Distracted Driving: a Cross-Disciplinary Analysis

DISTRACTED DRIVING:

A CROSS-DISCIPLINARY ANALYSIS EXPLORING

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF PUBLIC SERVICE ANNOUNCEMENTS

REGARDING TEXTING AND DRIVING THAT EMPLOY A FILMED

NARRATIVE WITH EMOTIONAL APPEALS

Jeremy R. Seibold

A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of

The Dorothy F. Schmidt College of Arts & Letters

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Master of Arts

Florida Atlantic University

Boca Raton, FL

May 2017

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. Becky Mulvaney and Dr.

Patricia Darlington for all of their guidance and support, and a special thanks to my advisor, Stephen Charbonneau, for his brilliance, charisma, and confidence in my abilities during the writing of this manuscript. I am also truly grateful for the invaluable assistance I received from Dr. Christine Scodari, as well as the inspiration and words of experience from Dr. Bill Trapani. Last but not least, I would also like to thank my colleagues in the Communication Department at Florida Atlanta University, especially my fellow Teacher Assistants.

ABSTRACT

Author: Jeremy R. Seibold

Title: Distracted Driving: A Cross-Disciplinary Analysis Exploring The Effectiveness Of Public Service Announcements Regarding Texting And Driving That Employ A Filmed Narrative With Emotional Appeals

Institution: Florida Atlantic University

Thesis Advisor: Dr. Stephen Charbonneau

Degree: Master of Arts

Year: 2017

Despite efforts to mitigate texting and driving in the United States, accidents as a result of distracted driving continue to increase, especially within the 16-24 age group.

Considering the traits of the members of this age group, as well as the attributes of the various means that are utilized to mitigate such behavior, I hypothesize that the employment of filmed narratives in public service announcements is more effective than any other established approach. Testing the validity of this hypothesis, contributing to a lack of research, three methods of analysis were employed in this project: a textual analysis of a filmed narrative; an audience analysis of the comments accompanying the filmed narrative; and a video session followed by a self-administered questionnaire. The results of this study indicate that while the filmed narrative is more effective than the spoken narrative, more intensive analyses are necessary for further speculation.

v DEDICATION

One looks back with appreciation to the brilliant teachers, but with gratitude to those who touched our human feelings. The curriculum is so much necessary raw material, but warmth is the vital element for the growing plant and for the soul of the child.- Carl Jung

This manuscript is dedicated to my wife, my greatest teacher, and those brilliant souls with the warmest of touches; my mentors; my professors; my captains!

I am most grateful for my mother, who sparked the flame; J. Delores Bird who showed me how to carry the flame; and Stephen Charbonneau, who showed me how to keep the flame alit!

DISTRACTED DRIVING:

A CROSS-DISCIPLINARY ANALYSIS EXPLORING

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF PUBLIC SERVICE ANNOUNCEMENTS

REGARDING TEXTING AND DRIVING THAT EMPLOY A FILMED

NARRATIVE WITH EMOTIONAL APPEALS

LIST OF TABLES ...... ix

LIST OF FIGURES ...... x

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ...... 1

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 12

Types of Public Service Announcements (PSAs) and Prevention ...... 12

The Significance of Video: Format ...... 17

The Significance of Narrative ...... 22

The Significance of Video: Content ...... 26

Emotional Appeals ...... 34

CHAPTER 3: TEXTUAL ANALYSIS ...... 39

Method ...... 39

Results/Discussion ...... 40

CHAPTER 4: AUDIENCE ANALYSIS ...... 47

Rationale for Mixed Methods ...... 47

Method ...... 48

Results/Discussion ...... 49

vii CHAPTER 5: QUESTIONNAIRE/VIDEO SESSION ...... 58

Method ...... 58

Results/Discussion ...... 60

CHAPTER 6: IMPLICATIONS & CONCLUSION ...... 79

APPENDICES ...... 85

REFERENCES ...... 87

viii LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1: Ten Leading Causes of Death by Age Group ...... 6

Table 2.1: YouTube Company Statistics ...... 18

Table 2.2: Optimizing Strategies According to the Context and Respective Attention

Level in the Advertising industry ...... 21

Table 4.1: Categories of Responses from Participants Manifested Through Coding in

Audience Analysis ...... 57

Table 5.1: Admitted Distracted Driving Behaviors ...... 62

Table 5.2: Familiarity with Other Types of PSAs ...... 64

Table 5.3: Categories of Responses from Participants Manifested Through Coding

Answers to Question 5 (Week 1) ...... 65

Table 5.4: Categories of Responses from Participants Manifested Through Coding

Answers to Question 1 (Week 1) ...... 69

Table 5.5: The Impact of the Videos on Attitudes and Behaviors ...... 74

Table 5.6: The Impact of Emotional Appeals on Behavior ...... 75

Table 5.7: Categories of Responses from Participants Manifested Through Coding

Answers to Question 2 (Week 2) ...... 76

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1: Media Shares in Global Ad Spending ...... 19

Figure 2.2: Plutchik’s Wheel of 8 Primary Emotions ...... 37

x CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

In the heat of Late July, the sun doesn’t set on Central Minnesota until almost 9. As Melissa and her friends piled into her trusty, red pickup, the sun, far off in the distance, seemed to sit just over the trees. Taking the wheel, Melissa whined, “I’m soo hungry. I can’t wait to get to Falls!” “Me too,” Cathy quickly responded from the backseat in agreement. The group had been out all day, enjoying the mid-summer weather, but time passes when you’re having fun, so lunch was an afterthought.

“It’s a little past 7,” Darren noted, gazing deep into the screen of his cellphone,

“We have plenty of time. No need to rush.” Melissa turned on the radio, checked her phone, and backed out of the driveway. Shuffling side-to-side in what seemed to be a small battle with his seat belt, Greg stated matter-of-factly, “It should take us a little less than an hour. I think it’s only like 34 miles from here to Little Falls.” “Good, I need grub and I gotta get home early tonight, Greg sulkingly added, “I got work in the morning.

And I wanna get home safe, Melissa, so stay off you phone!” As Melissa raced off, the 4 friends left St. Cloud behind, blissfully making their way north.

“OMG, turn this up,” Cathy blurted, climbing on Melissa’s headrest and making her best efforts to reproduce Taylor Swift’s dance moves in the limited space of the cab. Shooting Cathy a big smile in the rearview with a laugh, Melissa turned the knob and began to sing along. “Take it easy,” Greg growled at Cathy, staring off into the rapidly passing horizon, “I’m trying to enjoy the scenery.” In this region of Minnesota, the Mississippi River begins to lose the wilderness character of its upper reaches, and the 1 view broadens into stretches of scenic riverscape interspersed with houses and farms

(McLaughlin, 2015). .

Pointing out an oddly shaped cloud and a few ducks crossing the sky up ahead,

Cathy giggled, but before she can finish her words, the car jerked to the side and the sound of the rumble strip roared through the air. Dropping her phone, Melissa frantically corrected the wheel while Cathy screams, “Melissa! Stay off that phone, please!”

“Seriously Melissa,” Greg exclaimed, “What is your problem?” Checking his pockets and regaining composure, Darren glanced at Melissa with a solemn face, “Babe, if you need to text someone, let me know. You gotta be careful.”

As the red pickup continued to barrel down the highway, blaring Ryan

Seacrest’s voice and the top 40 hits, the group of teenagers enjoyed each other’s company and the open road, but they had no idea that their lives were about to change forever.

Despite the 8 or 9 urgent requests from her passengers, in which they begged Melissa to stay off of her phone, Melissa continued to text and post on Facebook, ignoring their pleas.

Around 8 pm, Melissa and her friends were pulling up to an intersection between

Becker and Big Lake. Travelling steady down the road at a reasonable speed limit,

Melissa and her friends would soon arrive home to fill their stomachs and begin their summer nights, except for one thing; Melissa kept texting.

At the same time that Melissa’s pickup was nearing the intersection, 54-year-old

Michael Carlson, his daughters Katie (10) and Alexis (16), and their 15 year old friend

Alice were on their way home from the local library. Recapping the day’s events in a

laughter filled minivan, Carlson and his daughters were also approaching the intersection.

Their light was green (McLaughlin, 2015).

Despite all of the messages that are continually spread regarding the dangers of texting and driving, ignoring all of her friends’ previous requests to refrain from using her phone, and discounting her near accidents and close calls- Melissa continued to text.

Rapidly advancing towards the intersection, still texting, with her friends in a panic,

Melissa failed to hear her friends cry out, “red light!”

Without the opportunity to step on the brakes, Melissa’s 3000-pound pickup tore through the minivan at full speed. The happy family on their way home had no idea what was coming. Without any warning, Melissa T-boned Carlson’s driver side door, sending her precious phone flying and both vehicles into a ravine. Reaching for Darren, Melissa stretched out her hand towards the blurry image of her boyfriend. Clearly in shock, she couldn’t speak and the tears poured through the wreckage around her legs. Nursing a head wound, slumped over the bent dashboard, Darren reached out to Melissa, nervously asking if everybody was alright. Both Greg and Cathy were battered and bruised with a couple small open wounds, but both were conscious, groaning and muttering what sounded like prayers. In a few short moments, Melissa and her friends were about to face a grave reality (McLaughlin, 2015).

Michael Carlson and his ten year old daughter were brutally injured. When the smoke cleared, Carlson’s older daughter Alexis and her friend also lay injured, but alive in a twisted pile of red and gray metal. Later that night, Michael Carlson died at North memorial Medical Center in the nearby town of Robbinsdale. Katie Carlson, who would have entered fifth grade in the coming fall, suffered severe head injuries and ten days

later, she finally succumbed to those injuries. Like many cross roads and highways throughout the United States, painted wooden crosses now stand at the intersection as sad reminders of the senseless act of texting and driving.

Ultimately, the 17-year old driver was charged with criminal vehicular homicide and using a phone while in motion. But beyond the legal matters, looking past the likely jail time, Melissa faces much greater troubles in the path ahead. For the rest of her life, Melissa will have to process the trauma she endured in such a horrific accident, and most of all, she will have to carry the guilt of taking two precious lives and tearing a family apart (McLaughlin, 2015).

Although I changed the names of the people involved in this tragic accident, and minor aspects of conversation were fabricated for the sake of narrative, this automobile accident, a result of texting and driving, really happened. This horrific accident is an example of a grave problem in the United States, and despite numerous, multifaceted efforts to mitigate the growing problem, automobile accidents and serious injuries as a result of distracted driving 1continue to increase. In 2014, 3,200 texting-while-driving citations were issued in Minnesota alone, which is a 278 percent increase from 2010

(Mclaughlin, 2015). And nationally, the statistics are just as staggering. In the most recent study regarding the dangers of cell phone use while driving, The National Safety

Council (2015) found that such behavior leads to 1.6 million crashes each year, resulting in almost 330,000 injuries and over 3,000 deaths.

1 Distracted Driving Defined: Distracted driving is a term used to describe the operation of a motor vehicle while the driver’s attention is occupied by factors other than those necessary for driving. This term is often used to discuss traffic accidents that result from distracted driving and is most frequently used when referring to the use of a cell phone—to send or receive phone calls or text messages—while driving (Distracted Driving, 2013, p.251) 4

Exploring further into the research, the data depicts a particularly grim reality for young Americans behind the wheel. Especially for teenagers, who boast the highest crash rate of any group in the United States. According to a recent study, the 15 to 19 year old age group has the largest proportion of drivers who were distracted (by cell phones) at the time of the automobile crashes, and drivers in their 20s compose 23 % of drivers in all fatal crashes and 27 % of the reported distracted drivers (US, 2016). In addition, drivers in their 20s were found to make up 38 % of the distracted drivers who were using cell phones in all fatal crashes (US, 2016). “The percentage of drivers text-messaging or visibly manipulating handheld devices has been on the rise over the past few years, and since 2007, young drivers (age 16 to 24) have been observed manipulating electronic devices at higher rates than older drivers” (US, 2016). As a matter of fact, the leading cause of unintentional deaths among the 16-24 age group is motor vehicle accidents

(Table 1).

In the age of technology, such statistics should cause alarm, and motivate many to seek more effective means of mitigation. In 2014, 80 % of drivers reported owning a smartphone, and since 2010, the number of drivers using their smart phones or manipulating electronic devices while driving has remained at roughly 660,000 (US,

2016). Although, people are increasingly becoming more and more connected through their mobile devices, this number could be on the rise. “As vehicle cabins continue to incorporate more forms of digital technologies through infotainment centers and telematics units… the greater the potential that exists for distracted driving” (Brachman,

2016).

Table 1.1: Ten Leading Causes of Death by Age Group

(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2015)

While many solutions are being contemplated and/or implemented throughout the nation at the policy level, such as a ban on texting while driving, the situation could get worse, and more people, especially the youth, will die, be critically injured, or face serious criminal charges. Furthermore, enacting laws is not enough. Since the 2010 ban on texting and driving in Massachusetts, accidents relating to distracted driving have been on the rise (Murphy, 2015). The number of drivers seen multitasking on their smart phones has been outrageous, leading many officials to declare an epidemic on the roads; however, according to the Massachusetts police and lawmakers, such a law is extremely difficult to enforce since it permits drivers to handle their phones- It’s hard to determine whether police officers have the right to pull someone over if they can’t tell if the law is actually being broken. In this situation, drivers can and often claim that they were using the phone for other than texting; consequently, many Massachusetts residents are calling for a more controversial approach- a total ban on hand-held cell phone use while driving

(Murphy, 2015).

In light of such limitations for legal approaches, a more effective approach to decreasing the number of youth (and people overall) utilizing their cellphones while driving seems to be a communicative approach, in which the realities of such distracted driving are communicated to drivers and the people at large through various communication channels. The significance of this method is evident in the efforts of the various campaigns operated by the numerous entities that have a stake in safety and/or traffic, and these efforts are highly visible in American culture across multiple media platforms, such as the AT&T’s “It can wait” or the “U drive, u text, u pay” campaign

(AT&T, 2016; US,2016) . However, considering the increasing prevalence of young

people utilizing their cell phones while driving, as well as the increasing number of preventable accidents, more effective means of communication may be necessary.

After considerable research regarding a more appropriate means of communication, I realized that there wasn’t much to be found concerning the effectiveness of the efforts of the campaigns that already exist. After scouring academic databases, agency archives online, and numerous websites, I was unable to find any study that specifically analyzed any poster, radio public service announcement (PSA), or video for its effectiveness. In point of fact, I found an article reinforcing the findings of my investigation- more research needs to be done regarding the effectiveness of campaigns that address the issue of distracted driving.

On behalf of the American College of Preventive Medicine (ACPM), Sherin et al

(2014) posit that,

Given the rising number of texting and driving teenagers, the primary target of

educational campaigns and legislative opportunities by local and state

government, law enforcement, schools, and health professionals should be the

youngest drivers. Teenage-tailored media campaigns like television public service

announcements, similar to the drug and tobacco awareness campaigns currently in

use, could raise awareness of the issue of texting while driving: however,

increased research on the effectiveness of such programs is also needed (p.683).

Identifying the ostensible lack of information about such a serious, contemporary issue, in this essay I attempt to answer the call of the ACPM and contribute to the body of research on the effectiveness of the programs concerning distracted driving, specifically public service announcements regarding driving while texting.

Although I am continually disturbed by the number of young people I see texting and driving on a daily basis, and truly interested in modes of persuasion in the public arena, my true motivation for undertaking such a project derives from the element of focus for the studies I present in this essay- a PSA about texting and driving from the UK

(Nick1111341, 2009).When I was in my teens (the 90’s), and cell phones were not as advanced or widely owned, this type of distracted driving did not exist. During my high school years, not one of my teenage friends died from texting and driving, and by the time cell phones were advanced and more widespread, I was in my twenties and matured enough to make responsible decisions regarding my cell phone use, so I never thought much of the issue. However, as such behavior began to increase around me, often leading to close calls, I began to pay attention to the efforts of the various campaigns, taking the time to stop and read posters or scrutinize the random PSA, mostly because I never found them personally effective. That is until I viewed the PSA Texting while Driving U.K. Ad

[HD] (Nick1111341, 2009).

In 2010, while working on a Bachelor’s degree at Cornell University, I viewed the aforementioned PSA, and up to this point in my life (and still), no other PSA regarding texting and driving has ever left such an impression on me. I was completely in awe, as if

I just witnessed a car crash right in front of me, but from vantage points that were impossible for a bystander, intensifying the experience; moreover, the class on the whole was astounded, and several students were visibly upset. In the post-viewing discussion, the majority of the class expressed their emotions, and most conveyed the notion that this type of PSA, a video with a filmed narrative that places the spectator in the position of the witness, might be highly effective. As time passed and the video continued to have an

effect on me, more specifically on my decisions regarding cell phone use while driving, I became motivated to share the video with others, hoping to help change the actions of people that text and drive. The response I received from most of my friends and family members was similar to mine- This video is shocking, but as close to reality as you can get, so it might be highly effective (Nick1111341, 2009).

After my personal experience with the video from the UK, as well as seeing the impact the video has had on others, my motivation to explore this area of communication was deepened. Recognizing the facets that distinguish this type of PSA, a video (not a flier or radio announcement) with a filmed narrative (not simply informative or a spoken narrative) that transports the spectator into the narrative world (cinematic techniques enhance the engagement and identification), I decided to study the effectiveness of this

PSA in a controlled environment. Embracing a theoretical approach, Walter Fisher’s

Narrative Human Communication Paradigm (1984), and expanding upon the paradigm with the Transportation-Imagery Model (Brock & Green, 2005) with recognition of the significance of cinematic techniques in terms of persuasion, I will attempt to provide literature that supports the following hypotheses:

H1: The PSA Texting while Driving U.K. Ad [HD] (filmed narrative) is effective at mitigating the behavior of texting and driving within the 16-24 age population in the

US.

H2: The PSA Texting while Driving U.K. Ad [HD] (filmed narrative) is more effective at mitigating the behavior of texting and driving than Liz Marks texting and driving story (spoken narrative) within the 16-24 age population in the US.

Reinforcing the presented literature regarding enhancement of a narrative with cinematic techniques, I offer a textual analysis of the PSA Texting while Driving U.K. Ad [HD]. In addition, I will also present the results of two additional methods of analysis to further determine the validity of the presented hypotheses:

1. An audience analysis in which I examined the blog threads that accompany the

PSA Texting while Driving U.K. Ad [HD] on Youtube (Nick1111341, 2009)

2. A video viewing session followed by a self-administered questionnaire

11 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

Types of Public Service Announcements (PSAs) and Prevention

The numerous agencies that are concerned with public health in the United States utilize various forms of public service announcements, attempting to impact the attitudes and behavior of numerous factions of people across the country; however, considering the attitudes, biases, and behaviors of the target population (Ages 16-24), most formats do not seem as appropriate as the video format for a PSA regarding texting and driving.

Many agencies involved in the efforts to create awareness regarding the dangers of distracted driving, such as texting and driving, often utilize posters to inform the public. You can find such posters of all shapes and sizes plastered throughout the halls of our high schools and colleges and in various public places, such as the walls of public transportation. Some are merely informative with the hopes that the rhetoric is enough to sway the average, rational being, and some try to move you into making the right decisions by appealing to your emotions; however, I would argue that beyond the various factors that could influence the effectiveness of such messages, PSAs in poster form suffer from confirmation bias, also known as selective exposure. Selective exposure, an important concern in any social science research because its presence generally leads to inaccurate results, is “the tendency of people to expose themselves to mass communications in accord with their existing opinions and interests and to avoid

12 unsympathetic material” (Bryant & Vorderer, 2006, p.21) In this case, the bias arises due to the fact that the target population will only be reached if they are interested in the content of the posters and select to expose themselves to the messages of persuasion.

Simply passing out fliers or posting the information that you want a populace to receive leads to a problem- people are allowed to decide entirely for themselves whether or not they want to look at or actually comprehensively read the poster. In most cases, it is likely that the message won’t reach the target population- the people who need to hear the message, such as the major faction of young people who text and drive (Olsen, 2016).

While posters seem to be more prominent on a local, public level, such information is not limited to a strict paper medium. Many campaigns utilize mediums of technology. Although radio PSAs are still utilized by many agencies to address the issues of distracted driving, and could actually be more effective at reaching the target population due to their pervasiveness (they can come on the air without your choice, potentially negating the selective exposure bias), using such outmoded technology can still be problematic. While broadcasting PSAs may seem to be a more viable option than posters or signs, the message is not likely to reach the present target population. A recent study by Edison Research found that more “…American teenagers listen to Spotify,

Pandora, and other digital streaming music services than traditional, FM broadcast radio

(Resnikof, 2015). While “Most major radio stations also simulcast their streams online… web-born platforms are easily commanding greater share” (Resnikoff, 2015). Not to mention, “Edison found that the average American teenager (between the ages of 13 and

17) listens to just over 4 hours of audio a day,” and you still have to account for the time

listening to personal devices, such as ipods and MP3 players, all of which don’t play commercials or PSAs (Resnikoff, 2015).

In some cases the employment of specific types of technology could be detrimental. A notable, yet possibly dangerous effort, (in Florida) the Department of

Highway Safety and Motor Vehicles (2016) has embraced the nationwide recognition that April is Distracted Driving Awareness Month. Although the department is quoted on their website as stating, “Texting requires all three types of distraction, making it one of the most dangerous of distracted driving behaviors,” and actually lists “Taking your eyes off the road” as one of the types of distractions- The department posts information that required you to take your eyes off of the road. For the whole month of April, the department utilized the digital warning billboards above the stretch of route 95 in

Southern Florida to remind drivers not to text and drive; however, instead of a succinct message, the announcement filled both lines of the billboard, including a reminder that

April is Distracted Driving Awareness Month. I found this method of creating awareness questionable considering that studies have shown that when you take your eyes off the road for more than two seconds, it doubles your risk of a crash. Moreover, when travelling at the speed of 55 miles per hour (the speed limit on Route 95 is 70), a mere five seconds with eyes off the road is equal to travelling the full span of a football field- blindfolded (Souto, 2016).

Furthermore, several governmental and private agencies operate websites that are abundant resources for information and statistics regarding this and other types of distracted driving, such as AT&T, Stoptextsstopwrecks.org, AAA, The National Safety

Council, and the CDC (and many more). Some of these sites actually host online

simulators, addressing behavioral issues, such as a lack of focus while driving. Operating these online simulators, the user can use the mouse and/or keyboard to navigate computer-generated roads and respond to prompts or distractions. The Texting and

Driving: It Can Wait simulator can actually link with a user’s smartphone to create a more accurate experience of being distracted by a text, and it can also connect to a pedal kit, potentially offering a more realistic experience as well. Recognizing the online experience is not that immersive, organizations like the Allstate Corporation, have constructed a travelling driving simulator exhibit that can be brought on site, and both elementary schools and higher academic institutions sometimes sponsor such distracted driving simulation events (Brachmann, 2016). However, the effectiveness of all of these sites, as well as the exhibits, are also hindered, again, by the selective exposure process because people, on their own accord, need to actively seek these sites and their information out online for such messages to reach them. This actually takes more effort

(and logically significant interest) than reading a random poster or flier from such a campaign.

Lastly, embracing the contemporary and innovative environment of technology, many companies are aiding the efforts of the various public health campaigns by creating applications for smart phones or devices that can be installed in your motor vehicle that can interact with your phone during distracted driving. “Android and Apple device owners alike can download LifeSaver, which can detect that a person is driving and lock the device in response” (Brachmann, 2016). Upon locking, the GPS sensors trigger a notification that “…is sent to a parent or someone else who is allowed to monitor a driver’s habits through LifeSaver” (Brachmann, 2016). Apps like TextBuster require a

device that is installed under a vehicle’s dashboard and while the car is running, it disables data functions for any linked portable electronic devices. Additionally, apps like

Drive Safe.ly, developed by iSpeech, attempt to reduce distractions by employing text-to- speech technology, which the users must activate prior to driving. Surprisingly, according to the website for Drive Safe.ly, more than 2.3 billion messages have been orated to drivers through the use of this app (Brachmann, 2016).

Such technology seems hopeful in terms of mitigation, but considering the continuing bias of selective exposure, as well as the attitudes of drivers with such dangerous behavior, these efforts may not be the most effective. People who text and drive would have to seek these apps out, download them, and learn how to use them- and then use them every time they drive, which is problematic. Statistics show that while almost everyone agrees that such behavior is dangerous, most people still text and drive anyway. In a new survey of 1,004 U.S. adults, jointly conducted by AT&T Inc. and

David Greenfield (the founder of The Center for Internet and Technology Addiction and a professor at the University of Connecticut's School of Medicine), “…98 percent of motorists who own cellphones and text regularly said they were aware of the dangers, yet three-quarters of them admitted to texting while driving, despite laws against it in some states” (CBS, 2014). In this study, the texting drivers cited numerous reasons for knowingly engaging in this risky behavior, such as habitual behavior, the ability to mutli- task, addiction to technology, and the need to stay connected to family and friends (CBS,

2014). In consideration of the prevalence of the selective exposure bias with the aforementioned types of PSAs, the attitudes presented are significant due to the fact that people may not be likely to seek out information that is in opposition to their beliefs,

especially if they think that their behavior is not wrong or worth the risk, as illuminated in Greenfield’s study. Therefore, if texting drivers actually look at a poster PSA, listen to a radio PSA, or inquire about a simulator, and are confronted with beliefs about texting and driving that are in opposition to their existing attitudes, they will likely experience cognitive dissonance. Experiencing this psychic discomfort, the texting drivers are moved to restore a sense of equanimity by forming attitudes that are consistent with their previously held values and behaviors- basically ignoring the persuasive messages (Bryant

& Vorderer, 2006).

The Significance of Video: Format

Considering the available statistics as well as the prominent attitudes of texting drivers, out of all of the formats employed in campaigns that aim to reach the American youth and create awareness about the dangers of texting and driving, the video format seems to have the most potential. There is no doubt that we are living in a more visual society than ever, and as dubbed by NewsWeek in 1985, the video generation still remains an apt title. According to the Pew Research Center, 63 percent of Americans watch videos online, and 90 percent of the younger population (ages 18 to 29) watch online videos. “As younger generations grow up increasingly better acquainted with the Internet, demand for video will likely be higher than ever before” (Merken, 2015).

To maintain consistency with the texts of analysis in this essay, consider one of the most successful video-sharing websites YouTube as a resource for understanding the significance of the video format (Table 2.1). “YouTube has over a billion users - almost one-third of all people on the Internet - and everyday people watch hundreds of millions of hours on YouTube, generating billions of views” – close to 5 billion (Youtube, 2016).

On both computers and mobile devices, YouTube “…reaches more 18-34 and 18-49 year-olds than any cable network in the U.S,” and once users are on YouTube, they spend an average of 40 minutes viewing videos (Statistics, 2016). Historically validated in the traditional context of rhetoric, Youtube videos are exceptionally appropriate for such

PSAs. As far back as Ancient Greece, scholars like Aristotle recognized that there is no universal approach to persuasion that is appropriate for all situations. Identifying segmented audiences, Aristotle posited that messages of persuasion need to be customized to the specific target, or more accurately, “…we must learn to adapt our messages to the world of the listener” (Larson, 2007, p. 54). Considering the target population’s (ages 16-24) exposure to videos in contemporary culture, utilizing videos for such PSAs would be an operative adaptation.

Total number of people who use YouTube 1,325,000,000 Hours of video uploaded to YouTube every minute 300 hours Number of videos viewed on YouTube everyday 4,950,000,000 Number of unique visits to YouTube every month 900,000,000 Total number of hours of video watched on YouTube each month 3.25 billion hours Number of YouTube videos that have generated over 1 billion 10,113 views Percent of YouTube visitors that come from outside the U.S. 70 % Number of countries with localized versions of YouTube 42 Total number of languages Youtube is broadcast in 54 User submitted video with the most views – "Charlie bit my 829,000,000 finger" Average number of mobile YouTube video views per day 1,000,000,000 Average time spent on YouTube per mobile session 40 minutes Table 2.1: YouTube Company Statistics

(Statistic Brain Research Institute, 2016)

In addition to adapting PSAs to the world of the listener, which can reach the target population through the utilization of prominent video-sharing sites, another strength of video PSAs is their pervasiveness. Unlike any other format, PSAs in the video format have the capability of airing in commercial advertisement spots on broadcast TV without the viewer’s choice as well as required viewing before looking at a video on sites such as YouTube.com. Streaming sites, such as HULU, also intermittently air

advertisements and PSAs without the viewer’s

choice; likewise, some movie theaters are noted

for showing advertisements before the movies,

amidst the trailers. Recognizing the similarities

between advertisements and PSAs in both form

and intent, as well as the significance of their

shared viewing spots on both broadcast

television and the internet, relevant

communication scholarship concerning the

advertising industry is pertinent in such a

discussion. According to Nielsen’s quarterly

Global AdView Pulse report (2014), television (Nielsen Company, 2016). Figure 2.1: Media Shares in Global and (display) Internet advertising lead the globe Ad Spending in ad spending (Figure 2.1). However, “despite the rapid growth of display Internet’s ad budgets, TV continues to reign supreme with a

57.6 percent share of all ad spending and advertisers investing 4.3 percent more into the medium” (Nielsen, 2016). Considering these numbers, the only two platforms (TV and

Internet) that can show video PSAs are given the most funding and are more common, reinforcing the significance of the video format.

In addition, strengthening the notion that the video is the most appropriate format for PSAs, advertisers are consistently turning to more integrated campaigns to strategically maximize the impact of their messages, connecting with consumers on multiple screens (utilizing both TV and Internet) (Nielsen, 2016). According to studies by

Thales Texeira (2015), there is no universal approach for capturing and retaining consumer attention. In accordance with Aristotle, “What matters most is tailoring advertisements to the appropriate context; therefore, the best content for ads depends on the context in which the target population (ages 16-24) will be exposed to these ads, and the predicted level of attention that they are likely to provide.” Fortunately for those doing such tailoring, as a result of his studies, Texeira (2015) has discerned that “…the amount of attention that consumers are likely to give to ads, regardless of brand or product, is quite predictable” (Table 2.2). Watching television, most people give partial attention to such persuasions during commercials, so an ample amount of entertainment value is required to balance off the informative aspect; however, in a cinema, “…where consumers are relatively captive, they sit in a darkened room, leaving is inconvenient, and they probably don’t have access to competing content” (Texeira, 2015).

Table 2.2: Optimizing Strategies According to the Context and Respective Attention Level in the Advertising industry (Teixeira, 2015)

In this context, simple informative (video) PSAs may be all that is needed to gain and hold attention because advertisers can assume their audience is paying full attention due to the conditions of the cinema. However, the simple conveyance of information is often not enough to change their attitudes or behavior. And in regards to watching TV, a means of increasing entertainment value is required to maintain attention to such a message.

These quandaries can be addressed by a second strength of videos- Content. Because of the unique audio visual attributes of the video format, a more effective means of persuasion than a basic informative (rhetorical) approach is possible- the narrative. The video format allows the use of narrative, one of the most powerful means of persuasion and the basis of all human communication (Fisher, 1984). Most narratives are too long and complicated to convey on a poster; moreover, in the video format, one can tell a story that can deeply affect another or dramatize a story through identification.

The Significance of Narrative The ubiquitous human commitment to narratives is no new phenomenon; the

cave painting stories at Lascaux (ca. 16,000 BCE) predated literacy, Aristotle

discussed the power of tragedy in his Poetics, and it was in long ago times that the

Bible stories were being composed and promulgated. It is evident that fables,

tragedies, parables, and even hunting stories have always touched emotions and

affected beliefs and behavior (Brock & Green, 2005, p.122).

Considering that the most influential communications throughout history have been stories, the use of narrative as a means of persuasion has long been adopted as a tool by the advertising industry and legal arenas, as well as educational entertainment. In regard to the latter, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has worked with writers for networks such as FOX television and NBC, strategically including storylines about issues like skin cancer and vaccines in episodes of popular shows (Brock & Green,

2005, p.122). This strategy bolsters the previously established significance of video, employing the pervasive aspect of the video format in a novel and possibly more penetrative way. Rather than inserting video PSAs where the target population watch videos online or in commercial spots on television, the values expressed in such PSAs can be imbedded in the narratives of shows that the target population watch. Considering the ubiquitous influence of narratives in our culture, theoretical premises have been established outlining the aspects of successful narratives, and such theory could be appropriately applied to construct effective narratives for PSAs.

Echoing the sentiments of Aristotle, over the past four decades, the ideas of communication theorist Walter Fisher regarding narration as a human communication paradigm have continued to be explored. Challenging the dominance of the rational

paradigm, in which people are essentially considered as rational beings that base their decisions on the quality of both evidence and argument, Fisher (1984) asserts that the story or rather a dramatic story is the most commanding metaphor humans use to explain events or as a means of persuasion. “…In his narrative theory, Fisher proposed instead that we can better understand behavior using the story, drama, or narrative as an analytical device, casting the persuasive event in narrative terms” (Larson, 2007, p.60).

Disputing the notion that rhetorical or persuasive communication must be formally logical and argumentative in form, embracing a multifaceted approach, Fisher presents

“…the narrative paradigm as a synthesis of argumentative and aesthetic themes,” addressing the significance of the visual aspect of a filmed narrative (Larson, 2007, p.60;

Fisher, 1984).

According to the narrative paradigm (Fisher, 1984), the success of a narrative, and in the current case a PSA in narrative form, is contingent upon two major factors: coherence and fidelity. Coherence refers to the consistency and subsequent implication or impact of a story; whereas fidelity relates to the realism and plausibility of a story. A coherent story or narrative is both understandable and believable because it is told artistically and logically organized with sufficient details. Considering the video PSA that is central to this study (the PSA Texting while Driving U.K. Ad [HD]), the narrative mirrors a real world experience, as it is chronologically ordered and vividly portrayed by relatable characters through the clever employment of cinematic techniques (which will be discussed in Chapter 3). The impact of the story in this central PSA could be construed as significant because it is coherent and consistent with real life. In addition, narratives that exhibit proper fidelity are defined by benchmarks, supporting “…a rationale or logic

of good reasons for the setting, plot, characters, and outcome of the narrative” (Larson,

2007, p.61; Fisher, 1984). Narratives that demonstrate good fidelity have three attributes: they contend with relevant human values, the values expressed are ideally positive and correspond to the experiences of the common people, and ultimately the values shape a vision for the future (Larson, 2007; Fisher, 1984). In further consideration, the video PSA that is central to this study clearly displays good fidelity in that,

 It deals with values surrounding risky driving behavior and mortality

 Although it’s message employs emotional appeals, displaying the negative

consequences of not changing your beliefs and attitudes about texting and

driving, it implies that good things can come from paying attention to the

message; values of safe driving correspond to the experiences of the

common people as they are widely regarded and legally enforced in our

society

 It implies that drivers who choose to abstain from texting and driving can

avoid serious injury or death, as well as hurting anyone else (Larson,

2007; Fisher, 1984)

Moreover, fortifying the narrative as an effective means of persuasion in a PSA for texting and driving, Fisher (1984) has outlined the features of a public moral argument in relation to the narrative paradigm, indicating narratives as the most suitable form of persuasion in such a context. According to Fisher, public moral argument is to be distinguished from reasoned discourse because “…it is publicized, made available for consumption and persuasion of the polity at large, and aimed at untrained thinkers,” rather than arguments that take place within interpersonal interactions or specialized

communities, such as legal or academic settings (Fisher, 1984, p.276). Most importantly, public moral argument is controversial in that it inherently crosses fields: field experts enter the arguments, the realm of public social knowledge, utilizing rational rhetoric to inform what ought to be, but are undermined by the collective “truth” of the public that predominates at the moment. (Fisher, 1984). According to experts, given the rational paradigm, the public of “untrained thinkers” are meant to observe and accept information provided to them in public moral arguments from the experts, not judge for themselves.

In the narrative paradigm, narratives are moral constructs in which the faces or voices of the experts (storytellers) are removed, and the audience (the public) are active participants in the meaning-formation of the narratives, instead of a group of observers

(Fisher, 1984). In this perspective, the construction of a PSA with a narrative is likely to be more effective as it negates a power dynamic that exists when experts try to command the informative and often authoritative position in the public sphere, removing the tensions that result from the presence of the experts. Such participation in the formation of values is likely to be more intrinsic, and therefore more affective in regards to changing attitudes and behavior; in addition, the various forms of language have different effects on different factions of people. When addressing the masses, vocabulary and sentence structure need to be strategically chosen to influence specific factions, such as educated vs uneducated peoples, and the use of a narrative disaffirms the need for such a tedious processes of customizing one message for the various demographic factions in our society.

The Significance of Video: Content

Building upon the individually established significance of both the narrative and the video format, the following ideas from relevant literature are offered, outlining the significance of the visual and audio contents of videos; more specifically, the cinematic techniques unique to narrative cinema are offered for exploration as means of effective persuasion. When motion pictures first became a universal form of entertainment, the motion picture producers and directors of America, Inc. recognized their potential for influence as well as their responsibility to the public, and in 1930 created the Production code. Identifying both art and entertainment as important influences in the life of the nation, the industry reaffirmed the value of the narrative in within this new context, noting that “Mankind has always recognized the importance of entertainment and its value in rebuilding the bodies and souls of human beings… In general, the mobility, popularity, accessibility, emotional appeal, vividness, straight forward presentation of fact in the film make for more intimate contact with a larger audience and for greater emotional appeal” (Production, 1930-1934). The same sentiments are still expressed today by film studies scholars, such as Jon Lewis who recognizes that film has the potential to fully engage multiple senses, facilitating immersion into the narrative world;

“narrative cinema offers stories not as something we hear, or something we read, but as something we witness” (Lewis, 2014, p.21). Beyond a mere image or even the telling of a story, in such a filmed narrative the viewers are transported into the narrative world through affect created by cinematic techniques, which enhances identification with the characters and increases the likelihood of a change in beliefs and actions (Brock &

Green, 2005; Bryant & Vorderer, 2006).

Accepting Fisher’s Narrative paradigm (1984), the human involvement and commitment to narratives is a vital factor that influences the capacity of entertainment such as cinema to capture our attention. Because people intrinsically care about the characters and the worlds from the stories they can relate to, one way to develop interest in a message or express values is through the facilitation of identification with characters in a story, especially in film (Bryant & Vorderer, 2006). Identifying with characters leads to and strengthens narrative involvement by compelling you to be invested in the outcome of events. By understanding the motivations of characters you are offered a sympathetic point of view on the plot, emotionally connected with the character (Bryant

& Vorderer, 2006). As a response to media characters in constructed worlds, viewers often feel as if they are part of the narrative, experiencing the events in the story as if they are happening from within the narrative world;

Identifying with a character means feeling an affinity toward the character that is so strong that we become absorbed in the text and come to an empathic understanding for the feelings the character experiences, and for his or her motives and goals. We experience what happens to the characters as if it happens to us while, momentarily at least, forgetting ourselves as audience members, and this intensifies our viewing experience (Bryant & Vorderer, 2006, p.184). In established scholarship regarding identification and media effects, Kenneth Burke asserted that the most successful rhetoricians make their audiences adopt their perspectives; furthermore, “…Kelman argues that persuasion through identification leads to an internalization of attitudes that is likely to be stronger and longer lasting than persuasion by other means” (Bryant &

Vorderer, 2006, p.192). Building upon these principles, a more recent model set forth by

Brock & Green (2005) “…found that transportation is positively related to the extent of persuasiveness in narrative texts” and in consideration of the persuasiveness of cinematic techniques in conjunction with a coherent, well-crafted narrative, such a model is an appropriate theoretical framework for further, more comprehensive interpretation of the persuasiveness of a PSA in the form of a filmed narrative (Bryant & Vorderer, 2006, p.192).

Fisher’s Narrative Paradigm (1984) is a broad concept in human communication, and although the literature suggests that it is an apposite model to draw upon in the development of PSAs, the dynamic effects of cinematic techniques (in a filmed narrative) incite the need for a more encompassing theoretical framework. As studies have shown,

“the feeling of being lost in a story is familiar to many people,” and the capacity of cinematic techniques to intensify such experiences can be explained by the

Transportation-Imagery Model (Brock & Green, 2005). “Transportation into a narrative world has been conceptualized as a distinct mental process- an integrative melding of attention, imagery, and feelings,” all of which are highly influenced by techniques unique to cinema, enhancing the impact of the narrative (Brock & Green, 2005). In the

Transportation-Imagery Model, Green & Brock (2005) offer the following postulates, defining the attributes of persuasive stories as well as the boundary conditions for their cogency:

 Postulate I. Narrative persuasion is limited to story texts (scripts) (a)

which are in fact narratives, (b) in which images are evoked, and (c) in

which readers’ (viewers’) beliefs are implicated.

 Postulate II. Narrative persuasion (belief change) occurs, other things

equal, to the extent that the evoked images are activated by psychological

transportation.

 Postulate III. Propensity for transportation by exposure to a given

narrative account is affected by attributes of the recipient (for example,

imagery skill).

 Postulate IV. Propensity for transportation by exposure to a given

narrative account is affected by attributes of the text (script).

 Postulate V. Propensity for transportation by exposure to a given narrative

account is affected by attributes of the context (medium) (p.125).

Just as Fisher’s Narrative Paradigm (1984) doesn’t negate the rational view, rather it subsumes it, Brock & Green’s (2005) Transportation-Imagery Model embraces Fisher’s benchmarks within its own postulates, extending upon the reach of the paradigm in the present, unique context. As posited by Brock & Green (2005), the craftsmanship of a narrative is definable and important to achieve transportation, and the fundamental attributes of such a text, as noted in the Postulate IV, are also outlined in Fisher’s concept of Coherence: a successful narrative or text is logically organized, detailed, and believable. Additionally, as suggested in Postulates I and IV, Fisher’s concept of Fidelity also attributes the success of a narrative to its implication of human values and belief systems. Extending beyond the paradigm, the Transportation-Imagery Model recognizes the attributes of the recipient (Postulate ]III), in this case the viewer of a video PSA, as important factors for consideration. Negating the varying abilities of the viewers would be a major flaw, resulting in the assumption that the narrative would have the same effect

on all viewers, when it is well known and widely accepted that we all have our own perspectives based on our experiences and previously established notions of the world around us. Furthermore, the Transportation-Imagery Model also considers the attributes of the context or medium (Postulate V), which is in this case the video format. Beyond the established value of its pervasiveness, the video format is unique its employment of what could be determined as the most crucial aspects of the PSA presently scrutinized- cinematic techniques. In line with established scholarship, Brock & Green (2005) conceived of “transportation as a convergent process in which mental systems and capacities become focused on events occurring in the narrative” through an

“…integrative melding of attention, imagery, and feeling,” and in consideration of the various, available forms of media in contemporary culture, there are no other forms that employ techniques such as editing, lighting, sound, and camera work that can merge the mental and affective faculties of a human into a single immersive experience (Brock &

Green, p.123, 2005).

Citing the work of various scholars that engage the concept of transportation,

Brock and Green (2005) posit that “transported readers may experience strong emotions and motivations, even when they know that the events are not real” (p.123); however, a closer look at their supporting evidence implies that such transportation is more likely to occur while watching a video rather than reading a story. In their example, Brock and

Green ask you to consider the story of a likable young boxer in a big-time fight, and notes the occurrence of participatory responses from the reader, such as “Get up!” and “You can still win!” as auditory responses (p.123). Although I don’t doubt that Brock and

Green, nor the scholars they cite, are incorrect in their findings, I ask the you, the reader-

Are you or people you know more likely to respond out loud to a book or a video?

As noted in the Psychology of Entertainment by Bryant and Vorderer (2006), by identifying with the characters in a story, viewers can become more fully involved with the viewing experience. As viewers develop comprehensive understandings of the characters in a narrative, they become empathic to their views and roles in within the story, ultimately experiencing a genuine feeling of participation in a text and caring for the characters. Participating in the characters world, the viewer gain the perspectives of the characters, aligning with their interests and goals; correspondingly, the viewer adopts the point of view of the producer. Again, calling on the work of esteemed rhetorician

Kenneth Burke, this unity of perspectives is called co-substantiality and is the goal of such character driven persuasion. (Bryant and Vorderer, 2006). In regards to the PSA under analysis in this study, such an effect on the viewer clearly highlights the suitability of the filmed narrative approach. Through intense identification with the characters in the video, the producer of the PSA aims to convey a clear message- Don’t text and drive!

Although it could also be argued that cinema has a greater capacity to transport a viewer by engaging with the environment and/or storyline than other formats, considering the psychological significance of identifying with characters, the numerous techniques that cinema possesses to develop identification with characters are the greatest strengths in terms of persuasion. Although some authors are gifted, painting pictures by rhythm and metaphor, and wielding extensive lexicons until a reader is transported, cinematic techniques offer a rich, multi- sensory experience. A cameraman can employ point-of- view shots, simulating what a character sees, and followed by a reverse, close-up shot of

the character’s face, reveal how that character feels at that moment. Shots from a low angle can bestow authority upon a character (and vice versa), and the free and unsteady action of a handheld can impart anxiety or fear within a character. Depth of field and blocking can extricate the significance (or lack thereof) of a character. Sound, such as a leitmotif, can be employed to instill fear of the continuing arrival of a menacing character, or invoke angst and fear. And editors, manipulating tempo and transitions, can incite complex emotions and sympathies by embracing montage or challenging the 180 degree rule (Lewis, 2014).

The highly influential cinematic techniques that can be employed in film have long been understood and embraced by the advertising industry with the hopes of increasing two things: Engagement and persuasion. Traditionally, before the internet, most ads spent more time doing the latter, basically because TV advertisements were the chief source of information about new products. Therefore, people were more willing to pay continuous attention to such information. “With the ubiquity of on-demand information, that’s no longer the case,” and Aristotle’s idea of tailoring the persuasion to the target population is gaining validity once more (at least in this context). “In general, today’s consumers will pay significantly more attention to content designed to entertain them” (Teixeira, 2015).

In fact, encouraging viewer’s identification with the people in images may be the most common way in which visual advertisements exploit their iconic relationship to our real-world visual and psychological experiences. And generally speaking, PSAs are advertisements. In our real-world social interactions, our psychological capacity to identify with other people enhances our ability to predict their actions towards us, and it

also allows us to learn through observation. By identifying with someone else, we turned the observed consequences of her or his actions into lessons for our own lives

(Messaris, 1997, p.44)

Aware of the ability of iconic visual display to elicit attention and emotions, advertisers are able to create a mirror world with inhabitants we can interact and identify with, and “some of the most revealing analyses of advertising have described the ways in which viewers use the characters they see in ads as reference points for their own evolving identities” (Messaris, 1997, p.266) In similar work, it has been found that advertisements, accompanied by TV shows and movies, are actually a major resource of images from which the youth draw upon in their previsualization of their places in the world (Messaris, 1997).

The tailoring of ads to target populations has clearly been embraced and used often enough that specific styles of visual imagery have been discerned as especially engaging for specific target populations. “In addition to being a marker of high-art style in contemporary photography, the violation of traditional visual convention is also a distinguishing characteristic of much visual imagery aimed at adolescents and young adults” (Messaris, 1997, p.86). Recapitulating the radical “…stance of two earlier periods in motion-picture history, the French New Wave and the American underground cinema,” the style of advertising commonly aimed at the youth could be described as the

“…negation of traditional Hollywood principles of composition and editing” (Messaris,

1997, p.87). Set forth by the producers and directors in Hollywood, commonly known as classical Hollywood cinema, these conventions were established by the industry in the process of developing an invisible style of filmmaking; a style in which editing appears

seamless. In addition to this continuity editing, wherein each scene seemingly unfolds in a continuous time and space, conventional cinema is also generally structured into 3 acts

(Lewis, 1997). “The primary goal was to economize storytelling methods and to orient, engage, and enthrall the viewer” (Charbonneau, 2015).

Although directors still choose to embrace certain aspects of classical cinema, often to keep the viewer captivated (or transported), studies have shown that visual imagery that adopts discontinuity editing, violating the traditional conventions, is appealing to the youth. Since the introduction of MTV to American culture in the 1980’s, directors utilized various cinematic techniques that violate the classical conventions in the production of ads for products that were intended to be sold to a younger population.

“Among other things, this style includes such devices as jump cuts, camera jiggle, swish pans, tilted framing, and eccentric cropping” (Messaris, 1997, p.87). Similarly, rapid editing is also a technique employed in this style. As it is related to high energy, an attribute of young people, rapid editing can be implicitly understood to signify a youthful orientation. (Messaris, 1997, p.87). The PSA under analysis in this work is aimed at the youth, and while the director definitely utilized principles from classical Hollywood cinema, he most certainly embraces techniques that violate these principles, appealing to the youth.

Emotional Appeals

Once more calling on the foundation of rhetoric laid by the Ancient Greeks, the other significant aspect of PSAs, especially of the PSA under analysis, is the employment of emotional appeals as a means of persuasion. Presented by Aristotle as pathos, emotional appeals or emotional proof asks the viewers to get in touch with their feelings.

Instead of relying on the construction of a logical argument and a rational person to receive and decode the information, appealing to one’s emotions can increase the likelihood of persuasion because it can increase the viewer’s identification with characters and their emotional experiences, essentially inciting the emotional state the viewer would reach in the same situation. Recognizing the power of emotional proof, the advertising industry has long utilized such appeals to persuade consumers to buy their goods; similarly, the agencies that produce PSAs are no exception, tugging at your heart strings with videos of neglected animals and filling you with fear of the future as a smoker with videos of women, emaciated and throatless (Engleberg & Daly, 2009).

Although it is possible for fear appeals to have an adverse, boomerang effect, of which there is a great body of research (a topic for another time), and in spite of the extensive scholarship with bias against emotional thinking, emotions play a crucial role in critical thinking, and are therefore both appropriate and effective if employed ethically.

Considering the fact that emotions are a part of everyday decisions, divorcing emotion from the decision making process could lead to poor decisions; likewise, attempting to get one to think critically about a behavior and change their stance on that behavior without appealing to their emotions is not likely to be as effective or effective at all.

(Engleberg & Daly, 2009). As a matter of fact, neurologist Antonio Damasio found in his studies that patients that had endured damage to the emotional centers of the brain experienced a lack of feelings and impaired rational decision making (Engleberg & Daly, p.70, 2009).

In regards to the PSA under scrutiny, appealing to the emotional intelligence of the viewer would most likely be an effective approach due to the fact that suspense is an engine of narrative engagement.

Part of being engaged with a good story is caring about what happens next- the

experience of suspense. Readers want to find out whether the hero triumphs and

they want to see the villain punished. Suspense often occurs when the outcome of

the story is in doubt. Readers fear that something terrible will happen to a liked

character and hope for a positive outcome… Interestingly, some transporting

stories retain this excitement even on rereading; individuals can re-evoke states of

uncertainty even when, in the back of their minds, they already know the

outcomes (Brock & Green, 2005, p.131).

According to the categories of emotion established by psychologist Robert Plutchik

(2001), the PSA Texting while Driving U.K. Ad [HD] has the potential to invoke several emotions, including fear, surprise, sadness, anticipation, disgust, and suspense (See

Figure 2.2). The producer of this PSA offers a narrative as dramatic evidence by inciting emotions in the viewer with cinematic techniques, inviting the viewers to project themselves into the narrative world and co-create proof, increasing the likelihood of persuasion (Larson, 2007).

In addition, recent studies have found that the invocation of the emotion disgust in conjunction with a fear appeal can increase the likelihood of persuasion. “Fear appeals are persuasive messages designed to frighten people into doing what the message recommends by depicting the terrible consequences of noncompliance” (Fitzsimons,

Morales, & Wu, 2012, p.383).

Figure 2.2: Plutchik’s Wheel of 8 Primary Emotions (ThingLink, 2015).

The use of fear appeals is a commonly used means of persuasion; however, as both academia and practitioners have found, fear appeals on their own are not always equally effective. In their article How Disgust Enhances the Effectiveness of Fear Appeals,

Fitzsimons, Morales, & Wu (2012) present their findings from several studies, including meta-analyses of contemporary work regarding fear appeals, determining that

disgust can provide a positive, persuasion-enhancing boost to appeals that are

solely fear based. Across a variety of different contexts, formats, and participant

populations, Fitzsimons, Morales, & Wu (2012) found that the combination of

disgust and fear appreciably enhanced message persuasion above and beyond that

of appeals that elicited fear alone. Across a series of studies, they ruled out

alternative explanations for their results and traced the persuasion-enhancing

properties of disgust to its strong and immediate avoidance reaction. Although

disgust and fear are each emotions of avoidance, recent research has suggested

that fear avoidance behavior is a multistep process in contrast to disgust, for

which the impulse to distance is immediate (p.391).

This model of avoidance (one-step versus two-step) was expected be critical in the context of persuasion, and the results of their work confirmed this expectation- combined with a fear appeal, the unique features of disgust, can radically increase message acceptance. (Fitzsimons, Morales, & Wu, 2012).

38 CHAPTER 3: TEXTUAL ANALYSIS

Method

In an effort to supplement the presented literature, in which I assert that the cinematic techniques unique to the video (PSA) can be utilized to enhance a narrative, increasing the likelihood of transportation into the narrative world as well as increasing the potential for persuasion, I offer the results of a textual analysis of the PSA Texting while Driving U.K. Ad [HD]. In this analysis, the fundamental cinematic techniques and that are used to produce a video such as the present text were the focus of identification and included the following: camerawork, sound, editing, and mise-en-scene. Mise-en- scene is roughly translated as “putting into the scene.” For the purpose of this textual analysis, in accordance with film studies, mise-en-scene consists of the set, the props, the actors, costumes/makeup, blocking, performance, and lighting (Lewis, 2014, p.55). While examining the text, guided by the established communication theory and scholarship in film studies, I noted any of the mentioned (cinematic) techniques that were utilized to successfully enhance the narrative and extrapolated regarding the techniques potential effects on transportation and persuasion. Time stamps of notable observations were cited in-text for ease of exploration.

39 Results/Discussion

Initial observations regarding the elements of mise-en-scene suggest that in the

PSA Texting while Driving U.K. Ad [HD], these cinematic aspects enhance the coherence of the narrative, as outlined in Fisher’s Narrative Paradigm (Fisher, 1984).

Generally speaking, the filmed narrative is more coherent (and successful) than a basic narrative because the props, the lighting, the setting, the characters (and their makeup/costumes), and their performances, are consistent, mirroring the real world- enhancing the mere story line. The setting is daytime, on a simple back road without any notable landmarks or qualities of an unlikely or unfamiliar setting for such an accident.

Considering this video was filmed in the UK, the lack of landmarks that distinguish it as the UK lends to the video’s effectiveness in other countries, i.e. The United States; for example, if the setting was distinguishable by famous landmarks, this video might not seem plausible to a viewer in the United States if that viewer is never in the UK. Even during the closing shots, when the teenage girl is being flown to the hospital via helicopter, the landscape is plain and forested. Moreover, location shooting, rather than filming on a constructed set lends a degree of realism (Lewis, 2014, p.58). The actors are suitable for each character; therefore, the characters are relatable. For example, it seems that teenage girls were used to play teenage girls; none of the actors were famous, which could influence the viewer in various ways; and none of the actors had physical traits that made them look out of place. However, it may be worth noting that since all of the actors/actresses are white, this video may not be as relatable to people of other ethnicities, which complicates plausibility. It’s also worth noting that utilizing teenagers as the people engaging in texting and driving may be the most appropriate choice since the

target audience is essentially composed of teenagers. “Costume, makeup, and hairstyle are part of a film’s visual shorthand; we can apprehend a character’s social standing, occupation, even their attitude toward life by how they are made to look by the costume, makeup, and hair departments” (Lewis, 2014, p.67). Dressed in contemporary costume, fitting for each character, the actors seem to visually fit their age and station in life, adding a realistic quality to the film. Although dramatic, the performances of the characters were appropriate- not over the top or under dramatized, contributing to the visual language of the film. They acted in a reliable manner, and their motives were easily discernible through facial expressions and their actions in response to the events as they unfolded; for example, the driver’s emotional outcry when the car comes to a halt and the first passerby that rushes to the aid of the victims. At the most fundamental level, performance is vital in the engagement of audiences- The (fictional) narrative world of the character is believable and seemingly realistic if the actor’s/actresses’ performances are believable (Lewis, 2014, p.69). Lastly, “props can hold plot-turning significance”

(Lewis, 2014, p.64). The props in this video, such as the phone, are appropriate, familiar, and displayed with detail, offering the viewer a rich and recognizable world. Without narration or onscreen text providing any exposition, the inclusion of a close-up of the cell phone as the driver is texting in the first few seconds, in sequence with the shots of the oncoming traffic and the car full of teenage girls, quickly conveys the plot as the catalyst for the ensuing danger and accident.

In addition, further analysis of the text revealed that camerawork, sound, and editing were cleverly used in conjunction with the elements of mise-en-scene, further increasing the coherence of the narrative. Firstly, the narrative is logically organized as it

is chronologically ordered, without any manipulations of time, such as flashbacks.

Secondly, continuity editing was applied during the production of the video. Offering a seamless telling of the film’s story, this style of editing minimizes the viewer’s awareness of the shot transitions (cuts), supporting the illusion that each scene unfolds in a continuous time and space- the real world. Such editing is supported by several techniques, including the 180 degree rule, parallel editing, establishing shots, reaction shots, eye-line matches, and shot/reverse shots. Camera work that adheres to a 180 degree axis of action can provide the viewer a clear understanding of where people and things are in the story space, and in the present text the rule was generally not broken. Even during the intensely filmed car accident, the camera filmed the teenage girls from the front, left, or right, maintaining the intensity without confusing the viewer (Nick1111341,

2009, :12-:26). The rule was only broken when the camera jumped to a high-angle shot, outside the car, but these shots were utilized as parallel editing to remind the viewers that while the girls may be getting injured and tossed around inside the car, events outside of the car are simultaneously occurring that will also build to the climax. Building a frenetic pace towards the climax, utilizing parallel editing (or cross cutting), the producer employed two uncommonly short establishing shots to orient the viewer during the first shot sequence- one inside of the car depicting all three teenage girls and one outside depicting the car in relation to the rest of the cars and the setting. These establishing shots, as well as most of the shots until the end of the accident, are actually jump cuts, and although jump cuts can disrupt the flow of the image, drawing attention to the shot transition, the producer maintained continuity with a sound bridge (Nick1111341, 2009,

:01-:26). Seemingly disparate in space, the producer temporally connects the shots

together into one scene with a non-diegetic 2song that carries over from the first shot until the end of the accident. Throughout the video, several other shots continue to support the continuity, adhering to the 180 degree rule, including eyeline matches, reaction shots, and shot/reverse shots (Nick1111341, 2009, :24, :52, 1:14; Lewis, 2014, p.132-153). In this text, the sound also lends to the realism, further enhancing the coherence of the narrative.

Breaking glass and the sound of the teenage girl’s neck breaking during the accident are two clear, successful examples of the use of sound as emotional appeals in the process of building identification (Nick1111341, 2009, :26-:33).

After establishing the ways that the elements of mise-en-scene enhance the coherence of the narrative, it was evident that the same observations suggest that these cinematic aspects increase the propensity for transportation, as outlined in the

Transportation-Imagery Model. As stated in postulate IV of the model, the “propensity for transportation by exposure to a given narrative account is affected by attributes of the text” (Brock & Green, 2005). In line with Fisher’s concept of coherence, the fundamental attributes of a successful narrative (text) is logically organized, detailed, and believable

(Fisher, 1984). Since it has been established that the mise-en-scene in this text aids in the production of a successful narrative that is organized, detailed, and believable, then it is clear that the mise-en-scene affects (or increases) the propensity for transportation.

However, there are other significant attributes of this type of text (film) that affect the propensity for transportation: camerawork, sound, and editing.

In conjunction with the mise-en-scene, in this text, camerawork, sound, and editing are integrated into the convergent process of transportation, engaging the mental

2 Non-diegetic: Music, words, or effects from outside the story world that shape our experience of the film but do not originate within scenes (Lewis, 2014, p.152). 43

systems and capacities by captivating the senses and evoking feelings through intense identification with the characters, ergo, increasing the cogency of the persuasive narrative

(Brock & Green, 2005).

When analyzing the camera angles of a shot, the key is to understand and

appreciate how camera position frames its subject and in doing so provides a

point of view on the mise-en-scene. In a significant way, where the camera is and

the angle at which it focuses on its subject governs the way we understand the

story (Lewis, 2014, p.90).

In the production of this text, camerawork was adeptly utilized to facilitate identification with the characters, especially the teenage girls. Offering a vantage point that brings the viewer close enough to read the facial expressions of characters and get caught up in their emotions, medium close up shots, in which the characters are pictured from the waist up, were utilized in several shots in the film (Nick1111341, 2009, :28, 1:10, 1:29). Moreover, close-ups, which provide an intimacy with the characters, were utilized throughout the text in an effort to initiate and maintain identification with characters (Nick1111341,

2009, :02, :06, :25).Many of these shots were actually extreme close-ups, isolating the emotional imagery of the character from the background, which is registered primarily in the eyes (Nick1111341, 2009, :43, 2:06, 2:34). Offering a more complete understanding of the emotional impact on everyone involved in such a crash, the camera work in this text promotes identification with more than just the teenagers whose behavior caused the crash. Several victims of the crash were shot close-up, appealing to the emotions of the viewer, including an elderly man (medium close-up), a small child, and an infant

(Nick1111341, 2009, 1:50, 2:00, 2:04). Reinforcing the emotional appeal, the shot of the

lifeless infant is quickly followed by an extreme close-up, tugging on the heart chains of the viewers. As the responders arrive to the scene of the accident and set to work, the shots include more of the other characters and more high angle shots of the accident/setting; however, the focus of the film, the consequences of the dangerous behavior of texting and driving, is called back to mind with numerous jump cuts back to the severely injured and highly distraught teen driver who caused the accident, most of which are close-ups or extreme close-ups (Nick1111341, 2009, 1:52, 2:21, 2:50, 3:37).

“Eye level shots imply a connection between the viewer and the characters on screen, with whom we share a space and into whose eyes we can directly peer,” and several of the shots that reintroduce the teen driver are eye level as well as extreme close up; the most notable and seemingly affective being the last shot of the teen driver in the video

(Lewis, 2014, p.90; Nick1111341, 2009, 2:33, 2:44, 4:08). In further effort to promote identification in the text, subjective point-of-view shots were utilized in the text as well, placing the viewer in the shoes of the character by simulating what the character sees

(Nick1111341, 2009, :52, 1:15). A subjective shot that would depict what the character sees- a smashed, bloodied windshield- was utilized in the text; however, appealing

(again) to the emotions of the viewer, a shot from outside the vehicle reveals that the image of the smashed, bloodied windshield is the point-of-view of the middle-aged dead man with the upset child in the back seat (Nick1111341, 2009, 2:12, 1:58; Lewis, 2014).

In addition to camera work, sound was also utilized to facilitate identification with the characters, engaging the viewer and increasing the propensity for transportation into the narrative world. The sound of the small child repeatedly asking the first responder why his parents won’t wake up in the over-the-shoulder shot draws the viewer

in, promoting identification with the first responder, who endures great emotional stress during such a scene 2:01. Most importantly, when the camera takes the third person- person narrative point of view, it often holds an intimate vantage point that allows the viewer to be close enough to hear the details of the scene, which allows the viewer to hear the breaking of the teenage girls neck and emotional outcries that would not be possible to hear if shot from a distance from the car as it was whirling through the road

(Lewis, 2014).

Last but not least, a very specific aspect of editing was also cleverly used to facilitate identification with the characters. “Changes in speed of motion interrupt the flow of a film and are sometimes used to call our attention to certain physical actions or attributes of the actor,” and during the accident, the shots were in a slower motion than normal, offering the viewer the time to take notice of all of the pain and suffering that the teenage girls are enduring (Lewis, 2014, p.112).

46 CHAPTER 4: AUDIENCE ANALYSIS

Rationale for Mixed Methods

“The use of mixed methods involves the collection, analysis, and mixing of both quantitative and qualitative data in a single study or series of studies” (Blaikie, 2010, p.218). Considered by some to be a third methodological movement, there has been significant debate over the nomenclature for such research; however, there has been a recent move towards the acceptance and use of ‘mixed methods’ as the identifying concept. Considering the decades-long debate over the relative merits of both qualitative and quantitative methods of research, as well as the somewhat recent move in social science towards a more eclectic selection of methods, a mixed methods approach for this study seems appropriate and necessary in an effort to obtain comprehensive data.

Moreover, according to scholars who have previously established the benefits of a mixed methods approach, the following arguments reinforce the notion that a mixed methods approach is both appropriate and necessary. In a mixed methods approach:

 More comprehensive evidence is provided.

 Research questions that can’t be answered by one method can potentially be

answered by a combination of methods.

 The strengths of one method can potentially offset the weaknesses of other

methods.

47  Researcher’s with different skills and perspectives are open and encouraged to

collaborate.

 The use of multiple paradigms is open and encouraged.

(Blaikie, 2010, p.213-219).

Method

The first method I chose to complement the textual analysis is an audience analysis in which a sample of responses from viewers of the PSA Texting while Driving

U.K. Ad [HD] on Youtube were examined for reactions to the video PSA. Considering that the Youtube only lists all responses to videos by presenting the “Newest First” or

“Top Comments,” a sample of the first 200 responses to the video was obtained by scrolling down through 4,689 comments. In this analysis, the first comments were deemed more appropriate in an effort to minimize the number of responses that address previous comments by other viewers. Although this type of analysis is qualitative in form, the results have been quantified through coding to provide further insight.

In the audience analysis, the comments were categorized (coded) in accordance with Glaser and Strauss’s (1967) grounded theory. Also commonly referred to as the constant comparative method (Lindlof & Taylor, 2010). Preventing a presumptive imposition of perspectives, which automatically assumes outcomes, in the application of this theory, “…appropriate categories are established and re-established as data are confronted.” Comments (the data) with like concepts are grouped into categories, and

“…these categories and their data then lead to the application of explanatory theories”

(Scodari Felder, 2000, p.239). Rather than embracing a deductive research strategy, which often results in a de-emphasis on ascertaining what concepts and hypotheses are

relevant for the area of research, Glaser and Strauss’s inductive process (constant comparative analysis) “…produces a theory that will fit and work, i.e. its concepts and categories will be appropriate, and it will be meaningfully relevant to, and will be able to both explain and predict, the phenomena under study” (Blaikie, p.141, 2010)

Results/Discussion

During the analysis of the comments that accompany the PSA Texting while

Driving U.K. Ad [HD] on YouTube, 69 of the (first) 200 comments examined were relevant to the present study. The rest of the comments consisted of irrelevant information, such as inappropriate messages between members of the audience and outrageous comments. The 69 relevant comments were coded into 8 categories and then counted (Table 4.1).

The largest category that manifested during the coding is labeled Approval (Table

4.1). Composed of 27 comments, almost 40% of the relevant comments ascertained, this category consists of expressions of approval in which the members of the participating audience deemed the PSA Texting while Driving U.K. Ad [HD] as good, fantastic, brilliant, and amazing. In addition to their basic judgment of quality, several of the comments were implications that the PSA is effective. For example, one member of the audience noted, “They need to show this at my high school and I can imagine this happening on my street since its long& narrow its about the width of a hummer and I live in a subdivision so thats really weird.” Indicative of the effectiveness of this specific type of PSA, the following comments are also significant in their support for the present hypothesis:

 “Enough said, anyone who still text after seeing this video is an idiot”

 “Pretty horrific. It needs to be shown on TV peak time Our emergency services

are the best in the world. Shame they have to cater for fools”

 “I think it's the music on the radio that they're listening to. Haha I was thinking

the same thing though. This is what the world needs to get the message out. If

people see this, they'll remember it, and follow it.”

In terms of support for my thesis, the most notable category that was established is labeled Effective (Table 4.1). Composed of 7 comments, this category is exceptionally significant because in the comments the members of the audience explicitly note the impact of the PSA on their own attitudes and future behavior, highlighting the effectiveness of this type of PSA after a single viewing. Considering the comments in this category are so forthright, revealing the effectiveness that has been hypothesized, I feel all 7 are noteworthy:

 “I'm never gonna text 'n' drive anymore. Let this be a lesson to all.”

 “Our principal told our parents to have us watch this. I didn't see any point since I

can't drive yet. But now if and of my friends siblings or anyone I know I texting

and driving I won't be in the car with them anymore.”

 “this was shown my school this morning and it taught me a lesson when i begin to

drive…”

 “i guess i wont even answer my calls when i'm driving not only texting messages

...damn what a horrible accident.”

 “Children, children calm down. This is a very powerful piece of media that,

realistically, demonstrates the consequences of not paying attention when driving.

For sure, I'm going to be a much more considered driver now. It really makes you

think about the consequences.”

 “never texting and driving ever ever again.”

 “as scary as this is-- its true. i know i never thought about this, thats for sure…”

While the third category on Table 4.1, labeled Reality, is only composed of one comment, it’s worth noting as it highlights the coherence of the filmed narrative and it could be evidence of transportation. In this comment, the audience member actually questions whether or not the PSA Texting while Driving U.K. Ad [HD]is real: “wait, what movie was this from??? i want to watch it. is this real? My friend told me about this movie, but I cant find the name of it. Is this out in the US yet? or only UK?”

Considering the impossible vantage points, the mere fact that such a video could be construed as real suggests that the cinematic techniques employed in this video may have facilitated transportation into the narrative world, negating any noticeable markers of fiction.

Further highlighting the impact of emotional appeals in conjunction with the cinematic techniques unique to video PSAs, the category labeled Sad (Table 4.1), is composed of emotional expressions of sadness. Comments such as, “omg poor baby,”

“OMG! this is so sad!” and “Really touching,” reveal that some members of the audience deeply identified with the characters in the video; moreover, the following comment reveals that the cinematic emotional appeal is effective as it “teaches a lesson,” or more plainly, achieves the intended result of an attitude in opposition to such dangerous behavior: “i saw this vid at school this afternoon, very graphic and sad, it teaches a lesson, the results in real life could be much worse.” Such responses are evidence of

identification with the characters, which brings the viewer closer to the mediated world, facilitating transportation.

In the category labeled Emotion: Others (Table 4.1), all 6 comments are member’s reactions to emotional appeals in the video that are emphasized by cinematic techniques. Comments such as, “this shit is scary as balls,” and “as scary as this is-- its true. i know i never thought about this, thats for sure…” are clearly reactions to the fear appeals; however, there is no evidence of a negative effect. As a matter of fact, the following reaction to the fear appeals actually implies that the video, in spite of being scary, is effective: “shocking but fantastic, needs to go on tv. that baby will certainly go far though, really convincing!” The other notable emotion that is expressed by members of the audience is disgust. Although one member found the video “quite nasty,” without remarking on the effectiveness of the video, the two following comments regarding disgust seem to support the scholarship presented in the literature review concerning disgust and persuasion:

 “Pretty horrific. It needs to be shown on TV peak time Our emergency services

are the best in the world. Shame they have to cater for fools.”

 “oh man. I hate these adverts so much, im not a great one for pain/blood/etc. This

advert is so shocking, really well put together, and I hope it stops alot of people

from texting while driving.”

These responses are also evidence of identification with the characters, bringing the viewer closer to the mediated world and facilitating transportation.

The category labeled Excessive (Table 4.1) is composed of comments in which the members claimed that the video PSA was excessive. Although a few members

deemed the video as “overkill,” “over exaggerated,” and “a little dramatic,” these members did not specify the aspect(s) of the video that led them to such a judgment. The use of emotional appeals in an attempt to persuade someone can potentially result in a boomerang effect in which the target of persuasion adopts an opposing position instead of the intended consequence (a change of attitude and/or behavior), and although one comment clearly depicts such an effect, in the comments of the members that viewed the video as excessive, emotional appeals are not cited as the reason. In this comment,

“Excessive as a public service announcement. there's no reason PSA's should be 30 minutes. I was bored 2 minutes in. It literally made me want to text and drive,” the length of the video is the reason for judgment. In the next comment, duration is again scrutinized and considered overkill; however, the rest of the comment suggests that the cinematic techniques, which are most prevalent and intense in the first couple minutes, are effective: “I heard about this video on the news and wanted to check it out. Wow.

Very well done, but I thought four minutes of EMS tending to victims was a bit excessive. You get the point of the message very well in the first minute. Everything else just seems like overkill.” However, in this comment, “I think this is a bit harsh, even for a commercial to show the possible results of texting while driving >.> Btw, what up with the music when they crash? O.o” the member of the audience is actually criticizing the cinematic aspect of sound (music), as well as the level of fear or disgust that is evoked through the depiction of the consequences of texting and driving. Such responses actually challenge the coherence of the filmed narrative, suggesting the attributes of the text diminish the propensity for transportation by depicting an unrealistic world.

In direct opposition to the members that deemed the PSA Texting while Driving

U.K. Ad [HD]excessive, the category Not Excessive (Table 4.1) is composed of 4 comments from members of the audience that find the video PSA to be an accurate representation of the consequences of such distracted driving. In the following comments, the members directly disagree with comments regarding excessiveness, citing statistics and/or personal experience in support of their stances:

 “For all these people claiming this couldn't happen, it's over exaggerated... I have

SEEN a Car collision happen infront if me between a car and a jeep, and I saw the

jeep rollover... and there was BRAINS on the WINDOWS - it was one of the

MOST disturbing things I have ever seen. Worst part was, it was two teenagers in

either vehicle... This is a REAL problem, just like drinking and driving. These are

not accidents, these are pure acts of negligence. Just WAIT TILL YOUR OFF

THE ROAD to chat!”

 “Heres some food for thought to everyone saying this video is "Over exaggerated"

.. IT ISN"T. Statistics are: Each year, 21% of fatal car crashes involving teenagers

between the ages of 16 and 19 were the result of cell phone usage. This result has

been expected to grow as much as 4% every year.”

 “how is this excessive???? Have you ever been to an accident or on the scene of

one?”

While these members do not explicitly note that this video is effective, their acceptance of the video as accurate and not emotionally disturbing, as well as the act of defending the video could be implications that the narrative world presented in the text is realistic

Such responses highlight the coherence of the filmed narrative.

The last category that manifested during the coding of the comments that accompany the PSA Texting while Driving U.K. Ad [HD] is labeled Criticism (Table

4.1). There are 10 comments in this category. While a few of these comments stated that the video is fake, cheesy, or looked fake, they didn’t typically specify what aspect(s) of the video led them to view it was fake. Conversely, in a few of the comments, specific aspects of the video were identified as the reason the members dubbed the video fake, as evident in the following comments:

 “Gee the windows break, then they don't, then they break, then they're fine again.”

 “stupid. The windows just magically seem to unbreak. Car door seem to undent.

And my attention to thinking about how with ALL that glass the girl came out

minimally scratched is unimportant. But what really matters were those stupid

crash sound effects. ~squish~ I'm scared...”

 “Those special effects are horrible.”

 “Terrible sound design.”

 “Music Doesn't fit at all....”

In the first 2 comments, the members criticize the video for continuity errors, such as the

“unbreaking of windows and undenting of cars” in scenes that follow the initial accident in which the windows were smashed and the car was dented. Such inconsistencies complicate the coherence of the filmed narrative, potentially diminishing the propensity for transportation. However, after personally conducting the textual analysis, and not making the same observations, postulate III of the Transportation-Imagery Model comes to mind: “The Propensity for transportation by exposure to a given narrative account is affected by attributes of the recipient (for example, imagery skill)” (Brock & Green,

2005). In the latter 4 comments, the members specifically identify the cinematic techniques employed during the production of the video in their criticism. Such responses suggest the cinematic techniques employed in the film narrative may not enhance the coherence of the narrative, potentially diminishing the propensity for transportation.

However, considering each cinematic technique was only mentioned (criticized) once, there isn’t a noteworthy pattern of criticism. Additionally, after personally conducting the textual analysis, and making contrary observations that are supported by numerous other responses, Postulate III of the Transportation-Imagery Model comes to mind again: “The

Propensity for transportation by exposure to a given narrative account is affected by attributes of the recipient (for example, imagery skill)” (Brock & Green, 2005).

Considering the errors in the observations of the viewers, the viewers with such criticisms may not be skilled in analyzing such texts.

Criticism

Not Excesive

Excessive

Emotion: Others

Emotion: Sad

Reality Categories Responses Codedof Categories

Effective

Approval

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 # Of People Sharing the Same Sentiment

Table 4.1: Categories of Responses from Participants Manifested Through Coding in Audience Analysis

57 CHAPTER 5: QUESTIONNAIRE/VIDEO SESSION

Method

In further effort to discern the validity of the presented hypotheses, I offer the results of self-administered questionnaires. In an effort to insure ample participation, minimize costs, and guarantee participation of members of the target audience

(previously established), 2 separate sophomore level classes that I taught during the Fall

2015 semester were chosen through convenience sampling as the two groups of participants for the study. Group 1 was composed of 18 participants, ranging in ages 16 to 22 with a mode age of 19. Group 2 was also composed of 18 participants, ranging in ages 18 to 24 with a mode age of 18. In the first session, Group 1 watched the PSA

Texting while Driving U.K. Ad [HD] and then answered the first questionnaire; one week later, Group 1 answered the second questionnaire without viewing the video. In the second session, Group 2 watched Liz Marks Texting & Driving Story and then answered the same (first) questionnaire as Group 1; one week later, Group 1 answered the same

(second) questionnaire as Group 1 without viewing the video as well.

58 The questionnaires were composed of both open and closed questions in an effort to offset the weaknesses of each type and provide more comprehensive data. The open questions, attempting to ascertain general reactions to the video, were placed in the beginning of the questionnaires in an effort to prevent bias by priming the viewers.

In the analysis of the open questions, in which the participants wrote their responses to the video freely, the comments were categorized (coded) in accordance with Glaser and

Strauss’s (1967) grounded theory. Also commonly referred to as the constant comparative method (Lindlof & Taylor, 2010). Preventing a presumptive imposition of perspectives, which automatically assumes outcomes, in the application of this theory,

“…appropriate categories are established and re-established as data are confronted.”

Comments (the data) with like concepts are grouped into categories, and “…these categories and their data then lead to the application of explanatory theories” (Scodari

Felder, 2000, p.239). Furthermore, the questionnaires were composed of the following types of closed questions: dichotomous, simple multiple choice, and two types of interval questions- semantic differential and Likert scales.

Although Liz Marks Texting & Driving Story is filmed and offers a similar narrative, the narrative is merely told by the teenager (spoken narrative) who caused and survived the texting and driving accident, lacking the employment of cinematic techniques, and (as I argue) increased propensity for transportation or persuasion. In terms of PSAs in video form, these were the only two types available through online research - filmed narratives and spoken narratives, which suggests that the agencies producing such PSAs are at least aware that persuasive narratives are the best approach, rather than rational approaches to persuasion, such as videos that try to

persuade with simple statistics or logic. The Liz Marks Texting & Driving Story video was chosen randomly; it was the first spoken narrative located in an online search.

. Synopsis of the PSA texting while driving U.K. ad [HD] (Nick1111341, 2009):

Uploaded on August 25, 2009, the PSA texting while driving U.K. ad [HD] was presented by Tredegar Comprehensive School and Gwent Police, which is located in

South-East Wales, UK. Originally produced as a half hour drama entitled 'COW' --The film that will stop you from texting and driving" by filmmaker Peter Watkins- Hughes as a safety educational tool to be used in schools across the UK, it was shortened and released for advertisement. In the shortened version, a girl from a Gwent valleys named

Cassie I seen texting and driving down the road with two of her friends in the car.

Distracted by the use of her mobile phone, Cassie loses control causing a multiple car accident in which four people are killed and several others are injured. When the cars come to screeching a halt, drivers by rush to their aid, followed by numerous first responders. While the first responders assess the wreckage and attempt to save the lives of the most gravely injured with the likes of air transport and the jaws-of-life, the aftermath of the accident is emphasized by the dramatic performances of the shrieking driver and now parentless children.

Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R0LCmStIw9E

. Synopsis of the Liz Marks texting and driving story (USDOTNHTSA, 2014):

Uploaded on April, 25 2014, the Liz Marks texting and driving story was presented by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. In this spoken narrative, Liz Marks is interviewed in her home with her mother regarding her tragic accident. Liz’s mother confesses that while she was worried about normal teenage dangers, like drugs and

alcohol, she solemnly admits that she was unaware of the significance of technology in her daughter’s life. While the camera continues to depict Liz in a close up, emphasizing her disfigurement that resulted from the accident, Liz speaks about her suffering, both physically and emotionally, as most of her friends are no longer around. As Liz notes that she ignored the warnings of the dangers of texting and driving, feeling invincible because everyone else is doing it, images of her wrecked car and herself in the hospital move across the screen. In closing, Liz and her mother attempt to persuade the viewer, side-by- side, pleading the viewer to not participate in such risky driving behavior.

Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t7911kgJJZc

Results/Discussion

WK1-Q2: How often do you text and drive? (Circle one) Never Rarely Sometimes Often Very Often WK1-Q3: While driving a motor vehicle, do you ever do any of the following: (Check all that apply) Check email Surf the web Take a Selfie Participate in Social Media

Groups 1&2- WK1: Q2&3 16

# OF PEOPLE # OF 4

0 Check Email Surf the web Take Selfies Use social media Q2: Text

Group 1 Group 2 DISTRACTED DRIVING BEHAVIORS

Table 5.1: Admitted Distracted Driving Behaviors In (Week 1) Questions 2 and 3, the participants of both Groups were asked to admit their distracted driving behaviors. As seen in Table 5.1, the answers were counted and presented for comparison. In terms of texting and driving, it is clear that most of the participants commit such risky behavior, which supports the sources that were used in the introduction of this work to establish that texting and driving is indeed a problem with the target audience (ages 16-24) in the United States. The answers to these question also make it clear that in addition to texting, other forms of distracted driving are also issues for the target audience that need addressing. 3 out of the 8 participants who answered

never to question 2 admitted to emailing during driving, which is still a form of typing and reading; what is more, it’s a form of typing and reading that involves lengthy statements, versus the short phrases commonly used in texting, which requires longer focus off the road. Two of the participants, who also answered never to question 2, actually wrote a statement into the questionnaire under their answers, in which they seemingly justified their email use in a vehicle because they only committed such behavior while at stoplights. In addition, 8 out of the 13 participants that answered rarely to question 2 admitted to committing 1 to 2 of the other forms of distracted driving. It’s also worth noting that the 5 participants that answered either often or very often to question 2 admitted to committing 1 to 4 of the other forms of distracted driving on top of texting, which suggests that those who are the most frequently distracted by texting pose an even larger risk on the road as they are likely to be distracted in other ways as well.

WK-Q4: What forms of public service announcements (regarding texting and driving) have you ever viewed? (Circle all that apply) Fliers Commercials Posters Internet Ads Live Speakers WK-Q5: How does this video compare to other public service announcements you may have read or seen regarding the issue of texting and driving?

Groups 1&2- WK1: Q4 18

# OF PEOPLE # OF 4

0 Fliers Commercials Posters Internet Ads Live Speakers

Group 1 Group 2 OTHER TYPES OF PSAS

Table 5.2: Familiarity with Other Types of PSAs In (Week 1) Questions 4, the participants were asked to circle all of the other forms of PSAs regarding texting and driving they have viewed. The answers to this question (Table 5.2) make it clear that the participants from both Groups in this analysis are familiar with PSAs in other forms, which establishes credible standpoints for the participants when answering question 5. Without the knowledge that the participants have actually viewed other types of PSAs, the validity of the data (answers) obtained through question 5 would be could be called into question because they would be based on the assumption that the participants have in fact viewed other PSAs that they can compare

with the present text. In retrospect, these 2 questions could have been formed into one contingency question for the sake of simplicity.

Groups 1&2- WK1: Q5

More Intense

More Graphic

Narrative

Same

Better

Consequences

Identification

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 CATEGORIES OF CODED CODED OF RESPONSES CATEGORIES

Group 2 Group 1 # OF PEOPLE SHARING THE SAME SENTIMENT

Table 5.3: Categories of Responses from Participants Manifested Through Coding Answers to Question 5 (Week 1) As seen in Table 5.3, the answers from question 5 were examined for likeness and coded (categorized) accordingly; subsequently, they were counted and presented for comparison, which led to some interesting findings that support Hypotheses 1 and 2

(H1,H2).

The largest category that manifested during the coding was labeled Better.

Although 3 participants from Group 2 noted the Liz Marks Video as better, nearly half

(8) of the participants from Group 1 noted that the PSA Texting while Driving U.K. Ad

[HD] was better than the other PSAs they previously viewed. In their assertions, the participants from Group 3 made statements such as, “It’s more personable because of what happened to the girl” and “This one was true, and felt the most true. It felt genuine, 65

which I feel makes it more of an urgency to viewers to want to not text and drive.” While these answers highlight why the participants consider the Liz Marks video as better than other PSAs, noting the realistic qualities and means of identification that delineate a successful, coherent narrative, they don’t contain any explicit statements in which the video is considered wholly better than other types of PSAs; whereas, in the answers of the participants from Group 1, such explicit statements are made. For example,

 “This video is the best texting and driving PSA that I have seen so far,

both in its quality and in how convincing it is”

 “way above the rest”

 “It was way more touching than them all.”

The next most notable category that manifested during the coding was labeled

Same; this category consists of statements in which the participants asserted that the video they watched was the same as other types of PSAs. In support of Hypothesis 2

(H2), 1/3 of the participants in Group 2 considered the Liz Marks video the same as other types of PSAs, which is twice the number of participants from Group 1 that expressed similar sentiments. In addition, the participants from Group 2 noted specific aspects of the text that didn’t seem to work for them, while the participants from Group 1 considered the PSA Texting while Driving U.K. Ad [HD] the same as others merely because they share the same message- don’t text and drive. The participants from Group

2 specifically noted the emotional appeals as the aspect of the Liz Marks video that moved them to consider it as the same as other types of PSAs, which is evident in the following answers:

 “Typical. Scare tactics seems to be common.”

 “This video was like many others that I have seen regarding the issue of texting

and driving. Just as scary and unnerving.”

It should be noted that all 6 of these participants from Group 2, whom considered the Liz

Marks video as the same as others, answered No to question 6 (week 1): Does this video make you want to stop texting and driving? Although further research is necessary, this data could be construed as evidence of a boomerang effect, in which a persuasive communication can cause subsequent changes in behavior or attitudes away from the position promoted in a persuasive communication such as a video PSA (Mann & Hill,

1984). However, 1 participant from Group 2 offered an interesting comment regarding the persuasiveness of the narrative: “Like other films, it is the same message, don’t text and drive. But like I said before, hearing her story had more of an impact on me than a random ad or commercial.” Such a statement outlines the appropriateness of the application of Fisher’s Narrative Paradigm in the production of a persuasive message designed for the public. In further support of the application of Fisher’s Paradigm, the answers that were coded as Narrative (Table5.3) contained similar sentiments regarding the effectiveness of the narrative for such PSAs; for example:

 “This video gave a personal life and day to day effects of texting & driving where

others are generic & not as graphic. This video hits home a little harder because

of these differentiating factors”

 “This video compared to other public service announcements is very telling

because it went into a story about a young driver that was texting and driving and

how that one mistake affecting her whole life.”

 “This video compares to the others that it shows the real story and she having the

strength to show herself after the accident. The other videos just tell you that is

bad.”

While these answers clearly highlight the impact of the narrative, the fact that none of the participants in Group 2 mentioned the narrative as significant or impactful leads to further questions. Why did they not mention the narrative? Did the cinematic techniques unique to the filmed narrative have an effect on this? Were the participants transported?

Did the realism of the filmed narrative make the participants forget it was a narrative?

The answers from both Groups that were categorized as Consequences and More

Graphic shared similar sentiments, highlighting the graphic visuals of the videos, as well as the depiction of consequences as the aspects that moved the participants to consider the video PSAs that employ narratives as more effective than other types of PSAs. In

Group 1, the following answer typifies the range of answers in both categories: “This video actually puts it into perspective. What can happen and how dangerous it is. The ads aren’t as graphic, if at all, so they don’t have much of an effect.” Likewise, in Group 2, the following answer typifies the range of answers in both categories: “Unlike most PSAs where it is mostly just a warning. This film shows in graphic details the results that can happen to a person.”

The answers from both Groups that were categorized as More Intense also shared similar sentiments, highlighting the emotional intensity of the videos; however, rather than implicating the emotional intensity as the aspects that moved the participants to consider the video PSAs that employ narratives as more effective than other types of

PSAs, the emotionally intense attributes of the texts were merely identified.

WK1-Q1: What are your thoughts regarding this film?

Groups 1&2- WK1: Q1

Reality

Criticism

Effective

Emotion RESPONSES

Graphic CATEGORIES OF CODED CODED OF CATEGORIES Approval

0 2 4 6 8 10 Group 2 Group 1 # OF PEOPLE SHARING THE SAME SENTIMENT

Table 5.4: Categories of Responses from Participants Manifested Through Coding Answers to Question 1 (Week 1) As seen in Table 5.4, the answers from Question 1 were examined for likeness and coded (categorized) accordingly; subsequently, they were counted and presented for comparison. Question 1 was an open question with a full lined page available for writing the answer; therefore, most of the answers were lengthy, and many were composed of statements from multiple categories.

The largest category that manifested during the coding is labeled Approval, and after close examination, it was noticeable that many of the answers that contained statements of approval also contained statements that were coded as Graphic and/or

Emotion. 7 out of 10 of the Answers from Group 1 that contained statements of approval

also contained statements in which either the graphic or emotional aspects of the video were credited as the aspects that make it effective, which is evident in the following answers:

 “It was a very intense video but I believe it was necessary to show teenagers to

not text and drive…”

 “I think that it would be effective in convincing people not to text and drive. It’s a

well-made video with plenty of emotion. It’s aspects were skillfully handled and

fit together to elicit an emotional response rather than the graphic ”eww” factor

that media utilizes a lot, which I feel suits the subject and makes its message more

convincing.”

 “The film was very harsh but like a necessary harsh because it shows how

something so insignificant could affect so many lives. I think this video should be

shown to high schoolers because it will have a better impact on people.”

Supporting Hypothesis 3 (H3), these statements highlight the effectiveness of the emotional appeals employed within the narrative, especially considering some of the participants actually stated such emotional appeals were necessary for the message to be effective. 2 out of 4 of the answers from Group 2 that contained statements of approval also contained statements that were either Graphic or Emotion; however, rather than specifically stating that either the graphic or emotional aspects of the video are the aspects that make it effective, they simply mention the aspects and make statements of approval; for example:

 “It was a very, very graphic video. I definitely would not suggest to a lower age

group (like children under 16). Truthfully, this video is very helpful to see the full

dangers and effects of texting and driving.”

 “This film was challenging to watch. To see someone go from a socialite with

many friends to a down and disfigured person is heartbreaking. All this was just

from one text; not worth it at all. I feel so bad for Kay? Honestly this video was

very powerful.”

In further support of Hypothesis 2 (H2), the difference between Group 1 and Group 2 in terms of the statements of Approval is notable. In Group 1, 56% of the participants made a statement of approval in which they considered the PSA Texting while Driving U.K.

Ad [HD] to be effective; whereas, in Group 2, only 22% of the participants made such statements. In addition, the fact that there were more participants from Group 1 who made statements regarding the Graphic and Emotional elements may be evidence of a greater impact due to the employment of cinematic techniques in the PSA Texting while

Driving U.K. Ad [HD], especially considering the statements from Group 1 that suggest such intense, emotional appeals are necessary for a successful, effective PSA.

The category that manifested during the coding labeled Criticism was composed of various answers that both challenge and support the present hypotheses. Although there was only 1 participant in Group 1 who offered criticism, the answer was significant in that it suggests that the employment of cinematic techniques were not successful in transporting the participant into the narrative world: “It was very visual. It really went in depth about what happens in car accidents. I see the dangers of texting and driving but the video didn’t have much of an impact on me because I knew it was staged. I mean, it

got me emotional but I feel it was just a movie or a show or something.” However, there are other factors that may have hindered the transportation of the participant. In consideration of Postulate III of the Transportation-Imagery Model, such a response may be due to the attributes of the recipient (viewer), which is more likely because it is the only criticism offered by any of the 18 participants (Brock & Green, 2005). In Group 2, the attributes of the recipients may have also influenced the potential for transportation

(Brock & Green, 2005). Noting a lack of identification or successful impact of the emotional appeals, all 3 of the participants explicitly note desensitization as the reason the video was not effective:

 “Unfortunate; Typical tactics used to scare someone into not doing something…

The PSA seemed outdated though.”

 “Like the “Truth” and quit smoking commercials, the ad uses a grotesque/image

story. These tactics is like a double edged sword. Thought here is truth to the

story, scenarios like these have become the norm and story like these have been

highly over used so they may not have the same impact anymore.”

 “I don’t text and drive so I don’t feel moved or have any pity for the girl… We

are constantly barraged with advertisements and warnings so most people become

desensitized and can easily tune out any message.”

The answers from both Groups that were coded (categorized) as Reality (Table

5.4) shared the same sentiment throughout, supporting the application of Fisher’s

Narrative Paradigm in the production of such PSAs. The shared opinion that was discernible in the answers was that the depiction of the consequences of such distracted driving produce a realistic, successful narrative. For example,

 “I believe this is an extremely accurate situation that can happen with texting

and driving… It does a good job at reaching to a broad spectrum of people

and shows that texting and driving is not a joke.”

 “This film is an excellent example of realistic consequences of texting while

driving. It demonstrated that all in all it isn’t worth doing.”

 “Unlike most PSAs that I’ve seen on TV about texting and driving, this film

shows the results in detail about what can happen both physically and

socially.”

The last category of notable answers that manifested during the coding is labeled

Effective. Again, the answers from both Groups shared similar statements in support of

Hypothesis 2, noting the videos as personally effective, having a significant, lasting impact on their attitudes and behaviors. Such an impact is evident in the following statements:

 “…Now this video will be what I picture if I ever pick up my phone while

driving.”

 “…Seeing this video reminds me to not do it even a little.”

 “This has really opened my eyes and I am never going to text and drive

again; not even look at my phone.”

Considering the main consistency between the two videos is the employment of a narrative, and both videos elicited the same responses, this data also supports the application of Fisher’s Narrative Paradigm.

WK1-Q2: How often do you text and drive? (Circle one) 73

Never Rarely Sometimes Often Very Often WK1-Q6: Does this video make you want to stop texting and driving? (Circle one) Y N WK2-Q5: Over the past week, has the video that was presented in class come to mind and stopped you from texting and driving? (Circle one) Y N

Group 1&2- WK1: Q2&6; WK2: Q5 16

6 # OF PEOPLE # OF 4

0 Group 1 Group 2

Text & Drive Often Admitted Video Effected Attitudes Admitted Video Influenced Behavior

Table 5.5: The Impact of the Videos on Attitudes and Behaviors In Table 5.5, the impact of the video(s) on the attitudes and behavior of the participants from both Groups was examined. In Group 1, 86% of the participants that admitted to texting and driving stated that the PSA Texting while Driving U.K. Ad [HD] made them to want to stop texting and driving, and 75 % of those who admitted such a change in attitude stated that recalling the video stopped them from texting the week after viewing the video. Similarly, in Group 2, 86% of the participants that admitted to texting and driving stated that the Liz Marks video made them to want to stop texting and driving, and 54 % of those who admitted such a change in attitude stated that recalling

the video stopped them from texting the week after viewing the video. While this difference is not statistically significant, it still suggests that the PSA Texting while

Driving U.K. Ad [HD] is more effective at effecting behavior than the Liz Marks video.

WK1-Q8: How scary is the video you just viewed? Not Scary at all A little scary Moderately scary Very Scary Too scary WK1-Q9: How upset were you immediately after viewing the video? Not upset at all A little upset Moderately upset Very upset Too upset WK2-Q1: Over the past week, have you texted while driving? (Circle One) Y N

Groups 1&2- WK1: Q8&9; WK2: Q1 18

6 # OF PEOPLE # OF 4

0 Group 1 Group 2

Scary Upset Texted

Table 5.6: The Impact of Emotional Appeals on Behavior Considering the potential for a boomerang effect when emotional appeals are employed, the answers to questions 8 and 9 (Week 1) were examined in conjunction with the answers to question 1 from week 2. As presented in Table 5.6, very few participants

(from both Groups) that admitted being both scared and upset ended up texting and driving the week after viewing the video. In Group 1, 82% of the participants that

admitted to being scared while viewing the video also admitted being upset, and only

29% of those participants admitted to texting and driving during the week after viewing the video. Likewise, in Group 2, 94% of the participants that admitted to being scared while viewing the video also admitted being upset, and only 33% of those participants admitted to texting and driving during the week after viewing the video.

WK2-Q2: Over the past week, have you thought about the video that was presented in class regarding texting and driving? (Circle one) Y N WK2-Q3: If yes, Can you share some of those thoughts here?

Groups 1&2- WK2: Q2

Ignored

Shared

Others

Influence CATEGORIES OF CODED CODED OF RESPONSES CATEGORIES 0 1 2 3 4 Group 2 Group 1 # OF PEOPLE SHARING THE SAME SENTIMENT

Table 5.7: Categories of Responses from Participants Manifested Through Coding Answers to Question 2 (Week 2) In an effort to ascertain the number of participants that actually recalled the video that was viewed in their respective groups during the week after viewing, the answers to

Question 2 (Week 2) were counted. In Group 1, 6 participants mentioned they recalled

the video during the week after viewing, and In Group 2, 9 participants mentioned they recalled the video during the week after viewing.

As seen in Table 5.7, the answers from Question 3 (Week 2) were examined for likeness and coded (categorized) accordingly; subsequently, they were counted and presented for comparison. Please Note: Many of these answers were irrelevant or left blank.

Both Group 1 and 2 had participants that expressed the fact that they talked about the videos and their (similar) message, and these answers were categorized as Shared; however, Group 1 had 3 times the participants than Group 2 whom made such a statement. In addition, the only participant in Group 2 that shared the video and its message purely spoke about it with another. Conversely, the participants that spoke about the video with others in Group 1 admitted that they did so while attempting to stop the others from texting and driving, including a sister, a girlfriend, and a friend.

The answers labeled Others (Table 5.7) are also significant in their support for

Hypothesis 2 (H2) in that only participants from Group 1 expressed a learned consideration for others in regards to the dangers of texting and driving. Such consideration is evident the following statements:

 “I have seen other people texting or using their phone while driving, and wanting

to approach them to tell them they are not focusing 100% in driving and might

cost someone else’s life by doing so.”

 “After watching the video from last week, it got me thinking how dangerous

texting and driving can be and how it can effect more than just you, but also the

people around you. Thinking about this made me not want to continue texting and

driving from now on.”

The answers labeled Influence (Table 5.7) are also significant in their support for

Hypothesis 2 (H2) in that only participants from Group 1 expressed that they recalled the video and it influenced their behavior positively:

 “”I have not texted while driving since I watched that video because of how

scary the situation was.”

 “I think about my safety and I end up putting my phone down so I don’t die. I

have texted and drove, but a lot less than usual because the video comes to

mind.”

Although 1 participant from Group 1 admitted that the video was influential, only their attitude was effected, and they continued to text and drive:

 “I texted this past week, but I felt incredibly guilty doing it, so the video was

good for me.”

Lastly, and notable as such data could also support Hypothesis 2 (H2) only participants from Group 2 admitted to recalling the video, yet outright ignored their own consciences, and continued to drive. For example,

 “As I was driving, and I’d notice I was using my phone, I remembered the

video. Even more, I remembered saying to myself how I shouldn’t text, yet I

still did.”

 “I thought about the video while driving, so I was a little more cautious than

usual, but it didn’t stop me.”

78 CHAPTER 6: IMPLICATIONS & CONCLUSION

Although the statistics can vary a bit from source to source, presented in various measures, it is clear that forms of distracted driving such as texting while driving are a serious problem in the United States, especially within the 16 to 24 age group. Such a public health issue is continually addressed by numerous agencies in many different types of ways; however, considering the target population (16-24), instead of policy, a very specific, nuanced method of persuasion may be necessary to successfully mitigate such behavior within this young population, such as a public service announcement in the form of a filmed narrative.

In light of the attitudes, behaviors, and biases of the target population (Ages 16-

24), most of the commonly utilized forms of public service announcements are not suitable to reach or impact the target population. Most young people who admittedly partake in such risky behavior and understand how dangerous it is, also admit they outright ignore their better judgment, and continue to text and drive. And in line with communication theory, people with such strong attitudes tend to be biased, selectively exposing themselves to messages that are in accord with their previously established beliefs, while ignoring messages that are not in accord. Utilizing posters and fliers to get such a message across requires a risky driver to take the time and stop to read a message that challenges their beliefs. Websites, simulators, and other forms of technology are also negated by this selective exposure. While radio ads may be more pervasive, eliminating

79 such a bias, young people aren’t listening to the radio nowadays. Furthermore, none of these PSAs have the space to present the most effective means of persuasion- a narrative.

Long recognized as the most significant means of persuasion, employing a narrative in a PSA that addresses the texting and driving issue is the most effective approach, as outlined in Walter Fisher’s established Narrative Paradigm. Humans by nature are story tellers, learning and understanding through schemata derived from the collective of narratives they have experienced; therefore, people are more easily persuaded by a good story than a good, rational argument. In addition, as further outlined by Fisher, in the case of a public moral argument, the narrative is also the most effective.

PSAs are made for the consumption and persuasion of large public factions, but not all people are trained thinkers. A rational approach would suggest that when addressing masses of people, customizing the message so that it is effective for all types of people

(ie. educated and uneducated) would be necessary; whereas the use of a narrative disaffirms the need for such a tedious process of customizing one message for the various demographic factions in our society. Moreover, the construction of a PSA with a narrative is likely to be more effective as it negates a power dynamic that exists when experts try to command the informative and often authoritative position in the public sphere, removing the tensions that result from the presence of the experts. Such participation in the formation of values is likely to be more intrinsic, and therefore more affective in regards to changing attitudes and behavior.

80 Considering the capacity of the video format to convey a narrative, as well as the pervasiveness of the format, the use of a video for a PSA may be the most effective at mitigating texting and driving behavior within the 16 to 24 age group. In the time it takes to read a story attempting to persuade you to change your behavior, which would be a rather bland text-filled flier/poster, a video can offer a more coherent and detailed narrative engaging multiple senses. Videos can essentially negate selective exposure, showing up in commercial spots on television or before the viewing of other videos on sites such as YouTube, often without the option of skipping them. What is more, videos are also the only format that can be viewed in the context in which the target population has the least amount of potential distractions- the movie theater. And taking the behavior of the target population into account, the video format can also be deemed the most appropriate format for such a PSA; they are the video generation. Teenagers and young adults are immersed in a world where videos are available and sought after on numerous platforms. Recognizing the significance of the video in the current, advancing technological culture, as well the target population’s behavior of multitasking, the advertising industry has already adopted campaigns in which advertisements are released on multiple platforms that host videos.

The video format is also significant due to its capacity to enrich a narrative.

Increasing the potential for transportation into the narrative world, as well as the likelihood of persuasion, the cinematic techniques that are unique to the video platform have the potential to enhance identification with the characters in a narrative. By producing a PSA with such a visible and auditory focus on the violence and emotions of the characters, the film is cathartic in the Aristotelian sense. “The grandeur of mass

settings, large action, spectacular features, etc., affects and arouses more intensely the emotional side of the audience. In general, the mobility, popularity, accessibility, emotional appeal, vividness, straight forward presentation of fact in the film make for more intimate contact with a larger audience and for greater emotional appeal.”(Production, (1930-1934). In this case, the violence is not mindless brutality, but rather a catalyst for identification with the characters to aid the viewers in the development of a deeper understanding of the dangers of such distracted driving.

Essentially, the telling of stories- aloud in writing, on screen- is at the heart of human culture. Stories have long been a means of translating shared anxieties, hopes, and mysteries into a medium that can be communally experienced. Narrative cinema offers stories not as something we hear, or something we read, but as something we witness

(Lewis, 2014, p.21).

H1: The PSA Texting while Driving U.K. Ad [HD] (filmed narrative) is effective at mitigating the behavior of texting and driving within the 16-24 age population in the

US.

Taking the various methods and the respective results presented in this study into account, Hypothesis 1 seems valid. The literature provided, as well as the textual analysis regarding the significance of the cinematic techniques, suggest that PSAs such as the

PSA Texting while Driving U.K. Ad [HD] are not only effective, but the most effective types of PSAs to address the problem of texting and driving in the United States within the 16 to 24 age group. In addition, the results of the audience analysis also support H1.

Although no statistical significance regarding the effectiveness of PSA Texting while

Driving U.K. Ad [HD] was ascertained in the audience analysis, the majority of the

participants deemed the PSA effective, which is discernible in the qualitative data. The participants also commonly recognized the traits of the video format as integral factors of persuasion; however, the objectiveness and validity of the audience analysis could have been strengthened through intercoder reliability. The results of the self-administered questionnaire also support H1. Although there was still no statistical significance obtained in which 95% of the participants agreed on the impact of PSA Texting while

Driving U.K. Ad [HD], more than half of the participants outright approved of the effectiveness of the PSA, and nearly half of the participants stated that this type of PSA is better than all of the other PSAs regarding texting and driving they had ever viewed.

Lastly, half of the participants that viewed the PSA Texting while Driving U.K. Ad [HD], whom also admitted to texted and driving behavior, admitted a notable, positive impact of the video PSA on their texting and driving behavior.

Considering the results of the self-administered questionnaire, Hypothesis 2 can also be deemed as valid. In comparison with the Liz Marks video, the PSA Texting while

Driving U.K. Ad [HD] was deemed as more effective in every way. The liz Marks video received more criticism, less approval marks, and was judged to be better or the same as many other types of PSAs regarding texting and driving. The liz Marks video also had less of an impact on the driving behavior of the participants, and only participants that viewed this video admitted to ignoring the message when recalled and continuing to text and drive.

While the results of this study fundamentally support the presented hypotheses, similar studies are needed with more significant results are necessary to further illuminate the effectiveness of filmed narratives. In an effort to ascertain whether filmed narratives are generally more effective than spoken narratives, more comparisons with similar video

PSAs need to be conducted. Although I stand by my hypothesis and speculate that filmed narratives are generally more effective than spoken narratives, I believe the evidence also supports that spoken narratives are also effective and more effective than the other types of mentioned PSAs. However, considering that none of the PSAs explored in this project seem to be 100 percent effective at deterring the members of the target population from participating in such risky driving behavior, I believe the most effective approach to mitigating such behavior is multi-faceted. Embracing the persuasive significance of the narrative, a broader spectrum of contexts in which persuasive narratives can be employed is most likely the most appropriate approach. In addition to the placement of PSAs in commercial television spots and online video sites, adopting the sentiments of the multi- platform approach that is well established in the advertising industry, narratives with a goal of persuading American youth to stop texting and driving should be placed in advertising spots before movies in the theater, woven into the episodes of popular shows and films, shared by friends and parents (who have been effected by distracted driving), and possibly even woven into written texts that are studied by students at primary and secondary schools.

84 APPENDICES

85 Appendix A

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