essere un Paese di Rule of Law”, chiedendogli di tener fede alle proprie dichiarazioni e 1 Per la trascrizione dei nomi e dei termini cinesi verrà utilizzato il sistema pinyin, mentre per la trascrizione di quelli giapponesi si userà il sistema Hepburn; in par- ticolare, per quanto riguarda i nomi propri, si manterrà l’uso cinese e giapponese secondo il quale il cognome precede sempre il nome. 2 Introduzione di applicare le norme che esso stesso ha approvato, attraverso una ri- vendicazione dell’interesse pubblico collettivo che costituisce – per i cittadini cinesi, nella situazione attuale – uno dei pochi strumenti di partecipazione politica ammessi, e l’unica strada per far sentire la pro- pria voce. Il mio lavoro si articola in cinque capitoli. In particolare, il primo capitolo esamina le origini e lo sviluppo della nozione di “interesse pubblico” in Cina, al fine di valutare se, e in che modo, le riforme abbiano modificato il significato ad essa attribuito nella Repubblica Popolare; il secondo prende le mosse dal confronto tra le definizioni dottrinali di “public interest litigation” in Occidente e nella RPC, per esaminare le caratteristiche del modello classico di questo istituto, e ripercorrere le tappe del processo che ha portato alla sua “globalizzazione”; il terzo ricostruisce i passaggi che – grazie alla complessa interazione tra modelli e fondi
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