Environmental Pollution of Marine and Costal Areas in Greece. Abstract

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WEBsite : www.chem-tox-ecotox.org, January 2018 Environmental Pollution of Marine and Costal Areas in Greece. Review on marine pollution, monitoring and quality of seawater

Athanasios Valavanidis

Department of Chemistry, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, University Campus Zogafou, 15784 Athens, Greece Abstract

Greece is a Mediterranean country which is surrounded by sea and with a coastline of approximately 18,000 km. Medium and severe marine and coastal environmental pollution has become a serious problem for Greece in the last decades. A large percentages (estimated at 30%) of the Greek coastline is affected by erosion involving vulnerable coastal ecosystems and marine protected areas. The most important marine pollution involves discharges of ship fuel, untreated discharges of municipal and industrial liquid and solid waste, agricultural and stock farming effluents, depletion of marine species by overfishing, overexploitation of living marine resources and coastal loss of marine habitat. The rapid expansion of tourism and urbanization (roads, houses and hotels) in coastal areas threatens marine and coastal degradation. Sewage remains the largest source of pollution. In the last decades Greek scientists established monitoring projects for the most important marine gulfs in Greece. The state of pollution in the most ports, gulfs, estuaries and marine coastal areas in Greece varied substantially. Improvements in the quality of seawater was established in the last decade with the completion of sewage works in many Greek cities. There are numerous research reports and monitoring of Greek gulfs with industrial facilities and ports, such as Eleufsis Bay, Patras port, Corinth Gulf, Euvoicos Gulf, Keratsini Gulf and port, Thermaikos Gulf and Thessaloniki port, Piraeus port, Saronikos Gulf, Amvrakicos Gulf, Volos port, and others. Also, environmental monitoring og pollution was our in islands like Mytilini, Rhodes, Crete and others. A selection of these studies of the last 20 years are presented in this review and their main conclusions.

Introduction: marine and coastal zone environment in Greece

Greece mainland is surrounded from all directions by sea and with a coastline of 18,000 km (including estuaries) has a series of difficult marine environmental problems. Around 30% of the Greek coastline is affected by erosion which threatens vulnerable coastal ecosystems and protected areas. Despite national protection actions and application of European Union legislation in recent years, marine pollution by discharges of ship fuel, industrial and municipal waste continues to damage fragile marine environments. Overexploitation of living marine resources and coastal loss of marine habitat still prevail in many areas. The rapid expansion of tourism and urbanization (roads, houses, hotels) in coastal areas threatens marine and coastal degradation. Municipal, industrial and agricultural sewage remains the largest source of marine pollution. Marine and coastal eutrophication from elevated nitrogen and phosphorous inputs is a worrying trend and has occurred in several enclosed bays.1-3 Greece hosts a large variety of Mediterranean habitats (included in Natura 2000 initiative) from open sea, tidal areas and sea dunes, to several types of shrubs and grasslands and Mediterranean mountainous forests.

Figure 1. Greece is surrounded from all directions by sea with a coastline of 18,000 km and has more than 3,000 islands. Marine pollution and erosion of coastal areas are important environmental problems in the last decades.

The Greek Ministry for Environment (Ypeka), Energy and Climate Change follows the fundamental environmental directives of the European Community and various desk dealing with The Aquatic Environment, Special Secretariat for Water and follows the EU’s Marine Strategy Framework Directive (adopted 2008). The Directive for marine strategy was aiming to achieve good environmental status of EU’s marine waters by 2020 and to protect the marine resources. The European Commission also produced a set of detailed criteria and methodological standards to help Member States implement the Marine Directive. These were revised in 2017 leading to the new Commission Decision on Good Environmental Status.4,5

Environmental pollution in coastal and marine areas in Greece

Greece has a coastline of more than 16,500 km the longest of any other Mediterranean or European country (or 18,000 km according to CORINE 2000 report that include estuaries). The Greek seas are part of the Mediterranean Sea that is oligotrophic and they have the physical characteristics of semi-closed seas which are more vulnerable to human pressures and anthropogenic pollution. Pollution problems of industrial, urban or shipping origin are of rather local character. Measures taken during the last decades have decreased considerably the importance of the pollution problems and their impacts on the coastal zones. Part of the pollution is caused by coastal shipping services for people living in islands and for tourism annually perform an extraordinary work by serving 94 islands, 144 ports and around 36-40 million passengers. The numbers of passengers increased substantially in the last decade with the dramatic increase of tourism in Greece (in 2015 tourists accounted for 30 million visits). Around 30% of the Greek coastline is affected by erosion which threatens vulnerable coastal ecosystems and protected areas. Despite national protection actions in recent years, marine pollution by discharges of ship fuel, industrial and municipal waste, overexploitation of living marine resources and coastal loss of marine habitat still prevail in many areas. The rapid expansion of tourism and urbanization (roads, houses, concrete pavements and hotel complexes) in coastal areas threatens marine and coastal degradation. Sewage remains the largest source of pollution. Marine and coastal eutrophication from elevated nitrogen and phosphorous inputs from agricultural farms and municipal sewage is a worrying trend and has occurred in several enclosed bays.2

The Greek sea coasts are of high biological, geophysical, aesthetic, cultural, and economic value, while at the same time they constitute a natural resource and a common heritage of Mediterranean and European seas. The Greek coastal and marine ecosystems are characterized by high productivity, particularly the lagoons, river estuaries and deltas, meadows of Posidonia, wetlands, sand dunes etc. The sea coastline constitute the biotopes of numerous species of flora and fauna with high biological diversity. Recent studies of the marine waters and environmental conditions in Greece became more systematic and extensive. Studies expanded to physiological and ecological levels of the marine flora and fauna. The most important challenges of marine environmental research are the increasing pollution of the seas and the funding of the costly environmental projects. Some of the most important marine research of the last decades has been contacted by scientists of the Hellenic Centre for Marine Research (HCMR) and various university departments in Greece.6 The Hellenic Centre for Marine Research (HCMR) is a governmental research organization under the supervision of the General Secretariat for Research and Technology (GSRT), in Anavyssos, Agios Kosmas, Crete and Rhodes and has three research institutes a. Institute of Marine Biology, Biotechnology and Aquaculture (IMBBC), b. the Institute of Marine Biological Resources and Inland Waters (IMBRIW) and c. the Institute of Oceanography (IO). The HCMR contacts marine research, and experimental measurements aiming for the dissemination and implementation of produced results, especially in the fields of protection of the hydrosphere, its organisms, its interface with the atmosphere, the coast and the sea bottom, the physical, chemical, biological and geological conditions that prevail in the Greek seas and coastline.7-10 Indicative research reports on marine pollution in Greece are included in the reference eleventh. 11

Figure 2. The HCMR has 3 research institutes (oceanography, marine biological resources and inland waters, and marine biology, biotechnology and aquaculture)

The Middle East crisis in the last 5 years resulted in a rapid increase of tourism to Greece and in particular to Aegean and Ionian Sea islands. Also, Greece became an attractive destination for cruise passengers touring the Aegean and Mediterranean Sea. In 2017 it is estimated that around 30 million tourists will visit Greece. Commercial shipping, recreational boating and ferry transportation have increased substantially in the last years from Greek ports. The commercial shipping in Greece serves 120 islands, 144 ports and transport around 35-40 million passengers per year. There are 350 coastal shipping routes that serve the Greek islands with their connection to the mainland.12,13

Monitoring of marine pollution in the gulfs and ports of Greece In the past decades, Greek marine scientists monitored the state of pollution in the most important ports, gulfs, estuaries and marine coastal areas in Greece. There are numerous research reports and monitoring of Greek gulfs with industrial facilities and ports, such as Elefsis, Patras, Corinth, Euvoicos, Keratsini, Thermaikos, Piraeus, Saronikos, Amvrakicos, Volos, etc., and in islands like Mytilini, Rhodes, Crete and others. Greece has numerous coastal marine areas and semi-enclosed bays with various environmental problems, mainly from stock farming sewage, agricultural effluents, municipal and industrial waste. Several initiatives have been undertaken in the last decade by the Ministry for the Environment with the financial assistance of the European Union. The ENVIREG Programme, co-financed by the Greek government focused on the reduction of coastal pollution and protection of coastal biotopes. Also, the National Programme for the Environment assisted by regional activities dealt with water quality and pollution in coastal areas. Also, the programme Life-Nature for coastal areas was involved with many projects for management of environmental problems

Saronikos Gulf. The Saronikos Gulf and the port of Piraeus have been the focus of research and monitoring for the last decades because of the discharge of untreated municipal sewage from Athens and Piraeus (3.5 million inhabitants in the 1990s). The wastewater treatment plant of Athens, located on the island of Psyttalia, was put into service in 1994, followed by a sludge treatment plant that became operational in 2007. The Psyttalia treatment plant is the final recipient of domestic sewage and pre-treated

industrial wastewater with an hydraulic capacity of 27 m3/s and sewage treatment capacity of 5,600,000 Equivalent Population. [EYDAP, Psyttalia Wastewater Treatment Plant, https://www.eydap.gr/userfiles/c3c4382d-a658-4d79-b9e2-ecff7ddd9b76/Fact-sheet- PWWTP.pdf ]. The population of Athens-Piraeus increased substantially after the 1970s and the untreated municipal sewage pollution and the shipping pollution of the port caused substantial damage to the benthos of Saronikos Gulf and marine life suffered losses. The untreated sewage effluent (calculated at 600-750,000 m3 per day) accumulated toxic pollutants, such as organic hydrocarbons, sediments, heavy metals, PAHs and polychlorinated compounds. The most vulnerable area was the Elefsis Bay and areas near and around the port of Piraeus. When finally the Psyttalia wastewater treatment plant (1994-1999 and later with biological treatment plant) started operating the situation in the Gulf changed and the conditions have improved substantially in the last decade.14

Figure 3. The Saronikos Gulf and the port of Piraeus have been for many years the centre of investigations for the accumulation of toxic pollutants in the benthos from the untreated municipal and industrial sewage of Athens and Piraeus. The Psyttalia sewage treatment plant from 1994 reduced substantially pollution and helped in the recovery of the seawaters of Saronikos.

Monitoring studies in the Saronikos focused on sediments in polluted areas (untreated discharges) contaminated by heavy metals. Very high concentrations were measured of antimony (Sn), arsenic (As), chromium (Cr), gold (Au), mercury (Hg), silver (Ag) and zinc (Zn) at around 8–200 times greater than in the surrounding uncontaminated

sediments. The bottom area affected by increased metal concentrations is at least 13 km2.13 Dissolved and particulate metals were monitored in the last years in various positions of the Saronikos Gulf.15,16 Indigenous mussels Mytilus galloprovincialis of the Saronikos Gulf were used for monitoring heavy metal pollution. Seasonal variations of the activity of antioxidant defence enzymes, superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT), as well as lipid peroxidation (LP) were measured as biomarkers in a period of three years in relation to concentrations of trace metals in their gills and mantle and compared to mussels in unpolluted sites.17 Also, PAHs in surface seawater and in mussels from Saronikos sites were measured.18 A series of interesting scientific monitoring in Saronikos in the last decades established the levels of pollution and the improvements after the installation and running of the sewage treatment palnt.19-22 A study monitored for the period 2000-2012 the benthic communities of Saronikos Gulf and Elefsis Bay in relation to the functioning of the Psittalia treatment plant. The Bentix index was adopted for the implementation of the Water Framework Directive. The results showed a gradient from a moderate ecological status at stations up to a distance of 8,000 m from the outfalls to good environmental and ecological status at more remote stations. In Elefsis Bay, the enclosed physiography, shallower depth and local pressures result in more adverse environmental conditions for benthic communities.23 Another study measured dissolved and particulate metals Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn in the Saronikos Gulf and Elefsis Bay. The trace metal variability correlated to pollution sources. The results showed that the status of Saronikos Gulf is classified as ‘High’ for most metals studied. An exception to this is the enclosed Elefsis Bay where Cu, Ni and Zn concentrations are found above background.24

Thermaikos Gulf (Thessaloniki) Thermaikos Gulf is a semi-enclosed bay close to the city of Thessaloniki with severe pollution problems. The Gulf receives the waters of four major rivers (Aliakmon, Loudia, Axios and Gallikos) and as a result it is enrinched with organic carbon, nutrients and particulate matter. Nutrient concentrations are very high at the mouths of the rivers. As a

consequence, red tides and phytoplankton blooms have been observed and anoxic conditions during the summer period near the harbor. Also, the Gulf is polluted by municipal sewage and industrial effluents. A new wastewater treatment plant has improved the situation in the last few years.25 Metals, hydrocarbons and organochlorine compounds were studied in mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) and surface sediments collected from Thermaikos gulf in March 1999. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAHs), DDTs, PCBs and metal concentrations were low. Different spatial distribution patterns were observed between organic and inorganic contaminants bioaccumulated in mussels. In all cases the contaminant concentrations in mussels were well below the permissible limits for consuming seafood.26 In a similar study mussels were used (M. galloprovincialis) as useful pollution bioindicator species of heavy metals (collected monthly April to October 2000) in various sites of Thermaikos Gulf. Analyses metals Cu, Cr, Ni, Zn, Fe, Mn and (137)Cs showed that the concentrations measured were low and similar to those from other non-polluted Mediterranean areas.27

Figure 4. The Thermaikos Gulf has a total area of 5.100 km2. It is called Gulf of Salonika or the Macedonian Gulf. Under certain conditions and days with high temperatures that the Thermaikos Gulf is covered with phytoplankton with strong stench.

Organochlorine insecticides in eggs of wild birds of wetlands of the Thermaikos Gulf in the period 1992-1993. The monitoring was performed in eggs and freshly dead chicks of the Squacco heron (Ardeola ralloides), Little Egret (Egretta garzetta) and Night Heron (Nycticorax nycticorax), as well as in frogs (Ranasp.), the main heron prey. Residues of the

organochlorine pesticides α-BHC, β-BHC, lindane, 4,4′-DDD, 4,4′-DDE, heptachlor and dieldrin were found in the eggs, chicks and prey of the herons. α-BHC, β-BHC, and lindane had highest concentration in the Night Heron and lowest in the Little Egret. In all samples examined, the bioconcentration factors (BCF) of these compounds had very high values.28 Heavy metals Zn, Cu, Pb and Cr were measured (40 sediment samples) in the Thermaikos Gulf. The level of pollution attributed to heavy metals was evaluated using several pollution indicators (to determine anthropogenic influence) sediment contamination (enrichment factors, contamination factors, modified contamination degree, and geoaccumulation Indexes). The highest metal levels were measured along the shoreline of the Bay of Thessaloniki, reflecting long-term exposure to anthropogenic activities. Although the total metal content in the sediments has decreased with time, the long-term effect of the industrial and urban activities in the area is still reflected in the sediments of the marine environment. 29 Phenolic and steroid endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs) were measured in the marine environment of Thermaikos Gulf. Seawater, suspended particulate matter, sediments and biota were examined for nonylphenol (NP) (dominant pollutant), octylphenol (OP), their mono- and diethoxylate oligomers, bisphenol A, estrone, 17α- estradiol, 17β-estradiol, estriol, mestranol and 17 α -ethynylestradiol. The occurrence of nonylphenol in sediments presents a significant risk to the biota. Mussels exhibited relatively low concentrations and low bioconcentration factors for NP and OP. 30 For the years 1994-1995 the green algae Ulva rigida C. Agardh was used as bioindicator species of heavy metals Fe, Pb, Cu, Zn and Cd in 5 sample sites of the Thermaikos Gulf that were recipients of municipal industrial wastes. Also, concentrations of metals were measured in sediments and seawater in the same sites. The concentrations of all metals in the alga were distributed uniformly among the five stations. Measurements showed that there is a significant positive correlation in U. rigida between Pb–Cu, Fe–Cu and Cd–Pb. Pb and Cu concentrations in the alga were positively correlated with the respective concentrations in the sediment.31 In a second paper the scientists extended their measurements. The relative abundance of metals in the algae decreased in the order: Mg > Na > K >Ca > Pb > Fe > Mn > Zn > Cr, Cu > Ni >Co > Cd. Only Pb concentrations in the alga showed a significant positive correlation with concentrations

in the seawater. There were both positive and negative correlations among some metals in the algae.32 Marine pollution in the Elefsis Gulf

The Elefsis Gulf during the period 1960-1980 was the centre of many heavy industries. Especially, steel industries disposing directly into the sea, untreated toxic wastes of ammonia liquid, phenols and cyanides. In the area there were two spirit distilleries disposing organic sewage, and pollution from oil residues by two petroleum refineries. The oceanographic characteristics of the Elefsis Gulf, are similar to those of a lake. Shallow (maximum depth 33m), no strong currents, anoxic conditions, water stratification, especially during the summer with a clearly defined thermocline, intensify the pollution problem, by favoring the accumulation of sediments and inhibiting the natural destruction/decomposition of pollutants.33 The special environmental problems of Elefsis Gulf, in particular for heavy metals monitoring started from 1977 and were continued for 40 years. (Prof. M. Scoullos and Prof. M. Dassenakis, Lab of Environmental Chemistry, University of Athens). The industrial activities in the enclosed gulf of Elefsis contributed with significant amounts of toxic sediments. In a special conference of 2016 a compilation of data on metals were presented (Cd, Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb, Zn, 1977-2015). The results showed that concentrations off trace metal levels in seawater (dissolved and particulate forms) during these last 38 years decreased in all monitoring areas. After 1980s many industrial activities in Elefsis came to an end.34,35

Figure 5. The region of the Thriassion Plain area is well known in the past decades for the concentration of industries and manufacturing activities.

The Thriassion Plain pollution and the conditions of in the Elefsis Gulf were the subject of research by Greek and foreign environmental scientists. Numerous scientific papers, research projects, conferences and publications were devoted to monitoring and the environmental situation of Elefsis Gulf in the last 30 years. 36

Gulf of Euboea The Gulf of Euboea (Euboic Sea or Evoikos Gulf, Ευβοϊκόσ Κόλποσ) is part of the Aegean Sea between the island of Euboea (or Evia, northeast coastline) and the Greek mainland (southwest coastline). Trending diagonally northwest-southeast, the gulf of Euboea is divided by the narrow Strait of Euripus, at the town of Chalcis. The North Euboean Gulf is about 80 km long and up to 24 km wide, and the South Euboean Gulf is about 48 km long, with a maximum width of 14 km.

Figure 6. A map of the Euboea Gulf between the large island of Evia and the mainland of Greece, separated by Euripus Straits, with the city of Chalkis and the bridge connecting the city with the mainland.

The Euboea Gulf (or Evoikos Gulf) in the past was the subject of many environmental studies because of the special tidal currents in the straits, the effluents and sewage of the port (large shipping activity) and the city of Chalkis and the impact of dumping coarse metalliferous waste on the benthos in Evoikos Gulf from industry. The Southern part of the Euripos Straits were monitored in the 1990s for trace metals were (seawater, particulate matter and sediments) of the southern part of the Euripos Straits. The sea has been polluted from municipal wastes, industrial effluents, land washout and shipping since the early 1960s. The results showed that the area was

seriously polluted and the tidal currents affected the distributions of metals, which have their highest concentrations at the near shore zone. Comparison with measurements in the 1980s (13 years) revealed a significant increasing in heavy metal concentrations which might be dangerous to the marine ecosystem of the Gulf of Evoikos.37,38 Another study in 2000 investigated the impact of river-transported metal pollution on the metal distribution in coastal sediments in Southern Evoikos Gulf. The river Asopos, flowing into this part of the Gulf, acts as a recipient of industrial effuents generated in the river drainage basin, which hosts approximately 300 chemical and metal processing industries and workshops. Several trace metals (Cd, Cr, Cu and Ni) were found enriched in the marine sediments near the river mouth. However, only Cd and to a lesser degree Cu were related to the river-transported industrial pollution.39 A serious problem in the Evoikos Guf for many years was the environmental pollution by a ferro-nickel smelting plant in the small bay of Larymna (Northern Evoikos Gulf). The ferro-smelting plant extracted iron and nickel from laterite ore. Studies showed that there is accumulation of heavy metals, such as Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni and Zn in the sediments of the sea near the plant. Also, accumulation of heavy metals was observed in the seagrass Cymodocea nodosa roots and stems and in two gastropods collected in the area adjacent to a ferro-nickel smelting plant compared in clean sea water in other sites.40

Figure 7. The smelter of nickel in Larymna started operation in 1966 using as raw material the Greek nickel deposits in Euboea. The annual production in the 3 nickel mines in Greece (Euboea, Agios Ioannis, Kastoria) exceed the production of two million tones of nickel.

Another study in the same area focused on a set of biomarkers in order to assess the impact of heavy metal by a ferro-nickel smelting plant in Larymna bay (North Evoikos Gulf). Scientists investigated two biochemical biomarkers reflecting oxidative stress (glutathione peroxidase, GPX) and neurotoxicity (acetylcholinesterase, AChE) measured in mussels Mytilus galloprovincialis transplanted for 1 and 6 months at the coastal area of Larymna. All biomarkers in mussels at Larymna revealed differences from mussels at a reference site, signaling effects of the increased heavy metal levels on the biota. Results from field-collected and laboratory-exposed mussels indicated a potential of GPX as predictive biomarker of population-level effects of heavy metal exposure.41

Amvrakikos Gulf (Ambracian Gulf)

The Amvrakikos Gulf, also known as the Gulf of Arta or the Gulf of Actium (Αμβρακικόσ κόλποσ), is a gulf of the Ionian Sea in NW Greece. About 40 km long and 15 km wide, it is one of the largest enclosed gulfs in Greece. The towns of Preveza, Amphilochia and Vonitsa lie on its shores. The Amvrakikos Gulf is host of a rich fish fauna, with several commercial fish species. Also, Amvrakikos is a marine area with a permanent population of 120 bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus), loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta) and seals (Monachus monachus). Amvrakikos is a Ramsar Protected Area, a Wildlife Refuge and an Important Bird Area and since 2008 was established as a National Park.

Figure 8. The Amvrakikos Gulf is the largest wetland area of Greece and one of the most important wetland of Europe. The Amvrakikos Gulf is host of a rich fish fauna, with several commercial fish species. Amvrakikos developed in the last years severe environmental problems due to agricultural effluents.

The lagoons of Amvrakikos Gulf form one of the most important lagoonal complexes in Greece. The optimal ecological status of these lagoons is crucial for the well- being of the biodiversity of the Gulf. Also, the quality and health of seawaters are very important for the economic prosperity of the local communities. The shallow lagoonal complex was formed by the flowing activity of the rivers Louros and Arachthos. The lagoons are included in the Natura 2000 network and protected under the Ramsar Convention. Seasonal changes of freshwater inflows are responsible for the temporal shifts in nutrient concentrations as well as in the other abiotic parameters. A scientific research investigated heavy metals in Amvrakikos Gulf. Their concentrations were higher than the SQG (Sediment Quality Guidelines, U.S. EPA) threshold in many cases, but lower than the TEL (Threshold Effect Level, Canadian Freshwater standard) threshold for the majority of the metallic elements. However, the concentrations of Cr and Ni were exceeding both of the limits in all the monitoring stations. No evidence of severe disturbance was detected in the lagoons of Amvrakikos.42 Various studies investigated pollution by metals in the lagoons of Amvrakikos Gulf in connection the environmental conditions in the area.43-45 A study in 2000 in Amvrakikos Gulf measured the temporal variations of nutrients, chlorophyll a (chl a), suspended particulate matter (SPM) and particulate organic carbon (POC) were measured over (duration 12 months in three shallow coastal brackish water lagoons-Tsoukalio, Rodia and Logarou- of the Amvrakikos Gulf). Nitrate concentrations were largely the same in the three lagoons and higher than in the Amvrakikos Gulf. Phosphate concentrations in Logarou exceeded by far those of Tsoukalio/Rodia and caused an extended phytoplankton bloom with chl a concentrations higher than in the other two lagoons. Scientists suggested that increased phytoplankton biomass in Logarou coupled with the better water exchange may be related to the higher fish production in this lagoon.46 The wetlands of Amvrakikos are influenced by the sediments brought by the rivers Louros and Arachthos (passing through agricultural lands). A study in 1992-93 provided water and sediment samples (for herbicides and organochlorine insecticides used by farmers). The herbicides atrazine, simazine, alachlor, metolachlor, trifluralin and diuron and the organochlorine insecticides α-BHC, lindane and 4,4′-DDE were detected in riverine estuaries and wetlands. The same herbicides and insecticides as well as the β-BHC and 4,4′-

DDT were found in significant amounts in sediments of river estuaries and wetlands of the Amvrakikos Gulf.47 Mussels were used in another study to assess possible pollution impacts in the Amvrakikos Gulf. Especially for pesticide used in agriculture of the area and discharged through riverine transport in the swallow lagoons. Scientists used mussels to detect general oxidative stress effects on the health status of mussels. They used special biomarkers of oxidative stress. Decreased acetylcholinesterase activities indicated exposure to organophosphate and carbamate pesticides. Responses of the antioxidant enzyme glutathione peroxidase suggested the presence of contaminants capable of reactive oxygen species production that could be related to organochlorine pesticide contamination in the area. On the other hand, metallothionein levels implied low metal contamination.48 The Amvrakikos Gulf was investigated for various cyanobacterial species, microcystins, and cyanotoxins which are considered health hazards because of their potential hepatotoxic effects. A scientific study investigated seasonal changes of microcystin concentrations both in water and in the edible species of mussels Mytilus galloprovincialis collected from Amvrakikos Gulf. The microcystin concentrations in the water ranging from 0.003 to 19.8 ng l−1, below the World Health Organization (WHO) upper limit for recreational activities. In contrast, measurements found that microcystin concentrations in mussels (ranging from 45±2 to 141.5 ± 13.5 ng g−1 ww) exceeded the upper limit of the tolerable daily intake (TDI) of microcystin as determined by WHO.49 The presence of residues of the organochlorine pesticides, α-BHC, β-BHC, lindane, 2,4′-DDD, 4,4′DDD, 4,4′-DDE and 4,4′-DDT were investigated in collected pelican eggs and eels (1992-93) from the wetlands of Amvrakikos Gulf. The bioconcentration factors values of lindane and α-BHC were in lower levels in pelican eggs and eels, as compared with 4,4′- DDE. The biomagnification factor for 4,4′-DDD, 4,4′-DDE and 4,4′-DDT had higher values than α-BHC, β-BHC and lindane in pelican eggs.50 Eutrophication problems due to intensive agriculrural activities in the area of the Amvrakikos Gulf were investigated in 1994. Marine species were used for the investigation. 4 species of fish (Liza aurata, Mugil cephalus, Mullus barbatus and Sardina pilchardus), 4 species of benthic organisms (Mytilus galloprovincialis, Murex trunculus, Paracentrotus lividus and Penaeus kerathurus) and one seagrass (Cymodocea nodosa), taken from the

estuarine area of Amvrakikos Gulf, presenting eutrophication problems due to the intensive agricultural activities, are examined in the present study. Some heavy metal in these species were in the upper limits. Concerning the behaviour of the examined heavy metals in the food webs, high concentrations are observed in the benthic predator M. trunculus, the filter feeder M. galloprovincialis, the grazing herbivore P. lividus and the primary producer Cymodocea nodosa, while in the examined fish the concentrations are at the lower limits.51

Marine pollution of Greek islands

Environmental studies and monitoring of coastal waters were performed in the last decades in many Greek islands. One study focused on the concentrations (Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb and Zn) in extractable fraction of surface sediments collected in Rhodes Harbour, (Rhodes Island). Metals, such as Cu, Pb, Zn, are part of anthropogenic municipal and industrial activities and mostly from sewage effluents. Their concentrations were in relatively higher concentrations in the harbour sediments. The highest metal enhancement was found in the fine sediments of the Mandraki Harbour, which is located in the vicinity of the main sewage outfall of a densely populated area.52 The harbour of capital city Mytilene and coastal areas of the island of Lesvos were investigated for metal concentrations of sediments from 28 stations in 1996. The results showed that sediments were highly enriched in Cd, Cu and Zn and also slightly enriched in Pb. No enrichment was found in the sediments of the coastal area outside the harbour.53 The coastal waters of Central Greece and the island of Lesvos were investigated for environmental pollution by Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs), nonylphenol and octylphenol (pollutants with toxic and endocrine disrupting activities). The substances monitored were 7 PAHs, NP and OP which are in the priority list of substances regulated by 2000/60/EC Water Framework Directive. Samples were collected and analyzed seasonally for one year from the 4 reservoirs that supply water to Athens (Mornos, Marathonas, Yliki and Evinos) and coastal waters of the Lesvos Island (rivers Mylopotamos and Evergetoulas), and from coastal waters (five sampling points) of the Mytilene. The results have shown that in most cases the water samples that were analyzed are free from PAHs.

The concentrations for Nonyphenol were at low levels in several cases, while Octyphenol was detected at low concentration only in one sample.54 A new methodology was used by Greek scientists for the study of coastal ecosystems in Greek islands. The research team used a multi-dimensional evaluation methodology and GIS. This methodology can set a number of criteria to rank the coastal areas of islands. Rhodes island was used for marine studies (the NE part of the island) and sub-areas were ranked according to socio-economic and environmental parameters, The study assessed the criteria and reapplication of the methodology, as well advantages and disadvantages of the evaluating potential.55

Organotin compounds, or stannanes (SnR3+, Tributyltin, Dibuty;tin and Triphenyltin) are used as PVC stabilizers, and for antifouling paints of boat hulls. They cause extensive marine pollution and are highly toxic. A study (1998-99) investigated the pollution by organotin substances of seawater in 10 sample sites of coastal areas, in 6 wastewater treatment systems, 19 rivers and 12 lakes throughout Greece. The method of determination was the Electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry and GC-MS.. Organotins pollutants were detected in most seawater and wastewater samples at concentrations up to 19.4 and 89.9 ng l−1, respectively. The highest concentrations were detected in wastewater treatment plants. The concentrations decreased with increasing distance from the coastline. Triphenyltin was not detected in any of the samples.56

Environmental pollution in the island of Crete A study in July 1997 initiated the sampling of floating tar, litter and sea water for dissolved/dispersed petroleum hydrocarbons in the Cretan Sea. The results gave the opportunity to researchers to assess the status of floating marine pollution in the region. Petroleum hydrocarbon measurements showed low concentrations of 0.145 μg/l of chrysene equivalents (n = 24). Tar and plastics concentrations were in the range of 1–4280 and 0–1160 μg/m2, respectively. Mean pelagic tar concentration was 318 μg/m2, more than two times higher than what was reported for the area in previous studies.57 Aliphatic and polyaromatic hydrocarbons were determined in surficial sediments from the Cretan Sea (South Aegean Sea). Total concentrations of both aliphatic (AHC) and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were low (562–5697 and 14.6–158.5 ng/g, respectively)

with respect to other coastal sediments worldwide and compare with concentrations found in open sea areas. The composition of AHC indicated petroleum-related substances. PAH consisted mainly of pyrolytic four- to five-ring compounds. The spatial distributions of AHC and PAH indicated that urban run-off and transport from the continental self are the major input pathway of anthropogenic and biogenic hydrocarbons from terrestrial sources.58

Figure 9. Floating litter, especially plastics, can be found in the Greek coastal waters. Scientists used models depicting high concentrations of floating litter.

Scientists used the first simulation-modeling study to investigate fate and distribution of floating litter (mainly plastics) in the Greek coastal waters and in the Mediterranean Sea (in the period 1990-2009). In their modeling took into account the seasonal and interannual variability of surface circulation. Model results depicted high concentrations of floating litter particles in the North Aegean plateau, the Saronikos Gulf, and along Evia and Crete islands. Modeled transport pathways of floating litter demonstrated that source regions are interconnected, with Saronikos Gulf being a main receptor of litter from other sources. Notably higher percent of litter exit (∼35%) than enter the model domain (∼7%) signified that Aegean Sea seems to act as a source rather than receptor of floating litter pollution in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea. Beached litter was found around 10%, mostly located in the western part of the Aegean Sea.59

Monitoring of sea bathing water quality in Greece. Among a list of 50 countries Greece comes 3rd in terms of Blue Flag certification, with 430 beaches and 9 marinas for 2016 (established by the non-profit organization Foundation for Environmental Education-Blue Flag Program). The country also came 4th in Europe (monitoring by the European Environment Agency) confirming that more than 90% of Greek beaches are of the highest quality for swimming. In Greece every year monitoring teams gather data from more than 2,000 sampling points and 25,000 monitoring samples. Greece reported 8 parameters under the Directive 76/160/EEC (total coliforms, faecal coliforms, faecal streptococci, mineral oils, etc). In 2009, a total of 2.107 bathing waters were reported in Greece of which 2.101 were coastal bathing waters. 60% of the coastal bathing waters met the mandatory quality parameters. The mandatory water quality was met in 98% of the bathing waters since 1996. Also, 66% of the freshwater bathing waters were in compliance with the mandatory values. 60

Figure 10. Greece is on the top of a list of 50 countries in terms of Blue Flag certification, with 430 beaches and 9 marinas for 2016.

The 2016 Report for bathing water quality in Greece contained assessment measurements for 1.507 sea bathing sites. The bathing water quality assessment was carried out through statistical analysis of the bathing water by the Special Secretariat for Water of the Ministry for the Environment and Energy. Under the provisions of the Directive 2006/7/EC, Greece provided the European Commission with the results of the monitoring and the bathing water quality assessment. According to the statistical analysis

of the bathing water quality data set, the classification status for the 1,507 bathing waters is the following: 1.496 bathing waters (99%) are classified as "excellent quality", 10 bathing waters (0.66%) are classified as "good quality", 1 bathing water (0.07%) is classified as "sufficient quality" and none of bathing waters is classified as "poor quality". The analytical report is available through the web site http://www.bathingwaterprofiles.gr. The bathing water quality in sites of the South Aegean for 2017 are available through the analytical website: http://www.bathingwaterprofiles.gr/en/node/3307.]. 61

Marine alien fauna of Greek marine environment

The number of biological invasions of the marine environment has grown dramatically in recent decades, causing serious ecological and economic impacts. The Mediterranean Sea is subject to the ever-increasing arrival of non-indigenous marine organisms. Scientists from the Hellenic Centre for Marine Research monitored alien marine species for many years. The numbers of alien marine species recorded in the Greek marine environment increased to 110 (2007). The last species were zoobenthic and zooplanktonic species and teleost fish. The list of marine alien fauna in Greek waters is updated taking into account new findings. Of the eight new records, five are zoobenthic species, two zooplanktonic and another one a teleost fish. Moreover, records referring to the expansion range of aliens from an established stand to new areas are also presented, pointing out the species that could be considered as possible invaders to local communities.62,63 In the last years scientists recorded an uncontested increase in the number of alien marine species, most of which were Lessepsian migrants, in the Aegean Sea during the last decades. By December 2010, the number of recorded alien marine species in Greek waters was 237, of which 76 have been reported from the south Aegean, excluding the Dodekanisos area. With the exception of the Saronikos Gulf and Rhodes Island, which are systematically monitored for alien species, information on the occupancy and spatial distribution of alien marine species in the Aegean Sea is scattered. Alien species were recorded in shallow sea waters of Kyklades Archipelago (Paros, south Aegean Sea).64-66 The Greek islands Paros and Antiparos (Cycladic islands) was surveyed for the presence of alien megabiota during July 2011. 14 sites were surveyed by snorkeling at depths between 0 and 10 m, and 8 alien species were recorded: Caulerpa racemosa var.

cylindracea, Halophila stipulacea, Pinctada radiata, Percnon gibbesi, Cassiopea andromeda, Aplysia dactylomela, Siganus luridus and Fistularia commersonii. Cassiopea andromeda reappeared in the Aegean Sea after a hiatus of 55 years, reaching densities >20 individuals/m2 at one site.67 There is an extensive literature of the marine alien fauna of Greek waters.68-71

Figure 11. Alien marine species in the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas. Lion fish from Indian Ocean to Aegean sea waters. The lionfish, found in the Indian Ocean, the Red Sea, South Africa and east of Sumatra, has now made its way to the Aegean Sea, particularly in the sea region of Rhodes. (2015). Cotylorhiza Tuberculata Jellyfish, Lefkada, Greece-Ionian Sea

Fisheries in Greek sea waters

Fisheries in Greek sea waters are characterized as multispecies and target mainly demersal and pelagic fish stocks. The demersal species such as hake, red mullet, cephalopods and shrimps are mainly caught by trawlers, while small pelagics such as sardine, anchovy, bogue, mediterranean horse mackerel and scorbidae are caught by purse seiners. Among highly migratory species (tuna and tuna like species), the main commercially valuable species are bluefin tuna, swordfish and albacore. About 50 – 60% of total domestic fisheries production consists of small pelagics. A major problem beside pollution is the intense exploitation and depletion of fisheries stocks in Greece's seas. In the past fisheries issues were considered almost in economic and political terms. Today fisheries activities are recognized as environmental problems in the broader sense.72

Figure 12. The Fisheries in Greek sea waters are characterized as multispecies and target mainly demersal and pelagic fish stocks,

The General Directorate for Fisheries (Greek Ministry of Rural Development and Food) is responsible for exercising fisheries policy at the national level in Greece, implementing the rules of the EU CFP by issuing regulatory measures for fisheries in Greek territorial waters, and developing and managing the aquaculture sector. The Ministry of Mercantile Marine, Aegean & Island Policy’s Directorate of Port Police, along with local port offices and the Fisheries Divisions of Local Authorities of the Prefectures, implement the provisions of the fishing legislation (EU and national) and, in the case of infringements, imposes administrative penalties (fines, temporary withdrawal of vessels and licenses). Responsibility for the inspection of the market for fisheries products is vested in the Ministry of Development/General Secretariat of Commerce. Participation of the fishing industry stakeholders in the design, examination and introduction of new fisheries legislation is arranged through a Fisheries Council that includes, inter alia, representatives of the central administration and research institutions. All aquaculture operations (including fish and shellfish farming) in Greece require approval by an array of Ministries; i.e. an Environmental Impact Assessment that is submitted to Ministry of the Environment and a license from a Regional Fisheries Authority. A system of limited entry for new applicants is in place to control production and to support the overall policy objective of achieving a balance between environmental and health concerns as well as economic benefits. The licensing procedure for aquaculture farms controls the introduction of alien species. There are also plans underway to establish Areas of Organised Aquaculture

Development, to increase efficiency of aquaculture activities and to better integrate them in coastal zone management. It should also be noted that one important benefit of the mariculture effort has been the new employment and income generated in previously uninhabited island areas normally excluded from commercial activities.73 Greek aquaculture is dominated by the farming of marine finfish in offshore cages, specifically of gilthead sea bream and European sea bass (combined production capacity of about 110,000 tones in 2015). Also, the culture of Mediterranean mussels is very important with an annual production of 35–40,000 tones in 2015. After several crises mainly as a result of imbalance between supply and demand, the marine fish sector has been restructured, with the aim of doubling its production by 2030. Freshwater species and extensive lagoon aquaculture have a limited growth potential mainly because of the lack of natural resource (water, wild stocks) availability. Marine fish is the top Greek exported animal product and contributes about 11% of the total national agricultural exports, which together account for 19% of the total Greek exports. Marine fish farming in Greece provides 12, 000 jobs (scientific, technical, workers) mainly in remote and isolated areas. In several cases, it is the major employer, and the wealth of the local society strongly depends on its activities. An additional 5,000 jobs exist in the value chain and peripheral activities. Greece was the leading European producer, exceeding 120,000 tones of marine fish, before the beginning of the Greek crisis in 2008. Even since the crisis, Greece is a significant world producer with yearly production of 110,000 tonnes of fish, even though the sector is operating below the existing capacity of the fish farms.74 Some critical remarks have been published in the last years on the overexploitation of Greek seawater fish stocks and the urgent need for better management measures. Scientists argued that large-scale fishing and the greedy fishers that exploit the fishery resources. A study analysed data on the annual fish landings for the Greek seas (period 1982–2007) and classified into exploitation categories based on a catch-based stock classification method. In 2007, about 65% of the Greek stock were characterised as overfished, 32% as fully exploited and only 3% were characterised as developing; collapsed stocks were not recorded. The results suggest that the apparently stable overall catches and decreasing effort may be deceiving, as they hide an underlying pattern of overexploitation in some of the stocks. It was concluded that the Greek fisheries are no longer sustainable and radical management measures are needed. Other scientific

publications focused on the risks of overexpoitation of fish stocks in the Mediterranean and Black Seas.75-77

The legal framework for the protection of marine environment The legal framework for the protection of the Greek sea and coastal areas is, primarily, based on the article 24 of the Greek Constitution which constitutes the backbone of the legal protection of the natural environment. ….. “The protection of the natural and cultural environment constitutes a duty of the State and a right to every person. The State is bound to adopt special preventive or repressive measures for the preservation of the environment in the context of the principle of sustainable development”. The provisions of the article establish the fundamental principles of the environmental protection: the principle of sustainable development (article 106 of the Constitution), the prevention principle and the precautionary principle. The constitutional provisions are analyzed in detail through the law 1650/1986 on the “protection of the natural environment” and, regarding the protection of sea and coastal areas, the law 2971/2001 for the foreshore and beach and, more recently, the law 3983/2011, “National Strategy for the protection and management of the marine environment”. The law 3983/2011 specifies the legal framework for the adoption of the necessary measures aiming at achieving or maintaining proper environmental status for the marine environment until the year 2020 the latest. The law promotes the development and implementation of strategies for the sea through the adoption of measures which ensure the protection and preservation of the marine environment, restore the marine ecosystems in areas where they have suffered adverse effects and prevent and reduce the depositions in the marine environment gradually eliminate pollution. For the management of human activities, the marine strategies follow the ecosystemic approach which ensures that the total pressure of these activities remains at levels consistent with achieving good environmental status and that the ability of marine ecosystems to react to human-provoked changes is not jeopardized, while at the same time enabling the sustainable use of marine goods and services by both the present and future generations. The law provides programme of measures for the protection of the area, which contribute to the creation of coherent and representative networks of

protected marine areas and are sufficient to cover the variety of ecosystems composing these areas, such as the Special Preservation Zones established with 33318/3028/1998 joint ministerial decision and the Special Protection Zones.78

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