An Analysis of Burke, Paine, and Wollstonecraft
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Defining the Natural Rights of Man: An Analysis of Burke, Paine, and Wollstonecraft Lindsay Kohl University of North Carolina at Greensboro Faculty Mentor: Joseph Moore University of North Carolina at Greensboro ABSTRACT Many texts and writing appeared in response to the violence and political upheaval of the French Revolution in the eighteenth century. Edmund Burke, Thomas Paine, and Mary Wollstonecraft were three specific writers of this period that engaged in a dialogue about where the natural rights of man were derived and the limits and responsibilities of governments to their people. Their beliefs were very diverse, but they held much in common as well. Revolution was not always the immediate answer, but at certain critical times in society it could be helpful and even necessary to the protection and preservation of man’s natural rights. ways to recognize and protect these rights. s the French Revolution took place in These three writers work to recognize Athe late eighteenth century, a myriad the inadequacies within the political of texts and writing appeared in response systems of Britain and America as they to the violence and political upheaval. concerned the natural rights of man. Among some of the most notable and Burke employed a practical approach in compelling writers were Edmund Burke, writing Reflections on the Revolution in France in Thomas Paine, and Mary Wollstonecraft. 1790. He wanted to put his concern for Their opinions and rhetoric, encompassing the people of Britain in writing, based on everything from the monarchial system his reaction to the events in France. Paine to class and gender issues, are still drawn answered Burke’s musings with a text of his upon today when discussions arise about own in 1791, Rights of Man. His theories the origins of modern political thought. centered on a more straightforward radical Each of them carries a particular set of ideology, and he attacked Burke’s support beliefs about revolution and its proper of the English monarchy and defended place and function in society. The his own ideas of Republican government. diversity of their ideas can be bridged by Wollstonecraft’s A Vindication of the Rights of the theory that all humans are entitled Men, and A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, to certain natural rights. However, their published in 1790 and 1792, respectively, individual interpretations concerning were a justification and defense of the origin of the natural rights of man natural human rights, with a unique set contrast, and they disagree on the best of revelations regarding the education 68 Lindsay Kohl of women and their role in society. disruptive nature of the French Revolution. Born in 1729 in Ireland, Edmund Burke His intention was to warn the people of was the son of Protestant and Catholic England against being swept up in the parents. He eventually went to London same type of passionate, yet catastrophic in 1750 to study law. He was a Whig movement that was corrupting France. politician deeply invested in the political Reflections on the Revolution in France was a life in Britain. He viewed revolution as a provocative text because it took up the subject kind of obligation to repair some of the of the French Revolution and rhetorically grievances present in society, but he drew exhausted it. Burke was sentimental in his issue with the violence and anarchy of the views of the monarchy and reacted to the French Revolution. He endorsed positive revolution with gravity and contempt. His examples such as the Glorious Revolution, political theories are impressive in that his which helped England to essentially trade beliefs remained intense and direct through kings while still keeping many accustomed nearly 250 pages of what began simply practices of government intact, and the as a letter. He claims that the hereditary American Revolution, which successfully privilege of the monarchy and aristocracy delivered the Americans from British are the foundation for governmental and oppression with significantly less violence religious order and believes these principles than what he believed France was complement his ideas about inherited experiencing. Fundamentally, governments natural rights: were responsible for responding to the practical needs of the people that they [Men] have a right to the acquisitions of their governed, but what was occurring in parents; to the nourishmentand improvement of their France was a damaging abuse of nature. offspring; to instruction in life, and to consolation Rather than moderately amending in death. Whatever each man can separately do, traditional practices, the people were without trespassing upon others, he has a right to do placing all of their confidence in untested for himself; and he has a right to a fair portion of and unproven theories. He saw the French all which society, with all its combinations of skill Revolution as chaotic and unpredictable, and force, can do in his favour. In this partnership because the “swinish multitude”1 was more all men have equal rights; but not to equal things.3 concerned with their individual liberties than respecting or adhering to custom. When examining Burke’s view of natural Burke’s theories supported belief that rights in the context of this passage, it is the way things are in the present can not be obvious that he favors an idea synonymous understood by simply taking them at face with the common proverb: “Give a man value. History and precedent are important a fish and he will eat for a day. Teach a contributors to society, and they must be man to fish and he will feed himself for a taken into consideration in order to better lifetime.” He was horrified by the idea of comprehend the needs of the people. For seizure and had sympathy for those who him, provoking the current state of affairs is were deprived of their rank and fortune dangerous. He bitterly asserts: “Massacre, during the progression of the revolution. torture, hanging! These are your rights of For Burke, land equaled freedom. men!”2 He was opposed to the brutality and Therefore, the protection of property is also a protection of liberty. Titles of 1 Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in nobility, religious distinctions, and the France (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 79. 2 Ibid., 223. 3 Ibid., 59. 69 Explorations | Humanities preservation of Christianity offered stability views through essays and pamphlets. in British society. Burke felt this would all Paine's writings provide the antithesis to be threatened if the ideas of the French Burke’s doctrine. As one of America’s most Revolution made their way into England. famous revolutionaries, he advocated that, Burke states that, “by preserving the although revolution is often agitated and method of nature in the conduct of the violent, it is essential to prevent tyranny. state, in what we improve we are never Pain saw Burke’s ideas as being unfounded, wholly new; in what we retain we are maintaining that, “he does not understand 4 never wholly obsolete.” He felt that the French revolution.”6 He felt that the adhering to historical precedent is the minds of the people in France had been safest way to ensure the preservation long since made up about what needed to of culture. Improvement is welcome as happen, and it was just a matter of time long as it does not disrupt the natural before their actions caught up with their order of things, and holding true to basic thoughts. Paine also stated, “[Burke] is not principles of the past does not necessarily affected by the reality of distress touching mean that the government would be his heart, but by the showy resemblance out-dated. This is best demonstrated in of it striking his imagination. He pities the his view of the monarchy and privilege: plumage, but forgets the dying bird.”7 Paine viewed Burke as being overly concerned You will observe, that from Magna Charta to the with the preservation of established Declaration of Rights, it has been the uniform policy traditions, and blind to the need for reform. of our constitution to claim and assert our liberties, His argument against Burke in this sense as an entailed inheritance derived to us from our is valid: Burke believed that government forefathers, and to be transmitted to our posterity was a basic and natural progression from […] By this means our constitution preserves traditions and institutions, which were not an unity in so great a diversity of its parts. We to be manipulated. have an inheritable crown; an inheritable peerage; The legitamacy of hereditary monarchy an house of commons and a people inheriting is one example of Paine and Burke’s privileges, franchises, and liberties, from a long line differences at the most fundamental level: 5 of ancestors. Mr. Burke talks about what he calls an hereditary Burke saw human beings as being crown, as if it were some production of Nature; or discerning and capable, but also as creatures as if, like Time, it had a power to operate, not only of habit. He sought to uphold timeless independently, but in spite of man; or as if it were values and structures of government in a thing or a subject universally consented to. Alas! order to keep a sense of balance and It has none of those properties, but is the reverse of cohesion within society. Natural rights, them all. It is a thing in imagination, the propriety to Burke, were in every sense prescriptive of which is more than doubted, and the legality of and determined by estate and inheritance. which in a few years will be denied.8 Thomas Paine was born in 1737 in Great Britain as the son of a Quaker farmer.