Costs: Student Finncialaid IDENTIFIERS '*Canhda

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 209 731 HE 014 408 wen, AUTHOR Stager, 'David,, TITLE EConomics of Higher Education: Publications 'in English in Canada, 1911 to 1981. PUBTDATE' Jun 81 NOTE 22p..: Paper presented to'the Annual Meeting of the Canadian Sbciety for the Study of Higher Education

.(June 1981).. ,

.EARS PRICE MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.' \ DESCRIPTORS Economic Factors; Educhti601 Demand; *Educational ' Economics: Educational Finance; *Education 'Work Relationship; Enrollment Projebtions;'*Financial Support: Foreign Countries: Government Schobl Relationship; *Higher Education: Insti'tutignal Research; PrOductivity: *Resource .Allocation; Student CostS: Student FinncialAid IDENTIFIERS '*Canhda

ABSTRACT Literature dealing with the economics of postsecondary eddcation (but generally excluding university research), which was published in Canada or'dealt withCanada, and L!, which appeared in English language publicationsfrom 1971 to 1981, is revievecLeThe following topics are addressed: resourceallocation, and paiticularly returns to'investment in higher education; productivity of educational institutions;alternative modes for financing institutions and students, together with theredistributive , effects of these; some determinants of depland for places; and rationalization of the supply of places through educationaland manpower planning. Resource allocation has-been addressed from the cost side' alone (without taking into account the value ofoutput) through a wide .range of studies, from individualinstitutions to the national university 'system. Alternative arrangementsfor financing higher education have receivedproportionately more attention than in the United States'or the United Kingdox due,to thecontinuing dilemma of federal esponsibility for manpower, eettnomic development,and .regional equity and the provincial responsibility foreducation. Much of the current research effort is at the' institutional andprovincial level/with emphasis on the flow of persons through tiesystem.This includes thevdeVelopmeni ofnumerous forecasting.. models to predikt enrollients according toprogram of faculty, institution, and . provinCe., Another recent research innovation-has been an analysis of the economic impact of educational institutionson their geographic communises. ituch current research activitiestends to be demcriptive4 A bibliography is appended. (SW)

+1. f

********************4*****11********31!**********314*****4***********#*** * Reproductions supplied by EDRS hre the best thit'Oan bemade from the Original document. * ********************************************************************' . Economics of Higher Education!

Publications in English in Canada,,'1971to 1981 r

S J

Paper for presentation to 'the annual meeting of the Canadian Society

for the Study of Higher 'Education

0 S

June, 1981

David Stager Department of Poltxical Economy University of Toronto

THIS U.S, DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION REPRODUCE TO ED BY NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION "PERMISSION BEEN GRAN EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION... MATERIAL HAS CENTER (ERIC) 4101P I of Tins document has beenreproduced as " xeceived from the personor organization originahng rt. 0 Minor changes have.peonmade to improve reproduction quality RESOURCES EDUCATIONAL Points of view or opinions stat this docu- TO THE (ERIC)" ment do not necessarily Menage! Fecal CENTER NIE INFORMATION position or policy. e IP 2

41101. I

,--,ECONOMICS OF HIGHER EDUCATION:

PUBLICATIONS IN ENGLISH IN CANADA, 1971 TO 1981

1.- introduction

Thie paper attempts to include work whichwas published, in English,

since January 1971, dealing with the economiCs,ofpost-secondary education

(but generally excluding university research)and which was done in or about

. Canada or was published in Canada. 'Definitionsof "research" and "economics"

are not 80 easily stated.The bibliography Which is the focus of thispaper

includes items ranging from politicaltractsto theoretical dissertations.

. . The formeil were included only if they'seemedto have a substantial influence

on research activity. 41conomics"lhas been definedas "whatever economists 1 '0 do". Papers or reports by personS generally regardedas economists have

been included, but'so have papers from otherdisciplines ifthe work,concerned

resource allocation, financing, or the related labour Oiikets:

Some itemswill have been missed that ought to hatte'been included; . '-I

,For thisI apologiieto the readers, and especially to the omitted authors.

Several items thathave been, included will be questioned, but thisimplicitly

Indicates the paucity of bOna fide research since,a 'strict criterion ofre-

search would itave resultedoina very short list. N A thorough search of the literature was not poisible; indeed it is

mot clear what the boundaries :light be. I have reviewed the AUCC Inventoryof

Research into Higher Education, the published and draft Bibliographies of

Higher Education-in Canada by RobinHarris and his colleagues, the Canadian

Journal of Economics, Canadian Journal of Higher Education; Journal of Cana-

dap Studies, Canadian Tax Journal, Canadian Public'Poficy, andHigher,

. 2 . Education. Also . included are several reports prepared for royal commissions,

. . task forces, and other government departments and dkencie..

. , r -.

411. - 2

The, Decline in'Research Activity and'Publications 1 The first and major impression from this review Of the decade is

clear: most of the workwas done at the beginning of.the decade. (The biblio

graphy would have been somewhat longer had 1910 beenncluiled.)°. Much of the . C-

work published in 1971 to 1973.had-been initiated in 1968'to 1070. %....

. beeh a minor rdekindling oCinterest in vometopics ia the 78 to 1980 period, ii...\to

but these seem to be isolated efforts or by-products'of other rk. . . . .1, . 'Second,one observes a majoi shortfall' betteen reiortel research

. activity and the published results. This occurs-partlybecause the research

is undertaken for or by a, government department iiirith limited distribution of

the Mork and when the findings are of limited interestor relevance. In fact, . A virtually all work in this area has been directly sponsored by governments, or

agencies, but in the,earlier years there was a predominance of councils,

commissions, and taskforces interestfd in having their studies made widely

. . /). available to the public. This work also 1ed to a number of'journal articles.

There also were several doctoral dissertations inthe late, 1960s arid

early 1970s whieh'were the impetus for articles and furtherwork,'"bdt.recently.A o 4 there have been fewer dissertations and subsequent research and publications.

. . Y ' Why was there so *11 more research/activity early in the.decade2,

. There seem to be a number of related reasons.Education had been'identified

by Edward Denison ia tie garly41960s as, the Major source of-ecoaomic-growth;

T. W. Schultz incorporated this in the notion of education as an investment

; good, or as a form of human capital; and Gary ker prOduced'a theory of -, 5

. 1 4 ,. . human capital. - : , ,,--- . / . .1. Tbe pioneering workpby Denison; Scultz,qand Bicker resulted in . . / ,4 numerous Ph.D. dissertationp in this area as graduate students and tieir .

o Av. v 3

supervisors recognized the need to test and refine the theoretical framework.

Here the focus was directly on post-secondary: educationas almost the sole

variable. Since then, the human capital model has at least,losi the glow of

its novelty and has been-challenged by several authOrs whoargue that the

5. ( economic contribution of education is overestimated. Education now tends

to be treated as only one among several explanatory variables in a more

.6 general theory of income distribution. .,

. ,,--% The original theoretical research coincided with the rapidexpan- / 1 sion and diversification of the=post-secondary system in the mid-1960s.

, . . Governments were looking for rationalization of their planning and spending in

St-secondary education and consequentlywere willing tosupport related

empirical research.Then the inevitable occurred. The supply of highly

qualified manpower had increased more rapidly than did demand in the late

) 1960s."Sinee wages and salaries do not adjust very quickly to such major:

market disturbances, new graduates discovered they could not obtain the kind

of employment they expected, or at the expected salary level.

. Governments were disappointed, and perhaps embarrassed with the

economic analysis that had just so recently provided a rationale for expansion.

There was also at this time adsharp increase in public support for health

. , services and"hOung, followed by the energy crisis and rapid inflation, and

then wage and price controls.Higher education was pushed far down pn the

public agenda and was severely squeezed in the public budget.

, . These events occurred more or less simultaneously in all adyanced , . t ,

economies but in Canada there was an important additional factor.Thd ap-. .

'11111r pe. , . . prOaching federal-provincial negotiations for a 1972 revision of the Fiscal

. .0 ' . .

5 0 P I -

Arrangements Act (by which the federal' government transferred fundsto the

prdvinces for post-secondary education) stimulated much of the research in

1970 and 1971. TheCouncil of (Provincial), Ministers of Education sponSored

4 7 , several studies,while the Economic Couxci1 of Canada under; oksimilar.studies \ .i.- indirectly on behalf of the fedefalYgovernment.8

. From-1951 to 1967,*the federal goyernMent hid contra uted directly O , , , i r ' ' . . .. to the financing of universitps (outaide QUebec) through th .Canadian Univer-

. - . . cities FT:ndation. The federal contribdtionyas'inCreasedubstantialiy:in

e' 1966'and then was set in 1961 at 50,per cent.of the dperafing;costs by a re-

. of, the Federal-Provincial Fiscal Arrangements Adt. By 197O the'federal (, ,goveriment was seeking a method to constrain its coAtributioft and,the proWInces

. #. wereavoLueto maintain both the federal revenue` and, provincial autonomy:in 16- :. 4\ . edUcatidn: The basic provisions ofthe 1467 ,Act were extended (witha limit, d, . (-- a - , , _ onannual increases in the federal Contribution) with a consequent decline of 7) '1: . . _ . - A 'T.-interest in .further . research on alternatives foror impliCations of educational . , wii finanelhg. - . . , , . . . .

( , _ Reasons for the decline id interest and dutptivcan be easoly summar- 7 i v .... 0 . / , ized: health and energy became more impoitant public issues, government policy _- z A . . ''* .. emphasis shifted from social services to supporting private ..sector improvements,.. . , .

. :thefederal government's financial support for post- secondary becadie so indirect

that there,segied to'be little reson to sponsor related research, and -

. , . . ,.. . partly-ss.iesult and partly by:coincidence - academic researchers mooed to

r\. . ,

.- . other coUntries, other organilations,ror other researqh interests.

.. e .., S

I , - , 0, 9 "I 6 , .3 e . .;:-. -

c. Mat Was Researched?

The topics-addressedby researchers in Canadawere thesame asthose

.treated elseWhere: resou'ce allocation, and particularly returns to invest- .

sent in higher education; vroductivity.of educational institutions; alternative'

modes fOr financing institutions and students, together with the redistributive

effects of these; some determinants of demand'for places; and rationalization

of the supply of places through educational and manpower planning. Ne

\ . .Economic'retuins to post-secondary education in Canadawere calcula-7.

. ted (including work prior to 1971) byDrummond, Podoluk, Wilkinson, Dodge,' 4 4 'Stager, Mehmet, the 'Systems Research Group and the Economic 6ouncil of,Catuida.9

I I Mehmet updated his calculations using 1972 data and'Holme&Ilater estimated .. the returns to.education'based, on:196-7 earnings data from the StatsCan

CbisumerFinance Survey. The rates ofsoeturn were generally found to be

higher than !Of either 'thee United States.or' Great Britain, butone needs tobe

cautious in offering and testing hypotheses for these differences. Comay

/ .- . et al showed:the effect of individuals' risk aversion-and failure fates on

i n riVate rates of retukti.. The,mose recent work in this area, by Welland, has

beendirected,to refining the relationship between schooliig and earning.

Resources allocation has also been addressed from the cost side b.

*Una (without taking the-value of output into account) through, a wide range,

of Studies, fiom in4priduil institutions to the napional'university syatm. 0 , . , Rettich's 1971 analysis of the productivity of Canadian universities 1956

to 1968 shows the Leend in real costs of universitroutput measured as

degrees aaddiplomas. 0th4r coa studies - especially for provincial systemi-

/were compared by P.-P. Proulx early in the decade when so many* such studies r

werelindertaken. The relative costs ofalteraative structures were also esti-

mated, is in the report by Woods Gordon and Co. on a potential year-round

operation of universities. Most institutions have developed planning models, r but few have been published; the model recently reported. by Griew is an excep-

O c tion. Similarly, the Smith and ChOudhrY analysis of faculty salaries and

productivity' is an example of work that ought to have appeared earlier,and more

frequently.

The economic studies of.demand for education have overlapped with

_sociological investigations Qf "accessibility" which are repOrted elsewhere. o Crean's dissertation showed the importance of foregone earnings - a-major component

of edScational costs - in determiding the demand for education, while

Schaasfma's,dissertation examined the effecton demand (or enrolment) of

temveral socio-economicvariales assreported.in the 1961 census. Hands and

,Skolnick reviewed a number-of American and Canadian reports on demand - . emphasizing the estimated elasticitycoefficients for price (or tuition fee)

and family income. Prokash.related his/study of demand to the inter-govern-.

mental arrangements for financing post - secondary education.

ti Dodge{ and Swan reported a survey of Queen's University students

whichihowed considerable differences aMongstudents in the accuracy of the

information on which their educational decisions were based. Melts

ical series on degrees granted, by lieldof.study, shows how the composition

of demand for university education has changed in the postwar period.

Much less effort was directed to research on the redistributive

effects Of educational. finance, despite the emphasts on incomeredistribution

in the 1960s. The interprovincial redistributive effects of the 1967 fiscal

1 8

'4. transfers arrangement were reported both bS Stager aneby the Economic Council/ .

staff. Ofore recently, interpersonal redistribution was analyzed by Crean, 4 , Mthmet, and Buttrick..

Alternative arrangements for financing higher education hade received

proportionately more attention than in the United States or-the United Kingdom 4 due to the continuing dilemma of federal responsibility'for manpoWer, economic

development, and regional'equity and the piovincial responsibility for educa-

tion. Graham and Cameron have carefullydocumented the implications of.the

1967-1977 fiscal arrangements including equalization payments while Leslie-111d

Davenport have examined the Mbre recent- Established Proirams Finanoe. .Very"

little attention has been directed to alternative tuition fee policies - with

the exception of Crowley's argument for free tuition - bdt an important paper

. , . on fee levels and differentiali by:Scott and Rosenbluth islto be Published

soon. Variations on,strdent loans and grants have appeared frequently,' . .

particularly in 'thereports of provincial commissions. 'Cook and Stager pub-,

lishedthe'simulated results of an income - contingent loan repayment scheme and V West evaluated the Canada Student Loan Plan and its alternatives.

The relationship between.education and manpower planning, is open to

many alternative approaches and models. Some of the difficulties and short-

comings-Mave been described by Sewell, Skolnick, Holland, Stager and Mtltz,

and others, but fundamentalanalysis has been lacking. Varioui7Siiiveys of L graduates - for example, byHarvey and bOtatistics Canada - have recorded

the occupational destination of these graduates but the models required fo.

. Y , . .,:, analysis.and policy still lack either the demand or 1upply side,of the market.

The Ministry of State for Science and Technology and the Technical Manpower

Council have used the Ecnnorc Council's CANDIDE model to generate demand . 9 9

- 8

... ,

: , . . . estimates, but th `ere are no Complementary supply equatiOnswhich take relative

.. . salaries into account: Von Zur-Muehlen has produced severalpapers - - , oh% especially on doctoral graduates and on graduates of businessprograms - 4 0 .1 presenting data on the numbers andchiracteristics ofpersons involved but .. . :.,

. almoSt no analytical work has been doneon .these and other data available from 1 . 4 0 , Statisties'Canada. The richast'data set of this kind was the 1973survey of

S'-' Highly Qulified Manpower based onithe:1971 census.respondents whohad a 9 . University degree. Alhough Ahamad et al did preliminary analytical wOik.o'n'

/ thisdata set,'ii has nOt'been pit:Teri)? exploited.

Current Work

Currently, much of the research effort is at the institutional and

provincial level, with emphasis on the flow of persons_ through the system.;

'This, includes the'development of numerous forecasting models to predict-G'' a . 4 enrolments according'to program of faculty, institution, and proVince. With

09/ the dip, in post - secondary, enrolments in 1972 and the financial sque4eon .

lAstitutions, educational administrators recognized the inadequacystetheir

enrolment forecasts. It also becade necessary to survey the employment exper-

ience of their graduates - both to counteract-the popular notion of high en-

employment among graduates and to increase the data for enrolment forecasts

',011the (cbrrect) assumption that Prospective students monitored the graduates'

labour markete.

. Another recent research innovation has been an of the

'economic impact Of educational institutilona on their geographical communities

(for examplef the UhiveiSities of Calgary; Manitoba, and Viotoria). Inbtitu-

tidhs hav also continued to developtheir micro - planning capability using f a .,""'

- 9 -

computer-basedmodels of resource allocation within faculties and othe4divi=

sions of a university. In general, however, current researchactivities tend

to be more descriptive; and less analytical than the,workdone a decade, ago,

or to repeat the.earlier work with a localized dataset. s.

Looking Forward :

Even a modest menu for research efforts in thenext decade. would .2

include several topics. But first, we. need to find a method for makingsurvey

data and empirical analyses Are widely knownand more readily available.

This would include especially the Work of piovincialgovernment agencies, task

fOrces, university,planning oqices, and institutionaland faculty organizations. r An inivq newsletter produced by the "cut-paste -xerox-staple''method,

edited by a researcH assistant, fora self-financing mailinglist at $5.00

annually, would suffice. This would not replace the AMC Research Inventory or

Selected ,Bibliography or reports in the AUCC and 'WIT bulletinS;"erather,it

. , would provide prompt, regular, exceedingly briefreports on current publica- 1 , tions.e

The CJEE editorial board might also consiaer (perhaps it ha's fre-

cluently done so) including several short noteson recent reports and annotated

listings of articles published in other journals. Whilifinancial support for 4 . e . <, , the CJEE depehds on how, well 4.t functions as a scholarly journal publishing'

refereed articles of high quality, its contribution -to its, research community

could be enhanced by these addenda.

The imporkint research-topics for the 140s arise both from questiohi

generated by earlier research and from the new circumstances and problemsre-

- golfing rational policy-responses. .For some of the unanswered ancrimporiant

f t

A 4

- 10 -

questions in the economics:of higher education, it is usefulto refer to-a

reviey,of human'capital theory by Mark Blaug (who has beena major- contributor 10 to this field). Blaug notes two related areas where the published research

lalls.shoit: the demand for education, and the contribution of educationto

earnings differentials:These both are basic to an understanding of h64 and why

employers'use 'schboling credentials in hiring,, promotion,and remuneration.

. On the matter.of demand for education, ,Blaug notes that

- , ...it is surprising how little attention has actually been devoted to an explanation of the private, demand forschool - ing...,.even now (1976) the demand for education remainsa curiously neglected subject in the'vast empirichl literature

exemplifying the human -capital.approachill .

The private demand fordation as an investment good is 'a primary-compTiont Jaf manpower forecasting. models:.

...the'prohlem of developing a,satisfactory:mdel or the American labor market foi ermideers, not to mention the demand for engineering.as:h field Ptstudy, remainsunre- solved.12! 0.0 'When we consider that the priVate demand for.formal school- ° ing'is, as it wtie, at the center of the human - capital research programi the results to date begin to raise doubts.- ', as to whether the program is indeed 'progreasingt.P

. On the matter of schoolAng as a determinant. of earnings differentials, Blaug

states bluntly:

After ten years of work on'earnings functions,wala we have is a dim light, at the epd of a tunnel: ....the fact remains that no one has so far succeeded in specifying and testing the sinultaneOus'demand aid supply equations that generate 4> the earnings function, w#hout which empirical work on earnings function amountslo little more than trying to

walk pn one leg.14 .

"'A* important development 6f the past decade was the hypothesis-that 4 0 N schooling added little to one's cogpitive.skills. Rather, it served as a,sort=-

/ ing or screening mechanism to identify, persons who were most able to acquire .

12' S

the cognitive skills provided by employers. This,screening or credentialism

hjpothesis is also described succinctly by'Blaug:

The employer is...faced with a selection problem: given ' the difficulties of accurate dicting the future,per- formance of job applicants, e is tempted to treat educational qualifications as,a screening device to distinguish

4 new workers in .terms of ability, achievement, motivation; and possibly family origins...XThe contribution of ,education to economicvowth, therefore, is simply that,of providing a selectloE'device for employers, and the way is now open to consider the question of whether formal schooling is indeed themostflicient selection mechanism that we could design for that purpose.15

( , . to One of Blaug'sconcluding comments is a simpre, powerful challenge

to interdisciplinary research in higher education: "...the question is not

whether schooling explai4 earnings, but rather why.it.does."16 .

,.. . . i 6 , By now, it should be.clear thit my emphasis for proposed future

. . . 4, , I., 'directiosn ofresearch in the economics of higher educationlis on the link be-

,r' ' 'twee; educption:indearnings. Questions of alfernative arrinmilentsfor .

. Organizing instruction, and for financing the costs of higher education are

important, but the research in'these area:7;411asrun afar. ahead of political

und4Wanding. Researchers have Made their basic contributions.. Apart from

occagOtiel efforts to explain the alternatives and their implitations more

clearly, there is little to be done until the debate moves to more sophisticated

levels. There is still so much to be done, however, in fundamental research

on the acquisition and-substitutability of skills, on the determinants of

employment interne, and the linkages betweenthese lactors and private,

dualcaree;d1t4slons,public polity decisions on,provislon of post-secondary

placei, anethe development ofillternative training and/or screening mechanisms.

These basic issuesare not likely to attract tie interest of government ciepart-

vents, agencies, task forces, and commissions. Consequently, progress

13 )

ss.

- 124-

--/ especiallyin the Canadian context onresearch inthese-areas can be ekpected /

to be slow,trratic, and responsive primarily to international advancesin

this field.

lop

4 as

14 Notes ,

economists' folk-lore --usuallyattributed to 1. This quotation is-part of .Jacob Viner - but with noappaient source.

but is the journal devoted tohigher 2. This is hot a Canadian journal education in which economists are mostlikely to seek publication. ,

in tha AUCC Inventoryfor any year.with 3: ;Compare the research reported the published work. in the U.'S. and See Edward F. Denison,The'Sources of ,Economic Growth 4. Economic Development, the Alternatives Before Us,New York: 'Committee for American Economic . 1962; T. W. Schultz,"Investment in Human Capital," Review, March, 1961

schooling) See, for example, Taubmanand Wales (ability for

6. See, far example, JacobMincer,

Bibliography by Grehad anameron,Downey, Peitdhinis, 7. See items in the Tu, Stager, andSheehan. (Proulx was published in French.)

(1972) of the EconomicCounCil of Canada; 8. See the Eiglith'Anpual Review collectiori edited by SylviaOstry (1972), as director ' also papers in tAq o the Economic Council., -

, . : , resourceallocation'in ry ofthese studiesis in Seager's ptper on 9. .A s Seventies. Sylvia Ostry (ed.), CanadianHigher. Eduoetion in the .

Capital Theory: A Slightly - JaundicedSurvey,"' 10. 'Mark Blaug, "ffuman Journal of Economic Literature,1976. - 11. Ibid., p. 831. .

,12. ibid., p. 836." L 13. Ibid.,

14. Ibid., p. 845.

15. Ibid., p. 846.

-.16. Ibid., p.848. Bibliography

Ahamid).Bashir, et al. Deeee-holders,in Canada: An Analysis of the aghly.gualified Manpower Survey of 1973. Ottawa: Secretary of State, 1979. Air

Alberta.Task Force to Review Students' Contributionsto the Costs of Post-secondary Education. .Report. Edmonton: Queen's. Printer,

Boyd, A.A. and A.C. Gross.Educationand Jobs. Special Study No. 28, Science Council of Canada. Ottawa: Information Canada, 1973.

Buttrick, John A. Who Gdes.to University. from Torontd?Working Paper --No. 1/77. Toronto: Ontario EconomiO CounEil, 1977.

.- Educational Problems in Ontario and Some Policy Options, Occ. Paper 4. Toronto: Ontario Economic Council, 1977.

Canada, Ministry of.. State for Science and Technology. Research Manpower' Requirements arising from Accelerated Expenditureson R & D. (working paper) April 1980.

. Supply .of Research TrainedPersonnel- A Regional Analysis. (working paper) May 1980.

Colvin, J.A.,' "Higher eduCation and manpower need's," Canadian Journal of , Higher Education, Vol. 9(2) 1979, 87-94.

Cook, Gail C.A. and David Stager,."Student Aid: A Proposal and Its ImplicaS4ons," Canadian tax Journal;,XIXJ 6) 1971, 558-564;

Camay, Y., A. Melnik and M.A. Pollatschek, "Dropout risks, option values, and returns to investment in schooling," Canadian Journalof Economics,. Vol. 41) February 1976, 45-56. : 4 . 0 0 Commission of Inquiry on Educational Leave and Productivity. Report: Education and Working Canadians. Ottawa: LaboUr Cahada, 1979.

Crean, John F. "Forgone earnings and the demand for education: some empirical evidence," Canadian Journal of Economics, Vol. NI (1) 1973,

, "The income redistributive effects of public spending on higher educatidn," Journal of Human Resources, Vol, -IO(1) Winter, 1975, 116123. ti Crowley, Ronald W.. "Xowards free post-secondary education," Journal of Canadian Studies, VIII(3) August 1973, 43 -57.

Davenport, Paul; "Federal Funding of University Education," in DJ M. Nowlan and Richard Bellair (eds.) Financing Canadian Universities: 'ForWhom? I By.Whom2Toronto: 0.T.S.E. Press,°for.'ihe Institute for Policy Analysis and the Canadian Association of University, Teachers (forthcoming 1981).

f 1 6 ) Bibliography

Ahamad, Bashir, et at Degree- hOldeks in Canada: -An Analysis of the Highly QualifiedManpower Survey of 1973. Ottawa: Secretary of State, 1979.

4P Alberta. Task Fence to Review Students' ConiribUtionsto theCosts of Post-secondary Education. Report. Edmonton: Queen's Printer, 1978. ti poyd, A.D. and A.C. Gross". EducatiOn.and Jobs. Special Study No. 28, Science Council of Canada Ottawa: Information Canada, 1973.

Buttrick, John A. Who Goes 'to iJiveisity from Toronto? Working Paper No. 1/77. Toronto: !' Ontario Economic Council, 1977.

. Educational Problems in Ontario and Some Policy Options, 0cc. Paper 4. Toronto: 'Ontario Economic Council, 1977.

Canada, Ministry of for Science and Technology. Research Manpower Requirements arisingrom Accelerated Expenditures on R & D. (working paper) Apr 1980.

Supply of 'Research Trained rsonnel -.A Regional Analysis. (workift paper)

May 1980. .

Colvin, J.4.,"Higher education anamanPower needs," Canadian Journal of Highek Education, Vol. 9(7).1979i 87-94. 2, Cook, Gail C.A. and'David Stager, "Student Aid: .A4Prop2sal and Its - Implications," Canadian Tax Journal, XIX (6) 1971, 558 -564:

Coma .Y., A. Melnik and,M.A. Pollatschek, "DropOut risks, option values,, and returns to investment in schooling,4Tanadian: Journal of Economics, Vol. 9(1).February 1976, 45-56. \ .

Commission of Inquiry on Educational Leave and Productivity. ,Report: Education and Working Canadians. Ottawa: Labour Canada, 1979.

Crean, John,F. Forgone earnings an hand for edUcation: some . . empirical evidence," Canadian of.EcOnomics,.Vol. VI (1) 1973, 23=42. -4

, The ieCome-iedistributiveefjects of public spending on higher education," Journal of Human Resources, Vol;' 10(1) Winter, '975,.116 -123. .' ) Ciowley, Ronald W.. "Towards freepost-secondary education,",Journal of Canadian Studies, VIII(3) August 1973, 43-57.

Davenport, Paul, "Federal Funding of University Education,' in D. M. Nowlan and Richard Bellair (ed's.) Financin& Canadian Universities: For Whom? By.Whom?Toronto; Press, forEhe Institute for Policy Analysis andthe Canadian Association of University Teacheri (forthcoming 1981, a

$ % Dodge, David A., "Occupational Wage Differentials, OccupationalLicensing, and Returns to Investment in Higher Education: An Exploratory Analysis," _.fn Sylvia Ostry (ed.) Canadian Higher Educationin the Seventies. Ottawd,:i Information Canada, 1972, 133-176:

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