Islam in South Asia Themes in Islamic Studies A (new) Brill Series including short histories and concise surveys of appealing themes in the fi eld of Islamic and Arabic Studies. The various titles give an accessible overview of a specifi c aspect or topic. Scholars and graduate students fi nd in this series easy reference tools to current subjects in Islamic history and culture. Several titles are edited compilations of articles from the Encyclopaedia of Islam (second edition). VOLUME 4 Islam in South Asia A Short History By Jamal Malik LEIDEN • BOSTON 2008 Cover illustration: Faisal Mosque, Islamabad (personal archive), pierced carved stone- screen of Madrasa Ghazial-Din, outside Kashmiri Gate, Delhi (personal archive) and Minaret of Baba Lulu’i’s mosque, photograph by Dinesh Mehta, in George Michell and Snehal Shah (eds.), Ahmadabad, Mumbai, Marq 2003 (reprint), p. 101. Courtesy Snehal Shah. This book is printed on acid-free paper. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Malik, Jamal. Islam in South Asia : a short history / By Jamal Malik. p. cm. — (Themes in Islamic studies, ISSN 1389-823X ; v. 4) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-90-04-16859-6 (hardback : alk. paper) 1. Islam—South Asia— History. 2. Muslims—South Asia—History. 3. South Asia—History. I. Title. II. Series. BP63.A37M35 2008 297.0954—dc22 2008021190 ISSN 1389-823X ISBN 978 90 04 16859 6 Copyright 2008 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands. Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Hotei Publishing, IDC Publishers, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers and VSP. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill NV provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. Fees are subject to change. printed in the netherlands CONTENTS Acknowledgement ....................................................................... ix Abbreviations .............................................................................. xi List of Illustrations ...................................................................... xiii Introduction ................................................................................ 1 PART ONE EARLY MUSLIM EXPANSION, CULTURAL ENCOUNTER AND ITS CONSTITUENCIES Chapter One Muslim expansion. Trade, military and the quest for political authority in South Asia (approx. 700–1300) ................................................................. 29 Excursus: Historiography and Sources .................................... 59 Chapter Two Muslim space and divines (approx. 1000–1300s) .............................................................. 67 PART TWO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF MUSLIM EMPIRE CULTURES: BETWEEN ISLAMIC AND ISLAMICATE Chapter Three Slaves, Sultans and Dynasties (approx. 1000–1400) ............................................................... 87 Excursus: Shi{ites and Sunnites ................................................ 111 Chapter Four Muslim heterogeneity. Margins becoming centres of Muslim power (approx. 1300–1500) ..................... 119 Excursus: Caste .......................................................................... 149 Chapter Five Cultural integration towards a politics of universal dominion. The Mughals (approx. 1450–1650) ...... 157 Excursus: Conversion and Mission .......................................... 182 vi contents Chapter Six From universal dominion to principalities (approx. 1650–1800) ............................................................... 189 PART THREE TERRITORIAL STATES AND COLONIAL RULE. ACCOMMODATION AND DIFFERENTIATION OF MUSLIM CULTURES Chapter Seven Regional states, national markets and European expansion (approx. 1700–1800) ............................ 215 Excursus: Islamic Endowments ................................................ 234 Chapter Eight Cultural encounter, reciprocities, and Muslim responses (approx. 1750–1870) ............................................... 241 Chapter Nine From appropriation to collision and colonial stabilisation (approx. 1820–1900) ........................................... 261 Excursus: The language issue—Urdu ...................................... 282 Chapter Ten Institutionalisation of Muslim communities and the quest for a new Islamicity (approx. 1860–1900) ...... 291 Excursus: Gender ...................................................................... 309 Chapter Eleven Colonial Reforms, the Khilafat Movement and Muslim nationalism (ca. 1900–1947) .............................. 319 Excursus: Communalism .......................................................... 346 PART FOUR NEGOTIATING MUSLIM PLURALISM AND SINGULARITY Chapter Twelve The Muslim public divided (approx. 1930–1960s) .............................................................. 359 Chapter Thirteen The integration of nation-state and secession (approx. 1947–1990s) ............................................................ 377 Excursus: Islamic fundamentalism ......................................... 395 contents vii Chapter Fourteen From the pulpit to the parade ground (approx. 1970–2002) ............................................................... 403 Excursus: The social structure of Muslims in India ............... 424 Chapter Fifteen Indian Muslims or Muslim Indians? (approx. 1947–2002) ............................................................... 435 Afterword .................................................................................... 459 Select Bibliography ..................................................................... 467 Glossary ....................................................................................... 489 Islam in South Asia—Select Overview ...................................... 497 Index of Names .......................................................................... 503 Index of Places, Rivers and Regions ......................................... 509 Index of Keywords ..................................................................... 512 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Attempting a Short History of Islam in South Asia is an ambitious project, not the least because the contestation of Muslims in South Asia has become a major feature in media, academics and religious self-presentation. There is a rising curiosity about the region’s Muslim cultures, not only in terms of quantity, which are virtually unlimited, but specifi cally in terms of quality, calling for an overview that would make plausible major trends which can provide some sort of comprehension for the immense complexity of Muslims in the sub-continent and so to improve the understanding of the current situation. Thus, the idea of the book was conceived against the backdrop of 9/11 when the world was still under shock and attention was shifted to South Asia and its many Muslim cultures. Indeed, writing such a challenging volume in the “Themes in Islamic Studies” book series has its drawbacks. This is so because all of the many voices actually involved in this composition can hardly be heeded even to some degree. I would like to thank Brill for providing me such an opportunity; Trudy Kamperveen’s patient collaboration in handling the problems of publication were indispensable for the outcome. I am thankful to Murshirul Hasan for his never ending hospitality and to Imtiaz Ahmad for his exciting intellectual stimulus. Adam Nayyar, Zafar Ahmad Ansari and Muhammad Khalid Masud always were important discus- sion partners. Many thanks go to members—current and former—of the Department of Religious Studies, University of Erfurt, such as Arshad Alam, Hasnain Bokhari, Moez Khalfaoui, Jan-Peter Hartung, and Margrit Pernau. They all took pains to critically read and make revisions of parts of the manuscript, in their capacities as scholars of South Asian Islam, in spite of their own academic preoccupations. Seema Alavi, Monica Juneja, Marcia Hermansen, and Yohannan Friedmann focussed on specifi c chapters; they shared their expertise. Muzaffar Alam, Carl Ernst and his students carefully read major parts of the manuscript and offered suggestions, both minor and major, which have been accommodated as far as possible. To all these colleagues, peers, students and friends I am greatly thankful; their expertise and comments were important additions to my own perspective. Thanks also go to the Max Weber Center for Advanced Cultural and Social x acknowledgements Studies, University of Erfurt, to have given me the chance to fi nalise the draft during a sabbatical. Stefan Hoffmann arranged for the maps. I am also grateful to Lelah Ferguson and Timothy Bell for correcting the manuscript. My wife’s constant interest and attendance during different phases of the work were as important as Benjamin’s and Momin’s rather realistic approach to my writing desk. How could the book have been fi nished without their abiding encouragement and love? So it is my privilege to submit the fi nal script with all its ups and downs, for which I am happy to take responsibility. However, this book is far from being a defi nitive contribution to what is bahr-e zakhkhar, a rising ocean, and one can look forward to further studies hoping that this work can provide a helpful perspective on the