TAMAR SHIOSHVILI Some Aspects of Managing Diversity in the U.S...... 5 MAIA KUTATELADZE Language Definition and its Relation with Culture ...... 10 SALOME GVICHIANI Obesity as a Social and Health Problem in the U.S...... 21 ELENE SHENGELIA Women Assuming a New Role during World War II (Rosie the Riveter)……...... 29 NINO CHAVCHAVADZE The Role of the U.S. in Establishing Democratic Principles in Georgia - on the Example of Georgian 2012 Parliamentary Elections ...... 34 SVETLANA DEMURCHEVA Accents and Dialects of America ...... 41 NINO DANELIA The Beginning of the U.S-Georgian Cooperation in the Areas of Politics and Education ...... 52 MARIAM ZARNADZE Marriage Traditions in the U.S. and in Georgia ...... 59 MARIANA MIKADZE Human Political and Social Aspects of Animal Care in America ...... 65 IRINA BAKHTADZE NINO ELBAKIDZE The US–Cuba Economic Relationships Since 1990s...... 71

SECTION II: Literature and Women's Issues

SALOME GOGBERASHVILI Power of Women Voters in American Politics in the Last Decade ...... 80

KETEVAN ANTELAVA American Women Philanthropists: From Decorative Arts to Avant-garde ...... 87 GEORGE SHADURI Ivan Turgenev and Henry James: the Epistolary Legacy ...... 94 TAISIA MUZAFAROVA Left without Future: A Comparison of Dystopian Novels by Ray Bradbury and George Orwell………103 TAMAR KOBESHAVIDZE Modern Interpretations of Holden Caulfield Portrayal (J.D. Salinger’s Novel The Catcher in the Rye)……….……...... 109 ELISO PATSKAVA On Publication of “Ulysses” in “The Little Review”...... 117 MAKVALA (BAIA) KOGUASHVILI New Journalism in American Literature – Tradition or Innovation...... 123 NATIA KVACHAKIDZE Thematic Parallels between Sherwood Anderson’s “Winesburg, Ohio” and John Updike’s “Olinger Stories” ...... 129 NATALIA IMEDASHVILI William Somerset Maugham on Classic American Literature ...... 136 ELENE MEDZMARIASHVILI Kennedy Administration Policy in Women Issues ...... 143

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics

INGA KAZARIAN Rouhani’s Foreign Policy: Diplomacy is Possible? ...... 151 TEA CHUMBURIDZE Racism against Native Americans: A Look at the Bottom ...... 158 NINO GIORGADZE The most Popular Fashion Magazines in the U.S.A (Cosmo, Vogue, Glamour)………………………..166 NINO BARIKHASHVILI Rap Music, the Voice to the Voiceless ...... 178 NINO GAMSAKHURDIA Abraham Lincoln Phenomenon ...... 186

American Dichotomies: WCW, Descriptivists, and Reality Television

JAMES DEWEY

The first time I encountered the poem “This is Just to Say” by William Carlos Williams, I was in Dr. Kimberly Johnson’s creative writing class at Brigham Young University. She asked us, “What makes this a poem?” Since then, I have re-read the poem many times and enjoyed asking that same question. The poem reads like a note from a husband (Williams?) to his wife, apologizing—albeit non-apologetically—for having “eaten/ the plums/ that were in/ the icebox.” In Johnson’s class, some of my fellow students said it was definitely a poem. They pointed to the syllabic structure in the three stanzas (12-12-13), the ambiguous title, the tongue-in-cheek humor, and the uniquely American cadence. Other members of the class said what looks like a poem, lives in a poetry book, and was written by a poet must be a poem. Still other students said it isn’t a poem at all. Whatever you think that particular text is or is not, it is definitely memorable—and it is definitely American. Physician and writer William Carlos Williams—often referred to by his initials “WCW”—was born September 17, 1883, in Rutherford, New Jersey, and he died there on March 4, 1963. Originally associated with Ezra Pound and the Imagist movement, Williams later rejected that school and blazed his own poetic path. Known for writing poems on his doctor’s pad between house calls, Williams observed America come into its own and he wrote sometimes political, sometimes confessional lyric. In his choice of language, he strove for a uniquely American idiom which he described as “language modified by our environment, the American environment.” Williams bemoaned T.S. Eliot’s The Wasteland which, he said, “returned us to the classroom just at the moment when I felt we were on a point to escape to matters much closer to the essence of a new art form itself—rooted in the locality which should give it fruit.” Contemporary with Williams, Pound, and Eliot was the so-called Descriptivism movement in the field of linguistics. Instead of telling people how to speak in a “proper” way (Prescriptivism), linguists became more and more interested in describing how people speak and why. One of my favorite examples of a fictional Prescriptivist in action is Henry Higgins, a character from the 1965 Broadway musical My Fair Lady based on the stage play Pygmalion by George Bernard

 Cultural Affairs Officer at the United States Embassy in Georgia, Tbilisi.

Shaw (which in turn was based on Ovid’s Metamorphoses). What the Higginses of the last century abhorred as language degeneration, the new wave of Descriptivists saw as language change (and progress?) in action. Where the Prescriptivist played the role of all-knowing Editor, the Descriptivist looked at language as a natural phenomenon that should be studied in its native element—wherever and whatever that might be. The Prescriptivist called the written grammars king, but the Descriptivists proclaimed a linguistic democracy where the native speaker had a voice in determining what could and couldn’t be said. So why not grab the note on the refrigerator and call it a poem? In the American television show Survivor, the elements described above start to bleed together in a popular format. The participants’ daily speech is held up as worthy of framing—in this case through a camera lens— and recording and viewing. The show claims to draw on the ideas of Descriptivists by calling itself a “reality show.” The language is real, the emotions seem real, and the injuries are definitely real. But is this really about survival? The contestants are acutely aware that the show is a game and they speak directly to the cameras. A medical team is constantly on hand to assist. And perhaps most strikingly, the all-seeing Editor decides back-to- front which reality the viewer experiences. All of this begs the question: which part of this framed reality is really real? The American reality is one of constant dichotomy. It is both the plain idiom of Williams and the sophisticated mystery of Eliot. It is imbued with influences both Prescriptive and Descriptive. It is the reality show—and the real people watching the show.

References: 1. Ferguson, Salter, and Stallworthy (ed.), (2005). Norton Anthology of Poetry 2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Carlos_Williams 3. William Carlos Williams, (copyright 1962). “This is Just To Say”

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues

Some Aspects of Managing Diversity in the U.S.

TAMAR SHIOSHVILI

The United States is becoming more culturally diverse and the great majority of workers joining the labor force are minorities, immigrants and woman. According the report of the Hudson Institute on work and workers for the twenty-first century (Workforce 2000) non-whites, women, and immigrants will make up more than five- sixths of the workforce in the nearest future. (Johnson, 1987, p. 8) In 1997, nearly one in ten people in the U.S. was foreign-born, the highest rate in more than fifty years. In proportional terms, the foreign-born accounted for 9.3 percent of the total U.S. population, well below the high mark of 14.7 percent in 1910, but almost double the rate since the low point in 1970 and continuing an upward trend since then. Hispanic Americans will replace African Americans as the largest minority group by 2050, when there will be almost as many minorities as non-Hispanic whites, according to the U.S. Census Bureau. (Branigin, 1997) The following question frequently arises: how do these minorities integrate with the American society? For some, the workplace has to follow the so-called “melting pot” principle, although nowadays it’s evident that melting pot has been a myth. Instead of throwing their culture into a common pot and changing the composition of the brew, immigrants customarily tried to fit into the ‘cookie cutter mold” of the dominant culture to integrate into the so-called mainstream. There has always been a dominant culture with outlined structure of relevant values, beliefs, behavioral norms, ways of thinking and perceiving. (Schwarz, pp. 471-479) “Cookie cutter is associated with a white, male, Protestant, Anglo-Saxon mold. According Gary R. Weaver during the formative years of the U.S., Americans wanted to be isolated from other cultures. It is very difficult for Americans to understand how the personalities of others are

 Prof. Dr., Dean of the Faculty of Education and Humanities, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues shaped by their culture because so few Americans are aware of the influence of their own culture on their personalities. They often fail to evaluate how one is affected by cultural experiences. This fits nicely with a philosophy of political and economic liberalism, individualism, self- reliance and independence. (Weaver, 1988) According observers from the above-mentioned Hudson Institute, the mainstream cookie- cutter mold is reflected in workplace as well. Those who have promoted to management and supervisory positions have normally been white males or those who easily could adapt to the shape of the mainstream mold and that there is a “glass ceiling” above which minorities and women could not rise. According their data over 95% of all top executives in the private and public sectors are white males. This glass ceiling has hardly cracked in the past two decades of the 20th century. In the 1970s and 1980s, due to increasing number of women entering the workforce, many companies offered “assertiveness training” courses. They were never meant for men, but were particularly for women. The presumption idea was that women were not assertive enough to survive in the workplace. So, if they could be trained to act like men, they could become quite competent workers, managers and supervisors. They might even become executives. Exactly this is “cookie cutterism”. In some organizations, Asians make up quite a number of gifted workers, although only few make it to managerial positions. Often the bosses have argument that “they are too passive”, or the basic sense is that Asians are unlike white mainstream American males. For many supervisors “managing diversity” aims at helping minorities to become like mainstream Americans. According the critics of the ‘cookie cutterism’ this demand will make supervision easier, but on the other hand productivity and creativity will decrease. I don’t quite agree with this criticism concerning productivity, as every production process has its specific requirements, demands for both mainstream and minority workers. To me, in this case precisely productivity level will suffer less. If every worker sets his/her own working schedule and style, this might negatively impact the mass productivity efficacy in the era of globalization, where the economic ties are so greatly intertwined. Mainstream folk frequently self-righteously endorse the melting pot myth with assertion, such as: “My Grandpa Stravinski came to the country at the beginning of the 20th century – an

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues illiterate Polish Jew who couldn’t even speak English. He worked very hard in the factory and reached the live standard when his every grandchild graduated from College. Why can’t blacks and Puerto Ricans do the same thing? It puts forward the implication, that if Grandpa Stravinski could reach the middle class level, all others could do likewise, except if simply they did not have the determination to do so. Those who could not enter the mainstream did not want to and were responsible for their own difficulty, problems in the American society. However the question arises: did Stravinski and his immigrant family simply melt into the pot? If he was typical of many Jews coming at the turn of the century, he may have limited the public practice of his Jewish faith to blend into the Protestant community. At the same time there was a great deal of open anti-Semitism during those days.

Migration from Eastern Europe, 1881-1924 In 1880 perhaps one-sixth of the 250,000 American Jews were immigrants from Eastern Europe. Forty years later they and their children made-up about five-sixths of the 4 million Jews in the United States. One-third of eastern European Jewry left their homes during those decades, and over 90 percent of them came to the United States. (Thernstrom, 1980) This largest of Jewish population movements radically changed the demography, social structure, cultural life, and communal order of American Jewry. Several factors caused this mass exodus. A high birthrate and comparatively low death rate increased the Jewish population of eastern Europe from approximately 1.2 million in 1800 to 6.8 million in 1900, all from the confining pales enclosed area by fence or boundary. Seventy-five percent of the immigrants were from Russian Pale, which consisted of the 15 western provinces of European Russia and the 10 provinces of Russian held Poland. Economic and social changes upset the Jewish vocational structure and stimulated departure. In the 1870’s industrialization and modern agriculture began to discharge the petty merchants, paddlers, artisans, teamsters, innkeepers. After the assassination of Tsar Alexander II in 1881, the new regime introduced policies that encouraged mob violence. Programs in 1880 in 1881 and 1882 struck over 200 Jewish communities and ushered in three decades of anti-Jewish outburst. An economic policy of pauperization – the infamous Laws of 1882- included the expulsion of the Jews from villages and rural centers and severe restriction on their trade in the cities.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues The banishment of 20 000 Jews from Moscow in 1891 was followed by similar actions in St. Petersburg and Kharkov, the Kishinev Pogrom of 1903, the Russo-Japanese War, more pogroms in 1905, and the 1905 Revolution, all of which hastened emigration. Jewish immigration rose from over 200 000 in the 1880s to 300 000 in the 1890s. The peak year was 1906, when 152 000 Jews entered the country. Data from 1899 to 1914 indicate that the immigrants were generally young people who intended to settle permanently workers. The Jewish immigration deviated from the norm in occupational distribution. Of the gainfully employed 64 percent were skilled workers. Probably 60 percent of American Jews could be found in the northeast corridor from Boston to Baltimore, and another 30 percent in the main urban centers of the Midwest. The approximate proportion of Jews in the population of these cities in 1920 was New York (26 percent), Cleveland and Newark (13 percent each), Philadelphia (11 percent), Boston, Baltimore, and Pittsburg (10 percent each), Chicago (9 percent), St. Louis (7 percent), and Detroit (6 percent). A newcomer’s immediate need was a job. Most often he found it in the industries in the Jewish quarter, especially in the clothing industry. In 1900 one out of every three Russian Jews employed in the major cities made his living in some branch of the garment trades. A high degree of specialization in production allowed the immigrants to quickly master subspecialty, corresponding with his experience and physical stamina. Small contractor recruited their own labor forces and organized production in the lofts (attics) and tenement flats of the Jewish quarter. Other ghetto industries were the tobacco and cigar industry, and home construction, many were bakers. The slaughtering and dressing of meat became Jewish industries. The newcomers who were religiously Orthodox transplanted their institutions and way of life with difficulty. The failure to recreate an authoritative religious leadership was important element in the deterioration of the Orthodox community, revealing itself most critically in the decline of the rabbinate. In Eastern Europe the rabbi’s duties originated from his skill in explaining the religious law that regulated Jewish civil life. He also served as arbiter of public institutions, and scholar-teacher. In the United States his communal role shrank. Highly responsible function of settling judicial procedure of divorce cases now belonged to the state

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues courts. At best the rabbi was employed in the congregation that gave him no security, sparse wages, and little authority. Most immigrant synagogues neither had the funds, nor had the need for a rabbi. The usual form of elementary schooling in Eastern Europe was the heder, a class for boys of mixed ages, which met from early morning to dusk at home of the teacher. Girls received no formal schooling, though some were instructed privately. The curriculum emphasized reading the preybook in Hebrew, and for more advanced, studying Biblical commentaries. In the United States the heder became a supplementary school that children attended after public-school hours, as there were no more communal restraints, it soon deteriorated. The eagerness with which the immigrant parents encompassed the public school, indicated a new set of priorities. The free state school promised material and improvement of social condition; parental exhortions to the young to find success in the secular world heightened the conflict between the traditional culture and American way. The immigrant parents understood that the better their children learned English without an identifiable accent, the quicker they moved into the mainstream culture. Even many typical Jews coming at the turn of the 20th century felt the necessity of suspending the public practice of their Jewish faith to blend into the cookie-cutter of Protestant community.

References:

1. Branigin, W. (1997). The Washington Post, 18 (A) 2. Gary R. Weaver, G.R. (1988). “Facing the Cultural Crisis in Child Care. Child and Youth Care Work 4”, University of Wisconsin 3. Johnson, W. B. (1987). “Workforce 2000: Executive Summary, Indianapolis: Hudson Institute”, Inc., p. 8 4. Schwarz, B., “The Diversity Myth: America’s Leading Export”, pp. 471-479 5. Thernstrom, S. (1980). “Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups”, Cambridge, England

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues

Language Definition and its Relation with Culture

MAIA KUTATELADZE

Abstract The article provides the ideas and definition of a language as a subject of Linguistics of various scientists and is an attempt to figure the different definition in connection to culture. The article along with the definition gives short overview of each definition, defines the each constituent of the definitions and is an attempt to find the justification of each definition. With the help of comparative studies the article attempts to reveal the strong and weak points in each definition. The main idea of an article is to find the connection of the language with the culture and to reflect that relationship in the definition of the language. Finally it provides the definition which is presumed to be the collection of nearly all strong features along with the additional feature – relation with culture.

Keywords: articulated signs, behaviorism, culture, language acquisition device, language, response and stimuli, linguistics, sociolinguistics, theory of linguistics

 Ph.D. Student, Faculty of Education and Humanities, Direction of American Studies, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues

Language Definition and its Relation with Culture

MAIA KUTATELADZE

People, all over the world, need to communicate with each other, the main communication mean is language, but it is not easy to define the language itself. Main function of the language is assumed to be the expressiveness; however expressiveness of ideas does not only imply the verbal communication. You can express yourself by gesticulation or just in written form. Communication cannot be fulfilled only by expressing oneself, the respond is also necessary, that means that similar symbols should be familiar to both sides and that symbols should carry the same meaning for both sides as well to establish successful communication. A lot of scientists tried to explain and define a language but still there is not unique agreed definition for language. The science which studies language and every peculiarity within language is called Linguistics. Primary subject of Linguistics is defined as understanding of human language, its structure and its nature. However, Linguistics does not exclude animals’ ability of communication but it really questions their communication abilities be defined as a language. According to Nebieridze, Animals do not have ability of reasoning and they are deprived the ability of segmentation of sounds, they acts instinctively, while “human behavior is under the voluntary control, and human language is creative and unpredictable.” (Hedeager, 2012). The concept – Language – can not only been referred to human and animal ability of communication or expressiveness, modern technological and scientific development caused the creation of some other communication system called the language as well: those are: notation and calculation widely used by mathematicians, logicians and computer scientists. Along this, a word “language” in combination with “body” and “sign” is used to express other sets of communication system. As mentioned above, these are artificial and non-natural languages what prevent them being leveled with the natural languages of humankind. (Lyons, 2002).

 Ph.D. Student, Faculty of Education and Humanities, Direction of American Studies, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues Linguistics as science has long history and it dates back to ancient times. Firstly, linguists tried to register some language units to get general idea about the language functioning, later; they tried to find common ground among languages and they succeeded. However, linguists can never sit still, due to the fact that language is living body. It undergoes different changes and alters its face from time to time. Progress of globalization and advancement of technologies enabling people of different nationalities and different culture to communicate with each other that promoted transferring of different words from one language to another with or without adjustment to the language. Let me bring some definition of the language to illustrate the development of the Linguistics and the attitude towards language. According to William Dwight Whitney, an American linguist working in the 19th century, in his book Language and the study of language, English Language is defined as follows: “it is immense aggregate of the articulated signs for thought accepted by, and current among, a certain vast community which we call the English-speaking people… It is sum of the separate languages of all the members of this community.” (Whitney, 1867) Along this definition the first US academic linguist speaks about “the central and the most indispensable substance of every language” (Whitney, 1867) and names it to be “designation for things, properties, acts, the apprehension of which is nearly as old as humanity itself, which men learned to name as soon as they learned to talk at all.” (Whitney, 1867) Whitney sees language as an opportunity of investigation to discover the mother language of languages. He pays much attention to the language as a voluntary source of communication and states that language is “not liable to pass away or become superseded.” (Whitney, 1867) Conceptual reference of the words towards the ideas is one of the main units of investigation for Whitney. “Words are not the exact models of ideas; they are merely signs for ideas. … Sentences are not images of thoughts, reflected in a faultless mirror; …. they are but imperfect and fragmentary sketches, giving just outlines enough to enable the sense before which they are set up to seize the view intended, and to fill it out to a complete picture.” (Whitney, 1867) Structure of the language and conceptual reference of the words to the ideas are the main helpful features to go back to the original language. He speaks much about rise of new words in

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues connection of industrial development that may hinder the discovery of language origin. Whitney considers subject of Linguistics and names it to be separate units of a language, for instance words or terms, in order to depict how language lives and grows. The ways of language investigation will show the place of Linguistics among sciences. He draws tight connection between Linguistics and ethnology, the science studying the genealogy of nation. Main aim of Linguistics, according to Whitney, is to find out language origin, its relation to thought, and its value as an element in human progress. According to Leonard Bloomfield, a great American philologist and linguist of the first half of the 20th, language is just mean “to furnish a fictitious object, namely the word-symbol, by which we represent the unimaginable abstract concept of quality or action.” (Bloomfield, 1914) In his book, Language, Bloomfield speaks about the operation of the language which is caused by the stimuli and correspondingly is followed by the response. He does not denies the existence of the stimuli within the animals followed by the vocal sound as well but differs human vocal sound provoked by a stimuli from the animal one and declares that different human vocal sounds acquire different meaning. According to him, the study of language is the study of coordination of certain sounds with certain meaning is. (Bloomfield, Language, 1935) Bloomfield declares that language is articulation and vocal phenomena. He sees writing as a way of recording language by means of visible marks; (Bloomfield, Language, 1935, p. 21) and states that language remains the same, in case the different marks are used in writing. Bloomfield's main aim was to show that Linguistics was an autonomous and, above all, a scientific discipline. He claims that the linguist can only make declarations about the system of signifiers, because the facts of meaning, mental and conceptual in nature, are not his concern. His linguistic is concern only in analyzing formal features of language. In An Introduction to the Study of Language Bloomfield discusses the relationship of Linguistics with other sciences: Philosophy, Literary History and Critism, History, Ethnology, Psychology and Phylosophy. He draws the finest line between these sciences and Linguistics and also characterises ther intersection as well. One of the interesting point is the distinction between phylology and culture. He views language as the most elementary cultural activity bearing the trace as well. Cultural features in Linguistics are revealed in the study of semantic changes and word-borrowing. His main focus seems to be connection between Linguistics and Psycology.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues Language is conceived by Bloomfield as a visible human behavior. Behaviors are described in terms of response and stimuli on typical situations. Language for Bloomfield “begins” with the phonetics and Phonology and that’s why, he apart from his strong structural analysis of a language, is considered a representative of behaviorism as well. According to Edward Sapir, an American anthropologist-linguist, “Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions, and desires by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols.” (Sapir, 1921) The definition is not very distinct; it does not speak about the structure or function of a language and also” voluntarily produced symbols” needs more specification. Moreover, Sapir definition of the language and his ideas are more correlated to Psychology. His main focus is connection between thought and language. Sapir denies the cultural influence on language and human behavior. He speaks about the spreading of the language on the location having completely different culture. He is rather interested in the influence of culture on the society and how cultural patterns shaped by the composition of individual personalities make up a society. “Nor can I believe that culture and language are in any true sense causally related. Culture may be defined as what a society does and thinks. Language is a particular how of thought… The drift of culture, another way of saying history, is a complex series of changes in society’s selected inventory - additions, losses, changes of emphasis and relation. The drift of language is not properly concerned with changes of content at all, merely with changes in formal expression.” (Sapir, 1921) To illustrate Sapir’s ideas more clearly, Sapir-Whorf hypotheses or the theory of linguistic relativity should be resented. Theory of linguistic relativity is the notion implying that the diversity of linguistic structures affects how people perceive and think about the world. However the term "Sapir–Whorf Hypothesis" is a misnomer, as Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf never co-authored anything, and never stated their ideas in terms of a hypothesis. In spite of these the theories substitute to each other and trace one path of development. Their hypotheses are as follows: “I. Structural differences between language systems will, in general, be paralleled by nonlinguistic cognitive differences, of an unspecified sort, in the native speakers of the two languages. The structure of the language itself effects cognition.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues II. The structure of anyone’s native language strongly influences or fully determines the world-view he will acquire as he learns the language. III. The semantic systems of different languages vary without constraint.” (Kay & Kempton, 1984) Entirely diffrenet is the assumption about the language and language acquisition from the viewpoint of behaviorists. They thought that language needs to be taughted by someone and main feature for language development is based on behavioral reinforcement. One of the earliest scientific explanations of language acquisition was provided by Skinner, an American psychologist, behaviorist, author, inventor, and social philosopher. As one of the pioneers of behaviorism, he accounted for language development by means of interaction with environmental. According to him, humans acquire spoken language as a result of behavioral conditioning. “A child acquires verbal behavior when relatively unpatterned vocalizations, selectively reinforced, gradually assume forms which produce appropriate consequences in a given verbal community. In formulating this process we do not feed to mention stimuli occurring prior to the behavior to be reinforced. It is difficult, if not impossible, to discover stimuli which evoke specific vocal responses in the young child. There is no stimulus which makes a child say b or a or e, as one may make him salivate by placing a lemon drop in his mouth or make his pupils contract by shining a light into his eyes. The raw responses from which verbal behavior is constructed are not "elicited." In order to reinforce a given response we simply wait until it occurs.” (Skinner, 1957, p. 31) Skinner views the child as the "passive subject of operant conditioning in whom randomly occurring behavior is selectively reinforced." (Vocate, 1987) Skinner argued that children learn language based on behaviorist reinforcement principles by associating words with meanings. Correct utterances are positively reinforced when the child realizes the communicative value of words and phrases. For example, when the child says ‘candy’ and the mother will smile and give her some as a result, the child will find this outcome rewarding, enhancing the child's language development. Behavior which is positively reinforced will be repeated, whereas negatively reinforced behavior, that means punishment or some other measures in order to prevent that behavior, will not be repeated.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues These theories were criticised by the Noam Chomsky’s followes. Noam Chomsky is the revolutionary American linguist not only for the USA but for the whole world. His theory of the language acquisition took an honarable place between other theories of the language. His well- known book “Language and Mind” paved the way to the new development of Linguistics. Chomsky's theories on language are based upon the importance of Linguistics in modern sciences. According to him, study of languages is the study human nature and thing that lies in human mind. “When we study human language, we are approaching what some might call the 'human essence,' the distinctive qualities of mind that are, so far as we know, unique to man.” (Chomsky, 2006) Chomsky proposed that all humans have a language acquisition device (LAD) derived from the innate processes. Innate is something which is already there in mind since birth. The language acquisition device (LAD) is an organ of the brain that is supposed to function as a congenital device for learning symbolic languages. It contains knowledge of grammatical rules common to all languages; it explains the human acquisition of the syntactic structure of language. According to him, “all children share the same internal constraints which characterize narrowly the grammar they are going to construct." (Chomsky N. , 1977) The language acquisition device also allows children to understand the rules of whatever language they are listening to. Chomsky also developed the concepts of transformational grammar or transformational-generative grammar, surface structure, and deep structure. Transformational grammar is grammar that transforms a sentence. Surface structures are words that are actually written. Deep structure is the underlying message or meaning of a sentence. (Transformational grammar) “Language learning is not really something that the child does; it is something that happens to the child placed in an appropriate environment, much as the child’s body grows and matures in a predetermined way when provided with appropriate nutrition and environmental stimulation” (Chomsky N. , Language and Problem of Knowledge, 1988, p. 134) Chomsky developed the new conceptual attitude towards the language and Linguistics. He rejects the idea that human mind is a clean slate at birth and is filled in by experience unlike behaviorist. Behaviorist believed that humans enter the world with no innate abilities. Chomsky

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues suggested that there are components of mind which are innately determined about languages and other systems of knowledge. However, development of Linguistics emerged the different approach of language investigation called: Sociolinguistics. According to Sociolinguists “language is one of the most powerful emblems of social behavior.” (Wolfram) Ronald Wardhaugh provides broader definition of the subject of sociolinguistics. According to him “Sociolinguistics is concerned with investigating the relationship between language and society with the goal being a better understanding of the structure of language and of how languages function in communication.” (Wardhaugh, 2010). He also argues that while investigating a language one should take into consideration who speaks, his/her position in the society and time when those words were produced. According to sociolinguistics, transmission of information through language is the transmission of the social massages as well, the language used in that process says much about the people’s social background, character, and intentions. The words like “Mrs.”, “Ms.”, give clear information about the position of the person in society and conversation on the first name bases defines the personal relationship level. It is also possible to examine how people manage their language in relation to their cultural backgrounds to fulfill their goals of interaction. Sociolinguists might investigate questions such as how mixed-gender conversations differ from single-gender conversations, how differential power relations manifest themselves in language forms, how language change occurs and spreads to communities. Sociolinguistics attempts to gain an understanding of the values and viewpoints of a community in order to explain the behaviors and attitudes of its members. (Wolfram) To underline basic notion of sociolinguistics is quite simple: “Language use symbolically represents fundamental dimensions of social behavior and human interaction.” (Wolfram). But the ways in which language reflects behavior can often “be complex and subtle as relationship between language and society affects a wide range of encounters - from broadly based international relations to narrowly defined interpersonal relationships.” (Wolfram) To my mind, society cannot be evaluated fully without culture. It is hard to say exactly what culture is as it is defined differently and variously. One of the examples of definitions of culture is as follows: Culture is beliefs, customs, art, ways of life and way of thinking, behaving,

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues or working of a particular society, group, place, or time. Culture is set of rules rooted within the society preserving the past and tracing the present as well. However, culture can be taught and developed and needs adjustment from a person not being brought up in the environment of a certain culture. Culture is inseparable part of a human, like a language. Culture is a certain way of world perception, ideas deriving the sense of belonging to a community with a distinct language containing semantics. Language is the verbal expression of culture. Language and culture are not inseparable. Language can be taught out of its origin area, and cultural units can also be exposed far from its original place. However, I think that culture is the main source that shapes, colors and flourishes the language. Investigating the culture involves the investigation of the language as well, to understand the essence of the national culture. Investigation of a language should also imply the investigation of a culture, as it preserves the concepts unique to a certain cultural environment. Nowadays globalization and technological development encouraged people’s interaction with each other. The main tool of interaction is language. Due to that people tried to learn languages, but is soon appeared that languages of particular culture has different semantics and differently perceives the world. The exact equivalents of the words are sometimes hard to find between the languages, if not impossible. Some language structures appeared non-acceptable for the certain cultures as their cultural background made them generate different attitude towards the language expressiveness. So it could be said that culture is reflected in the language and it questions the full operation of a language among the people exercising the different cultural background. As for the different linguistic approaches, I think that ability of acquiring a language is rooted in a person from birth, and that is an ability which makes human unique. Language also needs to be taught, so society and community helps each other in development of language usage that causes the building of certain structures that are characteristic to one community doe to their own unique ability world perception. But it must be added that perception of the world varies not only from one community to another but at the individual level as well. However, the individuals living in similar environment and sharing similar beliefs seem to treat the language similarly. The performance of people speaking the native language and the one speaking the same taught

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues language varies, not only due to their knowledge of the language but due to their different cultural background.

Conclusion In Conclusion we may say that language can be defined differently depending on the angle he language is treated. The illustration of this is the prominent scientists’ definitions. Some of them view language as a mean of discovery of an original language, or as a visible human behavior, or as voluntary produced symbols or as a human essence. The Language is not just one of these definitions but it implies all characteristics above. Language is structurally organized set of symbols pick up or taught, enabling people to express themselves and communicate with outer world in accordance of their perception, cultural background and social position. As for the relationship between a language and culture, they are inter-depended, however separable as well. In case of separation they both become some unit of exposition, lacking neutrality. Only mutual operation of culture and language give full notion of their essence, acceptance and understandability. Humans learn their culture through language and culture is transmitted through language.

References:

Bloomfield, L. (1914). "An Introduction to the Study of Language". New Your: Henry Holt and Company. Bloomfield, L. (1935). "Language" (8th Edition ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited. Chomsky, N. (1977). "Empiricism and Rationalism". Retrieved November 26, 2013, from http://www.chomsky.info/books/responsibility02.htm Chomsky, N. (2006). "Language and Mind". Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Chomsky, N. (1988). "Language and Problem of Knowledge". Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Hedeager, U. (2012). "Is Language Unique to the Human Species?"

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Kay, P., & Kempton, W. (1984). "What is the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis?" American Anthropological Association. Lyons, J. (2002). "Language and Linguistics". Edinburg: Cambridge University Press. Nebieridze, G. (1991). "Introduction to Linguistics". Tbilisi: Ganatleba. Sapir, E. (1921). "Language, an Introduction to the Study of Speech". New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company. Skinner, B. F. (1957). "Verbal Behaviour". New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc. "Transformational Grammar". (n.d.). Retrieved November 26, 2013, from Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformational_grammar Vocate, D. R. (1987). "The Theory of A.r. Luria: Functions of Spoken Language in the Development of Higher Mental Processes". Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Wardhaugh, R. (2010). "An Introduction to Sociolinguistics" (6th ed.). Singapore: Wiley- Blackwell. Whitney, W. D. (1867). "Language and the Study of Language". London: N. Trubner & Co. Wolfram, W. (n.d.). "Sociolinguistics". Retrieved November 26, 2013, from Linguistic Society of America: http://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/sociolinguistics

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Obesity as a Social and Health Problem in the U.S.

SALOME GVICHIANI

Introduction Obesity is a complex problem that scientists are still struggling to understand. In some cases, genetics seem responsible; in others, various combinations of hormonal, metabolic, and behavioral factors appear to play a role. But in most cases, it's hard to determine the exact cause of obesity. It's difficult enough for a doctor to figure out why an individual patient has accumulated excess body fat. But what accounts for a worldwide epidemic of obesity? It's hard to understand how human genetics, hormone levels, or metabolic activity could change rapidly and simultaneously in millions of people, yet obesity has been increasing sharply throughout the industrialized world. In less than 40 years, the prevalence of obesity in the U.S. has increased by over 50 percent, so that two of every three American adults are now overweight or obese. Even worse, the obesity epidemic is rapidly spreading to our children. Diabetes, hypertension, and heart disease are the most obvious consequences of obesity, but other results range from cancer, arthritis, and depression to kidney stones, fatty liver disease, and erectile dysfunction.

Obesity as a Mass Problem In 1990, obese adults made up less than 15 percent of the population in most U.S. states. By 2010, 36 states had obesity rates of 25 percent or higher, and 12 of those had obesity rates of 30 percent or higher. Today, nationwide, roughly two out of three U.S. adults are overweight or obese (69 percent) and one out of three is obese (36 percent). While U.S. obesity rates have, overall, stayed steady since 2003, the rates are still rising in some groups, and disparities persist: Non-Hispanic black, Hispanic, and Mexican American adults have higher rates of obesity than non-Hispanic white adults. Even more alarming, the prevalence of overweight and obesity in

 Senior Student, Faculty of Education and Humanities, Direction of American Studies, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues children and adolescents is on the rise, and youth are becoming overweight and obese at earlier ages. One out of six children and adolescents ages 2 to 19 are obese and one out of three are overweight or obese. Early obesity not only increases the likelihood of adult obesity, it also increases the risk of heart disease in adulthood, as well as the prevalence of weight-related risk factors for cardiovascular disease such as high blood pressure, high cholesterol, and high blood sugar.

Society and Obesity Problem Obesity has become the country’s leading public health problem. Yet as we talk and talk about the issue, the country only becomes fatter and fatter. The problem for the country echoes the problem for individuals: Willpower is not enough. “(It’s a) basic instinct, even stronger than the sexual instinct, to store calories to survive the next period of starvation. And we live in an environment where there’s food every half mile. It’s tasty, cheap, convenient, and you can eat it with one hand.” Thus says Martijn Katan of the Institute of Health Sciences at VU University in Amsterdam, author of one of the many studies on the limits of dieting, quoted in U.S. News & World Report. If you as an individual want to change your weight, you must change your whole life. Likewise, to reduce obesity in modern society, we will have to alter the way society is organized. Weight gain is driven by two trends: increases in calories consumed and decrease in calories expended. Modern America induces both. For example, the after-inflation cost of sugary soda has declined by an estimated 48% over the past 20 years. Correspondingly, consumption of sugary soda has soared: Sugary soda is now the single most important source of calories in the American diet. For example, the number of Americans who work at physically taxing jobs continues its steady decline. Even those jobs that demand physical labor — manufacturing, for example — are much less grueling than they used to be, as electrically powered machines do the lifting and shifting that used to consume human energy. While Americans expend fewer calories at work, they spend more time in cars — almost twice as much as in the 1970s. They spend 26 hours per week consuming TV or online entertainment. Americans could theoretically compensate for more sedentary lifestyles by

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues stepping up their recreational exercise — but only about 20% of Americans bother. Some 80% never do — including presumably all those failed dieters. Want to change this? It’s no small project. It would involve the redesign of cities, the relocation of schools, the reinvention of our modes of eating and amusement.

Is Obesity a form of Disability? The above question is an important one in employment law. If the answer is “yes,” then obesity is covered by the Americans with Disabilities Act. That, in turn, means that obese people are afforded legal protection against discrimination based on their weight, and a sharp tool with which to enforce that protection in a court of law. Historically, obese employees have had a tough time convincing judges they are disabled in lawsuits alleging employer discrimination, unless their obesity is a symptom of another disability. But the American Medical Association may have improved their case, according to employment lawyers. (Hat tip to Walter Olson at over lawyered.) In June, the AMA upgraded obesity from a condition to a disease. Jon Hyman, a partner at Kohrman Jackson & Krantz PLL in Cleveland, said the move by the physicians’ group almost surely sweeps obesity within the ambit of the 1990 anti-discrimination law, which was amended in 2008 to broaden the definition of “disability.” Under the updated language of the law, Mr. Hyman recently wrote on his employment law blog, virtually any diagnosed medical condition counts as a disability. While the AMA’s decision carries no legal authority, it will likely make an impression on the courts. “Now, employers will have to consider reasonable accommodations for anyone with a body mass index of 30 or over. Also, anyone who appears to have that BMI will have potential protections from terminations and other adverse actions related to that perceived ‘disease,’” Mr. Hyman concluded. Perhaps the writing was already on the wall. The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission has maintained since at least 2010 that obesity is a disability. And in recent years, courts in Louisiana, Mississippi and Montana have discarded the conventional wisdom that obesity isn’t a disability for the purposes of the ADA, though they remain in the minority.

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Problems Obese People Face People are judged by their appearance and obese people are looked at wherever they go, or people giggle around them, or feel the need to say some rude comment, like, do you really need to eat that. Also, everything is made for the smaller person, from air plane seats to movie theatre seats to slides for children. It’s a cruel, hard world out there and even more so if you are different from the "norm" in any way, shape or form. Because of this, a lot of obese people become shut in, which only compounds their problems. It becomes a mental, physical and emotional disability.

Health Problems Cardiovascular Problems Obesity may contribute to cardiovascular problems, such as heart disease or stroke. Heart disease is the number one cause of death for people in the United States, according to Weightawareness.com. A blood clot that prevents blood from getting to the brain is what causes most strokes. Overweight people are also at a higher risk of hypertension, which may lead to a heart attack or stroke.

Diabetes People who are obese are more likely to have type to diabetes than those who are at a healthy weight. Diabetes may cause kidney problems, heart disease, stroke or even blindness. Losing weight may lessen the need for insulin medication.

Cancer According to the National Cancer Institute, obesity contributes to several types of cancer. Overweight women are more likely to be diagnosed with breast cancer. Men who are obese have a higher risk of colon, rectum or prostate cancer.

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Gallstones If you are obese, you have a higher risk of developing gallstones. Since losing weight too quickly may contribute to gallbladder disease, Weightawareness.com recommends losing about a pound per week if you are obese. Cutting 500 calories from your daily intake, burning 500 calories more each day through exercise or a combination of the two will result in a 1-lb. per week weight loss.

Osteoarthritis The additional weight an obese person carries ads pressure to the hip, back and knee joints. Losing weight may remove some of that pressure and help lessen the symptoms of the arthritis.

Gout Too much uric acid in the blood may cause a condition called gout, a disease that causes crystals to move into the joints. Gout is more likely to occur if you are obese. Since certain types of diets may make the gout worse, discuss a weight loss method with your doctor before you begin.

Sleep Problems Obesity is one of the main causes of sleep conditions, including sleep apnea, snoring and insomnia. Sleep apnea and insomnia may lead to heart disease, which may be fatal. Not getting enough sleep will cause sleepiness during the day and decrease productivity. If you are overweight and have sleep apnea, your symptoms may subside if you lose weight.

Pregnancy Complications Obese women are more likely to experience complications with pregnancy than they would if they were at a healthy weight, according to the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. Some of the problems may include diabetes, hypertension and a greater risk of needing a cesarean section.

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Social Problems Overweight people often experience discrimination, which may lead to depression. With society placing so much importance on the appearance of being thin, obese people often feel inadequate or insecure in social situations. They may experience rejection and discrimination at work or school.

Transportation Problems The idea that passengers should be charged according to body weight is nothing new. The incensing suggestion has been presented for years as a way for airlines to recoup rising fuel costs and prevent the discomfort of other passengers. Because, let's face it: Air travel, especially in coach, is uncomfortable enough without someone else invading your already-limited personal space. Dr. Bharat P. Bhatta, an associate professor of economics at Sogn og Fjordane University College in Norway, is the latest to propose a "pay as you weigh" model for airline pricing. His investigations were recently published in the Journal of Revenue & Pricing Management. "Charging according to weight and space is a universally accepted principle, not only in transportation, but also in other services," Bhatta argues. "As weight and space are far more important in aviation than other modes of transport, airlines should take this into account when pricing their tickets." He proposes three different "pay as you weigh" pricing models. One would determine fare on a case-by-case basis according to the actual weight of each passenger and his/her belongings. Another would add a surcharge to a fixed base fare for each pound of overweight passengers, or apply a discount to the tickets of underweight passengers. A final option would apply a discount for passengers below a certain weight threshold or add a surcharge to those above a certain weight threshold. Southwest Airlines already has a Customer of Size policy, which asks overweight passengers to purchase a second seat if their girth gets in the way of lowering the armrest. Spirit Airlines, the

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues no-frills carrier that recently started service from Houston's George Bush Intercontinental, already tacks on additional fees for every conceivable convenience.

Employment Problems This study examined whether obese persons report more types of employment discrimination and employment-related victimization than do non-obese persons. This question has never been answered directly using obese and non-obese persons in naturalistic settings. The subjects were recruited through the National Association to Advance Fat Acceptance (NAAFA). They were assigned to one of three weight level groups: average (no more than 19% above ideal weight as defined by 1983 Metropolitan Life Height and Weight Tables), obese (20 to 49% above ideal weight), or very obese (50% or more above ideal average weight). Very obese subjects reported more types of employment discrimination, school victimization, attempts to conceal weight, and lower self-confidence than did non-obese subjects. Women reported more attempts to conceal their weight and lower self-confidence because of their weight than did men. Since permanent weight loss is not possible for most obese persons, the results of this study suggest that societal attitudes toward obese persons, particularly toward women, need to change in order to eliminate the employment-related discrimination and victimization experienced by the obese.

Conclusion The simultaneous increases in obesity in almost all countries seem to be driven mainly by changes in the global food system, which is producing more processed, affordable, and effectively marketed food than ever before. This passive overconsumption of energy leading to obesity is a predictable outcome of market economies predicated on consumption-based growth. The global food system drivers interact with local environmental factors to create a wide variation in obesity prevalence between populations. Within populations, the interactions between environmental and individual factors, including genetic makeup, explain variability in body size between individuals. However, even with this individual variation, the epidemic has predictable patterns in subpopulations. In low-income countries, obesity mostly affects middle- aged adults (especially women) from wealthy, urban environments; whereas in high-income

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues countries it affects both sexes and all ages, but is disproportionately greater in disadvantaged groups. Unlike other major causes of preventable death and disability, such as tobacco use, injuries, and infectious diseases, there are no exemplar populations in which the obesity epidemic has been reversed by public health measures. This absence increases the urgency for evidence-creating policy action, with a priority on reduction of the supply-side drivers.

References:

1. Baker, J.L., Olsen, L.W., Sorensen, T.I. (2007). “Childhood Body Mass Index and the Risk of Coronary Heart Disease in Adulthood”, pp. 357-2329 2. Dietz, W.H. (1998). “Childhood Weight Affects Adult Morbidity and Mortality”, p. 128 3. Flegal, K.M., Carroll, M.D., Kit, B.K., Ogden, C.L. (2012). “Prevalence of Obesity and Trends in the Distribution of Body Mass Index among US Adults”, 1999-2010. JAMA, pp. 307-491 4. Ogden, C.L., Carroll, M.D., Kit, B.K., Flegal, K.M. (2012). “Prevalence of Obesity and Trends in Body Mass Index among US Children and Adolescents”, 1999-2010. JAMA, pp. 307-483 5. Singh, A.S., Mulder, C., Twisk, J.W., Van Mechelen, W., Chinapaw, M.J. (2008). “Tracking of Childhood Overweight into Adulthood: a Systematic Review of the Literature”. Obese Rev., pp. 474-88 6. Steinberger, J., Moran, A., Hong, C.P., Jacobs, D.R., Jr., Sinaiko, A.R., “Adiposity in Childhood Predicts Obesity and Insulin Resistance in Young Adulthood”

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Women Assuming a New Role during World War II (Rosie the Riveter)

ELENE SHENGELIA

Introduction Throughout most of American history women generally have had fewer legal rights and career opportunities than men. Wifehood and motherhood were regarded as women’s most significant professions. However, when the World War II started women’s role changed drastically. On the evening of Tuesday, 28 April 1942, Americans gathered around their radios to listen to President Franklin D. Roosevelt as he spoke with the nation about tremendous challenges ahead. "There is one front and one battle," the president declared, "where everyone in the United States—every man, woman, and child—is in action, and will be privileged to remain in action throughout this war. That front is right here at home, in our daily lives, and in our daily tasks. As the war started men literally began to disappear from American streets, called to military duty in far-off lands and from this time, from December 1941 all women aged 18 to 50, except those exempted, were required to do National Service. They could either join one the uniformed women's services or seek work in a factory. The uniformed women's services have only recently been given the attention they deserve. However, the contribution made by the women factory workers must be among the most neglected aspect of the Second World War. The factories where they worked were the target of enemy bombers and their homes were near those factories. They worked long hours, spent nights in air raid shelters and survived under food and fuel rationing conditions. Individual portraits of women factory workers are scarce showing none of the pioneering spirit shown by the Munitions workers of the previous war. The novelty had gone.

 Senior Student, Faculty of Education and Humanities, Direction of American Studies, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues Women quickly picked up and excelled at historically male-dominated trades such as welding, riveting and engine repair. Women were essential for the production and supply of goods to American troops fighting abroad. Their efforts during wartime refuted the misconception that women are incapable of manual and technical laboring. World War II was a “war of images, as columnists, cartoonists, and photographers offered up a wide range of interpretation. Propaganda was a huge tool used by the government and journalists to achieve what they wanted from the American people during a time of need. To win the war the US wanted our men to unite against the “enemy” and our women to back up their men by working in their place. Propaganda was an important implement in this task, created and spread in order to achieve a speciﬁc reaction from our people. Some of the propaganda that was being spread during WWII (1941-1945) was to women. Men were being sent off to war and America wanted women to take their place temporarily in the workforce; support their families. The US was worried about its economy with so many men having gone to war so “women were being urged to take advantage of any technical training to better prepare themselves to replace the men now in uniform” The American government decided to launch a propaganda campaign to sell the importance of the war effort and to lure women into working. They promoted the fictional character of “Rosie the Riveter” as the ideal woman worker: loyal, efficient, patriotic, and pretty. A song, “Rosie the Riveter”, became very popular in 1942. Norman Rockwell’s image on the cover of the Saturday Evening Post on May 29, 1943 was the first widely publicized pictorial representation of the new “Rosie the Riveter”. This led to many other “Rosie” images and women to represent that image. For example, the media found Rose Hicker of Eastern Aircraft Company in Tarrytown, New York and pictured her with her partner as they drove in a record number of rivets into the wing of a Grumman “Avenger” Bomber on June 8, 1943. Rose was an instant media success. In many other locations and situations around the country, “Rosies” were found and used in the propaganda effort. A few months after Rockwell’s image, the most famous image of Rosie appeared in the government-commissioned poster “We Can Do It”. Normal Rockwell’s another version of Rosie was a breakthrough with much more to analyze, but was less successful due to copyright restraints and her less feminine appearance. This Rosie

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues is much larger with gigantic muscles that suggest she is of equal strength to a man. She wears overalls which women did not do before WWII propaganda pushed women into the working industries. She wears goggles, a shield and a wrist band which are all for her protection on the job. Her upturned nose, neatly done hair, and painted nails all suggest that while she is strong, she is also womanly. The sandwich in her hand symbolizes that she is still feminine because it reminds women of where they usually are, in the kitchen, that the two occupations are not so different. Notice he didn’t draw Rosie actually working A new “Rosie the Riveter” was drawn by J. Howard Miller which was much more popular. She the photo was simpler but had a great impact on American women. Women were drawn to how beautiful yet strong she was and it made getting a job in the war industry seems like a positive thing. Rosie became an icon, someone that women across America idolized. “By 1944, 16 percent of all working women held jobs in war industries”. Rosie the riveter propaganda worked when the United States entered the war, 12 million women (one quarter of the workforce) were already working and by the end of the war, the number was up to 18 million (one third of the workforce). Like men, women would quit their jobs if they were unhappy with their pay, location, or environment. Unlike men, women suffered from the "double shift" of work and caring for the family and home. Eleanor Roosevelt also encouraged women and knew the importance of women during the war: "The more women at work, the sooner we win." "I hardly saw a man who did not speak to me about the need for women in production." In addition, President Roosevelt was proud of those women he who: “They have given their sons to the military services. They have stoked the furnaces and hurried the factory wheels. They have made the planes and welded the tanks. Riveted the ships and rolled the shells.” President Franklin D. Roosevelt (addressing women’s contributions to the war), during the war the women increased the workforce by 50 percent. While the image of the woman worker was important during the war, the prewar image of women as wives and mothers by no means disappeared. Mainstream society accepted temporary changes brought about by a war, but considered them undesirable on a permanent basis. The public reminded women that their greatest asset was their ability to take care of their homes and that career woman would not find a husband.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues After the war, the cultural division of labor by sex reasserted itself. Many women remained in the workforce but employers forced them back into lower-paying female jobs. Most women were laid off and told to go back to their homes. During World War II there was a change in the image of women, but it was only superficial and temporary. The reality was that most women returned to being homemakers during the prosperity of the 1950s. However, the road taken by women in the work force during World War II continued into the future. Society had changed. The daughters and granddaughters of Rosie’s continued on the road blazed by their mothers and grandmothers.

Conclusion To sum up, when most people think of American women during World War II, the iconic ‘Rosie the Riveter’ comes to mind. Rosie was the modern factory girl – a woman who could effortlessly bridge the gap between masculine and feminine. Therefore, the war industry during WWII gave women the opportunity to earn their own living and contribute to the war effort. After the war, many female workers fought to remain in their jobs, while others used their earnings to establish households. The imagery of “Riveters” we are accustomed to serve as allegory; the war propaganda used “Rosie” as a metaphorical representation of the millions of women (of all colors and socio-economic classes) who took action during war time when patriarchal order was relaxed. These women joined the work force in order to help their country, to gain the benefits of employment, and to improve their quality of life. “Riveters” had a vast range of experiences in the wartime industry that were largely determined by race and geographic location, yet the majority of women who worked in factories during World War II expressed a profound sense of personal accomplishment and newfound self-worth that had lasting effects on both the Civil Rights Movement and the Women’s Rights Movement.

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References:

1. “Rosie The Riveter” 1941-1945, (2013). Retrieved from http://www.pophistorydig.com/?tag=women-factory-workers 2. “1941 Women Take Over Factory Work during World War II”, (2013). Retrieved from http://www.massaflcio.org/1941-women-take-over-factory-work-during-world- war-ii 3. “Who Was Rosie the Riveter? The American Factory Women of World War II”, (2012). Retrieved from http://www.ushistoryscene.com/uncategorized/rosietheriveter/ 4. “Women of Steel: LIFE With Female Factory Workers in World War II”, (2013). Retrieved from http://life.time.com/history/women-of-steel-life-with-female-factory- workers-in-world-war-ii/#1 5. “World War II: Home Front Summary & Analysis”, (2013). Retrieved from http://www.shmoop.com/wwii-home-front/summary.html

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The Role of the U.S. in Establishing Democratic Principles in Georgia - on the Example of Georgian 2012 Parliamentary Elections

NINO CHAVCHAVADZE

Abstract The purpose of this study is to investigate the U.S. foreign policy in a New World Order in the first decade of the 21st century. The paper explores the increasing importance of the process of democracy promotion and the political course of the United States in the Former Soviet Union countries. The paper provides an overview of the role of the U.S. in developing democratic principles in Georgia on the example of Georgian 2012 Parliamentary Elections. On the basis of the results of the research, it can be concluded that the role of the U.S. as the superpower is vital in the Former Soviet Union states, especially in Georgia. My motivation for conducting this research is that the issue is very significant nowadays. Georgian government’s tireless attempt to promote Georgia as an incomparable and efficient country in terms of democracy perspectives did not meet its policy in some fields such as electoral system for example, which is an important barrier for its rapid development. The present situation in Georgia is studied in the article comparing with the examples of past government.

Keywords: foreign policy, geopolitics, democracy, elections

 M.A., Graduate of the Faculty of Education and Humanities, Direction of U.S. Foreign Affairs, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

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The Role of the U.S. in Establishing Democratic Principles in Georgia - on the Example of Georgian 2012 Parliamentary Elections

NINO CHAVCHAVADZE

Democracy and respect for human rights have long been dominant principles of the U.S. foreign policy. Supporting democracy helps create a more secure, steady, and flourishing global arena in which the United States can advance and spread its national interests and at the same time promote such fundamental American values as religious freedom and worker rights. In addition, democracy as a concept is the one national interest that helps to protect and strengthen all the others. As the official web-site of the U.S. Department of State (Democracy, 2013) publishes with the above listed goals in mind, the United States seeks to:  Promote democracy as a means to achieve security, stability, and prosperity for the entire world;  Assist newly formed democracies in implementing democratic principles;  Assist democracy advocates around the world to establish vibrant democracies in their own countries; and  Identify and denounce regimes that deny their citizens the right to choose their leaders in elections that are free, fair, and transparent. The role of the U.S. in promoting and establishing democracy around the world is invaluable. After World War II, the United States played a significant role in deepening and widening democracy in Western Europe. The United States encouraged European integration to stabilize the West European democracies, and NATO was a bulwark within which Italy, West Germany, Portugal, and Spain democratized. Later, after the Cold War, the twin institutions of NATO and

 M.A., Graduate of the Faculty of Education and Humanities, Direction of U.S. Foreign Affairs, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues an integrated Europe together created powerful incentives for emerging East European democracies to join Western multilateral institutions. Later, since 1992 till 2007 the United States has provided more than $28 billion in assistance to the 12 states of the former Soviet Union (FSU), and it continues to provide nearly $2 billion annually (Lagon, 2011). The international spread of democracy will offer many benefits not only to new democracies but the United States will also have an interest in promoting democracy because further democratization enhances the lives of citizens of other countries and contributes to a more peaceful international system. To the extent that Americans care about citizens of other countries and international peace, they will see benefits from the continued spread of democracy. Spreading democracy also will directly advance the national interests of the United States, because democracies will not launch wars or terrorist attacks against the United States, will not produce refugees seeking asylum in the United States, and will tend to ally with the United States (Lynn-Jones, 1998).

American Foreign Policy in Georgia in 2003-present The United States established diplomatic relations with Georgia in 1992 following Georgia’s 1991 independence from the Soviet Union. Since 1991, Georgia has made impressive progress fighting corruption, developing modern state institutions, and enhancing global security. According to Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs (2012), the United States is committed to helping Georgia deepen Euro-Atlantic ties and strengthen its democratic institutions. The United States supports Georgia’s sovereignty and territorial integrity within its internationally recognized borders, and does not recognize the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia, two regions of Georgia currently occupied by Russia. As a participant of the Geneva International Discussions on the conflict in Georgia, the United States continues to play an active role in support of these principles (para. 1). Government transparency and the rule of law has always been the issue of concern for Georgian people during many years. U.S. Government’s programs helped increase government transparency, accountability and responsiveness, by helping the Parliament open its budgetary process to citizens and the media (U.S. State Department, 2012).

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues Of course, for Georgia as a small country, it is a great progress to have a partner country like the United States, which shares most part of its policy criteria and expresses obvious international support towards it. This became the main reason why the Georgian people took Mikheil Saakashvili to power with 97% of votes in 2004 year, they seized the chance to create a new democratic county from a former Soviet Union state.

Georgia – a Strategic Partner of the U.S. Georgia’s attempt to move closer to the western hemisphere was by no means a novelty of the Government of Mikheil Saakashvili, ascending to power through the Rose revolution in 2003 (Nilsson, 2013). Signed in January 2009, the U.S.-Georgia Charter on Strategic Partnership reflects strong U.S. support for Georgia’s continued sovereignty and independence. In the security realm, “the United States and Georgia intend to expand the scope of their ongoing defense and security cooperation programs to defeat and to promote peace and stability.” Such cooperation will “increase Georgian capabilities and ... strengthen Georgia’s candidacy for NATO membership.” In the realm of democratization, the two countries “pledge cooperation to bolster independent media, freedom of expression, and access to objective news and information,” and to further strengthen the rule of law. The United States pledged to train judges, prosecutors, defense lawyers, and police officers (Nichol, 2013).

Georgian 2012 Parliamentary Elections Georgia’s parliamentary elections on October 1, 2012, and the victory of the opposition coalition Georgian Dream (GD) – Democratic Georgia drew considerable international attention. Much like other Georgian elections in recent years, the October polls were ascribed the properties of a “litmus test” for Georgia’s trajectory as a progressive reformer and a prospective member of the Euro–Atlantic community. Yet, these elections held special importance as they constitute the potential first step toward a peaceful transfer of power in the history of this small South Caucasian state since independence, establishing the balance of power between political forces in the country ahead of the 2013 presidential elections and subsequent constitutional

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues changes that will transfer much political power from the president to the prime minister and parliament (Nilsson, 2013).

The USAID Support to the 2012 Parliamentary Elections in Georgia To meet the objective of helping Georgia to achieve free, fair and transparent parliamentary and presidential elections in 2012 and 2013, the USG Mission has developed a strategy based around four main pillars: - Better administered elections, including a strengthened electoral code. - A fairer, more competitive and more participatory campaign environment. - More competitive, responsive and capable political parties. - A Parliament more representative of political opinion. USAID Assistance Related to the 2012-2013 Elections Cycle:  Assistance comprised of more than $17 million in programming directly related to the 2012-14 parliamentary and presidential elections in Georgia.  NDI, IRI and IFES implement projects dedicated to improving electoral processes and enabling a competitive electoral environment.  Several other projects have important elections-related components that support an improved electoral environment through: - increased media programming and access, - increased citizen participation, - public spaces for civic engagement, - televised regional parliamentary dialogues, - updating/correcting addresses on the voter registration list (USAID Support to the 2012 Parliamentary Elections in Georgia, 2012). To demonstrate the interest of the United States in the election, the Obama Administration dispatched an interagency delegation to Georgia in mid-September 2012, led by Deputy Assistant Secretary of State Thomas Melia. He testified to Congress that the interagency delegation emphasized the United States supported a democratic election that would advance

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues Euro-Atlantic aspirations and that would set the tone for a peaceful presidential succession and alteration in the power of the prime minister in 2013 (Nichol, 2012). The White House on October 2, 2012, congratulated the people of Georgia for achieving “another milestone” in the country’s development by holding a competitive and peaceful democratic election. The White House called for Ivanishvili and Saakashvili to work together to ensure the continued advancement of democracy and economic development, and stated that it looked forward to strengthening the U.S.-Georgia partnership (Nichol, 2012). This was a confirmation for Georgian people that the United States has supported not the leader – Saakashvili with whom it had a close relationship and mutual trust but it had respected the people's choice and consolidated democracy in Georgia with a peaceful change of government.

Conclusion In a conclusion part of the article, we can trace the words of President Giorgi Margvelashvili stated in his inauguration speech: “By ensuring a precedent of transfer of power through parliamentary and presidential elections, we succeeded in moving to a substantially new stage in the development of our state. The post-Soviet period is over. And the development of a modern type of democracy has started, laying the foundation for a new, European kind of political culture”.

References:

1. "Democracy". (2013). Retrieved February 21, 2013, from U.S. Department of State: http://www.state.gov/j/drl/democ/ 2. Lagon, M. P. (2011, February). "Promoting Democracy: The Whys and Hows for the United States and the International Community". Retrieved November 24, 2013, from Councul on Foreing Relations: www.cfr.org/democratization/promoting-democracy- whys-hows-united-states-international-community/p24090 3. Lynn-Jones, S. M. (1998). "Why the United States Should Spread Democracy". Center for Science and International Affairs, Harvard University.

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4. Nichol, J. (2012). "Georgia’s October 2012 Legislative Election: Outcome and Implications". CRS Report for Congress. 5. Nilsson, N. (2013). "The October 2012 Elections and the Role of Democracy in Georgia’s Foreign Policy". The Swedish Institute of International Affairs. 6. Transparency International Georgia. (2012). "An Analysis of the Election Campaign Finances". Tbilisi: Transparency International Georgia. 7. "U.S. Relations With Georgia". (2012, December 14). Retrieved April 10, 2013, from Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs: http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5253.htm 8. USAID. (2012). "USAID Support to the 2012 Parliamentary Elections in Georgia. USAID". 9. (2012). "U.S. Department of State, Foreign Operations Assistance Fact Sheet". Office of the Coordinator of U.S. Assistance to Europe and Eurasia. 10. (2012). "USAID Support to the 2012 Parliamentary Elections in Georgia". USAID.

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Accents and Dialects of America

SWETLANA DEMURCHEVA

"Ever'body says words different," said Ivy. "Arkansas folks says 'em different from Oklahomy folks says 'em different. And we seen a lady from Massachusetts, an' she said 'em differentest of all." — The Grapes of Wrath As any American will tell you, there is no such thing as a single "American accent" or a "correct English." There are a whole load of American accents, each with its own distinct stereotypes. Not all people who speak a language speak it the same way. A language can be subdivided into any number of dialects which each vary in some way from the parent language. A certain dialect has its own grammar, vocabulary, syntax, and common expressions as well as pronunciation rules that make it unique from other dialects of the same language. The major American dialect groups are North, South, Midland and West, each with their own sub-dialects.

General Northern It is used in almost two-thirds of the country. It breaks down into the sub-dialect regions below.

New England It carries a high prestige due to Boston's early economic and cultural importance and the presence of Harvard University. A famous speaker is Katherine Hepburn. This is one of the most distinctive of all the American dialects.

Prominent Features: . Non-rhoticity, as mentioned above.

 Junior Student, Faculty of Education and Humanities, Direction of American Studies, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues . Unlike most other American accents, the vowel in lot and rod is rounded as in most British dialects, pronounced IPA lɒt and ɹɒd (“lawt” and “rawd”). Note that this feature is less prevalent in some sub-dialects, such as Rhode Island. . R's are often dropped, but an extra R is added to words that end with a vowel. A is pronounced AH so that we get "Pahk yuh cah in Hahvuhd yahd" .

Examples: . Any member of the Kennedy family, especially JFK himself. . Stephen King and his books. . President Calvin Coolidge

New York City One of the more famous American accents, the classic “New Yorkese” has been immortalized by films (“Goodfellas,” and “Manhattan,” and plays (“A View from the Bridge,” “Lost in Yonkers,” “Guys and Dolls”). It is also the mostly parodied of any American dialect (even among New Yorkers), possibly because many Americans tend to dislike large cities. The thickness of a speaker's dialect is directly related to their social class, but these features have been fading within all classes over recent decades, the stereotypical accent of people from New York City and the surrounding area. Today, it's found primarily in Brooklyn, the surrounding areas having one of the four accents below. (The Oxford Companion to the English Language, 1992)

Prominent Features: . Non-rhoticity: see explanation above. . The vowel in words like thought, north and dog are pronounced is high and diphthongized, pronounced IPA θʊət, nʊəθ, and dʊəg (“thaw-uht,” “naw-uht” and “daw- uhg”). . When an R comes after a vowel, it is often dropped. IR becomes OI, but OI becomes IR, and TH becomes D as in "Dey sell tirlets on doity-doid street" and fugedaboudit (forget about it).

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. Characterized by a nasally sound, the shortening of "you" to "yo," the "er," "or," and "th" sounds becoming "uh," "aw," and "d," respectively, and the extensive use of profanity. . Bugs Bunny (Mel Blanc said his intention was a mix of Brooklyn and Bronx accents.) . Tony Soprano

Urban The accent of urban characters of darker skin tones, and middle class white kids are trying to sound cool, characterized by dropping even hard consonants when slurring words together (eg. "err'thing" for "everything"), a petulant tone, and substituting "axe" for "ask". Also common is substituting an "f" sound for "th" as in some British accents. Has a lot of interesting grammatical features, much loved by linguists, such as the "habitual be" ("We clubbin'" means that we are, at this time, In Da Club, whereas "we be clubbin'" means that we go to Da Club a lot, most weekends in fact). Because of said features it's considered a distinct dialect, and there are a lot of arguments in the black community about whether it should be used and is a valuable part of culture, or if it's bringing black people down. Obviously, not all black Americans speak in this dialect.

Mid-Atlantic English Not to be confused with another meaning of “mid-Atlantic English” that describes the old- fashioned British-sounding accents you hear in movies from the 1930s. This “Mid-Atlantic” refers to the American accents spoken along the urban corridor from the Philadelphia area to Baltimore. It sounds slightly similar to New York City, but with a few major differences.

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Prominent Features: . Rhotic: unlike New York City, the r is pronounced at the end of car, mother, fur, etc. . As in New York City, the vowel in thought and dog is pronounced with a high vowel. In the Mid-Atlantic, this tends to be further back: IPA θoət and doəg (“thoh-ut” and “doh- ug”). . The “oo” sounds in words like goose and food is pronounced more forward in the mouth than in General American: IPA gʉs and fʉd. . Characterized by the use of "or" for soft vowels — "want" = "warnt"; "Wor-shington", and for softening "r" in some words . Marry, merry, and Mary are pronounced the same.

General Southern This dialect region (along with South Midland) matches the borders of the Confederate states that seceded during the "Confederate War" and is still a culturally distinct region of the United States. People tend to speak slower here than in the north creating the famous southern "drawl." I is pronounced AH, and OO is pronounced YOO, as in "Ah'm dyoo home at fahv o'clock." An OW in words like loud is pronounced with a slided double sound AOO (combining the vowel sounds in "hat" and "boot"). Some local words are: funky (bad smelling), jump the broomstick (get married), kinfolks, mammy, muleheaded, overseer,tote, y'all.

Louisiana There's a lot going on down here. There are even some people in southern Louisiana who might be able to speak more than one of the dialects and languages below. Cajun French (the Cajuns were originally French settlers in Acadia, Canada - now called Nova Scotia - in 1765, they arrived in New Orleans which was still French territory) carries the highest prestige of the French dialects here and has preserved a number of elements from the older French of the 1600s. It has also borrowed some words from the Spanish who once controlled this area. There are many local variations of it, but they would all be mutually understandable with each other as

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well as - with some effort - the standard French in France. Cajun English borrows vocabulary and grammar from French and gives us the famous pronunciations "un-YON" (onion) and "I ga- RON-tee" as well as the phrase "Let de good times role!", but movies about cajuns usually get the rest wrong. A famous authentic speaker is humorist Justin Wilson, who had a cooking show on PBS, with his catch phrase, "How y'all are? I'm glad for you to see me." There is another dialect of English spoken in New Orleans that is informally, and some would say pejoratively, called Yat (from the greeting, "Where y'at"), that resembles the New York City (particularly Brooklyn. The dialect is named for the Creole expression "Where y(ou) at??". Example: "Wheah y'at? Gat suh melotow fuh me? Ja burl'um? We hadda crab burl back at da Wrigaleys." Translation: "What's up? Do you have some mirlitons for me? Did you boil them? We boiled crabs on our trip to the Rigolets." The further "down" (east) you go into "Da Parish" (St. Bernard Parish), the more it sounds like Brooklyn, due to a similar immigrant mix. (Success with Words: A Guide to the American Language/Reader's Digest, 1988)

Examples: . Gambit from X-men . Ray the Firefly from The Princess and the Frpg . James Carville

Inland/Mountain Southern This is the other Southern dialect, sometimes perceived as more guttural. You hear this accent amongst Appalachian natives, Texans, Tennesseans and many others.

Prominent Features: . Pin-pen merger: This means that words ending in -in, -en, -im and -em are pronounced with the same vowel (this why when somebody from this region says “Ben” is sounds a bit like “bin” to a Northerner.) . The oo sound in goose is more fronted than in General American accents: IPA gʉs.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues Appalachian A subset and exaggeration of Dixie (south-eastern), laced with more archaic and/or idiosyncratic usages. Used for remote parts of Appalachia and other isolated southern locales, such as the Ozarks. Dixie accents are slow and sugary, like molasses; true mountain accents are more "musical", like a tightly wound banjo string. Due to the former isolation of some regions of the Appalachian South, the Appalachian accent may be difficult for some outsiders to understand. Because of the extensive length of the mountain chain, noticeable variation also exists within this sub dialect. The Appalachian dialect can be heard, as its name implies, in the Appalachian Mountain region of Northern Georgia, Northern Alabama, Eastern and Middle Tennessee, Western North Carolina, Eastern Kentucky, Southwest Virginia, Western Maryland, Southeast Ohio, Southwest Pennsylvania, and all of West Virginia. The Ozark regions of Southern Missouri and Northern Arkansas have a slightly different variation of this. Silent H's (such as pronouncing "humble" as "'umble") are not uncommon, and many speakers sound vaguely European.

Texas Is famous for phrases such as "might could" for "might be able to" (an example of something linguists call modal stacking) and "fixin' to" for "about to." The easiest distinction from Dixie, though, is the tendency to slur words. "-ing" often becomes "-in." This principle might extend to the point of excluding entire syllables: "Pontiac", for example, becomes "Ponniac". Another good distinction is the tendency to soften hard vowel sounds to a greater extent than Dixie. "Want" would become "wunt," for instance. Also, while many Dixie speakers would dance around the "r" sound, ("Why, I do declay-ah!") "r" is often pronounced very gutturally in a Texas Accent. ("I declay-ur!") When it's particularly strong, "isn't" may become "iddn't". It should be noted that there is no one "Texas" accent, given the size and diversity of the state. People on the Gulf Coast and in East Texas may synthesize Cajun and Dixie accents, people in the cities may speak with an odd hybrid of a Texas and East Coast accent, some speakers dip into a Cowboy accent, and Latino Texans have their own distinct speech patterns. In this vein, the city accents also are different. Someone from Dallas will sound slightly different

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues than someone from Houston or Austin, though they will all be more "neutral" when compared to someone from somewhere like Nacogdoches or Beaumont. West Texans tend to to speak with a Southwestern "twang", rather than a Southern drawl.

Examples: . Although their characters on Supernatural were born in Kansas, Jensen Ackles and Jared Padalecki (both native Texans) occasionally slip into this accent on the show. . WWE wrestler John Bradshaw Layfield . Matthew McConaughey . Kelly Clarkson . George Bush

Midland For a long time, the North Midland and South Midland dialects were considered to be part of the Northern and Southern dialect regions respectively and served as a transition zone between them. In recent decades, mainstream thought has begun to consider them to be a distinct dialect region.

South Midland This area, dominated by the Appalachian Mountains and the Ozark Mountains, was originally settled by the Pennsylvania Dutch moving south from the North Midland areas and the Scotch-Irish moving west from Virginia. A TH at the end of words or syllables is sometimes pronounced F, and the word ARE is often left out of sentences as they are in Black English. An A is usually placed at the beginning of verb that ends with ING, and the G is dropped; an O at the end of a word becomes ER. ("They a-celebratin' his birfday by a-goin' to see 'Old Yeller' in the theatah"). A T is frequently added to words that end with an S sound. American English has retained more elements of the Elizabethan English spoken in the time of Shakespeare than modern British English has, and this region has retained the most.

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Inland North Prominent Features:  The short "a" (as in the "cat") is frequently broken into a diphthong ("can" comes out like "keean", for example),  The short "e" as in "bet" moves to the short "u" in "cut",  The short "u" as in "cut" sounds more like "aw", and  While not always present, some may pronounce "oht" and "awt" sounds with L's in them (e.g. "both" becomes "bolth").

Incidentally, pre-Vowel Shift Inland North is the "original" Yankee dialect, brought by settlers from Upstate New York and New England: Michigan was settled almost entirely by New Yorkers and New Englanders, as were northern Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois (the southern parts of these states were settled by Virginians), and southern Wisconsin (the northern part being settled by more or less fresh-off-the-boat Germans and Scandinavians).

Examples: . Heath Ledger . CM Punk . Alice Cooper, with a touch of Appalachia

Western Dialects: Compared with the Eastern United States, the Western regions were settled too recently for very distinctive dialects to have time to develop or to be studied in detail. Many words originally came from Spanish, cowboy jargon, and even some from the languages of the Native Americans: adobe, belly up, corral, greenhorn, hoosegow, lasso, mustang. Prominent Features: The one dominant feature here is something linguists call the Cot- Caught Merger meaning that words like thought, paw and caught are pronounced with the same vowel as not, cod and rock.

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Pacific Southwest /California The first English speakers arrived here from New York, Ohio, Missouri, New England, and other parts of the Northeast and Midwest in the 1840s, bringing the Northern and North Midland dialects with them. Words originally used by the gold miners of this period are still used today: pay dirt (valuable discovery), pan out (to succeed), and goner (doomed person). The early twentieth century saw an influx of people from the South and other parts of the West. The people here are particularly fond of creating new slang and expressions, and, since Hollywood is located here, these quickly get spread to the rest of the country and the world (the influence of Buffy the Vampire Slayer ). During the late 1970s and early 1980s, an extreme exaggeration of this dialect that came to be known as "Valley Girl" or "Surfer Dude" was popular among teenagers and much parodied in the media with phrases like "gag me with a spoon" and "barf me back to the stone age."

. Surfer Dude occasionally also called "Dudebro". All the "cool" kids used it in the 80s. Typical phrases: "Duuuuuuuuuuude!", "Gnarly!" Stoner characters in movies tend to speak in this accent regardless of where they're from. People in Southern California are also liable to use Spanish slang words.

Examples: . The turtles in Finding Nemo . Keanu Reevs . Billy Joe Armstrong

Hawaii Pidgin Not to be confused with the Hawaiian language, this is a distinct language and not an accent or dialect of English. Hawaiian is also an ethnicity rather than just a State-icity. Officially known as Hawaii Creole English, called "Pidgin" by kama'aina, very rare outside of Hawaii, where people even go so far as to write in the accent. A mix of English, Hawaiian, Portuguese, Japanese, Chinese, Filipino, Korean and other languages, including many Japanese

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues onomatopoeia. Nearly any noun can be replaced by the expression "da kine," roughly meaning "that thing". For example: "What kine fish, dat?" "You know da kine, ahi." = "What type of fish is that?" "You know what it is: Ahi."

Examples: . Consensus among people from Hawai'i is that the Pidgin in Lilo & Stitch was very well done: authentic without being obnoxious like "Mahalo plenny!" for "Thanks a lot!" . Kono, Chin Ho, and McGarrett from the Hawaii Five-0 reboot series. Danno (the only one not born and raised in Hawaii) is bewildered by it:

Surfer Guy: Ho, brah, where you eat it? Danno: I'm sorry, what? Surfer Guy: Da kine, brah. Danno: I'm sorry, are you speaking English? Surfer: Hey no need for get agro. McGarrett: He caught it on land, brah... Danno don't surf. Surfer: Shoots. Danno: I dare you to tell me what he just said!

Conclusion Though there are many more American accents than this, these are the largest groupings of accents. There are many numbers of sub-dialects that are quite unique (New Orleans, African American Vernacular English, Chicago, etc.).

References:

1. A Lexicon of New Orleans Terminology and Speech/Chuck Taggart. (2001). The Gumbo Pages, Accessed 2. Dictionary of Smoky Mountain English/Michael B. Montgomery and Joseph S. Hall. (2004). Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press

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3. “Hoi Toide on the Outer Banks: the Story of the Ocracoke Brogue/Walt Wolfram and Natalie Schilling-Estes”. (1997). Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press 4. “Success with Words: A Guide to the American Language/Reader's Digest”. (1988). Prepared in Association with Peter Davies; David Rattray, Project Editor. Pleasantville, NY: Reader's Digest Association 5. “The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language/David Crystal”. (2000). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. (Emphasizes British English but also Covers American) 6. “The Oxford Companion to the English Language”. (1992). Tom McArthur, Editor; Feri McArthur, Managing Editor. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. (For additional information on Cajun English) 7. “What is a dialect? - The Sci.Lang FAQ: Frequently Asked Questions about Linguistics/Michael Covington and Mark Rosenfelder”. (2002). Mark Rosenfelder's Metaverse. Retrieved from http://www.zompist.com/lang9.html#12

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The Beginning of the U.S.-Georgian Cooperation in the Areas of Politics and Education

NINO DANELIA Introduction William Jefferson “Bill” Clinton’s presidency was significant not only for the U.S., but also for our country. Why Clinton’s administration is so important to study? a. During that administration Georgia had first relationship with the U.S., b. Solid basis for further cooperation in many fields has been set up, c. Main policy directions has been outlined. The United States recognized Georgia’s independence on December 25, 1991, when President George H.W. Bush announced the decision in an address to the nation regarding the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Georgia previously had been a constituent republic of the USSR- Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. Diplomatic relations were established during Clinton’s presidency, on March 24, 1992. The American Embassy in Tbilisi was established April 23, 1992. Since the establishment of diplomatic relations with newly-independent country of Georgia, the United States has provided important political, military, financial and humanitarian aid. The U.S. was and is one of the most important international guarantor of Georgian sovereignty and supporter of the process for Georgia’s integration in Euro-Atlantic area. In 1992, soon after the declaration of independence, Georgia joined the NACC - North Atlantic Cooperation Council which five years later, in 1997 has been transformed into the Euro- Atlantic Partnership Council. The change was caused by an intention to build a security forum better suited for an enhanced and more operational partnership.

 M.A. Student, Faculty of Education and Humanities, Direction of U.S. Foreign Affairs, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues President Clinton entirely changed the U.S. attitude towards Georgia, unlike George H.W. Bush; he chose a way of negotiations, friendly relations with our country. Also he provided different educational programs which were essential for the Georgian students to get high-quality education and for their future career.

American Educational Programs in Georgia That period is also significant for development of different American educational programs in Georgia. One of the most important such programs, the Edmund S. Muskie Graduate Fellowship Program, was established by the U.S. Congress in 1992 to encourage economic and democratic growth in Eurasia. It was a program of the Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs of the United States Department of State, and administered by IREX -International Research and Exchanges Board. IREX was and is a nonprofit organization which delivered cross-cutting programs to strengthen civil society, education, and media independence in more than 50 countries. The Muskie program provided opportunities for graduate students and professionals from Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine and Uzbekistan for one-year degree or two-year degree study in the United States. The Muskie Program selected outstanding citizens from the abovementioned countries to receive fellowships for Master’s level study in the United States in the fields of business administration, economics, law, public administration, and public policy (Muskie Program, n.d.). FLEX- The Future Leaders Exchange Program was U.S. government funded program for secondary school students from 10 countries of the former Soviet Union, including Georgia. The program provided a great opportunity to gain scholarship in order to travel to the United States, attend American high school and live with a host family for the full academic year. The primary goal of FLEX was to improve mutual understanding between countries and allowing young citizens of Eurasia to have the opportunity to observe and experience American system of government. Since the program’s beginning in 1993, over 17,000 young citizens from Eurasia have participated in FLEX and have returned to their countries filled with a new enthusiasm and desire to help others and share their newly gained experiences and knowledge to

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues change their home communities and countries into good ways (The Future Leaders Exchange Program, n.d.). It was during Clinton’s presidency, in 1994, that Georgia joined NATO Partnership for Peace (PFP), the program for practical bilateral cooperation between Euro-Atlantic partner countries and NATO. A federal agency, USAID - the United States Agency for International Development, has provided over $1 billion in humanitarian and development aid to Georgia since assistance began in 1992. The objectives in Georgia were focused on building democracy, promoting regional stability, economic growth and health services. Generally, USAID is responsible for U.S. foreign economic assistance to developing countries around the world. It assists countries to undertake democratic and economic reforms, recover from disaster, and try to escape poverty. It is based in Washington DC, has field offices all over the world, and is funded by U.S. taxpayers. USAID works closely with the Department of State to align programs and receives policy guidance from and reports to the Secretary of State. IATP - Internet Access and Training Program was funded by the USAID and implemented by IREX. IATP consisted of a network of Internet access sites located throughout 10 countries of Eurasia. Through these sites, thousands of individuals per month benefited from the program. IREX-administered IATP centers were located in the countries of Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Belarus, Uzbekistan and Ukraine. IATP started to operate in Georgia in 1997. Trainers of this program conducted lessons, helped local citizens to use internet and organize different internet-oriented activities.

Clinton’s Changed Attitude towards the Newly-Independent Georgia During Clinton’s presidency the U.S. and Georgia signed many agreements, including: Joint Declaration on the U.S.-Georgian Relations (1994), The U.S.-Georgian agreement in the area of cooperation for preventing dissemination of nuclear weapons and development of defense and military relations (1997), Treaty on American aid to Georgia in military sphere (1997), the U.S.- Georgian agreement on regional environmental protection center of Caucasus (2000), agreement between Georgian and the U.S. governments on cooperation in strengthening the rule of law

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues (2001), agreement on the Peace Corps program in Georgia (2001), memorandum of mutual understanding between the two governments (2001), agreement between Georgian Defense Ministry and U.S. Department of Defense on academic collaboration in the sphere of military medicine (2001) (Information on NATO-Georgia Relations, n.d.). Moreover, Clinton’s presidency was different from his predecessor’s, Bush’s, one in the aspect of starting good, friendly relations with the chairman of Georgian parliament, Eduard Shevardnadze, changing the U.S. attitude towards the newly independent Georgia. The U.S.-Georgian relationship had an unfavorable beginning in the 1990s. On August 1, 1991, George H.W. Bush visited Ukraine and addressed a session of the Supreme Council. That address was dubbed the “Chicken Kiev” speech by Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist William Safire (Chergoleishvili, 2012). Speaking to members of the Supreme Council in the Ukrainian capital, the U.S. President talked about the importance of an emerging democracy in the Soviet Union and warned that America would not support leaders of those republics that sought independence. This was controversial idea in itself, what kind of democracy was Bush talking about if he was not supporting the leaders of the republics that sought independence? In response to that speech, the Gamsakhurdia government published a letter on 9 August 1991 in the “Sakartvelos Respublika” newspaper, denouncing the foreign political course of the United States: “Every state occupied by the Empire shall be given an absolute freedom of choice … Mr. Bush calls the fight of Soviet-occupied nations for freedom and self-identification an expression of dangerous nationalism. We would wish that the President and government of United States supported not communism, tyranny and sham reforms but genuine democracy, freedom and democracy of nations. Only in this case will the United States remain committed to its historic mission” (Gamsakhurdia, cited in Chergoleishvili, 2012). The American president described his Georgian colleague as swimming against the tide – to which Gamsakhurdia quipped that only “dead fish” swim with the tide. No matter how we evaluate the politics of the Gamsakhurdia government, it is clear that the main factor influencing the United States’ attitude towards the Soviet republics then was not the behavior of the leaders of the newly independent states; it was the foreign policy of the United States itself. Bush the Elder, like American leaders of the early-Twentieth Century, believed that

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues preserving the integrity of a “transformed” Soviet Union was in U.S. national interests (Chergoleishvili, 2012). On 25 December 1991, the Soviet Union disintegrated formally. International recognition of the independence of the post-Soviet republics became an inevitability. It was Bill Clinton who started supporting and providing great assistance for the development of newly independent Georgia. He met with chairmen of the Georgian Parliament Eduard Shevardnadze on March 7, 1994. They discussed the political and economic challenges facing Georgia. In Clinton’s own words, the U.S. was “committed to encouraging greater political freedom and economic renewal in Georgia. That commitment is outlined by the joint declaration and bilateral investment treaty we've signed today” (Clinton, 1994). He stated that their commitment was also emphasized by the $70 million in assistance the U.S. had allocated to Georgia that year. Most of those funds were dedicated to humanitarian efforts. Shevardnadze stated that the integration within the CIS- Commonwealth of Independent States, challenged Georgians to overcome many problems. The Chairman was convinced that assistance from the West was also very important to help them go the way, as no one country “will be able to make it to democracy and to market economy without assistance from the outside” (Shevardnadze, 1994). Chairman Shevardnadze thanked President Clinton and declared that if not Americans’ and their president’s assistance, Georgians would be starving. Clinton answered that he was grateful as his administration had the opportunity to do it. President stated that the people of Georgia “have carried on a historic and courageous struggle” (Clinton, 1994).

Conclusion Overall, the close cooperation between the U.S. and Georgia started during Clinton’s presidency. President Clinton’s policy assisted our country in the most difficult historical period when Georgia was struggling to make steps in the process of building democratic country. The American people offered to Georgia political, humanitarian, financial, and military support. The foundation was laid for U.S.-Georgian fruitful cooperation which now counts 21 years.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues Clinton’s administration provided different educational programs, which enabled Georgian students to get high-quality education in the U.S. and use that knowledge for the welfare of their country. These two countries started cooperation in other spheres as well. Furthermore, during Bill Clinton’s presidency attitude towards Georgia changed. Unlike the former U.S. President George H.W. Bush, who had tension, misunderstandings with the first president of post-soviet Georgia, Zviad Gamsakhurdia, Clinton had friendly relations with the chairman of Georgian parliament, Eduard Shevardnadze. Their negotiations on different issues proved to be successful. Georgian people will always be grateful for the friendly assistance that the US generously offered. On May 18, 2013, the previous president of Georgia, Mikhail Saakashvili, met Bill Clinton in New York City and awarded him with the St. George Order of Victory for taking crucial part in strengthening the relations of two countries and for the unique role which America played in developing democracy in Georgia. On his side, Bill Clinton stated that it was great honor for him to be awarded with such order.

References:

1. “Assistance for the Independent States of the Former Soviet Union”. n.d. Retrieved from http://www.fas.org/asmp/profiles/aid/aidindex.htm 2. Chergoleishvili, (2012), “Twenty Years of U.S.-Georgian Partnership”. Retrieved from http://www.tabula.ge/en/story/70351-twenty-years-of-us-georgia-partnership 3. Clinton, B., (2005), “My Life”. Vintage Books, New York. 4. “The Future Leaders Exchange Program”, n.d. Retrieved from http://www.americancouncils.ge/flex/ 5. “The Internet Access and Training Program”. Retrieved from http://www.irex.org/project/internet-access-and-training-program-iatp 6. “Muskie Graduate Fellowship Program”. n.d. Retrieved from http://irex.ge/programs/education/muskie

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7. “NATO-Georgian Relations”. Retrieved from http://www.mfa.gov.ge/index.php?lang_id=ENG&sec_id=455 8. “The President’s News Conference”. (1994). Retrieved from http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=49767 9. “The President and Foreign Policy”, n.d. Retrieved from http://reagan.civiced.org/lessons/president-and-foreign-policy 10. “The United States”. n.d. Retrieved from http://www.loc.gov/index.html

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Marriage Traditions in the U.S. and in Georgia

MARIAM ZARNADZE

There are many traditions and customs for Weddings in the United States, most of which are based on a wide array of factors such as religion, culture, and social norms. In ancient times, weddings were based out of commodity, rather than desire or love. Brides were chosen based on their economic worth. The wedding had little to do with love. This trend lasted until the 19th Century, when couples started to marry for love. During the 19th Century in America, weddings were usually small family gatherings at home. The ceremonies were intimate and not elaborate. Weddings did not become elaborate until the 1820s and 1830s, when upper class couples would have wedding ceremonies similar to what is common today. Brides usually wore the best dress she owned, so her dress was not always white, as white dresses were impractical to own many brides today choose to wear white bridal dresses at their weddings. The saying, "Something old, something new, something borrowed, something blue, and a silver sixpence inside your shoe," dates back to the Victorian era and requires the bride to accessorize her wedding attire in certain ways to promote good luck in her new marriage. The "old" is supposed to represent the past, (The bride might choose to wear a piece of jewelry from one of her elders). The "new" represents the couple got married and their future together. (The bride's wedding gown or wedding ring). "Something borrowed" is something that is taken from the families and meant to be returned. (The bride is continuing the link between herself and her family to maintain loyalty and future comfort) The borrowed item must come from a happily married woman in order to pass on marital happiness onto the new couple. "Something blue" represents the bride's faithfulness and loyalty. (Easy ways to incorporate the color blue is for the (Bride wears blue flowers in her hair or a blue garter) The silver sixpence is meant to be

 Junior Student, Faculty of Education and Humanities, Direction of American Studies, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues tucked into the bride's shoe ( is supposed to bring the new couple wealth in money and love in their new life together). Many brides have bridal showers before their wedding, during which she receives gifts from the guests. The bridal shower is usually thrown by the bride's chosen maid of honor. Although it is often seen as a fun and relaxing time for the bride, it wasn't always seen that way. Bridal showers originated in Holland for brides who were refused dowry from their fathers. A woman's friends would give her several gifts to allow her to have the necessary dowry to marry whatever man she chose. Nowadays in Georgia also is such kind of an event, there was not such kind of a tradition in past, it is like a new tradition brought from other countries. Now Bridal Shower is one of the major pre-wedding customs of a Christian Wedding. This is basically a fun-filled and entertaining party, which is hosted by the bride's female friends. It is mainly a female get-together that is enlivened by songs, dance and joyful game sessions. Friends and relatives present gifts to the bride-to-be and give blessings for a blissful married life. Also there is Bachelor's Party.it is the parallel version of the Bridal Shower and is hosted by the groom for his friends. It is essentially a couple of days before the wedding where a groom is expected to enjoy his last evening as a bachelor. A Bachelor's Party typically begins by raising a toast before the drinking begins. It is mostly celebrated to have fun and enjoyment with close friends. During the ceremony, it is customary to include bridesmaids and groomsmen in the event. The members of the bridal party are chosen to share the happiness with the couple getting married. Today, "giving the bride away" The bride's father accompanies her on her walk down the aisle to show approval of the groom. Centuries ago, fathers actually did give their daughters away to their future husbands. A way that guests at a wedding can participate in giving the bride and groom a lucky future is by the tradition of throwing rice. The superstition originated when guests would throw nuts and grains in the hope of bringing the couple a good harvest and many children to help with the harvest. In Georgia is such kind of a tradition that before entering the new house the groom and the bride break a beautiful plate for luck, in order to make new home prosperous. As a symbol of luck, the newly married woman traditionally throws her bouquet to

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues the unmarried women at the wedding. The one who catches the bouquet is supposedly the next to be married. Throwing the bride's garter to the single men at the wedding is a tradition similar to the bouquet toss. The groom must remove the garter from his new wife's leg and toss it to the single men at the wedding. It is commonly believed that this man will be the next one to marry. After the wedding reception, the newlyweds usually leave for their honeymoon, a trip to the destination of their choice. The term "honeymoon" comes from ancient Teutonic weddings, where the newly married couple would drink honey wine for thirty days after their wedding. Weddings were only held on a night where there was a full moon. They drank the honey wine for a month, thirty days, until the next full moon, hence the name "honey moon." In a Jewish wedding both the bride and the groom are walked down the aisle by both of their parents, which is different from other religions. Jewish couples are married under the Chupah, which resembles a decorated tent like structure. This symbolizes that the bride and groom are coming together and creating a new home. The Ketubah is a Jewish wedding contract. The rabbi reads it under the Chupah after the ring ceremony. Christian weddings have many traditions that are commonly associated with weddings in general. The most important traditions for Christian weddings are the blessing and exchange of wedding bands and the bride and groom each offering his or her own wedding vows. Traditional, formal, religious weddings are the most common type of wedding in the United States. Many couples opt to marry in the church of their faith, as it is common for couples to share the same religion. Whether the couple is Catholic, Jewish, or any other religion, it is common practice to get married in the church of that faith. However, many couples today do not share the same faith. These inter-faith couples can also have a traditional wedding ceremony. Religious officials have become increasingly cooperative with marrying couples that are not of the same faith. 21st century offers big shifts in traditional life, including marriages and family life. Fifty years ago when America was strongly traditional, nobody would even think of same-sex marriage, but nowadays same-sex marriage is legally recognized in some parts of united states by the federal government. Weddings in the United States are the most varied and flexible in the world. There are not many wedding traditions that are unique to the United States because most are derived from

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues other cultures.it is considered as an American tradition to follow the traditions of one's culture or religion. America is truly multicultural society, and also church tries to change their rules in order to meet the society’s challenges. Resemblance between multicultural wedding in U.s and Georgian weddings is that Georgian church still doesn’t meet interface marriages unless one of the partners change face, and if both would be orthodox. Multiculturalism is a trademark of America, in the past it was based in this multiculturalism and it is still based on it. Destination weddings are becoming increasingly popular in the United States. Destination weddings, or "wedding a ways" and "wedding moons", allow the couple to completely design their wedding ceremony to fit the location. From beach weddings to weddings in Las Vegas or New York City, many Americans are choosing to marry at a location far from home. The options for destinations are limitless. Destination weddings have several advantages, from getting to spend an extended time with family, to an easy transition to a honeymoon, destination weddings are very appealing. Additionally, while destination weddings can be very expensive, they are on average less expensive than weddings at home. A couple whose bride and groom are enlisted in the Armed Forces may have a military wedding in which the bride or groom wears their uniform. A military wedding is considered a formal wedding and guests should dress formally. Often, the guests will also be in the armed forces and will wear their uniforms as well. The ushers who are in the armed forces traditionally form an "arch of steel" with their swords or sabers. The arch is usually formed at the conclusion of the ceremony; after the bride and groom pass through the arch, the ushers return to their bridesmaids to exit with them. To marry by elopement means that the wedding ceremony is done in secret, usually with just witnesses. Even though eloping seems simple, the marriage's secrecy can complicate family relationships. Couples in the United States choose to elope for many varying reasons. 46% of couples eloping do so because of parental opposition to the marriage, 20% of couples elope to avoid attention, 12% because of financial reasons, 8% due to an unexpected pregnancy, and 14% for other reasons. Real Georgian wedding is a beautiful, entertaining and rich holiday with observance of all original customs of Georgian people. The first rule of Georgian wedding is abundance of invited guests. Sometimes the number of guests reaches several hundreds. By the way, it is impossible to refuse to come to a wedding since it is a big insult for the inviting party. Family creation in

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues Georgia has three stages: marriage proposal, betrothal and wedding. Although today parents frequently do not participate in the choice of the bride or the groom for their children as it used to be, the family role remains very high. Marriage should be necessarily approved by relatives. Traditionally, a Christian bride wears a white gown in western style and the groom wears a suit. The bride's head is covered with a white veil and a crown and she holds a flower bouquet in her hand. Georgian weddings are very cheerful and noisy. Tamada will urge anyone to tell the toast. The first toast is to the groom and the bride, peace and prosperity in their home, cheerful children's voices. IN modern Georgia it has become very popular to have a wedding in old traditions. These include the brides dress as well as the grooms suit and bridesmaids and groomsman clothes too. Here modern car is replaced by chariots and horses, a ceremony is held in the open air in the big beautiful garden with lots of guests. Bride and groom passes through the arch which is made of swords, and starts first dance “KARTULI” it is a truly romantic dance, it is performed by a couple and incorporates the softness and gracefulness of a woman and love of a men. The man focuses his eyes on his partner as if she were the only woman in the whole world. What is tradition? To my mind tradition is the effort to keep communication with past, with the help of some link, some modern version of link. Every country has its own traditions and values of living, which plays a big role in the development of country. Tradition often gets old and couldn’t catch up with modern living; it can cause its devaluation and in the worst cases even their disappearance. Nation should take a strong stand over the century old traditions. Tradition is not outdated if it is rooted in people and if they need to follow them. For small nations it is very important to keep their traditions. I think that small nations have to take care of their traditions and keep them, because with the loosing of your tradition you lose your past.

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References: 1. “American Wedding”. (2013). Retrieved from http://www.world-wedding- traditions.net/home/american-wedding 2. “Christian Wedding”. (2013). Retrieved from http://www.surfindia.com/matrimonials/christian-wedding.html 3. “Georgian Wedding Traditions”. (2013). Retrieved from http://www.advantour.com/georgia/traditions/wedding.htm 4. “Marriage and Weddings”. (2009). Retrieved from http://www.americanfamilytraditions.com/weddings.htm 5. “United States Wedding Traditions”. (2004). Retrieved from http://www.worldweddingtraditions.com/locations/north_american_traditions/united_stat es_traditions.html 6. “Weddings in the United States”. (2013). Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weddings_in_the_United_States

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Human Political and Social Aspects of Animal Care in America

MARIANA MIKADZE

Opponents of animal rights frequently have trivialized the concerns expressed by animal activists, suggesting that their time should be spent on more important human issues. However, concern for humans and concern for animals may not be as distinct as some contend. It has long been suggested that the ethical treatment of other animals may benefit humans as well. For example, Immanuel Kant, although not a strong supporter of animal welfare, recognized the relationship between people's callous treatment of animals and their treatment of each other (Midgley, 1984). Albert Schweitzer noted, "Anyone who has accustomed himself to regard the life of any living creature as worthless is in danger of arriving also at the idea of worthless human lives." Margaret Mead stated, "One of the most dangerous things that can happen to a child is to kill or torture an animal and get away with it" (both quoted in Lockwood & Hodge, 1986). In the early part of this century, the American Humane Society undertook a nationwide education program to promote kindness to animals, based on the assumption that people who treat nonhuman animals well also will treat human beings well Furthermore the few quantitative studies have been conducted and It was observed that 83% of the reported households had also been identified by human service agencies as having a child at risk for abuse or neglect (Hutton, 1983). Another study examined 57 families with companion animals being treated for child abuse by New Jersey's Division of Youth and Family Services. In two-thirds of the cases an abusive parent had killed or injured an animal therefore Animal advocates are using these findings to promote laws that increase penalties for animal cruelty. Wisconsin recently adopted legislation making certain forms of animal abuse a felony, and

 Senior Student, Faculty of Education and Humanities, Direction of American Studies, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues related legislation has been enacted in Indiana, Oregon, Hawaii and Pennsylvania. Legislation is pending in Ohio that would create harsher penalties, while also requiring psychological counseling for convicted animal abusers.

Universal Declaration of Animal Rights Considering that Life is one, all living beings having a common origin and having diversified in the course of the evolution of the species, - Considering that all living beings possess natural rights, and that any animal with a nervous system has specific rights, Considering that the contempt for, and even the simple ignorance of, these natural rights, cause serious damage to Nature and lead men to commit crimes against animals, Considering that the coexistence of species implies a recognition by the human species of the right of other animal species to live, Considering that the respect of animals by humans is inseparable from the respect of men for each other, The Universal Declaration of Animal Rights was solemnly proclaimed in Paris on 15 October 1978 at the UNESCO headquarters.

It is hereby proclaimed that: Article 1 All animals have equal rights to exist within the context of biological equilibrium. This equality of rights does not overshadow the diversity of species and of individuals. Article 2 All animal life has the right to be respected. Article 3 1°- Animals must not be subjected to bad treatments or to cruel acts. 2°- If it is necessary to kill an animal, it must be instantaneous, painless and cause no apprehension. 3°- A dead animal must be treated with decency.

Hence, there are many organizations and inspired people who are striving for to protect animals and be their guardians. One of the most prominent organizations that fight for the animal

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues rights is world widely known non-governmental organization PETA – People for the ethical treatment of animals which is based in Norfolk, Virginia, and led by Ingrid Newkirk, its international president. A non-profit corporation with 300 employees, it claims to have three million members and supporters and to be the largest animal rights group in the world. Its slogan is "animals are not ours to eat, wear, experiment on, use for entertainment or abuse in any way." The organization claims to focus on four core issues—opposition to factory farming, fur farming, animal testing, and animals in entertainment. It also campaigns against eating meat, fishing, the killing of animals regarded as pests, the keeping of chained backyard dogs, cock fighting, dog fighting, and bullfighting (Manchester University Press, 1993). The organization first caught the public's attention in the summer of 1981 during what became known as the Silver Spring monkeys case, a widely publicized dispute about experiments conducted on 17 macaque monkeys inside the Institute of Behavioral Research in Silver Spring, Maryland. The case lasted ten years, involved the only police raid on an animal laboratory in the United States, triggered an amendment in 1985 to that country's Animal Welfare Act, and established PETA as an internationally known organization. The Silver Spring monkey case put animal rights on the agenda in the United States. (Blackwell 1985, pp. 135– 147)

Undercover Work

PETA sends its staff undercover into research laboratories, factory farms, and circuses to document the treatment of animals, where they spend many months as employees of the facility, making copies of documents and wearing hidden cameras. (The Los Angeles Times, 1992) By 2007, it had conducted 75 such investigations. (Galkin, 2007) Some undercover efforts have led to lawsuits or government action against the companies or universities. There are some of the cases in which PETA won the victory. In 1981 - A PETA undercovered investigation results in the first conviction of an experimenter for animal abuse and the first withdrawal of federal research funds because of cruelty to animals. 1983 PETA got a U.S. Department of Defense underground “wound lab” shut down and achieved a permanent ban on shooting dogs and cats in military wound laboratories. 1993 - All car-crash tests on animals stopped worldwide following PETA’s

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues hard-hitting campaign against General Motors’ use of live pigs and ferrets in crash tests. 1998 - PETA succeeded in getting Taiwan to pass its first-ever law against cruelty to animals after the group rescued countless dogs from being beaten, starved, electrocuted, and drowned in Taiwan’s pounds. 2004 - PETA persuaded chemical companies and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency to drop plans for numerous painful chemical tests, sparing tens of thousands of animals. 2011 - In the first case of its kind, PETA, three marine-mammal experts, and two former orca trainers filed a lawsuit asking a federal court to declare that five wild-caught orcas forced to perform at SeaWorld are being held as slaves in violation of the 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. The filing—the first ever seeking to apply the 13th Amendment to nonhuman animals—names the five orcas as plaintiffs and seeks their release into their natural habitats or seaside sanctuaries. 2011 - After intensive campaigning by PETA, the U.S. military ends the use of monkeys in the Army’s cruel chemical-attack training course.

Campaigns and Consumer Boycotts The organization is known for its aggressive media campaigns, combined with a solid base of celebrity support—Pamela Anderson, Drew Barrymore, Alec Baldwin, John Gielgud, Stella McCartney and many others have all appeared in PETA ads. (The New Yorker, April 4, 2003.)Many of the campaigns have focused on large corporations. Fast food companies such as KFC, Wendy's, and Burger King have been targeted. In the animal-testing industry, PETA's consumer boycotts have focused on Avon, Benetton, Bristol-Myers-Squibb, Chesebrough- Pond's, Dow Chemical, General Motors, and others. Their modus operandi includes buying shares in target companies such as McDonald's and Kraft Foods in order to exert influence. The campaigns have delivered results for PETA. McDonald's and Wendy's introduced vegetarian options after PETA targeted them (The Daily Telegraph, 2010). As part of its anti-fur action, PETA members have infiltrated hundreds of fashion shows in the U.S, Europe, and once in China, throwing red paint on the catwalks, and unfurling banners.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues Celebrities and supermodels have posed naked for the group's "I'd Rather Go Naked than Wear Fur" campaign—some men, but mostly women—triggering criticism from feminist animal rights advocates. (PETA Media Center, 2010)

Promotion of Vegetarianism PETA Asia-Pacific promotes vegetarian and vegan diets through three specific campaigns: education about the benefits of a vegetarian diet, demonstrations and celebrity involvement against fast food outlets, and undercover investigations of animals used for live transport and traditional religious slaughter. The organization has also used the PETA Lettuce Ladies in local demonstrations.

GSPSA The Georgian Society for the Protection and Safety of Animals (GSPSA) is the only NGO the treatment of animals into accordance with international standards and experience, committing itself to operating an animal shelter for abused and homeless animals. Currently, due to space and financial constraints, the animal shelter is only capable of offering limited food, shelter and veterinarian and emergency assistance. In Europe great efforts are made to ensure the harmonious and widely-recognized beneficial relationship between humans and animals. However, due to other economic and social problems in Georgia, the issue of animal safety and welfare is completely neglected.

References:

1. Adams, C. J. (1992). “The Sexual Politics of Meat: A Feminist - Vegetarian Critical Theory”. New York: Continuum 2. Birke, L. (1991). “Science, Feminism and Animal Natures: Extending the Boundaries”. Women's Studies International Forum, 14, 5, 443-449

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3. Clifton, M. (1990). “Killing the Female: The Psychology of the Hunt”. The Animal's Agenda 4. DeViney, E., Dickert, J. and Lockwood, R. (1983). “The Care of Pets within Child Abusing Families”. International Journal for the Study of Animal Problems, 4, 321-329 5. Donovan, J. (1990). “Animal Rights and Feminist Theory”. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society. 15, 2, 350-375 6. Faller, K. C. (1990). “Understanding Child Sexual Maltreatment”. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications 7. Moulton, C., Kaufmann, M. and Filip, J. (1991). “Report on the Summit on Violence Towards Children and Animals”. Englewood, CO: American Humane Association. 8. Wood, F. W. (1990). “An American Profile: Opinion and Behavior”, 1972-1989. New York: Gale Research Inc.

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The US–Cuba Economic Relationships Since 1990s

IRINA BAKHTADZE NINO ELBAKIDZE Abstract For more than fifty years, the relations between the US and Cuba has been a substantial ground for dispute and tension, and a proper balance has been almost impossible to achieve. Heated debates over the unilaterally imposed US sanctions mounted criticism and allegations, but problematic questions raised still remain unanswered. It is obvious, that steps for normalization are being taken, but the tension between two countries still exists. Introduced in 2013, Cuba Reconciliation Act would lift the trade embargo on Cuba. Historical ties and long term friendly relationships between the two nations cannot be ignored; the US should ease a number of restrictions on agricultural trade, as well as on other product. Another important point would be a fundamental overview of existed migration rules, and all restrictions should be removed on purposeful and family travel, also on remittances. Also it would facilitate the export of U.S. agricultural products to Cuba, remove impediments to the export of medical devices and medicines to Cuba, allow travel to Cuba by U.S. legal residents, and establish broad agricultural export promotion program with respect to Cuba.

Keywords: Cuba–US relationships, trade, travel, agriculture and migration issues, economic embargo, Obama administration policy, the process of political normalization

 Associate Professor Dr., Faculty of Education and Humanities, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi, Georgia.  M.A., Graduate of the Faculty of Education and Humanities, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

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The US–Cuba Economic Relationships Since 1990s

IRINA BAKHTADZE NINO ELBAKIDZE

Forty-five years ago, in 1959, during the Cold War era, Fidel Castro established a totalitarian regime, some ninety miles south of the United States. He turned an island paradise into a communist dictatorship and made it a fortified Soviet satellite in the Western Hemisphere. Ever since, the relations between the US and Cuba has been a substantial ground for dispute and tension, and a proper balance has been almost impossible to achieve. Heated debates over the unilaterally imposed US economic sanctions mounted criticism and accusations, but problematic questions raised still remain unanswered. The purpose of this study is to investigate the existed relationships in the fields of trade and migration between America and Cuba since the 1990s. Diverse policies carried out by the US presidents toward Cuba, and also some hidden aspects of the role of CIA have resulted in a rather complicated relationships between the two countries for more than a half century. What changes did these countries face during the turbulent historical period of the 1960s? What kind of political and socio-economic changes is Cuba undergoing today? What are the future perspectives of the US-Cuba relationships? The 1960s were a turbulent era both at home and abroad for America. Kennedy’s active foreign policy and his concern for halting communism carried his administration into an ill-fated venture in Cuba. The US wrong foreign policy resulted in winning communists in Cuba. In 1959, Batista resigned and fled from the country, and Castro assumed control of Cuba. The Castro government quickly began implementing many of Castro’s long-promised economic development programs, which emphasized agrarian reform, industrialization, economic diversification, public works programs, and educational reform. Relations with the United States

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues soon deteriorated as the Castro government began breaking up economic resource concentration in Cuba and started nationalizing much of Cuba’s economy. In February 1960, Fidel Castro concluded a treaty with the Soviets by which Cuba agreed to exchange five million tons of sugar over the next five years for arms, oil, machinery, and technical advisers. In less than two years Cuba’s trade with Soviet- controlled countries grew from two percent to eighty percent of its total commerce. On January 3, 1961, the United States and Cuba broke diplomatic relations, leaving a legacy of trouble for the new president. What followed was a series of partially penalizing policy initiatives on the part of the two countries, culminating in a total U.S. embargo of Cuba in 1962. Throughout the Cold War period, Castro strengthened the socialist structure of the Cuban economy. In the early years after the Revolution, Cuba consolidated expropriated land holdings into huge state farms and attempted to diversify agricultural production away from the traditional sugar monoculture. But sugar eventually proved to be the key mechanism for the Soviets to provide economic support for the new Castro government through purchases of huge volumes of Cuban sugar at prices far in excess of world prices. Although subsidized sugar prices allowed Cuba’s sugar industry to remain an important player in the global sugar market, they also permitted the Cuban sugar industry to develop into an immensely inefficient system with production costs far in excess of most major world sugar producers. In the 1990s, after the collapse of the USSR, when Cuba lost its Soviet subsidy overnight, it started to seek the ways to rapid improvement of the relationships with the United States. But a real change in the two countries’ relations was not to come true for a considerable period of time. The loss of cheap Soviet oil triggered a Cuban energy crisis. Without massive subsidies, Cuba felt the full consequences of 40 years of resource misallocation and heavily subsidized, inefficient production. Cuba faced severe shortages throughout all sectors of its economy. Cuban economic output fell by one-third when Soviet Block collapsed. Cuban foreign trade fell by 73 percent, and agricultural exports fell by more than one-half. In response to this crisis, the Cuban government announced an economic austerity program known as the “Special Period in Peacetime” (or Special Period). As part of this program, the Cuban government pursued more open trade with other countries, and made limited policy adjustments to allow markets to operate within tight constraints. It allowed Cuban citizens to hold and spend U.S. dollars, allowed self-

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues employment in a limited number of fields, and allowed establishment of restaurants in individual homes (pal dares). Cuba also looked to foreign investment for needed resources to keep businesses running and to modernize and expand targeted industry sectors (tourism, mining, telecommunications, manufacturing, construction, and agriculture). With domestic demand largely limited to the tourist sector, and without access to the nearby U.S. market, there were few incentives for investment in production of perishable agricultural crops. Only about 10 percent of the approximately $1 billion of foreign investment was in agriculture (primarily in citrus, tobacco, and food processing). By 1995, Cuba’s economy was showing signs of slow recovery. The opening of Cuba’s economy was driven by economic necessity and was constrained by the government’s desire to maintain the socialist state. Although Cuba’s sugar industry was no longer dominant, agriculture continued to play an important role in the economy. In October 2003, the US President George W. Bush announced fresh measures to hasten the end of communist rule in Cuba. They included tightening the American embargo to the island, cracking down on illegal cash transfers, and starting a more robust information campaign aimed at Cuba. This position was in line with the attitudes of former US presidents dealing with Cuba with the exception of Jimmy Carter. The embargo policy raised many questions. It is still debatable whether the embargo accomplished its goals, or whether the sanctions were an important way to take a stand on political issues. Did the embargo have a national security rational in the post-Cold War World? Were the people of Cuba and American also hurt by the embargo? It is not excluded that after the careful reconsideration of the results of the applied embargo, normalization of relations with Cuba and the shift from the policy of isolationism to the one of engagement might seem the better alternative. Targeting Castro not Cuba, that is considering a Multilateral Smart Sanctions approach toward Cuba, has always been an option. Applied effectively, multilateral Smart Sanctions can focus attention on unacceptable actions of targeted individuals and entities, pressure such individuals or entities to modify their behavior, and serve as a valuable component of a broader strategy at promoting political or economic reforms and democratization. Still another way of promoting change is to permit Americans to travel to Cuba, and thus to create people- to people contacts. Building scholarship programs in the US for Cuban students

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues and professionals will be another positive step forward. Increasing aid to dissidents and seeking to overcome jamming of the Radio and TV Marti is the next step to follow. All the above mentioned steps should be aimed at gradual and peaceful transition to democracy in Cuba. (George Washington University Security Archives) Political and socio-economic changes in Cuba continued in the beginning of the new century when Raul Castro, brother of the Fidel Castro who liberalized the real estate and auto markets, created businesses, gave individuals land for farming and fought against corruption. However, Raúl Castro's steps toward capitalism have been "both remarkable and extremely limited," writes Damien Cave for the New York Times. (Brianna Lee, Senior Production Editor) When the Obama Administration took office in 2009, it initiated a policy to engage with the Cuban government in an effort to improve relations. At the April 2009 Summit of the Americas, President Obama announced that “the United States seeks a new beginning with Cuba.” He stated that he was prepared to have his Administration “engage with the Cuban government on a wide range of issues—from drugs, migration, and economic issues, to human rights, free speech, and democratic reform”. (Mark Sullivan, 2013) In some respects, the Obama Administration has continued the dual-track policy approach toward Cuba that has been in place for many years. It has largely maintained U.S. economic sanctions, and it has continued measures to support the Cuban people, such as U.S. government- sponsored radio and television broadcasting and funding for democracy and human rights projects. At the same time, a significant shift in policy toward Cuba under the Obama Administration has occurred with its efforts to reach out to the Cuban people through the easing of restrictions on travel and remittances. The measures increased purposeful travel to Cuba related to religious, educational, and journalistic activities, including people-to-people travel exchanges; authorized any U.S. person to send remittances to non-family members in Cuba; made it easier for religious institutions to send remittances for religious activities; and allowed all U.S. international airports to apply to provide flights to and from Cuba. In 2012 congressional testimony, Assistant Secretary of State for Western Hemisphere Affairs Roberta Jacobson asserted that “the most effective tool we have for doing that is building connections between the Cuban and American people, in order to give Cubans the support and tools they need to move forward independent of their government”. (Mark Sullivan, 2013)

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues Human rights violations also have remained a fundamental concern regarding Cuba under the Obama Administration. President Obama and the State Department have continued to issue statements expressing concern about violations. It called for Cuba to end such practices and asserted that “we look forward to the day when all Cubans can freely express their ideas, assemble freely, and express their opinions peacefully.”(Mark Sullivan, 2013).

Illegal Migration In 1994, a bilateral agreement was reached between Cuba and the US to stop the flow of Cubans fleeing to the United States by boat. In the agreement, the United States and Cuba agreed to facilitate safe, legal, and orderly Cuban migration to the United States, consistent with a 1984 migration agreement. The United States agreed to ensure that total legal Cuban migration to the United States would be a minimum of 20,000 each year, not including immediate relatives of US citizens. In May 1995, the United States reached another accord with Cuba under which the United States would parole the more than 30,000 Cubans housed at Guantanamo into the United States, but would bring to a halt future Cuban migrants attempting to enter the United States by sea and would return them to Cuba. The two countries would cooperate jointly in the effort. Both countries also pledged to ensure that no action would be taken against those migrants returned to Cuba as a consequence of their attempt to immigrate illegally. On January 31, 1996, the Department of Defense announced that the last of some 32,000 Cubans intercepted at sea and housed at Guantanamo had left the U.S. Naval Station, most having been paroled into the United States. In FY2011 and FY2012, however, the number of Cubans interdicted by the Coast Guard increased respectively to 985 and 1,275. (Mark Sullivan, 2013) Despite the U.S. Coast Guard’s maritime interdiction program, thousands of unauthorized Cubans reach the United States each year, either by boat or at land ports of entry. Arrival of unauthorized Cubans at U.S. ports of entry—the majority from Mexico—showed a slightly rising trend from 7,053 in FY2009 to 7,798 in FY2011. Comparatively, however, the statistics are much lower than the average of almost 11,000 Cubans arriving at ports of entry annually from FY2005-FY2008. (Mark Sullivan, 2013)

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues The Obama Administration re-started the talks in 2009, and there were four rounds of talks until January 2011. In addition to migration issues, the talks became a forum to raise other issues of concern, including, for U.S. officials, the imprisonment of Alan Gross. (Mark P. Sullivan, March 29, 2013). The country’s political succession in 2006 from the long-ruling Fidel Castro to his brother Raúl was characterized by a remarkable degree of stability. In February 2013, Castro was reappointed to a second five-year term as president. Raúl Castro has implemented a number of gradual economic policy changes over the past several years. A party congress held in April 2011 laid out numerous economic goals that, if implemented, could significantly alter Cuba’s state-dominated economic model.

The US Agricultural Exports and Sanctions U.S. commercial agricultural exports to Cuba have been allowed for more than a decade, but with numerous restrictions and licensing requirements. The 106th Congress passed the Trade Sanctions Reform and Export Enhancement Act of 2000 or TSRA (P.L. 106-387, Title IX) that allows for one-year export licenses for selling agricultural commodities to Cuba, but it also laid on many financial restrictions. The US exports to Cuba rose from about $7 million in 2001 to $712 million in 2008, far higher than in previous years, in part because of the rise in food prices and because of Cuba’s increased food needs in the aftermath of several hurricanes and tropical storms that severely damaged the country’s agricultural sector. From 2002 through 2010, the United States was the largest supplier of food and agricultural products to Cuba, but in 2011 Brazil’s agricultural exports to Cuba superseded those of the United States. U.S. exports to Cuba declined considerably from 2009 through 2011, but began to increase again in 2012 , reached 28% increase largely due to the damage to the agricultural sector in eastern Cuba caused by Hurricane Sandy in October. (Mark Sullivan, 2013) Cuba Reconciliation Act would lift the trade embargo on Cuba. Introduced in 2013, it referred to the Committee on Foreign Affairs, and in addition to the Committees on Ways and Means, Energy and Commerce, Financial Services, the Judiciary, Oversight and Government Reform, and Agriculture. Also it would allow travel between the United States and Cuba; would

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues facilitate the export of U.S. agricultural products to Cuba, remove impediments to the export of medical devices and medicines to Cuba, allow travel to Cuba by U.S. legal residents, and establish an agricultural export promotion program with respect to Cuba. (Introduced on February 27, 2013) In conclusion, while U.S. policy has consisted largely of isolating Cuba through economic sanctions, a second policy component has consisted of support measures for the Cuban people, including U.S. government-sponsored broadcasting (Radio and TV Martí) and support for human rights and democracy projects. The Obama Administration has continued this similar dual-track approach. While the Administration moved to reengage Cuba on several bilateral issues, it has also maintained most U.S. economic sanctions in place. On human rights, the Administration welcomed the release of many political prisoners in 2010 and 2011, but it has also criticized Cuba’s continued harsh repression of political dissidents through thousands of short-term detentions and targeted violence. Strong interest on Cuba is expected to continue in the 113th Congress with attention focused on economic and political developments, especially the human rights situation, and U.S. policy toward the island nation. For more than fifty years, the relations between the US and Cuba has been a substantial ground for dispute and tension, and a proper balance has been almost impossible to achieve. Heated debates over the unilaterally imposed US sanctions mounted criticism and allegations, but problematic questions raised still remain unanswered. It is obvious, that steps for normalization are being taken, but the tension between two countries still exists. Obama administration policy directed towards normalization of the relationships between the two countries has already showed positive results. Historical ties and relationships between the two nations cannot be ignored and US should ease a number of restrictions on agricultural trade, as well as on other product. Another important point would be a fundamental overview of existed migration rules, and all restrictions should be removed on purposeful and family travel, also on remittances. Neighbor countries have to maintain peaceful and mutually beneficial cooperation as they are involved into common regional problems. Even during the peak of the political crises, the peoples of the US and Cuba kept relationships in many fields, including migration, business, trade, travelling, tourism, and culture. Those relationships simply cannot be halted; it should be supported and encouraged. People to People Diplomacy nowadays acquires new functions and value, and unfortunately, the voice of those in the government does not always coincide with the

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues aspirations, needs and wishes of the citizens. We believe that the governments of two countries will undertake all necessary measures to address to the existed problematic questions. The powerful countries, such as America or Russia have to undertake more responsibilities keeping peace in the region, as well as in the world.

References:

1. Sullivan Mark P., (March 29, 2013). “Cuba: US Policy and Issues for the 113th Congress”, Specialist in Latin American Affairs 2. George Washington University Security Archives 3. Dimitri Volonkogov Library 4. National Security Archives 5. Office of Global Analysis, FAS, USDA. (March 2008). Cuba’s Food and Agriculture Situation Report 6. Hall K., (1994-1998). “Papers from the President John F. Kennedy Assassination Records”, Collection at the National Archives, Part I: Kennedy Administration Policy toward Cuba

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues

Power of Women Voters in American Politics in the Last Decade

SALOME GOGBERASHVILI

"The worldwide advancement of women's issues is not only in keeping with the deeply held values of the American people; it is strongly in our national interest as well. In today's world, any American Secretary of State, male or female, must pay attention to the issues affecting the rights and well-being of women -- over half the world's population. Women's issues affect not only women; they have profound implications for all humankind. Women's issues are human rights issues.... We, as a world community, cannot even begin to tackle the array of problems and challenges confronting us without the full and equal participation of women in all aspects of life." Colin L. Powell

Abstract The advance of women and their power in almost all aspects of life is not denied any more. More time passes more women are becoming active and are struggling for their rights. And more they struggle and more power they acquire more battle over their voices kindle. Many experts and politicians agree on the fact that women voters played a decisive role in 2012 presidential election and carried Obama to a victory. This article aims to analyze the role and power of women voters in the life of American politics in the last decade and the main factors of their “decisive role” in the 2012 presidential elections.

Keywords: Women voters, elections, presidential candidates, gender gap, rights

 Ph.D. Student, Faculty of Education and Humanities, Direction of American Studies, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

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Power of Women Voters in American Politics in the Last Decade

SALOME GOGBERASHVILI

Introduction The advance of women and their power in almost all aspects of life is not denied any more. More time passes more women are becoming active and are struggling for their rights. Around the world, women are entering the field of politics and government in growing numbers (Verveer, 2010) and are contributing to the civil and political development. Due to wider access to information women connect and communicate with each other easer and as a result a lot of international organizations concerned with women issues have been created. Creation of international organizations empowered women to expend their views wider and made their voices heard in longer distances. Women, as more than half population of the USA according to the US Census (49.2 male and 50.8 female) (Mayer, 2011) represent a serious power and even threat for politicians trying to gain voices during the elections. Since 1984, women have been the majority of the total vote in every presidential election. As Charlene Carruthers, New York City activist and writer, predicted in one of her articles written just before the 2012 presidential elections, “This year, millions of women will stand in line and prepare themselves to decide who will serve in state legislatures and in the U.S. Congress. They will decide who sits on the local school board and who the next President of the United States becomes. They will also decide who shapes the future of reproductive health and rights for all women in this country. The power to preserve and expand reproductive rights is inextricably tied the right to vote.” (Carruthers, 2012) Thus the increased involvement of women in different aspects of civil, economic and political life made them a serious target group for voice seekers and struggle over their voices kindle. Many experts

 Ph.D. Student, Faculty of Education and Humanities, Direction of American Studies, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues and politicians agree on the fact that women voters played a decisive role in 2012 presidential election and carried Obama to a victory. This article aims to analyze the role and power of women voters in the life of American politics in the last decade and the main factors of their “decisive role” in the 2012 presidential elections. The article refers to the last decade but mainly concentrates on the 2012 presidential elections as covering the whole decade in this small paper is impossible , though mentioning 2008 elections and generally the decade is also necessary for getting the wider picture. The research is mainly done through articles from different newspapers and statistics and with mixed research method.

Gender Gap in 2008 and 2012 Presidential Elections in the USA In order to discuss the importance and the power of women voters, it is essential to give the evidence of gender gap1 during presidential elections in the above mentioned period. Before proceeding farther one should once again mention that women represent more than half of the USA population (49.2 male and 50.8 female) thus a serious power and target group for voice seekers. However, one can ask why female voters are so important and attractive to presidential candidates when the difference between the male and female voters represents only about 1.6%. This question logically arises as the difference between male and female voters are not so huge. The reason why gender gap matters lies not only on the 1.6% difference in gender but on the fact that more women are registered to vote than men in most states and much higher female turnout rate is noticed at the polls. (The United States Census Bureau, 2013) One can quite simply conclude: more female voters=more female power, more interest in them from the side of politicians and voice seekers, especially in battleground or so called swing states.

1 The ‘gender gap’ refers to differences between women and men in political attitudes and voting choices.

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As for the gender gap itself during the presidential election, as already mentioned above, women were those majority electorates who voted for the democratic presidential candidate Barack Obama on both elections. In 2008 presidential election the gender gap equaled about 7 percent with women favoring Barack Obama and in 2012 gender gap represented about 10 percent, with women again favoring and voting for the democratic candidate Barack Obama. For more details see the chart below: (Rutgers, 2012)

According to many articles printed in different newspapers, President Barack Obama should thank his re - election to women, who played a great role in the election and carried Obama to victory on historic elections. (Borger, 2012) But what made women the supporters of the democratic candidate? What were the reasons of women’s decision to re – elect Obama again?

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The Reasons for the Gender Gap Reasons for the gender gap during the above mentioned presidential elections can not be only one but several. For example, Romney's business background may have been more appealing to men than to women or Obama's campaign stressing maintaining the social safety net, raising taxes on the wealthy more interesting to women than men. (Jones, 2012) But what almost every article show, one of the main reasons of women disfavoring the Republican presidential candidate Mitt Romney was revealed to be so called “war against women”, including Romney's pledge to get rid of Planned Parenthood, a key women's healthcare provider that also provide abortions and Romney’s strict pro-life campaign and favoring Barack Obama for his pro-choice attitude and belief in women’s right to choose. (Borger, 2012) However, the driving force behind female voters was not only so called “women’s issue” but economic issues as well. According to Terry O'Neill, president of the National Organization for Woman "It is economic issues, sure, at a certain point it's also about rights, but at a more immediate level it's about survival….When you look at unmarried women, they are very often the head of their families or taking care of elders. What they saw in Mitt Romney was someone who had disdain for them – as part of the 47%. He wanted to cut after-school programmes, Head Start, food stamps and job training programmes." (Borger, 2012)

Women Voters as Homogeneous Group? Politicians often refer to “the women’s vote” as homogeneous group. Though within the "women's vote" are childless women and mothers, college students and grandmothers, and married and unmarried women. According to some experts Barack Obama owes his re-election to unmarried, single women and not women voters as a homogeneous group. "Unmarried women were the drivers of the president's victory," said Page Gardner, the president of Women’s Vices Women Vote Action Fund (WVWVAF). (Goldenberg, 2012) According to research released by the Women’s Vices Women Vote Action Fund nearly a quarter of the voters were unmarried women and Obama captured more than two thirds of their voices. (Goldenberg, 2012)

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues As Linda Lowen, a former radio/TV broadcast journalist and winner of the national awards for her coverage of women’s issues, mentions there are several reasons why unmarried women favor Democrats to Republicans, which was seen during the 2008 presidential elections and which might become the key winning factors for 2012 elections. (Lowen, 2012) Some of the reasons mentioned by Linda Lowen are the followings: Studies have shown that single women tend to be liberal but become more conservative once they're married. This happens due to the fact that married men are more likely to identify with the Republican Party while single women more favor Democratic Party. When a woman regains her single status later in life because of divorce or a spouse's death, she often returns to a more liberal outlook. Viewpoints that developed as a result of her economic and psychological dependence on her husband reset themselves when the marriage ends. She often finds her political opinions shift as she spends more time with female friends and is exposed to a wider variety of political perspectives. (Lowen, 2012) Another reason mentioned by Linda Lowen is connected with the economic situation. Although single women enjoy economic independence, their household income is far less than of married women who benefit from a two-paycheck household. When every penny matters, issues such as health care coverage becomes of greater importance. For many single women, preventive health care services including contraception is essential for three reasons: free birth control means one less out-of-pocket expense; it provides all women, regardless of means, access to family planning information and resources; and the ability to delay pregnancy and child-rearing is another means of self-determination and self-sufficiency. (Lowen, 2012) Along with the reasons mentioned above, unmarried women strongly supported Barack Obama for equal pay provisions, being the first piece of legislation the president signed into law. (Goldenberg, 2012)

Conclusion Women voters, as majority of the population, but more importantly as characterized by higher turnout rate during the elections than that of men, represent a serious target group for Presidential candidates to work on. As many experts mention, women are those power who Barack Obama must thank for his election as well as re-election as the president of the United

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues States. Among many possible reasons for winning the election by the democratic candidate tend to be on the one hand women’s disfavor of Romney because of his so called “war on Women”, his aggressive comments on raping and his radical pro-life attitude and on the other hand women support for Democratic candidate due to his believe in women’s right to choose, his pro-choice attitude, preventive health care services including contraception, family planning and equal payment.

References:

1. (2013, May 8). Retrieved November 23, 2013, from The United States Census Bureau: http://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/voting/cb13-84.html 2. Borger, M. K. (2012, November 7). The Guardian. Retrieved November 18, 2013, from http://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/nov/07/womens-vote-obama-victory-election 3. Carruthers, C. (2012, July 13). RH Reality Check. Retrieved November 15, 2013, from http://rhrealitycheck.org/article/2012/07/13/power-to-vote-affects-our-power-to-choose- how-voter-suppression-in-2012-affects-r/ 4. Goldenberg, S. (2012, November 9). The Guardian. Retrieved November 15, 2013, from http://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/nov/09/single-women-voted-favour-obama 5. Jones, J. M. (2012, November 9). Gallup. Retrieved November 11, 2013, from http://www.gallup.com/poll/158588/gender-gap-2012-vote-largest-gallup-history.aspx 6. Lowen, L. (2012, September 27). about.com. Retrieved November 17, 2013, from • Vote http://womensissues.about.com/od/2012Election/a/The-Single-Women-S-Vote-In-The- 2012-Election.htm 7. Mayer, L. M. (2011, May). U.S Census Bureau. Retrieved November 19, 2013, from http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-03.pdf 8. Rutgers. (2012). Retrieved November 20, 2013, from Center for the American Women and Politics: http://www.cawp.rutgers.edu/fast_facts/voters/documents/GGPresVote.pdf 9. Verveer, M. (2010). Women as Agents of Change:Advancing the Role of Women in Politics and Civil Society. Washington, DC.

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues

American Women Philanthropists: From Decorative Arts to Avant-garde

KETEVAN ANTELAVA

Abstract The activity of American philanthropist women has a long and interesting history. Difficulties and obstacles they overcame on their way are very similar to those overcome by women who were devoted to civil rights movement. Although the efforts of the former are not fully appreciated or researched, it is difficult to underestimate their contribution to the formation of present-day American values. The movement which began with charity work and the promotion of decorative arts in early 19th century, grew into the management of cultural processes by women. By the begining of 20th century women art patrons turned their attention to Avant-garde, which constituted a progressive but risky step by the standards of the time. Thus they wanted to ensure America‘s involvment in the latest cultural developments and reestablish their leadership in the field of art patronage.

 Ph.D. Student, Faculty of Humanities, English Language Teacher, Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues

American Women Philanthropists: From Decorative Arts to Avant-garde

KETEVAN ANTELAVA

The work of women collectors and art patrons in the United States has deep roots and an interesting story. Their difficult path unfolded parallel to the women’s rights movement and was beset by no fewer obstacles. And even though their contributions have been studied and appreciated to a lesser degree, researching American women’s philanthropy provides a more complete picture of the women’s rights movement overall, as well as of their role in the development of the American society and values. According to one opinion, the development of the culture was the prerogative of women in America, at a time when men were busy taking over the country and developing the economy. Women’s philanthropy, which culminated in directing of cultural processes at the beginning of the 20th century, originated in the mid-19th century. During this period, charity was the only safe means of social activity for the majority of middle- and upper-class American women, as not everyone had ventured to fight for political, legislative, or social equality. Precisely for this reason, educational and healthcare institutions founded by women were developing intensively and successfully during this period. Women’s cultural and intellectual abilities were severely restricted and limited to domestic sphere during this period. Unavailability of financial resources2 and widespread negative attitudes toward socially active women prevented them from gaining momentum; the development of interior design and decorative arts was a logical continuation of this. Karen Blair, researcher of the women’s movement, noted in her book that women were being instilled with an interest for art while being raised. Handicraft and painting were deemed to be acceptable activities to spend time, assuming the ladies did not attract too much attention while doing so. The “advice” urging them to remain unnoticed persisted until the end of the 19th century (Blair, 1994, p. 3).

 Ph.D. Student, Faculty of Humanities, English Language Teacher, Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia. 2Before 1848 when Married Women's Property Acts were passed, upon marriage a woman lost any right to control property that was hers prior to the marriage, nor did she have rights to acquire any property during marriage.

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues Societies of decorative arts and schools of design founded by Sarah Worthington King Peter,3 and later Candace Wheeler,4 played an important role in the difficult path toward gaining equal rights in the culture sphere. These initiatives were one of the things that led to the increase in women’s career opportunities and gradually broadened their influence in the culture sphere. Due to the efforts of these women and their associates, the range of women’s interests and activities went beyond the borders of the household, religion, and charity. With the help of these organizations the efforts of women that were engaged in social activities no longer opposed established norms and no longer induced condemnation. With the help of decorative art societies, new opportunities arose for women in various fields and as Candace Wheeler said, “decorative art opened the door to honest effort among women … and if it was narrow it was still a door”. (Wheeler, 1918, p. 215) Were it not for the contributions of Sarah Worthington King Peter, Candace Wheeler, and their associates in terms of increasing women’s education and taste, the women art patrons and propagandists of the twentieth century would not have come to exist. The processes ongoing before and after the civil war ensured the development of interest toward education, the refining of taste, and nurturing of the museums’ potential visitors. Apart from a refined sense of taste, knowledge, and the ability to work together, they acquired such skills, without which women art patrons in the 20th century would not have been able to play the leading role in the developing processes. Great progress was attained in the 50-year period after the second half of the 19th century, which saw women moving from being interested in interior design and decorative arts to cultural leadership and taking the reins of culture. The appearance of Abbey Rockefeller, Lily Bliss, Mary Quinn, Isabella Stuart Gardner, Gertrude Whitney, and Juliana Force in the American art was a sign of the active establishment of women in the scene. These women, according to Cathleen McCarthy, a researcher of the work of American philanthropist women, set new and complex goals for themselves, broadened the limits of what was possible in art, and set new standards instead of blindly obeying the existing norms and established rules of the museums’ development. The heritage that they left in the 1940’s led to New York succeeding Paris as the capital of culture (McCarthy, 1991, p. 244).

3Sarah Worthington King Peter (1800-1877), the founder of the first school of design for women in 1864. 4Candace Wheeler (1827-1023), the first female interior and textile designer, and the founder of the Decorative Society in New York in 1877.

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues Nowadays this might be difficult to imagine but at the beginning of the 20th century the patronage and propaganda of modern art constituted a certain kind of rebellion as modernism contained a glimmer of radicalism at the time. A visitor at the Museum of Modern Art in New York can hardly imagine that the exhibits displayed there were once the subjects of much discussion and dispute. The response that followed the Armory Show5 is a clear example of this: “Most Americans had heard only “vague rumours” of unusual artistic happenings abroad and were completely unprepared for the impact of the postimpressionist, cubist, and fauvist paintings that greeted them. Over seventy thousand viewers crowded in to see the show during its one-month run in New York, a presence bolstered by the press review that sent shock waves across the nation.” (Brown, 1988, p. 131) The founding of Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) is connected with three women: Abbey Rockefeller (1874 -1948), Lily Bliss (1864-1931) and Mary Quinn Sullivan (1877-1939). The introduction, establishment, and popularization of avant-garde as a genre in the United States, by the way is in general connected with women. Gertrude Stein’s salon’s, Mabel Dodge’s Amory Show, Catherin Dryer’s works, Edith Halperth’s gallery, Eta and Claribelle Cone’s and Agnes Mayer’s activities; this is an incomplete list of the efforts that played a big role in the formation of artistic interests and tastes at the beginning of the century. Kathleen McCarthy explained women art patrons’ interest in avant-garde with two main reasons. The first is a strategy of filling the existing void. The fact is that male art critics and patrons completely ignored this new and unknown genre of art, which gave the women freedom of action. The second reason was of an economic nature: Modernist art, as well as objects of women’s earlier interest (e.g. ceramics, textiles, the works of folk artists) were relatively accessible, as they did not entail competing with wealthy male philanthropists (McCarthy, 191:179). Abby Rockefeller’s interest toward the avant-garde could also be explained by personal interest. She wanted to escape from her spouse’s influences and to gain an independent role in the field of art patronage. Her spouse, John Rockefeller, was interested in Chinese porcelain, and art and architecture from the Middle Ages. He invested quite significant funds in this. It is known that he referred to his wife’s

5 The Armory Show refers to the 1913 International Exhibition of Modern Art that was organized by the Association of American Painters and Sculptors, the first large exhibition of modern art in America.

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues interest as “Abby’s follies” and refused to fund them. In a letter addressed to her son, Abby discussed deeper reasons for her interest in philanthropy: “Art is one of the greatest resources of our life … it enriches the spiritual life and makes one more sane and sympathetic, more observant as well as being good for one’s nerves”. (Macleod, 2008, p. 156) In November 1929, due to the principled nature, individualism, and possibly also stubbornness of these three women, the Museum of Modern Art opened with 98 works from four European painters: Van Gogh, Gauguin, Cézanne, and Seurat. According to the “Founder’s Manifesto,” the museum would hold regular exhibitions of contemporary American and European painters, and thus a permanent museum of modern art would be created. Apart from its aesthetic and cultural values (which the museum has retained to this day), its opening was important in a different way as well. This event was an indicator of women’s growing individualization. Also, it was an expression of the need to reconcile professional and philanthropic opportunities equally. In this way, women’s activities were no longer limited to charity. This museum is also proof of the fact that in the 1920s, the increased possibility of choice led to the satisfaction of diverse cultural interests. Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney (1875-1942), a representative of America’s elite and wealthy circle, never fought for women’s rights but the Museum of American Art that she founded in 1931 constituted a step no less courageous or radical than Elizabeth Cady Stanton’s “Declaration of Sentiments.”6 Whitney, like Stanton, created a unique and hitherto nonexistent cultural space, which ensured the further evolution of women’s philanthropy, on the basis of the existing reality, experience, and traditions. Her career evolved gradually: Her activities began by charity, i.e. by regularly visiting shelters, which was followed by her election into the board of directors and her financing and overseeing of painting lessons for the shelter’s inhabitants. Ideas connected with art patronage also originated at that point. Developing a professional interest for sculpture, creating an

6Declaration of Sentiments - the declaration of the Seneca Falls Convention, using the model of the US Declaration of Independence, demanded that the rights of women as right-bearing individuals be acknowledged and respected by society. It was signed by sixty-eight women and thirty-two men.

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues exhibition space in New York’s bohemian district, Greenwich Village,7 the organization of extraordinary expositions (that were sometimes found to be unacceptable by the public), and the subsequent creation of the Whitney Studio Club – these are all the stages through which Whitney was beginning to think of the means with which “it would become possible, at the dawn of the new century, to reimagine women’s philanthropy in the cultural sphere, and to free them from the traps of old”. (McCarthy, 1991, p. 243) The idea of creating a museum of contemporary American art was precisely such a step which, symbolically, we can consider to be a response to Marcel Duchamp’s8 call: “You should realize that the art of Europe is finished-dead-and that America is the country of the art of future.” (Friedman 1978, p. 417) The museums that existed at that time did not address this requirement particularly well. According to the prevalent opinion, “the museums were castigated as “graveyards of dead art. Thus, an artist must die to have his work shown, or else be a foreigner and have his work hall- marked by dealers.” (Glackens, 1957, p. 76) At the beginning of the century, significantly earlier than in 1931, Whitney, together with her friend and associate Juliana Force (1876-1948), began actively supporting and collecting works by American painters belonging to hitherto ignored genres. By 1931, the works by contemporary American painters that Whitney had collected were so numerous that she decided to donate the collection to the Metropolitan Museum. The answer that came from the museum, “we don’t need any more Americans, we have a basement full of such pictures!,” proved to have been a decisive one. On the 17th of November, 1931, around 4,000 guests attended the opening of the Museum of American Art. The event’s culmination was President Hoover’s congratulatory address and of course, Gertrude Whitney herself, who was famous for being the graceful host of such events. The press’ response to this was uneven and the mutually exclusive and radically different assessments revealed precisely how risky was the business that these two ladies were grappling with. Their invaluable contribution was the fact that they aimed at neither more nor less than “to

7 Greenwich Village –a district situated West of lower Manhattan, which was widely seen as the “heaven” for artists at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries, and a center of bohemian life. 8Marcel Duchamp (1887-1968), a French-American painter, sculptor, and writer, whose name is associated with Dadaism and conceptual art.

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues break down the wall of indifference that had surrendered American art since 1876. American art no longer needed to come in the back door”. (McCarthy, p. 240) Women’s art philanthropy in America developed according to an evolutionary progression. The process which began humbly with the development of decorative art was replaced by “high” sometimes “radical” art and if, initially, it was European and Asian art that was being popularized, Rockefeller, Whitney, and their followers focused on contemporary, avant-garde art and thus made a new and courageous statement in a field that was completely inaccessible to them merely half a century ago.

References:

1. Berman A. “Rebels on Eighth Street: Juliana Force and the Whitney Museum of American Art”. Atheneum, 1990. 2. Blair, Karen. “The Torchbearers: Women and their Amateur Arts Associations in America”, 1890-1930. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994. 3. Brown, Milton W. “The Story of the Armory Show”. New York: Abberville Press, 1988. 4. Friedman B.H. “Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney”, Garden City New York: Doubleday and CO, 1978. 5. Glackens I. “William Glackens and The Ashcan Group: The Emergence of Realism in American Art”. New York: Crown Publishers, 1957. 6. Macleod D. S. “Enchanted Lives, Enchanted Objects”. University of California Press, Berkeley-Los Angeles-London, 2008. 7. McCarthy K. “Women’s Culture: American Philanthropy and Art 1830-1930”, The University of Chicago Press, 1991. 8. Wheeler C. “Yesterdays in a Busy Life New York”. Harper and Bros, 1918.

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues

Ivan Turgenev and Henry James: the Epistolary Legacy

GEORGE SHADURI

“Go and try to disprove death. Death will disprove you, and that’s all there is to it!” Ivan Turgenev. Fathers and Sons.

Introduction One of the major encounters of Russian and American cultures occurred on European soil, particularly, in France. Living in Paris in the 1870s, Ivan Turgenev entered the circle of major French writers – G. Flaubert, E. Zola, A. Daudet, where he had the reputation of one of the greatest Realist writers. In these years and later, Turgenev by his mature mastership, sophisticated art of psychological analysis had undoubted influence on Western European writers. Prosper Merimee considered him one of the leaders of Realist school. Georges Sand and Guy de Maupassant acknowledged themselves as the pupils of Turgenev. Turgenev’s activity in the field of literature, science, and art was highly estimated in France and England. In 1878 he was chosen as Vice President of International Literary Congress in Paris, the Chair of the Congress being Victor Hugo. In 1879 Oxford University awarded the writer with the Degree of Doctor of Regular Law (Прохоров, 1977). All these credentials were enough to provide solid base for the extended personal relationship between Ivan Turgenev and his younger American peer Henry James. James highly praised the Great Russian Realist. Turgenev, along with Balzac and Flaubert, was, according to Blackmoore, “his selected teacher” (Спиллер и др., 1979). The Great Russian spent more than a decade in Paris, and developed friendship with James, evidenced by his letters to the great American writer witness. We know fifteen letters of Turgenev to James. Unfortunately, no letter from James to

 An Associate Professor, Dr., Faculty of Education and Humanities, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues Turgenev remained. The more so interesting would be for us to explore the epistolary legacy left from the communication of two giants of world literature, and make the judgments and conclusions after reviewing this legacy.

Legacy Letter 1. 26 July, 1874, Carlsbad While writing to Henry James for the first time and, besides, in English, Turgenev was undergoing treatment in Carlsbad, Germany. This letter is the answer to Henry James’s first article on Turgenev in “North American Review”, Vol. CXVIII, 1874. “I have read your article very attentively. It is rather difficult for an author to judge fairly a critical analysis of his own works – I must confess that I, for instance, find always the praise too great and the blame too weak”, says Turgenev. James would write afterwards on the reaction of Turgenev on criticism: “He was not accustomed to, and even did not count on the warming in the rays of criticism. Due to his exceptional modesty he did not attribute great significance to what they could tell about him, since he understood that he hardly was to meet a sensible evaluation, especially abroad”. (James, 1888, pp. 297-298). Turgenev continues: “I do not attribute this impression to diffidence or modesty: it is perhaps one of the many disguises which self-love enjoys in. All that I can say – is that your article strikes me as being inspired by a fine sense of what is just and true; there is manliness in it and psychological sagacity and a clear literary taste. I have only to observe that the pessimism you reproach me is perhaps – is certainly – an involuntary one. My ‘excess of irony’, as you call it, does not give me any pleasure – not even the bitter one, of which some people speak” (Тургенев, 1965, vol. X, p. 269). In his article, James wrote that Turgenev has “an aristocratic temperament with a democratic intellect” (James, 1883, pp.247). In his P.S. to this letter Turgenev concludes humorously: “Truth compels me to say that I have large hands and feet, and ugly nose – and nothing of an “aristocratic” temperament – and I do not regret it”. Afterwards, James changed this opinion. “In a little article, in which I allowed myself to say that he has an aristocratic temperament. In the light of what I learnt further, this remark seems to me especially incongruous. He was generally not subject for definitions of such kinds, and to tell that he was a democrat, would mean

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues (although democracy was his political ideal) to give similarly superficial impression about him. He felt and understood the opposing sides of life” (James, 1888, p. 296)

Letter 2. 8 November, 1875, Paris The second letter is also in English. Here Turgenev invites James to his house to get acquainted with him (Тургенев, vol. X, 1965, p. 151).

Letter 3. 31 January, 1876, Paris In this letter Turgenev asks Henry James for the favor of letting him write in French. Here and from now on they will correspond in ‘lingua franca’, which both of them possess equally. Turgenev thanks James for the present the latter has sent to him – James’s novel “Roderick Hudson” (Тургенев, vol. XI, 1965, p. 397). In American literary criticism the dependence of this novel on Turgenev’s “Rudin” is mentioned (Kelley, 1930). James says that the most intriguing thing was that Turgenev was ill with gout and bronchitis and could not read James’s books by himself. Instead, his beloved friend Poline Viardot read the books to him. According to James, he continued sending his novels to his Russian friend, but he (James) suspected (wrongly) that Turgenev did not read many of his books as he had not mentioned them because his novels did not attract him (italics are mine – G.Sh.). According to James, Turgenev most of all appreciated the impressions of reality, whereas James’s reality was weak. By James’s own admittance, the form predominated over the content in his novels, which could not be interesting for the Great Russian realist. (James, 1888, pp. 298-299). Afterwards, James sent this letter to his brother, William, and enclosed a letter in which he describes his meeting with the famous Russian writer: “I visited him, and spent with him almost the whole rainy day. This is amour d’homme. He spoke more than usually about his job and told me that he had not invented (italics are James’s – G.Sh.) nobody and nothing. In his books everything is based on the facts he has seen <...>. Furthermore, he told me that he had never inserted (italics are James’s – G.Sh.) anything into his heroes and circumstances. He reckons that the whole interest, beauty, poetry, originality, etc., is contained in people and objects (seen by himself) themselves... <...> He also mentioned that the features being too raffine (refined – Fr.), words and expressions too completed, cause in him instinctive mefiance (distrust); he thinks that

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues this cannot be true (italics are James’s – G.Sh.), while being true to the given individual type is the ultimate purpose, to which he is capable of striving. In short, he presented to me some kind of definition of his own creative process, and this was done amazingly cleverly and quite frankly” (Perry, 1936, pp. 366-367). On 3 February, 1876, H. James wrote to William Dean Howells: “Yes, I frequently see Turgenev, and we are in very friendly relationships with him... He is quite the one, about whom one may dream – strong, handsome, humble, simple, clever, deep, naive, in a word – angel in the flesh. He also made me acquainted with G. Flaubert, whom I also liked much; in his house I encountered a little coterie of young Realist writers” (Тургенев, vol. X, 1965, p. 562).

Letter 5. 28 February, 1877, Paris In this letter Turgenev mentions himself being invited to the dinner on the day, which is the anniversary of the emancipation of peasants in Russia, whose ardent supporter Turgenev was. He also mentions that he sent to Henry James the story “The Priest’s Son”, which he calls “a ghastly [ghost] story” (here the horror story «Рассказ отца Алексея» is meant, which in France was published under the title “Le Fils de Pope”. 21 years later Henry James will publish now his famous ghastly – ghost – story “The Turn of the Screw”). Turgenev adds: “As soon as the printing of my novel in “Temps” is finished... (“The Virgin Soil” is meant – G.Sh) I will send it to you by all means. It didn’t have any particular success in Russia – even the word “fiasco” was used with regard to it. I can no longer satisfy the criticism, although I don’t think that the novel is bad. However, Fortune does not like old people – even in literature...” (Тургенев, vol. XII, 1966, p. 436). Turgenev makes a false forecast: he thinks that Zola’s “Drunkard” will also be a fiasco. But he will not prove right.

Letter 6. 16 May, 1877, Paris. Turgenev expresses his gratitude to James for his review of Turgenev’s last novel “The Virgin Soil”, especially considering that James liked it less than the others, still appraising it as it deserved. “This last work lacks something and such a refined mind as yours should notice it immediately: that is – total freedom. I have been writing all the time as if in a fog, asking myself:

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues can it pass what I’m doing (apparently Turgenev means difficulties related with the censorship – G.Sh.)? It was necessary to publish my novel in Russia – and this has been achieved not without effort and not without unpleasant aftermath for the composition itself”. Mentioning changing his place of residence, Turgenev finishes his letter by the question: “Will you have finished your novel by that time?” meaning James’s novel “The American” (Тургенев, vol. XII, p. 451).

Letter 7. 10 August, 1877, Bougival According to the letter, Turgenev received James’s letter and his novel “The American”. He assures James that he will start reading immediately, and soon will express his frank opinion “as it should be done towards such talented individuals as him”. “Thank you for the sympathy, which you express towards us, Russians – there should be little of it around you (Turgenev means russophobic sentiments in England – G.Sh.) – and the more valuable it is for me”, says Turgenev (Тургенев, 1966, vol. XII, p. 461). He continues that during his presence in Russia he really saw a lot of good and a lot of bad; brought numerous impressions, but that now is not in the mood to write them down. Turgenev puts a rhetorical question whether he has really written the books, which have the beginning, the middle, and the end (Тургенев, 1966, vol. XII).

Letter 8. 16 September 1877, Bougival Turgenev placed Henry James so high among his acquaintances that he says that although he cannot stand seeing anybody’s face (probably owing to the temporary failure of Russian troops in the war with the Ottomans in Balkans in 1877), he is always happy to receive his now already old friend (Тургенев, 1966, vol. XII).

Letter 9. 30 March 1878, Paris “Your letter is full of kind and hearty words regarding peace, which has just been concluded between my country and Turkey; they pleased me, having proved once again your sympathy; still, I have no illusions. I have presentiments about the war between Russia and England, and everything that was said about the congress, diplomatic solutions, did not arouse any trust in me. This war is to be – it has long time been predestined – the Oriental issues cannot be solved otherwise; this war will be long and heavy <...> And my country will be devastated for quite

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues long – and my eyes will not see even those internal reforms, which they have promised to us. You will easily understand me that by such convictions I perceive the future at the black side – and allow me not to proceed with this topic anymore” (Тургенев, 1966, vol. XII, p. 476).

Letter13. 13 January 1880, Paris In this letter Turgenev expresses his deepest apologies that it has been three weeks already as he received one of James’s novels – apparently his novel “Confidence”, which came out in two volumes – and that he has not thanked him for that. At the time Turgenev received the books, James left to London, while Turgenev was going to leave to Russia. “Thus, thank you for two volumes, of which one I have already read; I liked and got interested in it very much. Your style has become firmer and simpler. I will discuss your novel with you at greater length when I have read it completely”. (James doubted that Turgenev read his novels at all. This Turgenev’s statement disproves/refutes his opinion) (Тургенев, 1967, vol. XII-2, 1967).

Letter14. 20 October 1881, London Turgenev’s visits England and immediately writes to James. Actually, he was invited for hunting. James recalled in his memoirs: “He continued hunting even in the old age. He had a friend in Cambridge, for whose famous partridges Turgenev sometimes crossed the English Channel.” (James, 1888, p. 305).

Letter 15. 12 November 1882, Bougival “My dear friend, I will come back to Paris probably on Thursday, and let you know immediately. I am very glad to know that you came back. Thousands of friendly greetings. Iv. Turgenev”. This is the last letter of Ivan Turgenev to Henry James, which preceded their last meeting. James was recalling afterwards: “The last time I saw him in November, 1882, in Bougival. He was very ill already, but still did not lose hope to recover, and was almost cheerful. He had to travel to Paris, and as he could not endure the shaking of a railcar, he was going to travel in a carriage, and he offered me a spare place there. For an hour and a half he always talked, better

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues than ever. When we arrived to the city, I got out at one of the boulevards, as further we have to follow different directions. I said farewell to him at the carriage window, and have never seen him again”. (James, 1888, pp. 321-322).

Conclusions 1. Although the very first letter is written in English, James’s native tongue, all other letters Turgenev prefers to write in French, on a ‘neutral territory’, so to say. Thus, the Russian Realist chooses to communicate with his pupil in lingua franca – French, which both he and James possess equally. Had he written in English, James would have had a linguistic advantage when answering. In this way, Turgenev secures his position as a Teacher, preferring to communicate on equal basis; 2. It is notable that all the fifteen letters of Turgenev to James remained as a legacy, whereas the answers of the pupil (James) to the teacher (Turgenev) are not available anymore. This just strengthens the understanding of “father – son” relationship. Here James keeps and cherishes Turgenev’s letters, while we don’t know the attitude of Turgenev to the letters of his pupil. Besides, James considers that Turgenev does not read his books (what’s wrong), but his explanation why this ostensibly happens is sound: he reckons that his books are far from reality, and are predominated by the form. Here James reveals the “Son’s Syndrome”, the complex of inferiority in contrast to his famous authority (Turgenev); 3. In the 5th letter Turgenev mentions “Le Fils de Pope” (“The Priest’s Son”) – a horror story, which he sent to James. 21 years later, James writes his famous “The Turn of the Screw”. The latter novella features the governess, who is also the daughter of a priest. Thus, both ghost stories of both Russian and American geniuses have the similar main character. Whether this is a coincidence or a logical correspondence, we don’t know. We can only assume that it is either of the two; 4. In the letter 6 Turgenev excuses himself that his novel “The Virgin Soil” is “lacking something”, which James’s refined mind should notice immediately – that is “total freedom”. “Total freedom” is a very radical idealistic concept, which probably only the “Sons” of

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SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues Turgenev’s spirit could confess. Thus, in this letter, Turgenev reveals once again “the Father’s Syndrome”; 5. In the letter nine, following the truce concluded between Russian and Ottoman Empires after the 1877-78 war, Turgenev forecasts inevitability of Russo-English war. Fortunately, his forecast proved wrong. Actually, there already were military operations in January 1878, when the British sent their fleet of battleships to stop the Russians from the offensive. However, the truce was reached and the war did not happen. Still, every negative has its positive, and had the war between the Russians and British continued, maybe it could indirectly speed up the reforms in Russia about which Turgenev dreams so much, and about which he writes in the ninth letter; 6. In the letter 12, Turgenev reveals once again the “Father’s Syndrome”, when he writes to James about his novel “Confidence”. “Your style has become firmer and simpler” – a typical comment of a teacher to his pupil, of a father to his son.

Afterword A year after his last letter, Ivan Turgenev passed away. He passed away, having shared experience with his spiritual son – Henry James – in an epistolary way, so that the latter could use this available experience. In his letters and works Turgenev tried to disprove death and partly succeeded, as his epistolary legacy has not died, rather than remained alive forever. On the other hand, the death also disproved him, and the evidence of this is the fact that he passed away the very year after he wrote in their mutual lingua franca the last letter to his spiritual son from the United States of America.   References:

1. James, H. (1878). “French Poets and Novelists”. London, Macmillan and Co. Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/frenchpoetsandno00jamerich on November 5, 2013. 2. James, H. (1888). “Partial Portraits”. London, Macmillan and Co. Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/partialportrait01jamegoog on 10 November, 2013.

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3. Kelley, C. P. (1930). “The Early Development of Henry James”. University of Illinois Studies in Language and Literature, vol. XV, No 1-2, Urbana. 4. Perry, R. B. (1936). “The Thought and Character of William James”. Vol. I. Boston, Oxford University Press. 5. Прохоров, А. М. (1977). “Большая советская энциклопедия”, т. 26. Москва, издательство «Советская энциклопедия». 6. Спиллер, Р., Торп, У., Джонсон, Т. Н., Кэнби, Г. С. (1979). “Литературная история Содинённых Штатов Америки”, т. 3. Москва, «Прогресс». 7. Тургенев, И. С. (1965-1968). “Письма в тринадцати томах”. Тт. X, XI, XII, XIII. Москва- Ленинград, издательство «Наука».

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Left without Future: A Comparison of Dystopian Novels by Ray Bradbury and George Orwell

TAISIA MUZAFAROVA

Abstract The principal objective of this paper is to explore the term “dystopia”, based on the analytical comparison of two dystopian novels: Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury and 1984 by George Orwell. The study puts under question the theme of technology and modernization as a sign of progress and explores the possible future without printed literature.

Keywords: dystopia, plot analysis, symbols, violence, repression, technology, progress

 Research Assistant, Faculty of Education and Humanities, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

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Left without Future: A Comparison of Dystopian Novels by Ray Bradbury and George Orwell

TAISIA MUZAFAROVA

Introduction Back in 1951, Ray Bradbury, wrote in a letter to his fellow science writer Richard Matheson: “Radio has contributed to our “growing lack of attention”. This sort of hopscotching existence makes it almost impossible for people, myself included, to sit down and get into a novel again. We have become a short story reading people, or, worse than that, a QUICK reading people.” (Shmoop Editorial Team, 2008) RADIO, being a distractor, contributed to the shallow life, which R. Bradbury considered not more than a “hopscotching existence”. What shall we say about the age of technology? Easy access to internet brings all possible information in the world at our fingertips. But are we really using it as resource of endless knowledge? We blame social networks that replace normal human interaction, as we read posts and twits more often than interact face-to-face. Reading in print and on the internet has a principal difference, according to The New York Times, “on paper, text has a predetermined beginning, middle and end, where readers focus for a sustained period on one author’s vision. On the internet, readers skate through cyberspace at will end, in effect, compose their own beginnings, middles and ends.” (Rich, 2008) In two years after the above mentioned letter Ray Bradbury has published Fahrenheit 451, one of the most famous dystopian novels.

 Research Assistant, Faculty of Education and Humanities, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

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SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues “It was pleasure to burn” vs. “Two-minute hate” The world of Fahrenheit 451 does not seem like a place you would like to live. The society is controlled by the authoritative government, where there is no right for personal freedom. Human interaction is substituted by advanced technology, namely TV-screens; human compassion and empathy is almost a luxury. It defines dystopia at its best. The futuristic setting together with pessimistic future defines the genre of the story – dystopian science-fiction. Contrary to Fahrenheit 451, 1984 by George Orwell involves romantic offshoot, which gives it emotional weight. Parody may be considered George Orwell’s specialty, he exaggerates human failings to enormous extend, thus making the whole story sadly ironical. Oceania is set in the future world with Telescreens controlled by the Though Police, which makes the genre of the story clear – dystopian science-fiction with elements of drama and parody. 1984 is set in Oceania, in the country called Airstrip One, despite the fact that the city is still called London. The country of Oceania is in the state of eternal war, though allies and enemies frequently take turns. Living conditions are very poor; the population has to consume synthetic food and suffers from malnutrition. Fahrenheit 451 describes brighter future, the story is set somewhere in U.S. but the author lacks deeper details, he stressed human relationships and interaction instead. The thing in common for these two novels is that the one cannot expect privacy anywhere. In 1984 you are surrounded by two-way telescreens, which not only “entertain” you but also monitor you both visually and audibly. In Fahrenheit 451, TV-screen is the incompatible part of every room in the house; they are usually wall-size and sometimes even compose three out of four walls in the room. The TVs are one-way yet, but anyway people feel dependent on it and prefer the company of TV rather than interaction with neighbors and even family members. It seems to me that Fahrenheit 451 might be the prologue to 1984, if Ray Bradbury would have decided to get rid of its happy ending. Guy Montag, the protagonist of Fahrenheit 451, is a fireman responsible for burning books. As reading is prohibited; he burns down the houses of the book-lovers. And he enjoys being a fireman. As the first chapter starts with his words “It was a pleasure to burn” we can clearly get his attitude towards his job. Guy Montag is married to Mildred, who represents the average

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SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues middle-class citizen of the future world. Her life moves around the TV-screen and despite the fact she is satisfied with her life, her subconsciousness tries to protest. Mildred’s failed suicide attempt characterizes her as status-quo of the novel, while other characters are deviations from it. Guy Montag is a dynamic character, we see him change throughout the novel; starting from his meeting with Clarissa till the very end he gradually discovers dissatisfaction, which was buried deep inside. And this dissatisfaction is the driving force towards changes. Clarissa might be the most inscrutable character of the story. She appears out of nowhere, asks sought-for questions and then disappears forever. It seems that she is dead, but for readers it might look like Clarissa is Guy’s subconsciousness, which strives out to open his eyes on all the imperfections of the “perfect” world they have built. She asks if he is happy and satisfied; she tells terrible stories about violence and teenage deaths; it seems that these are the questions Guy buried deep in his soul and it was just the right time to reveal it. Clarissa represents internal conflict of his mind, while Faber, crazy rebel professor, represents another level of Guy’s identity crisis. “I’m afraid of children my own age. They kill each other. Did it always used to be that way? My uncle says no. Six of my friends have been shot in the last year alone. Ten of them die in car wrecks. I’m afraid of them and they don’t like me because I’m afraid.” (Bradbury, 1953) Compared to Guy Montag, who can be openly called the protagonist of the story, Winston of 1984 provokes mixed feelings. He drags out a miserable existence. If Guy was happy about his life (at least on the surface), Winston is deeply oppressed and frustrated. He is in external conflict with the Thought Police and the Party, but at the same time he is terrified about his subversive thoughts. He starts a diary and wins our affection. In the place where reading, writing and even thinking is prohibited, the reader watches Winston heroically writing down his thoughts and dreams, which might be memories from his past. There is no concept of past in Oceania, and memories do not exist. Two characters, which are so alike to some extent, prove to be so different in the resolution of the story. Guy Montag strives till the end; he survives and finds his place within the established community of rebels, who will rebuild the world trying to preserve the best of the human nature. His past does not bother him anymore, he thinks about the future and people he can help within the new order they build.

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SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues Mysterious Room 101 brings end to Winston’s hopes. As the Ministry of Love tortures him (as torture is an inseparable part of Oceania’s routine), the reader watches Winston rejecting the truth and everything he fought for. The last backbone of Winston’s will is broken. He’s full of love and acceptance. He has been reformed exactly the way the past and memories were reformed every day. Desperate life in Oceania is highlighted by Orwell’s writing style. He contributes to insipid life using short, precise sentences. His writing is direct and lacks emotional imagery, as if he wants to stress even more how dull is life for Oceania’s people. We explore Oceania through Winston’s eyes and we feel especially awful when Winston departures from his rebel ideas and conforms to Ministry of Love. The reader goes through this experience thanks to Third Person Limited Omniscient Narrative Technique. (Shmoop Editorial Team, 2008) The tone of Fahrenheit 451 is very dramatic and rather exaggerated then realistic. The characters are extreme in what they represent and sometimes are viewed as literary cliché. Clarisse is crazy, but adorable outsider, Beautty violent intellectual, Faber rebellious professor. Guy Montag is the only round character, dynamically changing throughout the novel. Others are tightly connected to their niche and representations. Even the events described in Fahrenheit are taken to the extreme; the climax of the story is expressed through apocalyptic fire, and the resolution through bombing which devastates the whole place.

Conclusion It is not about the content of the book; but about the process of perceiving information. The whole idea of reading is about thinking and questioning, as not a single book contains one globally recognized truth. Through Fahrenheit 451 Ray Bradbury stated that people are happier when they do not have to think, and they seem to be satisfied with a cheap version of happiness. In both novels their lives are so tightly organized (book burning, “two-minute hate”) that there is no place for questioning, therefore no place for disobedience. Characters are trying to preserve the remnants of past through as it seems harmless writing down their dreams, memorizing the one and only

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SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues book for future generations and keeping dear to heart baubles. All these attempts to reconnect with the history are suppressed by totalitarian governments. Is it a sign of progress or are we slowly walking down the same path towards meaningless existence surrounded by TV-screens. Will we substitute priceless beauty of nature with 3D wallpapers on concrete walls? In both dystopian novels the government used technology to abuse citizens, instead of improving living standards, and this abuse did not limit to physical suffering, but also encompassed mind control. Dystopian literature sets clear example of what we should not allow, and everything else is our hands.

References:

1. Bradbury, R. (1953). "Fahrenheit 451". New York: Ballantine Books. 2. Rich, M. (2008, July 27). "Literacy Debate: Online, R U Really Reading?" The New York Times, 1. 3. Shmoop Editorial Team. (2008, November 11). "Fahrenheit 451". Retrieved November 6, 2013 from http://www.shmoop.com/fahrenheit-451/

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Modern Interpretations of Holden Caulfield Portrayal (J.D. Salinger’s Novel The Catcher in the Rye)

TAMAR KOBESHAVIDZE

Introduction In 2006 to the delight of Georgian readers interested in American Literature of XX century the publishing house “Diogene” published a new translation of the novel The Catcher in the Rye in Georgian by Gia Chumburidze. Since its publications the novel has gone through hundreds of printings and has served as a firestorm for controversy and debate. On the one hand the novel’s immense success is related to the political climate of the Cold War. The author records a serious critical mimesis of bourgeois life in the Eastern United States, 1950 - snobbery, privilege, class injury, culture as a badge of superiority, education subordinated to status, competitiveness, stunted human possibility. On the other hand, some scholars believe that The Catcher in the Rye belongs to an ancient and honorable narrative tradition; it is the story of a quest, a search for truth in the world that has been dominated by falsity. In childhood Holden Caulfield had what he is now seeking – non- phoniness, truth, innocence. Unlike all of us, he refuses to compromise with adulthood. At the same time instead of treating the novel as a commentary by an innocent young man rebelling against an insensitive world let’s read it as the chronicle of a four-year period in the life of an adolescent who has to come to terms with the death of his younger brother. Holden has to wrestle not only with the usual difficult adjustment of the adolescent years, in sexual, familial and peer relationships; he has also to bury Alie before he can make the transition into adulthood. Life stopped for Holden on July 18, 1946, the day his brother died of leukemia. His past was a sunlit childhood Eden, dominated by the image of his dead brother, Allie, who is the most authentic in Holden's inner life. But Allie is dead and there is no resurrecting of the past. A few years earlier Jimmy Castle, Holden’s classmate, was so tortured and brutalized by a bunch of

 An Associate Professor, Dr., Akaki Tsereteli State University, Kutaisi, Georgia.

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SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues students that he leaped from a window, wearing Holden's turtleneck sweater. Young Castle would not go back on his words even though he had to jump from a window. Holden who is sufficiently burdened with his unresolved grief for Allie beside has to cope with this tie to his unfortunate classmate. He repeatedly uses variations on the phrase "that killed me" reflecting his obsession with death. In his troubled, almost suicidal state he believes there is nothing for him to incorporate. The death instinct is the unconscious instinct in all living things to return to nonliving state and thereby achieve permanent surcease from the pain of living. Finally Holden’s inevitable fantasy about “the catcher in the rye” helps him to survive, to come back to the game of life and to be ready to communicate.

In 2006 to the delight of Georgian readers interested in American Literature of XX century the publishing house “Diogene” published a new translation of the novel The Catcher in the Rye into Georgian by Gia Chumburidze. Since its publications the novel has gone through hundreds of printings and has served as a firestorm for controversy and debate. Anne Levinson, the assistant director of the Office of Intellectual Freedom in Chicago pointed out: “Usually the complains have to do with blasphemy or what people feel is irreligious. Or they say they find the language generally offensive or vulgar, or there is a sort of general “family values” kind of complaint, that the book undermines parental authority, that the portrayal of Holden Caulfield is not good role model for teenagers” (Whitfield 1997, p. 579) There were critics who thought that the book “best presents the whole atmosphere of American life.” The author records a serious critical mimesis of bourgeois life in the Eastern United States, ca.1950 - snobbery, privilege, class injury, culture as a badge of superiority, education subordinated to status, competitiveness, stunted human possibility (Ohmann Carol and Richard 1976, p. 775). Some scholars considered the novel as the story of a quest, a search for the truth in the world that has been dominated by falsity. In childhood Holden had what he is now seeking – non- phoniness, truth and innocence. Unlike all of us, he refuses to compromise with adulthood. At the same time instead of treating the novel as a commentary by an innocent young man rebelling against an insensitive world let’s read it as the chronicle of a four-year period in the life of an

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SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues adolescent who has to come to terms with the death of his younger brother. Holden has to wrestle not only with the usual difficult adjustment of the adolescent years, in sexual, familial and peer relationships; he has also to bury Alie before he can make the transition into adulthood. Life stopped for Holden on July 18, 1946, the day his brother died of leukemia. Holden was then thirteen, and four years later--the time of the narrative--he is emotionally still at the same age, although he has matured into a gangly six-foot adolescent. “I was sixteen then” he begins his story at Christmas time in 1949, “and I'm seventeen now, and sometimes I act like I'm about thirteen” (Salinger 1968, p. 34). On his last day at Pencey Prep Holden stands alone on a hill, looking down to say good-by to his college and to his history teacher, who cannot understand why in answering a question about Egyptian history on an examination Holden began and ended with a description of the preservation of mummies. The teacher cannot know that Holden has no interest in the Egyptians, only in what happened to Allie, and that he cannot focus on ancient history until he has come to terms with his own past. His past was a sunlit childhood Eden, dominated by the image of his dead brother, who is the most authentic in Holden's inner life. But he is dead and there is no resurrecting of the past. Standing on the hill Holden eventually quotes Huck Finn: "I felt so lonesome, all of a sudden. I almost wished I was dead." He repeatedly uses variations on the phrase "that killed me" reflecting his obsession with death. In his troubled, almost suicidal state he believes there is nothing for him to incorporate. According to Freud the death instinct is the unconscious instinct in all living things to return to nonliving state and thereby achieve permanent surcease from the pain of living (A Handbook of Critical Approaches to Literature 2005, p. 167). The night after Allie's death Holden slept in the garage and broke all the windows with his fist: “It was a very stupid thing to do, I'll admit, but I hardly didn't even know I was doing it, and you didn't know Allie” (Salinger 1968, p. 60). The act reflects his uncontrollable anger, at himself for wishing Allie dead, at his father who was powerless either to save Allie or to understand Holden and at his brother for leaving him alone and burdened with feelings of guilt. Because he was hospitalized, he was unable to attend the funeral, to witness the completion of the life process, but by injuring himself he received the attention and sympathy which were

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SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues denied him during Allie's illness. His actions here are ambivalent, but always comprehensible in terms of his reaction to the loss of Allie. On several occasions Holden comments that his mother has never gotten over Allie's death, but the first-person narrative makes it difficult to judge. What we can deduce, though, that Mrs. Caulfield is so preoccupied with Allie that she continues to neglect Holden, as presumably she did when Allie was dying. In the beginning of the novel Holden pulls his red hunting cap over his eyes and says histrionically, "I think I'm going blind. ... Mother darling, everything's getting so dark in here. ... Mother darling, give me your hand" (Salinger 1968, p. 45). These words expresses Holden’s obsession with Allie's death, on the one hand, and his need for parental comfort, on the other. Thus when the response of his classmate is: "You're nuts. ... For Chrisake, grow up." The classmate cannot know that Holden assumes Allie's red hair when he puts on the red cap, that the simulated blindness is descriptive of Holden's state, and that he believes the maternal hand has been denied to him. We learn directly for the first time of Allie's death and of Holden's self-punishing rage when his room-mate Stradlater asks Holden to write a composition for him. Stradlater does not know about the death of Holden's red-haired brother and the chain of associations his request sets off. Unable to write about a "room or a house" Holden writes about Allie's baseball mitt-- a sacred relic of the living dead. In New York driving through the Central Park Holden asks the driver whether he knows what happens to the ducks in the pond during the winter. The "madman" replies angrily, "What're ya tryna do, bud? ... Kid me?" Again the adult can’t understand that like The Central Park ducks in winter, Holden is essentially homeless, frozen and the wintery duck pond for him is associated with death. In the evening the other cabby named Horwitz explained him that "The fish don't go no place" and his last words are: "If you was a fish, Mother Nature'd take care of you, wouldn't she? Right? You don't think them fish just die, when it gets to be winter, do ya?" (Salinger 1968, p. 99) Holden does not comment his words, but Horwitz unwittingly summarizes the boy's dilemma. After the episode in the hotel with an elevator operator and a pimp named Maurice Holden again thinks about committing suicide and jumping out of the window. Subconsciously he is recalling an event which the reader does not learn about until later. A few years earlier Jimmy

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SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues Castle, a classmate, was so tortured and brutalized by a bunch of students that he leaped from a window, wearing Holden's turtleneck sweater. Young Castle would not go back on his words even though he had to jump from a window. Holden who is sufficiently burdened with his unresolved grief for Allie, beside has to cope with this tie to his unfortunate classmate. Next day walking along the street, Holden sees a family coming from the church and in terms of his own situation, without evidence, he assumes that the parents are neglecting the boy who walks along the curb singing to himself "If a body catch a body coming through the rye." For it is doubtful that the six-year-old duplicates Holden's misreading of the famous lines. What Holden "hears" anticipates the grandiose fantasy he will later relate to Phoebe in which he catches and saves children. For a moment he is charmed with his fantasy of a self-contained kid whose parents are at hand to protect him: "It made me feel not so depressed anymore." In the evening Holden again goes to the Central Park to see the ducks. When he finds the pond he nearly falls in. Cold and shivering he imagines that he has pneumonia and dies. In this fantasy he acts out his anger against his parents and punishes them by his death. His funeral is mobbed and everybody cries, in this reenactment of Allie's funeral he displaces his brother and enjoys exclusively the love of his mother. But not for long, since his "picture" cannot lift his guilt, dissolve his rage, or make over reality. People will not mourn him long, no longer than they mourned Allie, and life in the phony world will go on without him. Like Allie he will lie in the cemetery exposed to the elements. So there is only one place to survive, home, and he goes there to see Phoebe “in case I died and all.” At first Phoebe (who has this sort of red hair, a little bit like Allie's) is much excited until she guesses that he has been kicked out of the college. Then, hurt and angry, she beats him with her fists and says over and over, "Daddy'll kill you!" In this climactic scene Phoebe plays a double role. About Allie's age when he died, she is the sister disappointed in the failures of her idealized brother, but she is also an underage, undersized mother figure. Phoebe suggests that his fault is that "You don't like anything that's happening". She insists to name some things he likes. Unable to "concentrate" on her disturbing questions, Holden thinks of the two nuns, of Jimmy Castle's suicide - kind mothers and a dead son and then: “I like Allie,” I said. “And I like doing what I'm doing right now. Sitting here with you, and talking, and thinking about stuff, and-” “Allie's dead -You always say that! If somebody's dead and everything, and in Heaven,

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then it isn't really –” "I know he's dead! …I can still like him, though, can't I? Just because somebody's dead, you don't just stop liking them, for God's sake--especially if they were about a thousand times nicer than the people you know that're alive and all." (Salinger 1968, p. 175) Phoebe is silent. Holden believes that "she can't think of anything to say" but indeed she gives him time to recognize the significance of what he has said - that Allie is dead. Then she tactfully tries to direct Holden to a consideration of a future which must be lived without Allie and suggests that he may want to be a lawyer. “Lawyers are all right, I guess,” he replies and draws a picture of lawyers “saving innocent guys' lives”--which are another rescue fantasy and a disguised self-reference. But suddenly he confides his most heroic fantasy, when Phoebe corrects the misquotation of Burns’ poem on which it is based: “I thought it was 'If a body catch a body,” I said. “Anyway, I keep picturing all these little kids playing some game in this big field of rye and all. Thousands of little kids, and nobody's around--nobody big, I mean--except me. And I'm standing on the edge of some crazy cliff. What I have to do, I have to catch everybody if they start to go over the cliff... I'd just be the catcher in the rye and all. I know it's crazy, but that's the only thing I'd really like to be. I know it's crazy” (Salinger 1968, p. 177). Holden has the "crazy" idea that he should have saved Allie, Jimmy Castle and that in the future he will save children abused by adults. If he is a savior, he is also a victim. He feels himself at “the edge of some crazy cliff” and, as he puts it later, going “down, down, down.” He acts out the role he wants the adult world, particularly his father to play, the role of the rescuer. When a moment later Phoebe and Holden horse around and dance about the bedroom, the youth's delight illuminates his desire for a childhood where there are no fears, only joy and protection. The idyll ends abruptly when the parents come home, and Holden has to go. Phoebe, the mother- the little sister, puts her arms around his neck and Holden tells the truth about himself as well as about the catcher-in-the-rye fantasy, he would like to be caught: “I didn't give much of a damn any more if they caught me... I almost wished they did, in a way” (Salinger 1968, p. 183) Holden leaves to spend the night with his former teacher, now an English professor at New York University. Antolini has been a role model, a good father, for Holden: he carried the body of Jimmy Castle to the infirmary after his suicide, and he banters in the witty style of D. B.

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SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues Antolini tries intellectually to check the boy's self-destructive tendencies, as Phoebe does in her quite different way. He puts the boy to bed on a couch in the living room, and says “Good night, handsome.” Later Holden wakens to find “something on my head, some guy's hand.” Initially he interprets Antolini's caress as a sexual advance and spends the rest of the night on a bench in Grand Central Station, though in the morning he has doubts. Antolini sets off not unusual homosexual panic of adolescents. But as it has been mentioned above Holden's problem is that he cannot connect with anyone in any way until the burden of Allie's death is lifted. Alone and depressed, Holden walks up Fifth Avenue looking for the two nuns--looking for mother--when something “very spooky” happens. “Every time I came to the end of a block and stepped off the goddam curb, I had this feeling that I'd never get to the other side of the street. I thought I'd just go down, down, and nobody'd ever see me again”. (Salinger 1968, p. 199) Once more he is at the cliff, and there is no one to catch him, to keep him from going "down, down, down"--except Allie. He cries out, "Allie, don't let me disappear." At last Holden touched the bottom which means that he begins to turn from the past and death and to move into the present and toward the living. The inevitable fantasy that he creates in moments of crisis subtly changes. He has decided to become “a catcher in the rye”. He plans to go to West, where is very pretty and sunny and where nobody knows him. A day before this Holden offered Sally to run off to Vermont or Massachusetts, in the direction of Maine, where Allie died. In going west he moves toward the living, for D. B. in Hollywood. He pictures himself as a deaf mute working at a filling station married to another deaf mute. In his fantasy they have children and Holden teach them how to read and write. At last he is not alone and his locked world is opening up. Before going to West Holden has to meet Phoebe in the museum to say her good-bye. A red- haired girl comes to the museum with her luggage because she plans to go with him too. Like the loved-hated parents or like a protective older brother, like all the other adults, he automatically advances all the sensible reasons why Phoebe's plan is "crazy." He is no longer the kid who needs and demands everybody's attention. Holden assumes responsibility and takes Phoebe to the Central Park, not to the duck pond, with its associations with death, but to the carrousel – the symbol of life. He delights Phoebe and at the same time achieves the goal hinted at on the first page of his narrative: “I felt so damn happy all of a sudden, the way old Phoebe kept going around and around… I felt so damn happy.” (Salinger 1968, p. 212)

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SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues In the epilogue, Holden writes of himself at age seventeen in an institution near Hollywood. His language is no longer negative, nor is his attitude. Allie now rests in peace. After all, he is Holden Caulfield and he is ready to go "around and around" in the game of life and he is ready to communicate: "About all I know is, I sort of miss everybody I told about.”

References:

1. Wilfred L. Guerin (2005). “A Handbook of Critical Approaches to Literature.” Oxford: Oxford University Press 2. Burrows, David J. (1969). “Allie and Phoebe: Death and Love in Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye.” Private Dealings: Modern American Writers in Search of Integrity 3. Ohmann, Carol. Ohmann, Richard. (1977). “Universals and the Historically Particular. Critical Inquiry 3, No. 4, 4. Salinger, Jerome D. (1968). “The Catcher in the Rye”. Moscow: Progress Publishers 5. Whitfield, Stephen J. (1997). “Cherished and Cursed Toward a Social History of The Catcher in the Rye.” The New England Quarterly, V. 70

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On Publication of “Ulysses” in “The Little Review”

ELISO PANTSKAVA

Abstract “Ulysses”, the greatest book of the 20th century has a notorious history of publication. James Joyce had constant difficulties in funding the editors for his works. In this research we try to highlight the moments, connected with the first serialized publication of the novel in the American magazine “The Little Review’’ role of Ezra Pound in the promotion of “Ulysses” and the consequences the magazine and its editor, Margaret Anderson had to face, after the serialization of the novel in the magazine was terminated by low. James Joyce started working on “Ulysses” in 1914 and his intention was to create a short book. It took him seven years and nearly 730 pages to complete the work. Ezra Pound, friend and a “patron angel” of all major modernist writers (and Joyce was the first among others), provided him with the idea of serializing “Ulysses” in “The Little Review”, a Chicago-based magazine, where he worked as a foreign editor. The magazine was founded in 19914 by Margaret Anderson and its subtitle was “A Magazine of the Arts, Making no Compromise with the Public Taste.” Anderson was charmed after reading “Proteus” episode and declared that she was going to publish the novel even if it was the last effort of her life. Both she and Pound were well aware of the fact that “Joyce’s writing would invite the opprobrium of the authorities and censorship”, In our article we also mention the problems “The Little Review” had to face prior to the publication of “Ulysses”, (Wyndham Lewis’ case), Then we track down the whole process of serialization of the novel in the magazine until the court case in 1921 when “The Little Review” was forced to stop the serialization of “Ulysses” and talk about banning the book. The article is concluded with the description of 1933 case in the United States District Court dealing with freedom of expression and a special emphasis is put on Judge John M. Woolsey’s decision, which allowed the novel to enter the U.S. without further restrictions.

 Ph.D., Lecturer, Akaki Tsereteli State University, Kutaisi, Georgia.

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On Publication of “Ulysses” in “The Little Review”

ELISO PANTSKAVA “Ulysses” by James Joyce is commonly acknowledged as the greatest novel of the 20th century, but simultaneously it has one of the most complicated publication histories in the 20th century literature. The complications spanned continents and decades. At first, “Ulysses” was intended to be a short story. James Joyce started writing his masterpiece in 1914 and it took him seven years and more than 700 pages to complete the book. Ezra Pound, an eminent representative of the XX century literature had been reading and reaching to “Ulysses” throughout its gestation and played an important role in bringing it to the attention of the broader literary world. In August 1915 Ezra Pound arranged to have episodes of “Ulysses” serialized in two magazines for which he served as an editor - “The Egoist” in England and “The Little Review” in the United States. The latter was an American literary magazine founded by Margaret Anderson in March, 1914. Soon she was joined in by Jean Heap as co-editor and then heralding a new phase of the magazine – by Ezra Pound as foreign editor in 1917. Anderson created a magazine that featured a wide variety of transatlantic modernists and cultivated many early examples of experimental writing and art. Many contributors were American, British, Irish and French. Its subtitle was: “A Magazine of the Arts, Making no compromises with the public taste”. “The Little Review” is remembered today for its bold gestures – like leaving most of its pages blank in September 1916th issue, protesting against the lack of acceptable material, by its multiple, cacophonous interests – they managed to represent 23 schools of art from 19 countries and last, but not the least, for serialization of “Ulysses”. When Anderson first read “Proteus” she exclaimed: “This is the most beautiful thing we`ll ever have. We`ll print it if it`s last effort of our lives”. These words nearly proved to be prophetic – the magazine was on the verge of being closed down because of this bold venture. Still, the publication of James Joyce`s work was the most lasting and boldest achievement of “The Little Review”. In the autumn of 1917, Joyce began submitting typescripts for publication in the magazine and the first episode,

 Ph.D., Lecturer, Akaki Tsereteli State University, Kutaisi, Georgia.

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SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues “Telemachus”, appeared in the March 1918 issue. “Ulysses” was serialized in 23 installments, from 1918 to 1920 – until the Society for the Suppression of Vice charged the magazine with obscenity and Anderson and Heap, losing the court trial, were forced to discontinue the novel amid the “Oxen of the Sun” episode. Ezra Pound was acutely aware that Joyce`s writing would invite the opprobrium of the authorities and censorship, or worse. It was a very real possibility, as “The Little Review” had already suffered problems: the November 1917 issue had been suppressed because of the alleged indecency of Wyndham Lewis` story “Gentleman`s Spring Mate”. Pound therefore decided that some compromises had to be made in order to publish “Calypso”. He wrote to James Joyce: “The contrast between Blooms interior poetry and his outward surroundings is excellent, but it will come up without such detailed treatment of his dropping feces… Perhaps an unexpurgated text of you can be printed in a Greek or Bulgarian translation later”. Pound deleted about twenty lines from “Calypso” for publication in “The Little Review”, all from the account of Bloom`s visit to the outhouse. While Pound disagreed with Joyce`s artistic choices, he was primarily acting in the best interest of the publishers of “The Little Review”. Uncompromising to the last, Joyce refused to tolerate any more excisions and instead that “Ulysses” should be published in the form he wrote it. Pound justified his censorship on the bases that Joyce`s language was sure to cause problems, but he did not tell Anderson or Joyce what he had done. The censored “Calypso” appeared in June 1918 and the serialization of “Ulysses” in “The Little Review” carried on unproblematically until January 1919, when the “Lestrygonians” episode started to appear. That issue of the magazine was confiscated by the post office for obscenity and was burnt. “The Little Review” was lucky to have the services of a Serbo-Croat printer who cared little about obscene language or Post Office confiscations, so the printing of the novel continued. In May 1919 another issue of “The Little Review”, containing the concluding part of the “Scylla and Charybdis” episode, was confiscated and burnt, after which the New York lawyer and a great supporter of Modernism John Quinn, acting on Joyce`s behalf, complained to the Past Office`s solicitor about the confiscations. The Post Office did not respond, By this time both Ezra Pound and John Quinn were advising Joyce to withdraw “Ulysses” from “The Little

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SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues Review”. They felt that the finished published book would be easier to defend as a whole rather than trying to defend the content of isolated excerpts appearing in “The Little Review”. Again in January 1920 the issue of “The Literary Review” containing parts of the “Cyclops” episode was confiscated by the Post Office, but it was the July-August 1920 issue, containing the concluding part of the “Nousicaa” episode that finally drew the attention of Sumner and the New York Society for the Suppression of Vice. This institution was dedicated to supervising the morality of the public and is mostly remembered for its opposition to literary works. The case against Anderson and Heap began when John Sumner, secretary of the New York Society for the Suppression of Vice swore out a warrant complaining the distribution of the July- August 1920 number of “The Little Review” which contained the last section of the “Nausicaa” episode of “Ulysses”. As Pound put it to Joyce “… Nausicaa has been pinched by the police Anderson and Heap were charged with violating a New York statute that criminalized the distribution of “any obscene, lewd, lascivious, filthy, indecent or disgusting” material. The charges were based on the passages, focusing on Blooms ejaculating as he watches Gerty MacDowell leaning backwards on Sandymount Strand and including Bloom`s musings about monthlies. In response to John Sumner, who initiated the trial, Heap wrote – “Mr. Joyce was not teaching early Egyptian perversions nor inventing new ones. Girls lean back everywhere, showing lace and silk stockings: were low-cut sleeveless blouses, breathless bathing suits: men think thoughts and have emotions about these things everywhere-seldom as delicately and imaginatively as Mr. Bloom (in the “Nausicaa” episode) – and no one is corrupted” (1.398). Heap also mentioned that art is and always has been the supreme Order and thus is the only human activity “that has an eternal quality”. Anderson saw the issue the same way. She believed that a work of art could not be obscene and for her the only pertinent question to be asked about “Ulysses” was whether the novel represented a work of art. The judicial decisions used to define a work as obscene if it tended to excite sexual desire, so the advocate for Anderson and Heap had to find the ideas, verbal formulae and persuasive force to assure the court that Joyce`s literary achievements were more profound and important than the shock effect of the above-mentioned passages. New York lawyer John Quinn who had provided the funds for Ezra Pound to bring “Ulysses” to “The Little Review” was immediately chosen to defend Anderson and Heap, but the choice proved to be wrong for a number of reasons – firstly,

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SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues he himself believed that “Ulysses” should not be delivered by postal systems – In his letter to Pound (October 16th, 1920) he mentions that “There are things in “Ulysses” published in number after number of “The Little Review” that never should have appeared in a magazine asking privileges of the mails. In a book, yes. In a magazine, emphatically no”. Again, he thought that Joyce should rather sell a limited edition in book form and that serialization would lead to a criminal conviction that would scare the publishers away from the book. (As Huebsch`s case shows he proved to be right in this assumption), Finally, there was his misogynist prejudice against Anderson and Heap. He chose a very suspicious manner of defending his clients, claiming that “no one can understand what the thing was about and thus it could not corrupt anyone. It was a pervasive paraphrase of Yeats words: Joyce brings with him what will protect him from the silly… for Joyce is very difficult reading”. Quinn deprived the occasion of the seriousness it demanded and although the judges had a good laugh, he lost his case. Anderson and Heap were fined fifty dollars each and it was stipulated that no further installments of “Ulysses” should be published. Anderson and Heap were forced to restrict the magazines content and no longer printed their motto: “Making No Compromise with the Public Taste”. Although the magazine itself survived this trail, it emerged much weakened and finally ceased publication in 1929. The trial also scared of potential American Publishers, such as B.W. Huebsch from issuing an unexpurgated “Ulysses”. As we have mentioned above, publication of “Ulysses” in “The Little Review” was axed at the first part of “Oxen of the sun” in the September-December, 1920 issue, This meant that Joyce had no deadlines for his writing anymore, so the episodes became longer and stranger, Some of the researchers even claim that had the publication in “The Little Review” continued, most likely “Ulysses” would have ended up being a very different and quite possibly, far less revolutionary book.

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References:

1. Ellman, Richard (1982) "James Joyce". New York: Oxford University Press. 2. Joyce, James (1990) "Ulysses"; Penguin Twentieth Century Classics, UK. 3. Kidd, John (June 1988) "The Scandal of "Ulysses". New York Review of Books. 4. Pound-Joyce: "The Letters of Ezra Pound to James Joyce, With Pound's Critical Essays and Articles About Joyce" (1970), New Directions Publishing Corporation. 5. www.modernism.research.yale.edu.

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New Journalism in American Literature – Tradition or Innovation

MAKVALA (BAIA) KOGUASHVILI

Abstract The article appears to deal with the most significant and distinguished literary tendency of 1960- 80s, that was formed, shaped and established alongside with a widely recognized literary form- non-fiction, bridging the gap between the literature and journalism. The main techniques employed by journalists happened to have originated from fiction, combining the elements of journalism with the fictional devices and using every resource of the best fiction that gave rise to a synthesis of these particular tendencies. Writers were labelled as journalists and vice versa, who utilized some fictional methods and were concerned with the accuracy of factual reporting. Although many praised or criticized the new journalism as a style of writing, discussed its origin or many other essential issues, it has not been explored properly by contemporary Georgian writers and critics yet. Emphasizing the primary importance of '’New Journalism’', its theoretical aspects, the difference between the tradition and innovation and the stages of development, we extensively refer to the alternate uses of the term as well. Trying to shed light on the matter we offered some accurate explanations about the roots dating back to 1960s. Its distinctive form acknowledged by many followers was primarily employed mostly by American writers. Maybe it was an attempt or an “American dream” to write a novel. Any discussion and evaluation concerning the matter would be incomplete without mentioning the significance of the tendency observed in literature and journalism based on some literary and theoretical works of the followers. It is impossible to have a thorough and comprehensive knowledge of American literature without emphasizing this particular phenomenon.

 Associate Professor, Dr., Akaki Tsereteli State University, Kutaisi, Georgia.

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New Journalism in American Literature – Tradition or Innovation

MAKVALA (BAIA) KOGUASHVILI

XX century literary situation is the reflection of the national specifications of American literature that encouraged the emergence of publicist-style, or non-fiction prose characterized by journalistic and essayistic manner of narration. This tendency gave birth to materialization of a distinctive form of literature or a genre labeled as “New Journalism” in 1960-70s Taking into account the views of some critics, many writers, who made their ways in American literature, came from journalism like Walt Whitman, Mark Twain, John Steinbeck, Bret Hart, Stephen Crane. This event had a distinctive effect on American literature, extensively characterizing its abiding interest in factual information and well-documented facts correlated to the evaluation of the details of ongoing events. The followers of this direction aimed at reacting to the current series of events and conveyed their own story exposing the methods of publicism. This was the period of economic, political and spiritual crisis: The Vietnam War, the Students and Anti-Racism Movements, the Watergate Scandal, the increasing rate of unemployment and crime. During the second half of the nineteenth century, journalism entered an era, known as “New Journalism” that developed under the pressure of World War II. John Hohenberg gives the following evaluation of this particular literary form: “New Journalism” which not only seeks to explain as well as to inform, it even dares to teach, to measure, to evaluate”. (Hohenberg, 1960) “New Journalism” dates back to the beginning of the nineteenth century. The subjective form of journalism related to the American literature and culture can be credited to that period as well. Any discussion concerning this matter would be incomplete without mentioning of the name of Ernest Hemingway as the greatest writer and a journalist at the same time. His well- known non-fiction book “Death in the afternoon” is the collection of reporting news providing the events of Spanish bullfighting, which is one of his magnificent works of documentary prose.

 Associate Professor, Dr., Akaki Tsereteli State University, Kutaisi, Georgia.

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SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues A lot of young followers and new figures were recognized with widespread popularity, bearing little or no connection with Ernest Hemingway. They introduced a new perspective of non-fiction writing acquiring the techniques of journalism having the correlation to a standardized style of Press and reporting news, plain facts, overused expressions without any extra literary manner. Therefore, it was a perceived documentary style with reduced amount of metaphors. A lot of new names were acknowledged in “New Journalism”. They are: Norman Mail, Joan Didion, Truman Capote, P. J. O’Rourke, George Plimpton, Terry Southern and Gray Talese. They were the representatives, who broke the boundaries scratching beneath the surface. Each day was special and innovative with distinguished extravagance. The emergence of a new literary form in the 60s was an active response to the existing social and political issues. It is inevitable to acknowledge the importance of Tom Wolfe’s 1973 anthology entitled “The New Journalism” and the author’s recognition of its etymological value. The term itself became controversial, as already existed traditional term reflected the literary events during the second half of the 19th century in America. Journalism is the particular form of reporting or an accurate account of the factual information established by practitioners. The term “Journalism” demonstrates the indications of the quality of literature with the analogy of documentary reporting. “New Journalism” received extremely inconclusive and diverse assessments. For instance: “A History of American Journalism”, “The Emergence of a Modern Narrative Form”, “The New Journalism as New Fiction”. In spite of all the contradictory views, all the critics recognize this distinctive literary form that shaped the development of the literature and Journalism. Furthermore, it is impossible to have a comprehensive knowledge about them without the distinguished literary form. The second half of the XX century saw the culmination and popularity of the direction, while the eighties witnessed its failure. The most notable non-fiction writers of XX century American literature were Norman Mailer, Tom Wolfe, Hunter Thompson and Truman Capote, whose “documentary novel” gave rise to a new form labeled “non-fiction novel”. Norman Mailer continued Capote’s tradition and created the variety of a documentary novel – “History as a novel, novel as a history”. His prose goes far beyond the frames of “New Journalism”. He was

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SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues considered as experimenter and innovator of creative non-fiction. Among his excellent works “A double life” is a fictional biography and a literary reportage. In the “Birth of the new Journalism” (Wolfe, 1972), Wolfe emerged on the scene and gave thorough and comprehensive study of the new literary form that involved a depth of reporting and an attention to the most trivial facts. He described how intensively he penetrated in the lives and personalities of his characters. Wolfe identified the four main devices: 1. Construction of the scenes with much succession and accuracy 2. Conveyance of full dialogues 3. The third person point of view. 4. The complexity of casual details contributing to the development of a particular character. “New Journalism” is a creative, literary style striving for intensive penetration in the personalities of characters. “What is called the New Journalism is really a dozen different styles of writing” – these words were written in “Columbia Journalism review” in 1972 in respond to the newly established literary style at the crossroads of journalism and literature. In 1971, Philip M. Howard claimed that the inconsistence with objectivity and were in favour of personal nature. Considering this issue, Wakefield wrote the following in the Atlanta Journal (1966): “The importance and interesting and hopeful trend to me in the new journalism is its personal nature – not in the sense of personal attacks, but in the presence of the reporter himself and the significance of his own involvement. This is sometimes felt to be egotistical, and the frank identification of the author, especially as the “I” instead of merely the impersonal “eye” is often frowned upon and taken as proof of “subjectivity” which is the opposite of the usual journalistic pretense” (Wakefield, 1966). In spite of this fact, in his “In cold blood”, Truman Capote emerged as an observer of the narrative, not the participant. The introduction by Capote was that of an outsider who didn’t make a judgment of his own avoiding subjective accounting of the events. In his critical work “Bulletin of the American society of Newspaper Editors”, Lester Markel emphasized the fact that this particular literary style did not require any in-depth reporting, but recorded the facts by means of fictional devices. The representatives were labeled as sociologists and psychoanalysts rather than journalists. Much more motivated and essentially negative Michael J. Arlen in his 1972 “Notes on the New Journalism” claimed that the methods utilized by modern writers were borrowed from earlier ones. This was the “novelistic technique”- he asserted, XX century American literature

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SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues and one of the most recognized writers of that time William Faulkner and his primarily known words bridged the gap between Journalism and fiction, conveying an intensive and considerate explanation to the factual information and assuming that sometimes fiction was by far the most significant fact itself. Later, Hunter S. Thompson was inspired by those words and he was regarded as the creator of gonzo journalism. While extensively using his new experience and whims, writing aimed to be humorous. He blurred the difference between fiction and non-fiction, literature and journalism. Finally, we came to the conclusion that “New Journalism” can be referred to a literary style rather than a direction, that stemmed from specific basis and its emergence at the crossroads of journalism and literature can be credited to certain motives. A new form of literature, much more free and creative, materialized by a group of writers who broke away from traditional journalism and invented the subjective form of reportage, which gained widespread popularity and was considered a new genre of American literature. In the mid1960s fiction strived for publicism, while journalism acquired some techniques of essayism. We can identify some major devices borrowed from literary fiction: Telling the story using scenes, involving a depth of reporting facts and details based not only on retrospective narrative, but on citations. Every scene is presented through the eyes of a particular character, emphasizing everyday details, such as behavior, possessions, friends and family. Despite these elements, “New Journalism” is not fiction. It maintains the details of reportage with factual accuracy, the writer being the main source. To get inside the personalities of the characters, the journalist asks the subject some personal questions. According to some studies, traditional techniques practiced by the previous writes were so faded and out of date that they were replaced by newly introduced literary form, which was a rebellion from old. The form of a novel as a literary genre did not exist. So replacement was timely. During the 60-80s “New Journalism”, enjoyed widespread popularity and most literary theorists immediately followed the details of current events and eventually resulted in attending conferences, writing scientific works and monographs with the purpose of explaining this particular phenomenon. (Arlen, 1972)

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SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues Hunter Thompson, Tomas Wolfe, Truman Capote, Norman Mailer created a literary genre. Their works were based on real facts consuming some imaginative resources of fiction. Hunter Thompson, as the most influential figure of “New Journalism” managed to bridge the gap between literature and journalism. His novels were vivid examples of the specifications of that particular literary form. It should be noted that, “New Journalism”, as an extensively distinguished non-fiction significantly influenced the world literature. It is impossible to have a thorough and comprehensive study of American literature and the history of journalism without emphasizing the importance of that distinctive literary from.

References:

1. Arlen M. J. “Notes on the New Journalism”, 1972. Leonard W. Robinson “The New Journalism Writers Digest”. 1970, January. Michael J.A. “Notes On The New Journalism”. In “Atlantic”, 1972 2. Hohenberg J. “Professional Journalist”. 1960; p. 322 3. Wakefield D. “The Personal Voice and Impersonal Eye” In “The Atlantic”, 1966. 4. Wolfe T. “The Birth of New Journalism” In “New York”, 1972/14/12

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Thematic Parallels between Sherwood Anderson’s “Winesburg, Ohio” and John Updike’s “Olinger Stories”

NATIA KVACHAKIDZE

Abstract The article aims at revealing thematic similarities between the short story collections of two twentieth century American writers separated by several decades. The first collection is Sherwood Anderson’s “Winesburg, Ohio” (1919) and the second one - John Updike’s “Olinger Stories” (1964). Both collections share common motifs/topoi and the present article makes an effort to analyze them through juxtaposition of fictional characters, the problems they face and the atmosphere they live in. Lots of thematic parallels can be drawn between the two collections. Both collections focus on such themes as family life, relationships between parents and children, husbands and wives, formation of the personality of an adolescent, failure to find the sense of existence, etc. Moreover, they even share the scene of action - a small fictional American town with its middle class inhabitants. Both authors give their full attention to the crises of home, school and small town; all the things that Updike calls “the despair of the daily”. The article also deals with certain peculiarities characteristic to the short stories of both writers and the role they play in the development of this genre in American literature.

 Ph.D. Student, Akaki Tsereteli State University, English Philology Department, Kutaisi, Georgia.

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Thematic Parallels between Sherwood Anderson’s “Winesburg, Ohio” and John Updike’s “Olinger Stories”

NATIA KVACHAKIDZE

The development of national American literature is closely connected with the short story. This genre represents an important part in the literary works of many distinguished writers of the country. It can be said that it took the newly created literature more than a century to prove its individuality and attract the attention of the rest of the world. And American short story writers were the first who made Europe talk about them. Among the numerous authors contributing to the development of the genre the works of Sherwood Anderson (1876-1941) are particularly notable. His short story collection “Winesburg, Ohio” and his novellas generally have significantly defined the further development of the genre. It was a truly innovative event in the history of literature. And one of the American writers who have successfully continued these rich traditions in the second half of the XX century is John Updike (1932-2009). The literary works of these two writers separated by several decades have a lot in common. Sherwood Anderson’s stories can best be defined as “plotless” half-documentary literary works. In this respect his work forms a significant stage in the development of the form of American short story. There are several significant characteristic aspects in Anderson’s writings: the effort of learning and portraying the truth about people and society; distrust towards established literary forms and the choice of ordinary colloquial language. All the main characteristic features of this genre in the USA before Anderson’s time (humour, intrigue, unexpected ending) are no longer important for the writer. On the contrary, Anderson opposes these features claiming that they create a fake world having nothing in common with the reality. Sherwood Anderson refuses to use artificial plot in his work. The majority of his short stories have no real action. The main emphasis is on the inner world and feelings of the characters. The

 Ph.D. Student, Akaki Tsereteli State University, English Philology Department, Kutaisi, Georgia.

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SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues language of the narrative is also carefully chosen to fit the author’s goals. Anderson doesn’t employ refined language in his writing. On the contrary he turns to everyday American speech of ordinary people. His prose may seem simple at the first sight with its short plain sentences and limited word usage, but gradually we realize how well-matched this style is with everything the writer tries to say. The language of the stories and the real-life events presented there are in full harmony as the writer concentrates on ordinary everyday conflicts and events often characterized with a hidden tragedy. These seemingly minor everyday problems attract the attention of another American writer John Updike, living and working mainly in the second half of the XX century. The “despair of the daily” (Plath, 1994, p. 11), as Updike calls it, becomes the central topic of his literary work which shares lots of motifs with Sherwood Anderson’s fiction. Characteristic features of Anderson’s writings are most vividly seen in his early story collections, among which is one of the author’s masterpieces - “Winesburg, Ohio” (1919), which can well be compared with one of Updike’s early story books called “Olinger Stories” (1964). Both collections focus on such themes as family life, relationships between parents and children, husbands and wives, the degeneration of communal bonds between people (sexual, familial, friendship, ritual modes of religion), formation of the personality of an adolescent, failure to find the sense of existence, etc. Moreover, they even share the scene of action _ a small fictional American town with its middle class inhabitants. John Updike explains this choice of his himself: “My subject is the American Protestant small-town middle class. I like middles. It is in middles that extremes clash, where ambiguity restlessly rules, something quite intricate and fierce occurs in homes, and it seems to me without doubt worthwhile to examine what it is” (Plath, 1994, p. 11). These words could well be applied to Anderson’s stories as well. The main subject matter of Sherwood Anderson’s short fiction is a provincial American small town and its inhabitants. As the writer himself states, his “Winesburg, Ohio” “is an effort to treat the lives of simply ordinary people in an American Middle Western town with sympathy and understanding” (Townsend, 1987, p. 109). He gives a true inner psychological picture of his country and reaches this goal through showing the inner world and feelings of ordinary people. Both authors give their full attention to the crises of home, school and small town. In these two short story collections the writers portray their native country from inside through the inner world of

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SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues ordinary Americans. And thus they come up with a very thorough psychological insight into the lives of their characters, as well as the nation itself. As Updike states, “the old Puritan town was rich in characters and oral history. … The real America seemed to me “out there” (Updike, 2003: xii). Both books represent much more than just a collection of stories. They form some kind of a whole, where every single story is a necessary brick in the wall. This unity is strengthened in Anderson’s case by the recurrent character George Willard, but actually it is the similarity of themes which links the parts of both literary works. John Updike quite truthfully explains the crucial uniting source of his “Olinger Stories”: “All the stories draw from the same well” (Updike, 2003: xiii). The same is the case with Anderson’s “Winesburg, Ohio”. One of the most present themes to be found in both collections is the theme of loneliness. The protagonists of the stories are mostly lonely, isolated, exhausted by the pressure of everyday routine and “minor” problems. They are afraid of the future and fail to change anything in the present. The authors show us their tragedy not by telling the facts, but looking deeply inside their consciousness. Misunderstanding, loneliness, inability to communicate - are all seen as something deeply set in the nature of people. What everybody needs is each other, but their estrangement is so extreme they cannot establish direct ties, not even inside a family. The main contrast in this respect is that, unlike Anderson’s characters, the majority of Updike’s protagonists happen to be schoolchildren (their age range slightly changing from story to story) and thus it may seem too early for them to feel lost. Another vivid similarity is that Anderson and Updike’s fictional characters are never fully presented complete images. They can be viewed as pieces of life. They are so passive that don’t even allow themselves to have any hope and are generally characterized by extreme pessimism. They see no sense or happiness in life. And even if they try to fight and improve something (which is a rare case in these stories), they almost always take the wrong path and wander without any specific purpose. The only thing a few of the characters succeed at is running away. They try to escape small or big towns, family members, or mostly their own selves. This shows even more clearly that not only the surrounding reality, but the characters themselves are to be blamed in their complete failure to find the meaning of life. The major difference between the two authors in this respect is possibly the fact that Anderson’s characters are much more

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SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues emotional and easily led by impulse than those of Updike’s. The short stories of the latter lack the power of either positive or negative emotions, they are much more fragmentary than Anderson’s stories. Even the whole collection doesn’t make up a complete unity. Anderson’s work, on the contrary, is often deservedly viewed as a sort of loosely-strung episodic novel. One of the key aspects to the “novel” is how Anderson is able to reveal the secrets of a small town by presenting reality of nothing being what it seems to be. In this respect, both authors often employ a kind of anti-pastoral motif, a theme of mock sentimentality toward the old, colloquial farmland. Country life is generally supposed to be idyllic, but instead, the ones portrayed by Sherwood Anderson and John Updike seem to make the people go crazy. Throughout Anderson’s novel there is this longing for something better and richer than what the characters have. They all see themselves stuck in a hole with nowhere to go. We do have the same impression while reading John Updike’s “Olinger Stories”. But, to my mind, the difference is that Anderson’s characters haven’t yet completely seized their attempts to escape. The attempts are finally rewarded by George Willard’s departure, the fact which can seemingly and symbolically make up for all the unfulfilled dreams of the townspeople. George Willard himself seems to be the only character in “Winesburg, Ohio” who is still untouched by the “curse” of the town mostly due to his relatively young age. As a result, he happens to be the only one capable of leaving Winesburg. And despite the fact that throughout his “novel” Anderson makes it quite clear such an escape can possibly lead to nothing better, those left behind still regard George’s departure as the way out and desperately try to stick to this illusory hope. John Updike’s fictional characters, on the other hand, seem to have lost even such illusions of a better place somewhere and this may serve as an explanation to the fact that even young children are mainly depressed and hopeless in his “Olinger Stories”. This can be partly caused by the fact that the depressing influence of the boredom and emptiness of life has reached its peak in Updike’s fiction. His characters are even more indifferent to life than those of Anderson’s and it is even more difficult to find traces of hope in his stories. In Sherwood Anderson’s Winesburg there is still space for seemingly happy childhood. Despair and pessimistic feelings creep over the people gradually as adulthood approaches. According to Anderson, “there is a time in the life of every boy when he for the first time takes

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SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues the backward view of life. Perhaps that is the moment when he crosses the line into manhood. The boy is walking through the street of his town. He is thinking of the future and of the figure he will cut in the world. Ambitions and regrets awake within him. Suddenly something happens; he stops under a tree and waits as for a voice calling his name. Ghosts of old things creep into his consciousness; the voices outside of himself whisper a message concerning the limitations of life. From being quite sure of himself and his future he becomes not at all sure. If he be an imaginative boy a door is torn open and for the first time he looks out upon the world, seeing, as though they marched in procession before him, the countless figures of men who before his time have come out of nothingness into the world, lived their lives and again disappeared into nothingness. The sadness of sophistication has come to the boy. With a little gasp he sees himself as merely a leaf blown by the wind through the streets of his village. He knows that in spite of all the stout talk of his fellows he must live and die in uncertainty, a thing blown by the winds, a thing destined like corn to wilt in the sun” (Anderson, 1993, p. 239). This transition into sophistication occurs much earlier in John Updike’s Olinger. Even young boys are inclined to feel fear of death in his stories (“Pigeon Feathers”, “Flight”). This problem is closely connected with the loss of faith, which is also characteristic to Anderson’s characters. However, in the stories of the latter we can often notice at least some dim light at the end of the tunnel. Whether this light is real or false is another matter, but it is still present. On the other hand, hope and optimistic thoughts in Updike’s case are reduced to rare details like David Kern carefully studying the incredible colouring and shape of every pigeon feather and coming to the conclusion that “the God who had lavished such craft upon these worthless birds would not destroy His whole Creation by refusing to let David live forever” (Updike, 2003, p. 33). In conclusion, it can be stated that, these two short story collections, between the creation of which nearly half a century elapsed, do have such a great number of essential themes and problems in common that they provide a good proof of life remaining mainly the same from generation to generation, the main difference being the increasing tendency of feeling emptiness and loneliness, as well as the loss of hope. In other words, “the despair of the daily” has dramatically grown from Sherwood Anderson to John Updike. But whatever the case, these two great American writers dedicated their creative power to describing reality as it had come to them _ “to give the mundane its beautiful due” (Updike, 2003: xvii), as Updike once wrote.

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References:

1. Anderson, Sherwood. Winesburg, Ohio. New York: Signet Classic, 1993. 2. Charters A. “Major Writers of Short Fiction”. Boston: St. Martin’s Press, 1992. 3. Gordon, Jane B. and Kuehner Karen. “Fiction (An Introduction to the Short Story).” Lincolnwood, Illinois: NTC/Contemporary Publishing Group, 1999. 4. Greiner, Donald J. “The Other John Updike (Poems/Short Stories/Prose/Play)”, Ohio University Press, 1981. 5. Howe I., “Introduction to: Anderson Sherwood”, Winesburg, Ohio. New York: Signet Classic, 1993. 6. Plath, James (ed.). Conversations with John Updike. University Press of Mississippi, 1994. 7. Townsend, Kim. Sherwood Anderson. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1987. 8. Updike, John. The Early Stories (1953-1975). New York: Ballantine Books, 2003.

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William Somerset Maugham on Classic American Literature

NATALIA IMEDASHVILI

The Americans, who are the most efficient people on the earth, have carried [phrase-making] to such a height of perfection and have invented so wide a range of pithy and hackneyed phrases that they can carry on an amusing and animated conversation without giving a moment’s reflection to what they are saying and so leave their minds free to consider the more important matters of big business and fornication.

W. Somerset Maugham, Cakes and Ale

The present essay touches upon William Somerset Maugham's 'American years' and his attitude towards classic American literature. Maugham, by then in his sixties, spent most of the Second World War in the United States, first in Hollywood (he worked on many scripts, and was one of the first authors to make significant money from film adaptations) and later in the South. While in the US, he was asked by the British government to make patriotic speeches to induce the US to aid Britain, if not necessarily become an allied combatant. Maugham was of a very high opinion of the Americans and their achievements - in one of his books he calls the Americans "the most efficient people on the earth." The essay is particularly focused on Maugham's views of some of the most influential American authors. His essay The Classic Books of America appeared in "The Saturday Evening Post" in January, 1940. The noted English author comments on a few of the Big Names in American letters. As always, his writing is rewarding and highly readable. The essay consists of brief introductory notes and several sections: "Where Literature Starts", "The Scarlet Letter", "Emerson's Essays", "Henry James's Best Book" and "The Stature of

 Associate Professor, Dr., Akaki Tsereteli State University, Kutaisi, Georgia.

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SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues Melville". The other authors he speaks about are Benjamin Franklin, Henry Thoreau, Edgar Allan Poe, Mark Twain, Emily Dickinson Walt Whitman. In the introductory part Maugham makes it clear that he had read only important American books, not the ones that have only a local interest; then he further admits that he claims no authority for any of the opinions expressed in the essay and acknowledges that they are those of an Englishman who has read from his national standpoint and whose opinions thus have a certain bias (Maugham 1940: 29). In other words, Maugham deals only with those works which may be justly regarded as classic and omits all mention of recent productions, partly from an inadequate knowledge of them and partly because it was too soon to tell what in the immense output of recent years would prove to be of permanent and characteristic value.

Where Literature Starts At the beginning of this section Maugham admits that he had read two or three standard histories of American literature in order to compare his views with those of experts and was very much surprised to discover that they were almost exclusively concerned with matters that in his opinion had nothing to do with literature as they enlarged upon the social conditions which prevailed when such-and-such an author wrote, and upon the political circumstances which influenced the book; they discussed the author's ideas and examined the philosophical implications of his thought. Maugham argues that they did not say much about his style, solidity of construction, ingenuity of invention or originality of characterization. He concludes: "It seemed, in short, to have entirely escaped the attention of these conscientious gentlemen that a book may be read for delight and that literature is an art. But literature is an art. It is not philosophy, it is not science, it is not social economy, it is not politics; it is an art. And art is for delight" (Maugham 1940, p. 29). Further Maugham provides his own definition of the term "genius" and refuses to apply it to the authors to be discussed because, in his opinion, genius is something that arises very rarely and American literature was not much older than a hundred years old by the time Maugham was writing these lines. Maugham proposes to start discussion with Benjamin Franklin's autobiography. He characterizes it as "as written plainly, as befitted its author, but in pleasant, easy English ... and it

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SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues is interesting not only for its narrative but for the vivid and credible portrait which the author has succeeded in painting of himself" (Maugham 1940, p. 64). Maugham compares him to Doctor Johnson and argues that he is the typical American as Doctor Johnson is the typical Englishman.

The Scarlet Letter Maugham opens this section by stating that if he were constrained to ascribe genius to three American writers, he would unhesitatingly ascribe it to Herman Melville, Walt Whitman and Edgar Allan Poe but he does not speaks of them yet and starts the discussion with Nathaniel Hawthorne - he explains it by his purpose to trace the emergence of Americanism in American literature. So he attempts no chronological order. Then Maugham repeats one more time that he will only discuss books from which the reader receives both profit and pleasure and confesses that on rereading The Scarlet Letter the profit and pleasure he gained were of a limited character. He points out that the last forty years had seen the rise in America of at least half a dozen much better novelists than Hawthorne. Maugham considers that Hawthorne did not possess the gift of creating living characters and finds the tale/story uninteresting but he still advises the reader to read or reread the novel because of the impressive quality of its style. Since Hawthorne belonged to what historians of literature call the Concord School, of which Emerson and Thoreau were distinguished members, Maugham finds it a fitting place to speak of them. He touches in passing upon Thoreau and criticizes him for having narrow experience and for having followed a well-trodden path.

Emerson's Essays Maugham admits that Emerson is a figure of much greater substance and recognizes the charm and benignity of his character; he also confesses that he is impressed by the thoughtfulness which possessed Emerson but, on the other side, he states that he could not find much profit or entertainment in his celebrated essays: "Often he hardly escapes the commonplace by a hair's breadth. He had a gift of the picturesque phrase, but too often it is empty of meaning... It may be that the writers of the Concord School have a value to Americans which the foreigner cannot hope to comprehend..." (Maugham 1940, p. 64).

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SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues The next writer Maugham talks about in this section is Edgar Allan Poe. He is very well aware that Poe was then more honored in Europe than in his homeland and explains this by his moral character and unsatisfactory nature of life. Maugham defends Poe by correctly pointing out that neither an author's character nor his life has anything to do with the reader, who is concerned only with his works. Maugham praises Poe for having written "the most beautiful poetry that has ever been written in America". He also likes Poe as an acute critic whose analysis of the short story had been effective on the practice of his successors. Maugham also praises Poe's brief tales and mentions the fact that Poe invented the detective story. As for Poe's stories of horror and mystery, Maugham comments: "It may be that his stories of horror and mystery owe something to Hoffmann and to Balzac, but they wonderfully achieve the end he set himself, for he was the most self-conscious of artists ... What he has to give us is unique. He wrote very little and almost all he wrote can be read with enjoyment, but there is nothing peculiarly American in him" (Maugham 1940, p. 65). Maugham argues that if we are looking in American literature something that has in it a relish of the soil we must certainly seek further. And for this purpose he chooses Henry James who in his opinion was not the greatest writer America had produced, but surely the most distinguished.

Henry James's Best Book Henry James looked upon The Ambassadors as his best novel. Maugham criticizes it for its emptiness: "It is tedious to read on account of its convoluted style; no attempt is made to render character by manner of speech and everyone speaks like everyone else ..." (Maugham 1940, p. 65) He concludes that the book would be intolerable but for Henry James' great gift - the novelist's essential gift - of carrying the reader on from page to page by the desire to know what is going to happen next and by the wonderful atmosphere of Paris in spring and summer which "no one, to the best of my knowledge, has so exquisitely conveyed" (Maugham 1940, p. 65). Maugham himself much prefers The American. He says that it is written with lucidity and elegance and proceeds further to enlist its positives and negatives:

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SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues "It is a curious novel in this respect, that it is a love story in which there is no love. The characters are not human beings; the men are stuffed shirts and the women are crinolines. For all that, The American is well worth reading. So great is Henry James' skill in telling a story, so rare his sense of suspense and so sure his touch in working up to a dramatic situation, that you are held from beginning to end ... and you cannot remain unconscious of the charm of contact with the author's distinguished, urbane and cultivated mind. The American is not a great book, but it is a very readable one; there are not many novels of which you can say that sixty years after their appearance." (Maugham 1940, p. 65)

The Stature of Melville In this chapter Maugham speaks of Moby Dick and labels it as "a great book". He had read Melville's South Sea books Omoo and Typee with interest and pleasure but had never been tempted to read them again. As he puts it, Moby Dick is enough for any man's reputation. In Maugham's opinion, the book is written in a manner that wonderfully suits the theme. He admits that sometimes Melville descends to the ridiculous and a number of chapters he finds tedious but "you have to accept the idiosyncrasies of an author of great parts. Homer sometimes nods and Shakespeare can write passages of empty rhetoric" (Maugham 1940, p. 65). Maugham fails to find in the book that flavor of the soil which because it is specific is valuable, that he is looking for. He thinks that Melville's culture is European: "His prose gives you the impression of having been founded on that of the great English stylists of the seventeenth century. And though his characters, at least the important ones, are American, they are so by accident" (Maugham 1940, p. 65). However, Maugham finds this quality in Mark Twain who gives it to his readers in all its richness and savor in Huckleberry Finn. He calls it an authentic masterpiece and its author one of the greatest of American authors: "... in Huckleberry Finn he had the happy idea of writing in the person of his immortal hero and so produced a model of the vernacular style which has served as a foundation for some of the best and most characteristic writers of the present day. He showed them that a living manner of writing is not to be sought in the seventeenth and eighteenth century writers of England, but in the current speech of their own people" (Maugham 1940, p. 66).

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SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues Maugham thinks that Huckleberry Finn, with its amazing variety of invention, its gusto and life, is in the tradition of that great and celebrated variety of fiction, the picaresque novel and it holds its place bravely with the two greatest examples of the genre, Gil Blas and Tom Jones. The only fault he finds with the book is "the unfortunate notion of bringing in that boring little muttonhead, Tom Sawyer" (Maugham 1940, p. 66). Then Maugham says a few words about Emily Dickinson. He confesses that to his mind she had been accorded more praise than she deserved. Maugham finishes his survey of classic American authors by speaking about Walt Whitman. As he puts it, he has kept him to the end, because he thinks that it is in Leaves of Grass that we at last get, free from European influences, the pure and unadulterated Americanism: "Leaves of Grass is a work of immense significance … He wrote his poems partly in the sort of the Bible, partly in the sort of blank verse that was written in the seventeenth century, and partly in uncouth pedestrian prose which offends the ear… These defects are regrettable, but unimportant. It is easy to skip. Leaves of Grass is a book to open anywhere and read as long as it pleases and then turn the pages and start at random elsewhere. Whitman could write lines of pure and lovely poetry, he could turn phrases that thrill, and often he hit upon ideas that were wonderfully moving. He had a vigor and a sense of life, in its manifold variety, in its passion, beauty and exhilaration, which an American may justly and with pride think truly American” (Maugham 1940, p. 66). Maugham considers that it was Whitman in whom America, in literature, in truth became aware of itself: “It is a virile, democratic poetry; it is the authentic battle cry of a new nation and the solid foundation of a national literature” (Maugham 1940, p. 66) As we have seen, in his essay on American literature Maugham chooses to discuss only classic books; then he aims at tracing Americanism or flavor of American soil and in this respect he finds interesting Mark Twain’s Huckleberry Fin and especially Walt Whitman’s Leaves of Grass as an artistic embodiment of American spirit and aspirations of a new nation. Maugham applies two criteria to the books he is talking about how much profit and pleasure can one receive from reading them. Generally speaking, these criteria are well established and

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SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues occupy central position in Maugham’s aesthetic views. Not that Maugham’s judgments are always correct or precise – on the contrary, from time to time they are even biased and controversial. He deflates Henry James but says all the right things about Mark Twain. He is surprisingly cool to Hawthorne, inexplicably excited about Melville, and very helpful about Whitman. Sometimes his views do not sound convincing but they are always fresh, original and readable.

References:

1. Maugham, W. Somerset. “The Classic Books of America”. The Saturday Evening Post, January 6, 1940.

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Kennedy Administration Policy in Women Issues

ELENE MEDZMARIASHVILI

On the eve of the 50th anniversary of John F Kennedy’ assassination a lot of papers, books, and documentary revived the myths on the young American president. Among them there were some papers and books on his administration politics in women issues (Wolf, 2013; Blain and Sklar, 2014). My paper also deals with Kennedy’s legacy for women. I try to investigate reasons why JFK became the first among Presidents of the United States to be interested in women’s rights issues, what steps his administration took in this direction and why? What was the result of these steps? Before answering all above mentioned questions it is necessary to know what status had American women in the States in the end of 1950s. These years proved to be an important era for American women. With the end of World War II, men returned to the United States and to their jobs, which had temporarily been assumed by women. Women now out of work turned toward the home and domestic activity. Advanced industrialization and the beginnings of suburbs further separated the environments of women and men. "The commercial world, where goods were reduced, and the home, where they were consumed, grew geographically and culturally farther apart.” At the same time, it was the peak of cold war period, and two superpowers tried to convince everybody of their superiority in all spheres and among them in women issues also. The Cold War placed an added emphasis on family unity as a defense against communism, making the role of women as wives and mothers crucial to the preservation of the United States and its democratic ideals. So the States needed changes in that sphere and JFK Administration tried to do them. In addition American women started waking1 (See, American Women through Time 1950s). Since the feminist movement that took place in the late 1960s, there have been many debates concerning the rights and roles of women. Often feminists, due to their biases and

 Professor, Director of American Studies M.A. and Ph.D. Programs, Vice-President of Georgian Association for American Studies, Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

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SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues personal/political agendas, identify the 1950s as the pinnacle of gender inequality. Furthermore, they claim that mass media, especially advertising in women's magazines, perpetuated the denigration of women. According to them, ads during this time period portrayed women as stupid, submissive, purely domestic creatures; they claim this is historical truth. (See Courtney, 1971, pp. 93-95) “No one recognized women’s oppression in fifties America, not even the women themselves, until Betty Friedan and The Feminine Mystique named the phenomenon and made a coherent argument about its causes. Postwar prosperity had provided women with a life of ease their mothers hadn’t imagined and a standard of living that was the envy of the world. At the same time, women were assailed by a public discourse that contended they could find true happiness only in domesticity.” (Sherman, ed., 2002: ix). It was a true that after World War II women’s highest aspiration was to become “the fragile, feminine, dependent, but priceless creature every man wants his wife to be.” (Carroll, 1950, p. 73) The mood and the message shifted after the war and women faced intense pressures—economic, cultural and internal—to make homemaking their primary career. The postwar economic expansion meant that more husbands could earn enough to support his family without a second income, while at the same time women in the workforce were being displaced by returning veterans. Even though more women were in the paid labor force after the war than during it, and more married women were working outside the home than ever before, they found themselves forced into lower-paying, female-dominated jobs. (Rupp&Taylor, 1987, pp. 12-13) But, as Friedan wrote, “The only way for a woman, as for a man, to find herself, to know herself as a person is by creative work of her own. There is no other way.” (Sherman, ed., 2002:ix- x). Though “at first glance, the 1950s was a decade of the family… But already that family was flashing the warming signals… Homes, cars, refrigerators and washing machines, telephones and multiple televisions require higher incomes…. The two-income family emerged. In 1950, wives earned wages in only 21.6 percent of all families. By 1960, 30.5 percent of wives worked for wages. And that figure would continue to increase. Full and part-time working wives contributed about 26 percent of the total family income. (Kessler-Harris, 2003, pp. 301-302) In the beginning of 1960s interest in women's rights and how to most effectively protect such rights was a matter of growing national interest. There were more than 400 pieces of legislation in Congress which addressed women's status and issues of discrimination and expanding rights.

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SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues Those who supported protective legislation for women workers believed that it made it more feasible for women to work. The supporters of protective legislation also believed that it was in society's interest to protect women's health including women's reproductive health by restricting hours and some conditions of work, requiring additional facilities. Those who supported the Equal Rights Amendment (first introduced in Congress soon after women won the right to vote in 1920) believed with the restrictions and special privileges of women workers under protective legislation, employers were motivated to higher fewer women or even avoid hiring women altogether. In 1961 Kennedy established the Commission on the Status of Women in order to navigate between these two positions, trying to find compromises that advanced the equality of women's workplace opportunity without losing the support of organized labor and those feminists who supported protecting women workers from exploitation and protecting women's ability to serve in traditional roles in the home and family. In his statement establishing the Commission, Kennedy said: “I believe that Federal employment practices should be a showcase of the feasibility and value of combining genuine equality of opportunity on the basis of merit with efficient service to the public.” (Ellickson, 1963, pp. 141-144) Kennedy also saw a need to open the workplace to more women, in order to have the United States become more competitive with Russia, in the space race, in the arms race -- in general, to serve the interests of the "Free World" in the Cold War. The Commission's Charge and Membership Executive Order 10980 (See: The American Presidency Project, December 14, 1961) by which President Kennedy created the President's Commission on the Status of Women spoke for women's basic rights, opportunity for women, the national interest in security and defense of a more "efficient and effective utilization of the skills of all persons," and the value of home life and family. (Lewis, President's Commission on the Status of Women). It charged the commission with "the responsibility for developing recommendations for overcoming discriminations in government and private employment on the basis of sex and for developing recommendations for services which will enable women to continue their role as wives and mothers while making a maximum contribution to the world around them." (Ibid.)

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SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues The establishment of the Commission may have been regarded by Kennedy as an expedient way to pay off his political debts to the women who had supported his campaign but were bitterly disappointed with his dismal record of appointments of women to his Administration. There was also a desire to have Eleanor Roosevelt, the chair of Commission, the most respected woman in the country, associated with the Kennedy Administration. In many ways, Eleanor Roosevelt's extraordinary political life was the bridge between the end of the drive for the right to vote in 1920 and the revitalization of the feminist movement in the United States in the 1960s. Already in ill health, Mrs. Roosevelt's role in the actual work of the Commission was limited: she conducted meetings of the Commission, signed many of its letters, served as adviser, and made herself available for purposes of publicizing the Commission. She died on November 7, 1962, a year before the report of the Commission was completed. But the Commission's mandate did not explicitly refer to African American women. The Commission was not asked to consider the special needs of minority women, though among the twenty members of the Commission were representatives of ethnic minorities: Dorothy Height of the National Council of Negro Women and the Young Women's Christian Association, Viola H. Hymes of the National Council of Jewish Women. So, it did not receive a comparable mandate to uncover discriminations on the basis of race. Nevertheless, the strong presence of African American women in the paid labor force and the tidal wave of the Civil Rights movement, which crested just as the President's Commission completed its work, brought Black women to the PCSW's attention and set a pattern that subsequent state commissions followed. (See, Blain & Sklar, 14. 2. 2010) The Commission's discussions, as well as the report itself, were racked by ambivalence between a commitment to women's traditional role of motherhood and its desire for equal opportunity for women in employment and in public life. The final report of the President's Commission on the Status of Women (PCSW) was published in October 1963. It proposed a number of legislative initiatives, but did not even mention the Equal Rights Amendment. This report, called the (Esther) Peterson (Assistant Secretary of Labor and Director of the Department of Labor's Women’s Bureau under Kennedy) Report, documented workplace discrimination, and recommended affordable child care, equal employment opportunity for women, and paid maternity leave. The public notice given to the

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SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues report led to considerably more national attention to issues of women's equality, especially in the workplace. Many newspapers ran a series of four articles from the Associated Press about the commission's findings of discrimination and its recommendations. As a result, many states and localities also established Commissions on the Status of Women to propose legislative changes, and many universities and other organizations created such commissions as well. One of the main results was the Equal Pay Act of 1963 that grew out of the recommendations of the President's Commission on the Status of Women. The Commission dissolved after creating its report, but the Citizens Advisory Council on the Status of Women was created to succeed the Commission. This brought together many with a continuing interest in various aspects of women's rights. More women within the labor movement began to look at how protective legislation might work to discriminate against women, and more feminists outside the movement began to take more seriously the concerns of organized labor in protecting women's and men's family participation. Frustration with progress towards the goals and recommendations of the President's Commission on the Status of Women helped fuel the development of the women's movement in the 1960s. When the National Organization for Women was founded, key founders had been involved with the President's Commission on the Status of Women or its successor, the Citizens Advisory Council on the Status of Women. (Lewis, President's Commission on the Status of Women) The "pervasive limitations" narrowing women's choices of roles that would be cited in the Commission's report were essentially those that Betty Friedan described polemically in and as The Feminine Mystique, published in February 1963, which rapidly hit the bestseller lists with three million copies sold. Friedan participated in the Commission's special consultation on the portrayal of women in the mass media. So above I considered shortly reasons why JFK Administration could be interested in American women’s rights issues, what steps that administration took in this direction, and what results of these steps were? What about personal priorities of JFK and his attitude toward women: John F Kennedy was addicted to sex. His short spell in office, romantically dubbed 'the thousand days', is almost as

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SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues noteworthy for its 'thousand nights'. Nor does the scandal end there. One key to Kennedy's immunity was his relationship with the press. He believed that his friendly relationship with members of the press would help protect him from revelations about his sex life. (Dallek, 2003) When national newspapers were sent photographs allegedly showing Kennedy leaving the apartment building of one of his mistresses, for instance, the story was buried. Kennedy was also fortunate that the Sixties were different times. Then, journalists acknowledged the separateness of a politician's private and public life. In addition towards Kennedy the press was even more forgiving. While Kennedy's youth and rhetoric implied a radical departure in national leadership, he was disinclined as president to challenge the unspoken assumptions of the post-war era, chief among which was a dismissive attitude towards women in society. Within this cultural and intellectual environment, Kennedy could escape criticism for failing to appoint a woman to the Cabinet. Gender politics weren't an issue. This was also a period in American history when the office of president, at that time unsullied by the Vietnam war or the disgrace of Watergate, earned extraordinary power and respect. While it is difficult to believe now, Kennedy was not a particularly popular presidential candidate - he beat Richard Nixon by the narrowest of margins - but as soon as he became president he immediately gained stature because of the authority of his office. As BBC News New York correspondent Nick Bryant wrote, “the irony is that public opinion polls still testify to Kennedy's enduring popularity. That suggests that Americans are prepared to overlook assorted shenanigans, so long as their leaders compensate in other ways. That could offer Bill Clinton a useful lesson. He may be dragged before a court and face humiliation; he may even have his testicles examined and photographed. But he may get away with it, so long as he can convince the American public that his presidency is worth saving. Most Americans seem ready to accept that boys will be boys - or perhaps presidents will be presidents”. (Nick Bryant, 1994) My findings are as follows:  Kennedy Administration created The President’s Commission on the Status of Women and set the problem of women’s equality in education, labor forces and before the law although the second wave of the women movement had not started yet. This action determined not only by objective reasons but also by personal merits of the president.

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 Although JFK did not live to see the changes in the status of American women, but his administration was the one to raise this issue at the national level, which became especially pertinent for the United States in the second half of 1960s.  JFK’s creation of the PCSW suggests that he saw what was coming, even as he remained very much a man of his time.

References: 1. “American Women through Time 1950s”. Retrieved from http://capone.mtsu.edu/kmiddlet/history/women/time/wh-50s.html 2. Blain, Keisha N., and Sklar, Kathryn Kish (2014). "How Did the President's Commission on the Status of Women and Subsequent State and Local Commissions Address Issues Related to Race, 1963-1980?" Women and Social Movements, 1600-2000. 14.2 (2010). Trustees of Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544. Retrieved from http://scholar.princeton.edu/kblain/publications/how-did-presidents-commission-status- women-and-subsequent-state-and-local-commis 3. Carroll, Bea (January 1950), “How to Get Along with Women,” Ladies Home Journal. 4. Courtney, Alice and Lockeretz, Sarah (February 1971). "A Woman's Place: An Analysis of the Roles Portrayed by Women in Magazine Advertisements," Journal of Marketing Research 8. 5. Dallek, Robert (2003). “An Unfinished Life: John F. Kennedy, 1917–1963”. Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Co. 6. Ellickson, Katherine P., (February 1963). “Progress of the Commission on the Status of Women”. Monthly Labor Review, Vol. 86, No. 2, pp. 141-144. Published by Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Article Stable URL: Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/41835169; http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/41835169?uid=3738048&uid=2129&uid=2&uid=7 0&uid=4&sid=21103405247717)

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7. Hersh, Seymour M. (1997). “The Dark Side of Camelot”. Boston: Little, Brown & Company. 8. Kessler-Harris, Alice (1987), “Out to Work” (Oxford University Press, Oxford, N-Y, 2003). 9. Lewis, Jone Johnson, “President's Commission on the Status of Women”. About.com, Women’s History, http://womenshistory.about.com/od/laws/a/status_women.htm 10. Rupp, Leila and Taylor, Verta (1987). “Survival in the Doldrums: The American Women’s Rights Movement, 1945 to the 1960s”, New York: Oxford University Press. 11. Sherman Janann, ed., (2002). “Interviews with Betty Friedan”. University Press of Mississippi, Jackson. 12. “The American Presidency Project, Executive Order 10980”, December 14, 1961. Retrieved from http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=58918 13. Мийо Лоррен, Херш Сеймур: "Джон Кеннеди был посредственным президентом", Libération, 21 ноября 2013 г., As available at the InoPressa Иностранная пресса о России и не только, Press digest Online, Retrieved January 10, 2014 from http://www.inopressa.ru/article/21nov2013/liberation/kennedy.html

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Rouhani’s Foreign Policy: Diplomacy is Possible?

INGA KAZARIAN

On June 14, 2013, presidential elections took place in Iran. Hassan Rouhani, candidate from reformist party “The Association of Combatant Clerics”, won 50,71% votes and became the 7th president in a history of Islamic Republic of Iran. “The dialogue that won the majority vote in the election was moderation,” Dr. Rouhani said at his endorsement ceremony.

Education and Political Career Mr. Rouhani was born on 12 November 1948 in Sorkhe, Semnan province, Northern Iran. After he graduated from the university in Tehran, he took his master’s degree and then PhD in Constitutional Law in Glasgow Caledonian University, UK. He is an author of more than 100 books and scientific articles about Islamic Law, Islamic Revolution, National Security, etc. (“National Security and Nuclear Diplomacy“ (2011), “Islamic Revolution; Roots and Challenges” (1997), “National Security and Economic System of Iran” (2010), “Fundaments of Political Thoughts of Imam Khomeini” (1999) et al.) During his long political career development Hassan Rouhani has held multiple positions: Secretary and Representative of the Supreme National Security Council, member of the Assembly of Experts, member of the Expediency Discernment Council, President of the Center for Strategic Research, and multiple roles in Parliament. After the election of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad in August 2005, Rouhani, an outspoken critic of the president, resigned his post as Secretary of the Supreme National Security Council after having held the job for 16 years. Rouhani earned the nickname “the diplomat sheikh” because of his clerical background and leading role in nuclear negotiations. And he made diplomacy and moderation themes of his first address as president.

 M.A. Student, Faculty of Education and Humanities, Direction of U.S. Foreign Affairs, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi, Georgia

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SECTION III: History, Art, Economics Legacy of Ahmadinejad Mahmoud Ahmadinejad went into the history. He will be remembered as a president with extreme unfriendly attitude toward the US and Israel and their leaders. Here are some quotations from his sensational speeches: "some segments within the US government orchestrated the attack to reverse the declining American economy and its grips on the Middle East in order also to save the Zionist regime…The majority of the American people as well as other nations and politicians agree with this view.” “They (the Western powers) launched the myth of the Holocaust. They lied, they put on a show and then they support the Jews.” And, of course, Ahmadinejad’s presidency will be remembered for the aggravation of international situation around Iran’s nuclear program. Most notably, the number of nuclear weapons in the world today is less than one-third of the total in 1986 at the time of the Reagan-Gorbachev Reykjavik summit. But combined with the dangers of suicidal terrorist groups, the growing number of nations with nuclear arms and differing motives, aims and ambitions poses very high and unpredictable risks. Here is what military historian, Martin van Creveld, said about Ahmadinejad’s foreign policy strategy: “I do not see Ahmadinejad to be crazy at all. He is just doing exactly what I would do in his place. If you sit in Tehran now, in all directions, wherever you look, you will see American troops… So you build nuclear weapons. But there is a problem: how do you bridge the period until you have nuclear weapons? And the answer is: you zigzag. You threaten, you promise, you conceal.” Iran has insisted that its nuclear energy programs are for peaceful uses only, and that these are both consistent with the NPT (Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty) and within its sovereign rights. But much of the world—the United States, the European Union, the UN Security Council, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Israel—has disputed this. “Iran has already bought the blueprint for nuclear weapon from A.Q. Khan in Pakistan. It has had extensive discussions with North Korea and China about the delivery systems of various types. It has tried to reach many Russian scientists, not just nuclear scientists, but weapon scientists also. It has hidden some aspects of its nuclear program from International Atomic Energy Agency. And if you put all of these circumstantial elements together, you will have to be cautious and consider the possibility of nuclear energy being the first step of a much bigger

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SECTION III: History, Art, Economics element,” said director of the Centre for the Advanced Study of the Arab World at Durham University, Professor Anoush Ehteshami. Three main policy options have been debated for dealing with the Iranian nuclear proliferation threat: coercive diplomacy, military strikes, and grand bargaining. Coercive diplomacy has been a mix of economic sanctions and other pressures short of military force (e.g., the Stuxnet virus) combined with multilateral diplomacy to negotiate an agreement. The United States and many European countries had their own economic sanctions for a number of years. The UN Security Council first imposed multilateral sanctions on Iran in 2007, with further resolutions in ensuing years for tighter sanctions, including sanctions on purchases of Iranian oil. For more than a decade, Iran has stalled, first with the “EU-3” (France, Germany and Britain) and then with the “P5+1” (the members of the U.N. Security Council plus Germany). It has alternated hints of flexibility with periods of intransigence; all while expanding, concealing and dispersing its nuclear facilities. The new president will have to test his diplomatic skills to resolve many issues, associated with Iran’s position on the international scene. First and foremost, it’s Iranian nuclear program.

Foreign Affairs On 24th of September Hassan Rouhani arrived in New York to attend the 68th annual session of the UN General Assembly. In his speech at the UN General Assembly Rouhani talked about difficult situation in the Middle East, Syrian crisis, condemned aggression and extremism, and once again mentioned that Iranian nuclear program is for peaceful purposes only. “Iran is looking for solution to problems and not creating problems,” said Rouhani. President Rouhani did something no other Iranian president has ever done. He picked up the phone when Barack Obama called him during the Iranian president's visit to New York on the sidelines of the UN General Assembly in September - the first and only telephone conversation between Iranian and US leaders in over 30 years. In a telephone conversation, they agreed to accelerate efforts to find a comprehensive solution to the nuclear crisis. Iranian nuclear program is one of the sticking points in a process of mending of diplomatic fences with the United States. During the Cold War the shah of Iran was a major U.S.

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SECTION III: History, Art, Economics ally. But since he was overthrown in 1979 by the Islamist revolution led by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, U.S.- Iranian relations have been tense, to say the least. The seizure of the American embassy and the taking of American hostages in November 1979 led the Carter administration to break off diplomatic relations. Human rights and democracy promotion also have been issues. Foreign Minister Mohammad Javad Zarif met his American counterpart John Kerry behind closed doors, a first meeting of its kind in 30 years. President Rouhani's government has also tried to improve its ties with regional rivals such as Turkey and Saudi Arabia, and which is the most important, representatives from Iran and the P5+1 group of nations have begun a new round of negotiations in Geneva. Some progress has already been made in the talks between Iran and the US, UK, France, Russia, China and Germany. Mr. Rouhani declared that he wanted a substantive deal on Iran's nuclear program within "three to six months". But US Secretary of State John Kerry has said that Washington continues to be skeptical about Iran's willingness to roll back its nuclear program. And actually not only the US is skeptical about Iranian diplomatic actions. "I don't believe he is a moderate, he is too close to the hardliners," said Iranian opposition movement activist, Seyed Mojtaba Vahedi. "He is close to Khamenei. Rouhani will not be allowed to solve the nuclear issue. Nobody can do anything without the supreme leader's permission." There may be a reason for Iranian authority to shift from controversial foreign policy to diplomacy. Iran's economy is under unprecedented pressure from international sanctions.

Sanctions and Economy Hassan Rouhani won Iran's presidential election after running on a platform of achieving an easing of sanctions. The UN has ratified four rounds of sanctions against Iran between 2006 and 2010 in reaction to its refusal to halt uranium enrichment and co-operate with the IAEA. The EU has imposed its own restrictions on trade in equipment which could be used for uranium enrichment and has put in place an asset freeze on a list of individuals and organizations that, it believes, are helping advance the country's nuclear program. The US has imposed successive rounds of sanctions since the 1979 Tehran hostage crisis, citing what it says is Iran's support for international terrorism, human rights violations and refusal to co-operate with the IAEA. Several countries reduced their imports of Iranian oil, including China, Japan, India, South Korea,

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SECTION III: History, Art, Economics Turkey, South Africa and Singapore. The UK and Canada also ordered financial institutions to stop doing business with their Iranian counterparts.

Key sanctions against Iran since 2006

Year United Nations USA European Union

2006 Resolution 1737 bans supply, sale or Trade between the two countries transfer of materials that could be has been restricted since 1979. used for nuclear or ballistic weapons. Entities and individuals' assets frozen.

2007 Resolution 1747 bans Iran's arms exports, freezes assets and restricts travel of more individuals engaged in nuclear activities.

2008 Resolution 1803 urges vigilance US banks are further prevented when dealing with Iranian banks. from processing so-called "U-turn Introduces further asset freezes and transfers" of money involving travel bans. Iran.

2009 No additional resolutions

2010 Resolution 1929 imposes further Comprehensive Iran Sanctions, Bans technical assistance restrictions on arms supply, including Accountability and Divestment in oil sector. Restricts tanks and helicopters. More Act targets supply of fuel to Iran banks and adds names to individuals and firms added to by non-US firms. UN travel ban list. sanctions list.

2011 US tighten restrictions against Assets of 243 Iranian foreign firms and financial entities and about 40 institutions trading in the fuel individuals are frozen. sector. More visa bans imposed.

2012 Further sanctions against the oil Bans Iran oil imports and sector and on banks accused of freezes assets of the doing business with Tehran. Iranian Central Bank. Further asset freezes and travel bans follow.

2013 New sanctions on Iran's Rial currency and the automotive

sector. Source: U.N., U.S. Treasury, AFP, United States Institute of Peace

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SECTION III: History, Art, Economics As a result of the EU embargo and the US sanctions targeting other major importers, Iran's oil exports had fallen to 700,000 barrels per day (bpd) by May 2013, compared with an average 2.2 million bpd in 2011. In January 2013, Iran's oil minister acknowledged for the first time that the fall in exports was costing the country between $4bn and $8bn each month. The loss of oil revenue, which accounted for a half of government expenditure, and isolation from the international banking system, has caused Iran's currency, the rial, to lose two-thirds of its value against the US dollar and caused inflation to rise to more than 40%, with prices of basic foodstuffs and fuel soaring.

Conclusion In contrast to Ahmadinejad, Rouhani is a politician with wide range of diplomatic experience, but he is not a revolutionist. There are no reasonable expectations for a drastic change of Iranian government’s policy. Governments do not abandon their principles and state interests easily. Today Iranian economy suffers from international sanctions. Is economic recession a strong reason for changing foreign policy course? Maybe, yes. But Iranian government will hardly refrain from funding of Hezbollah, release political prisoners and abandon the desire to acquire nuclear weapons. In my opinion, Rouhani’s policy is just a diplomatic approach of providing the same strategy. Nevertheless, diplomatic efforts of Iranian president can lead to reduction of tension in US-Iranian relations and lifting of sanctions.

References:

1. Anoush Ehteshami Interview “Endgame: A Future Scenario for Israel” Documentary (2007) 2. BBC Persian: “Iran: Rouhani's first 100 days” by Amir Paivar http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-24908733 3. Bruce W Jentleson “American Foreign Policy in the 21st Century”, 5th Edition (2013) Chapter 11

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4. Henry A. Kissinger “Job One Abroad: Iran” http://www.henryakissinger.com/articles/wp111812.html 5. Henry A. Kissinger, George P. Shultz, William J. Perry, and Sam Nunn “Next Steps in Reducing Nuclear Risks” http://www.henryakissinger.com/articles/wsj030613.html 6. Martin van Creveld Interview “Endgame: A Future Scenario for Israel” Documentary (2007) 7. President.ir: “Addressing the endorsement ceremony” http://www.president.ir/en/70066 8. President.ir: “Biography of Dr. Hassan Rouhani, Honorable President of Islamic Republic of Iran” http://www.president.ir/en/president/biography 9. Source: Al Jazeera “Profile: Hassan Rouhani” http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2013/06/2013616191129402725.html 10. Source: Al Jazeera and agencies “UN walkout over Ahmadinejad speech” http://www.aljazeera.com/news/americas/2010/09/2010923184345332707.html 11. The Telegraph: “Mahmoud Ahmadinejad in quotes” http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/iran/7816442/Mahmoud- Ahmadinejad-in-quotes.html

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Racism against Native Americans: A Look at the Bottom

TEA CHUMBURIDZE

Abstract When American people think of slavery, their minds create images of Africans inhumanely crowded aboard ships plying the middle passage from Africa, or of blacks stooped to pick cotton in Southern fields. But they don't conjure images of American Indians chained in coffles and marched to ports like Boston and Charleston, and then shipped to other ports in the Atlantic world. The purpose of this article is to explore and evaluate a forgotten story of American Indian slavery; even today Native Americans remain among the most economically disadvantaged groups in the United States. The enslavement of Indian forces makes us rethink not only the institution of slavery, but the evolution of racism and racist ideologies in America.

 Ph.D. Student, Faculty of Education and Humanities, Direction of American Studies, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

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Racism against Native Americans: A Look at the Bottom

TEA CHUMBURIDZE

Introduction When we hear the word racism, we often think about African American or Hispanic people, but there is an entire other race in America who experiences racism on every level without a real sense of justice, these people are American Indians. They represent an important part of the culture of the United States. While these people have lived on this land for thousands of years, today their numbers are decreasing (Native American Indians, 2013). It’s often forgotten that the American Indians have experienced a great deal of racism in the U.S. In a territory which was considered to be the home of the Indian people before Christopher Columbus. Contrary to popular belief, Columbus didn’t discover America; the Indians already called this vast land home and fought to keep their land. It’s unusual that Native Americans are subjected to racism in a country they called their own but unfortunately they do. United States Department of Justice confirms that Native Americans experience per capita more than twice the rates of violence as the average American citizen. Taken into consideration these facts, we can arise a question: why is the public not aware of these statistics? According to DOJ (Department of Justice) crimes against Native Americans go unpunished. As it is stated some of the problem is reporting of crimes by Indians, but they also admit that police offices nationwide are not equipped with the knowledge needed to fight crime within Native tribes. Because of the tribal member’s location on reservations, local police is discouraged from responding to crimes against natives. For that reason many tribes have to police themselves.

 Ph.D. Student, Faculty of Education and Humanities, Direction of American Studies, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

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SECTION III: History, Art, Economics If we take a look at the history, we can find that during the colonial and independent periods, a long series of Indian Wars were fought and the objective of these wars was to obtain much of North America as a territory of the U.S. This conflict existed between American settlers or the federal government and the native peoples of North America from the time of earliest colonial settlement until approximately 1890. Conflicts were spurred by ideologies such as Manifest Destiny, which held that the United States was destined to expand from coast to coast on the American Continent. A main driver of many of these conflicts was the policy of Indian removal, which was a planned, large scale removal of indigenous peoples from the areas where Europeans were settling, either by armed conflict or through sale or exchange. Through wars, massacre, restriction of food rights, and the imposition of treaties, land was taken and numerous hardships imposed. As it was described in the United States Declaration of Independence, there has been created a stereotype of Native Americans – “merciless Indian savages.” (Smith, 2008)

Cultural Repression at Boarding Schools Massive invasions which occurred in the California Gold Rush, resulted in the death of tens of thousands of Indians when their territories were incorporated into the U.S. Tens of thousands of American Indians and Alaska Natives, were forced to attend a residential school system where they were forbidden to speak their Native languages. This system sought to reeducate them in white settler American values, culture and economy – to “kill the Indian, saving the men” (Racism, Justice and the American Indian, 2013). In the beginning of the late nineteenth century, many American Indian children attended government or church-operated boarding schools. Indian boarding schools were founded to eliminate traditional American Indian ways of life and replace them with mainstream American culture. The first boarding schools were set up either by the government or Christian missionaries. Initially, the government forced many Indian families to send their children to boarding schools. Later, Indian families chose to send their children because there were no other schools available.

 The California Gold Rush (1848–1855) began on January 24, 1848, when gold was found by James W. Marshall at Sutter's Mill in Coloma, California

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SECTION III: History, Art, Economics At boarding schools, Indian children were separated from their families and cultural ways for long periods, sometimes four or more years. The children were forced to cut their hair and give up their traditional clothing. They had to give up their meaningful Native names and take English ones. They were not only taught to speak English, but were punished for speaking their own languages. Their own traditional religious practices were forcibly replaced with Christianity. They were taught that their cultures were inferior. Some teachers ridiculed and made fun of the students’ traditions. These lessons humiliated the students and taught them to be ashamed of being American Indian. The boarding schools had a bad effect on the self-esteem of Indian students and on the well-being of Native languages and cultures. Indian boarding schools usually imitated military life. Children were forced to cut their hair, wear uniforms, and march in formations. Rules were very strict and discipline was often harsh when rules were broken. The students learned math, science, and other academic subjects. They also learned trades and practical skills, such as agriculture, carpentry, printing, and cooking. Athletics were encouraged and children also took arts classes, such as music and drawing. Many of the American Indians which were attended boarding schools had negative memories of being punished for speaking their languages. They also remembered how the schools were run like military organizations and how this later made it easier for them to adapt to life in the American military. “They tell us not to speak in Navajo language. You’re going to school. You’re supposed to only speak English. And it was true. They did practice that and we got punished if you were caught speaking Navajo” - John Brown, Jr., Navajo Code Talker, National Museum of the American Indian interview, 2004 “We even had to march to school, march to chow, march everywhere, to church. It was still kind of military basis. So when we were in the service everything just came natural, physically and morally and everything” - Merrill Sandoval, Navajo Code Talker, National Museum of the American Indian interview, 2004 (Boarding Schools: Struggling with Cultural Repression)

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Indian Reservations Nowadays, there are roughly three hundred Indian Reservations in the United States. An Indian Reservation is a piece of land that has been given over to Native Americans. They do not have full power over the land, but they do have limited governmental rule. Many Indian Reservations make money through gambling casinos. 18th president of the U.S. Ulysses S. Grant (1869-1877) set up the first Indian Reservations to help settle the growing conflict between the Native Americans and the early settlers. There has always been a great deal of conflict and controversy about Indian Reservations and how they came about. The truth is that the Native Americans were here the first and Indian Reservations were set up to give them a piece of land, while the settlers set up new rules and laws and took over the land. Some of the new laws had prohibited the Native Americans from hunting and continuing life in the manner they were accustomed to. Besides hunting, many of the early settlers were setting up new plans to convert the Native Americans to Christianity. However, without the ability to hunt and gather food, as they were accustomed to, many of the Native Americans became bitter as they were forced off their lands and told to become farmers. Many of the early Indian Reservations were resistant to farming and some of the Native Americans faced starvation (Indian Reservations, 2013). To explain the poverty of the reservations, people usually point to alcoholism, corruption or school-dropout rates, not to mention the long distances to jobs and to dusty undeveloped land that doesn’t seem good for growing much. But those are just symptoms. Prosperity is built on property rights, and reservations often have neither. They’re a demonstration of what happens when property rights are weak or non-existent. Furthermore, Native Americans face difficulties in establishing credit and borrowing money to improve their homes because they can’t use the land as collateral and investing in something you don’t own makes little sense, anyway. This leads to what economists call the tragedy of the commons: If everyone owns the land, no one does. So the result is substandard housing and the barren, rundown look that comes from a lack of investment, overuse and envision mental environmental degradation (Koppisch, 2011).

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SECTION III: History, Art, Economics American Indians, Alaska Natives, Native Hawaiians, and Pacific Islanders remain among the most economically disadvantaged groups in the United States; they suffer from high level of alcoholism and suicide.

Forgotten Story of Indian Slavery When Americans think of slavery, their minds create images of Africans or of blacks stooped to pick cotton in Southern fields. But the images of American Indians are not conjured. Indian slavery and Indian slave trade were existing everywhere in early America. From the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from the Gulf of Mexico to Canada, tens of thousands of America’s native people were enslaved, many of them transported to lands distant from their homes. The Indian slave trade connects native and European history, so that plantations and Indian communities’ become entwined. Planters were making more money from slave trading than planting, and if we look more closely we find Indians not only enslaved on plantations but working as police forces to maintain those plantations and receiving substantial rewards for returning runaway slaves. Furthermore, we are learning the tragedies how American-Indian people were killed in slaving wars or spent their days as slaves far from their homes. The Natchez, Westo, Yamasee, Euchee, Yazoo, and Tawasa are among those Indian people who were the victims of slaving wars (Racism, Justice and the American Indian, 2013).

Current Living Conditions of Native Americans Even today, living conditions of Native Americans are not alluring. According to 2013 U.S. Census, about 22% of America’s 5.2. million native people live on tribal lands. 2004 Gallup Independent notifies that living conditions on the reservations have been cited as “comparable to the Third World.” Furthermore, lack of economic opportunity and lack of jobs means that four to eight out of ten adults on reservations are unemployed.

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SECTION III: History, Art, Economics American Indians Census Facts of 2008 indicate that the overall percentage of American Indians living below the federal poverty line is 28.2%. In order to survive extended families pool their meager resources as a way to meet basic needs. The relative poverty still experienced by these blended families is best understood as the gap between the overall need and the need that goes unmet. Besides miserable living conditions, Indian Health Service facilities are crisis-driven and leave a wide gap in adequate and preventative health care for many Native Americans on the reservations. The pressures to shift from a traditional way of life toward a Western lifestyle has dramatically impacted the health and welfare of the Native peoples and created a terrible epidemic of chronic diseases such as diabetes, heart disease, tuberculosis, and cancer. The statistics are alarming. Heart disease is the leading cause of death for American Indians (2003, Center for Disease Control). Due to the link between heart disease, diabetes, poverty, and quality of nutrition and health care, 36% of Natives with heart disease will die before age 65 compared to 15% of Caucasians (2001, HHS Office of Minority Health) ( Living Conditions, 2013).

Conclusion Hence, these are the issues that Indians themselves have not told, just as the story of Indian slavery was excluded from the European past, it was largely forgotten in American-Indian traditions. The facts presented in this article are important realities about the living conditions faced by many Native Americans in this country; these are the facts that every non-Native American needs to know.

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References:

1. “Boarding Schools: Struggling with Cultural Repression”Retrieved October 9, 2013, from http://nmai.si.edu/education/codetalkers/html/chapter3.html 2. “Indian Reservations”. (2013). Indians. Org. Retrieved September 9, 2013, from http://www.indians.org/articles/indian-reservations.html 3. Koppisch, J. (2011). “Why are Indian Reservations So Poor? A Look at the Bottom”. Forbes. Retrieved September 9, 2013, from http://www.forbes.com/sites/johnkoppisch/2011/12/13/why-are-indian-reservations-so- poor-a-look-at-the-bottom-1/ 4. “Living Conditions”. (2013). Native American Aid. Retrieved September 12, 2013, from http://www.nrcprograms.org/site/PageServer?pagename=naa_livingconditions 5. “Native American Indians”. (2013). Indians.org. Retrieved September 9, 2013, from http://www.indians.org/articles/native-american-indians.html 6. “Racism, Justice and the American Indian”. (2013). RSH Web Hosting 1997-2013. Retrieved September 9, 2013, from http://clevelandsearch.com/Native-Americans.html 7. Smith, G.A. (2008). “’Merciless Indian Savages’ and the Declaration of Independence”, American Indian Report. Retrieved October 9, 2013 from http://www.smithbrownyazzie.com/home/-merciless-indian-savages-and-the-declaration- of-independence

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The most Popular Fashion Magazines in the U.S.A (Cosmo, Vogue, Glamour)

NINO GIORGADZE

Glamour (Magazine) Glamour is a women's magazine published by Condé Nast Publications. Founded in 1939 in the United States, it was originally called Glamour of Hollywood. Local editions are now published in numerous countries including the United Kingdom, United States, France, Italy, Germany, Spain, Russia, Greece, Poland, South Africa, Brazil, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Netherlands, Mexico. In most cases it is a monthly publication. The magazine became a global hit.

The United States The magazine is published in a larger format than many of its counterparts. Its current editor- in-chief is Cynthia Leive. It targets women 18–49 (with the median age of 33.5) and reaches a subscription audience of 1,411,061 readers in the United States. Its circulation on newsstands is 986,447, making the total average paid circulation: 2,397,508.Since 1980, the magazine has held an annual "Women of the Year" awards ceremony. On April 2009, Glamour launched its first Google widget. iGoogle, which allows users to create a custom version of the Google home page with select regions of content, or “gadgets,” will begin hosting a gadget for Glamour.com. The Glamour.com gadget potentially opens the site to an audience of iGoogle users.

 Senior Student, Faculty of Education and Humanities, Direction of American Studies, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

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Glamour Top College Women Awards Each year for the last 56 years, the magazine has been selecting a top ten list of outstanding college women across the country. Originally, the list was composed of the best dressed college juniors in America, but was changed for more substance with categories such as academic achievement, community service, and career goals as leading criteria. Hundreds of college juniors apply each year. Past winners, finalists include: Martha Stewart, Diane Sawyer, Swati Mia Saini, Nancy Amanda Redd, 2003 Miss Virginia (MAO) and author of Body Drama, and Tamira A. Cole, Miss Black Kentucky USA 2009 and author of HUSH, actress Sheryl Lee Ralph and novelists Curtis Sittenfeld, Kate White, Janice Kaplan, Olympian Allison Schmitt, and Jean Hanff Korelitz.

Editors: (USA) Cynthia Leive (Brazil) Monica Salgado (UK) Jo Elvin (Germany) Nikolaus Albrecht (South Africa) Pnina Fenster (Latin American) Mar Abascal (France) Marie Lannelongue (Poland) Anna Jurgaś

U.S. Editors • Alice Thompson (1939–1941) • Elizabeth Penrose (1941–1953) • Nina Kyle (1953–1954) • Kathleen Aston Casey (1954–1967) • Ruth Whitney (1967–1998) • Bonnie Fuller (1998–2001) • Cynthia Leive (2001–present)

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Cosmopolitan (Magazine) Cosmopolitan is an international magazine for women. It was first published in 1886 in the United States as a family magazine, was later transformed into a literary magazine and eventually became a women's magazine in the late 1960s. Also known as Cosmo, its content as of 2011 included articles on women's issues, relationships, sex, health, careers, self- improvement, celebrities, fashion and beauty. Published by Hearst Magazines, Cosmopolitan has 64 international editions, is printed in 35 languages and is distributed in more than 100 countries.

History Cosmopolitan began as a family magazine, launched in 1886 by Schlicht & Field of New York as The Cosmopolitan. Paul Schlicht told his first-issue readers that his publication was a "first-class family magazine", adding, "There will be a department devoted exclusively to the concerns of women, with articles on fashions, on household decoration, on cooking, and the care and management of children, etc. There was also a department for the younger members of the family." Cosmopolitan's circulation reached 25,000 that year, but by November 1888, Schlicht & Field were no longer in business. John Brisben Walker acquired the magazine in 1889. That same year, he dispatched Elizabeth Bisland on a race around the world against Nellie Bly to draw attention to his magazine. Under John Brisben Walker's ownership, E. D. Walker, formerly with Harper's Monthly, took over as the new editor, introducing colour illustrations, serials and book reviews. It became a leading market for fiction, featuring such authors as Annie Besant, Ambrose Bierce, Theodore Dreiser, Rudyard Kipling, Jack London, Willa Cather, and Edith Wharton.[6] The magazine's circulation climbed to 75,000 by 1892. In 1897, Cosmopolitan announced plans for a free correspondence school: "No charge of any kind will be made to the student. All expenses for the present will be borne by the Cosmopolitan. No conditions, except a pledge of a given number of hours of study." When 20,000 immediately signed up, Walker could not fund the school and students were then asked to contribute 20

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SECTION III: History, Art, Economics dollars a year. Also in 1897, H. G. Wells' The War of the Worlds was serialized, as was his The First Men in the Moon (1900). Olive Schreiner contributed a lengthy article about the Boer War. In 1905, William Randolph Hearst purchased the magazine for US$400,000 (approximately $11,000,000 in 2007 prices) and brought in journalist Charles Edward Russell, who contributed a series of investigative articles, including "The Growth of Caste in America" (March 1907), "At the Throat of the Republic" (December 1907 - March 1908) and "What Are You Going to Do About It?" (July 1910 - January 1911) and "Colorado - New Tricks in an Old Game" (December 1910). Other contributors during this period included Alfred Henry Lewis, Sinclair Lewis, A. J. Cronin, David Graham Phillips, George Bernard Shaw, Upton Sinclair, and Ida Tarbell. A constant presence from 1910-18 was Arthur B. Reeve, with 82 stories featuring Craig Kennedy, the "scientific detective." Magazine illustrators included Francis Attwood, Dean Cornwell, James Montgomery Flagg, and Harrison Fisher. With a circulation of 1,700,000 in the 1930s, Cosmopolitan had an advertising income of $5,000,000. Emphasizing fiction in the 1940s, it was subtitled The Four-Book Magazine since the first section had one novelette, six or eight short stories, two serials, six to eight articles and eight or nine special features, while the other three sections featured two novels and a digest of current non-fiction books. During World War II, sales peaked at 2,000,000. Hearst formed Cosmopolitan Productions or Cosmopolitan Pictures a film company based in New York City from 1918 to 1923 then Hollywood until 1938 for the purpose of making films out of stories published in the magazine. The magazine began to run less fiction during the 1950s. Circulation dropped to slightly over a million by 1955, a time when magazines were overshadowed during the rise of paperbacks and television. The Golden Age of magazines came to an end as mass market, general interest publications gave way to special interest magazines targeting specialized audiences.

Criticism In its January 1988 issue, Cosmopolitan ran a feature claiming that women had almost no reason to worry about contracting HIV long after the best available medical science indicated

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SECTION III: History, Art, Economics otherwise. The piece claimed that unprotected sex with an HIV-positive man did not put women at risk of infection, and went on to state that "most heterosexuals are not at risk" and that it was impossible to transmit HIV in the missionary position. This article angered many knowledgeable people including AIDS and gay rights activists. In 2005 Cosmopolitan ran a promotional giveaway of free condoms in the Netherlands. Whilst considered a magazine for adult women, Cosmopolitan has been accused of subtly targeting children. These accusations stem from various factors, including the design of the magazine covers, which use extra-large fonts and minimum words and the use of bright colors. Former model Nicole Weider accused the magazine of using slang "which is used by young people not adults" and using (then) underage celebrities such as Dakota Fanning and Selena Gomez as well as other celebrities popular with teens such as Ashley Greene and Demi Lovato, in an attempt to gain the attention of underage girls. Victoria Hearst, a model and granddaughter of Cosmopolitan-founder William Randolph Hearst, has lent her support to a campaign which seeks to have Cosmopolitan classified as under the guidelines of "Material Harmful to Minors" laws. Hearst states that "the magazine promotes a lifestyle that can be dangerous to women’s emotional and physical well-being. It should never be sold to anyone under 18." Donald Clark, the secretary of the Federal Trade Commission (FTC), has also shown interest in the matter.

Cosmopolitan Today The magazine currently features topics including sex, relationships, beauty, fashion and health. The advice and feature articles in the US edition are written to a presumed audience of white women. Cosmopolitan has 64 international editions worldwide published in 35 languages with distribution in more than 100 countries making Cosmopolitan the largest-selling young women's magazine in the world. Some international editions are published in partnerships, such as licenses or joint ventures, with established publishing houses in each local market. International editions are published in Argentina, Armenia, Australia, Azerbaijan, Brazil, Bulgaria, Central America, Chile, China, Colombia, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Ecuador, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hong Kong, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Italy,

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SECTION III: History, Art, Economics Kazakhstan, Korea, Latvia, Lithuania, Malaysia, Mexico, Mongolia, Netherlands, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Puerto Rico, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Singapore, Slovenia, South Africa, Spain, Taiwan, Thailand, Turkey, United Kingdom, U.S. en Español, Ukraine, Venezuela, and Vietnam. Editions that had been ceased are: Denmark, Georgia, Israel, Kenya, Norway and Sweden.

Editors (American edition) • Frank P. Smith (1886–1888) • E. D. Walker (1888) • John Brisben Walker (1889–1905) • Bailey Millard (1905–1907) • S. S. Chamberlain (1907–1908) • C. P. Narcross (1908–1913) • Sewell Haggard (1914) • Edgar Grant Sisson (1914–1917) • Douglas Z. Doty (1917–1918) • Ray Long (1918–1931) • Harry Payne Burton (1931–1942) • Frances Whiting (1942–1945) • Arthur Gordon (1946–1948) • Herbert R. Mayes (1948–1951) • John J. O'Connell (1951–1959) • Robert Atherton (1959–1965) • Helen Gurley Brown (1965–1997) • Bonnie Fuller (1997–1998) • Kate White (1998–2012) • Joanna Coles (2012)

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Vogue Vogue is an American fashion and lifestyle magazine that is published monthly in 23 national and regional editions by Condé Nast. Vogue means "in style" in French.

History In 1892 Arthur Turnure founded Vogue as a weekly publication in the United States, sponsored by Kristoffer Wright. When he died in 1909, Condé Montrose Nast picked up the magazine and slowly began growing its publication. He changed it to a bi-weekly magazine and also started Vogue overseas starting in the 1910s. He first went to Britain in 1916, and started a Vogue there, then to Spain, and then to Italy and France in 1920, where it was a huge success. In the 1960s, with Diana Vreeland as editor-in-chief and personality, the magazine began to appeal to the youth of the sexual revolution by focusing more on contemporary fashion and editorial features openly discussing sexuality. In 1973, Vogue became a monthly publication. Under Editor-in-chief Grace Mirabella, the magazine underwent extensive editorial and stylistic changes to respond to changes in the lifestyles of its target audience.

Style and Influence Vogue was described by book critic Caroline Weber in The New York Times in December 2006 as "the world's most influential fashion magazine." Vogue’s wide-reaching influence stems from various sources, including the persona and achievements of its most famous editor, its various charitable and community projects, its ability to reflect political discourse through fashion and editorial articles, and its move to emerging economies. Editor-in-Chief, Anna Wintour, is widely credited as being one of the most influential figures in the global fashion industry, with the power to make or break a designer’s career. “Wintour’s approval can signal a commercial career for designers via investors who need a nod from a big

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SECTION III: History, Art, Economics gun like her to get their cheque books out,” says stylist Sharmadean Reid. Marc Jacobs was one such designer, being recommended by Wintour for the top job at Louis Vuitton in 1997.

Current Vogue When Wintour was appointed head of Vogue, Grace Mirabella had been editor in chief for 17 years, and the magazine had grown complacent, coasting along in what one journalist derisively called "its beige years". Beige was the color Mirabella had used to paint over the red walls in Diana Vreeland's office, and the metaphor was apt: The magazine had become boring.

Media In 2009, the feature-length documentary The September Issue was released; it was an inside view of the production of the record-breaking September 2007 issue of U.S. Vogue, directed by R. J. Cutler. The film was shot over eight months as editor-in-chief Anna Wintour prepared the issue. It included at times testy exchanges between Wintour and her creative director Grace Coddington. Since 2007, the feminist fashion blog Glossed Over has live blogged the September issue of Vogue, commenting on its content, photos, and ads.

Other Editions In 2005, Condé Nast launched Men's Vogue and announced plans for an American version of Vogue Living launching in late fall of 2006 (there is currently an edition in Australia). Men's Vogue ceased publication as an independent publication in October 2008 and is now a twice- yearly extract in the main edition. Condé Nast also publishes Teen Vogue, a version of the magazine for teen girls, the Seventeen demographic, in the United States. South Korea and Australia has a Vogue Girl magazine (currently suspended from further publication), in addition to Vogue Living and Vogue Entertaining + Travel.

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SECTION III: History, Art, Economics Vogue Hommes International is an international men's fashion magazine based in Paris, France, and L'uomo Vogue is the Italian men's version. Other Italian versions of Vogue include Vogue Casa and Bambini Vogue. Until 1961, Vogue was also the publisher of Vogue Patterns, a home sewing pattern company. It was sold to Butterick Publishing which also licensed the Vogue name. Vogue China was launched in September 2005 with Australian supermodel Gemma Ward on the cover, flanked by Chinese models. In 2007 an Arabic edition of Vogue was rejected by Condé Nast International. October 2007 saw the launch of Vogue India, and Vogue Turkey was launched in March 2010. On 5 March 2010, 16 International Editors-in-chief of Vogue met in Paris to discuss the 2nd Fashion's Night Out. Present in the meeting were the 16 International editors-in-chief of Vogue: Anna Wintour (American Vogue), Emmanuelle Alt (French Vogue), Franca Sozzani (Italian Vogue), Alexandra Shulman (British Vogue), Kirstie Clements (Australian Vogue), Aliona Doletskaya (Russian Vogue), Angelica Cheung (Chinese Vogue), Christiane Arp (German Vogue), Priya Tanna (Indian Vogue), Rosalie Huang (Taiwanese Vogue), Paula Mateus (Portuguese Vogue), Seda Domanic (Turkish Vogue), Yolanda Sacristan (Spanish Vogue), Eva Hughes (Mexican Vogue), Mitsuko Watanabe (Japanese Vogue), and Daniela Falcao (Brazilian Vogue). It was the very first time where all the international editors-in-chief of Vogue come together, as it is very hard to put them in one room together. All of the International editors-in-chief of Vogue, except for Anna Wintour, then dined together at the famous Parisian restaurant, Prunier, hosted by Condé Nast International Chairman Jonathan Newhouse and his wife Ronnie Newhouse. Since 2010, 7 new editors-in-chief joined Vogue, First is Victoria Davydova, who replaced Aliona Doletskaya as editor-in-chief of Russian Vogue, Emmanuelle Alt who took over French Vogue as editor-in-chief after Carine Roitfeld resigned, followed by Edwina McCann who took over Australian Vogue as editor-in-chief after Kirstie Clements was unceremoniously fired, and Kelly Talamas replaced Eva Hughes at Vogue Mexico and Vogue Latin America when Hughes was named CEO of Condé Nast Mexico and Latin America in 2012. Then Karin Swerink,

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SECTION III: History, Art, Economics Kullawit Laosukrsi, and Masha Tsukanova were appointed editors-in-chief of newly launch Vogues Netherlands, Thailand, and Ukraine respectively.

Criticism As Wintour came to personify the magazine's image, she and Vogue drew critics. Wintour's one-time assistant at the magazine, Lauren Weisberger, wrote a roman à clef entitled The Devil Wears Prada. Published in 2003, the novel became a bestseller and was adapted as a highly successful, Academy Award-nominated film in 2006. The central character resembled Weisberger, and her boss was a powerful editor-in-chief of a fictionalized version of Vogue. The novel portrays a magazine ruled by "the Antichrist and her coterie of fashionistas, who exist on cigarettes, Diet Dr. Pepper, and mixed green salads", according to a review in the New York Times. The editor is described by Weisberger as being "an empty, shallow, bitter woman who has tons and tons of gorgeous clothes and not much else". The success of both the novel and the film brought new attention from a wide global audience to the power and glamour of the magazine, and the industry it continues to lead. In 2007, Vogue drew criticism from the anti-smoking group, "Campaign for Tobacco-Free Kids", for carrying tobacco advertisements in the magazine. The group claims that volunteers sent the magazine more than 8,000 protest emails or faxes regarding the ads. The group also claimed that in response, they received scribbled notes faxed back on letters that had been addressed to editor Anna Wintour stating, "Will you stop? You're killing trees!" A spokesperson for Condé Nast released an official statement stating that, "Vogue does carry tobacco advertising. Beyond that we have no further comment." In April 2008, the American Vogue had a cover shot by the famed photographer Annie Leibovitz, featuring the supermodel Gisele Bündchen and the basketball superstar LeBron James. This was the third time that Vogue featured a male on the cover of the American issue (the other two men were the actors George Clooney and Richard Gere), and the first in which the man was black. Some observers criticized the cover as a prejudicial depiction of James because his pose with Bündchen was reminiscent of a poster for the film King Kong. Further criticism arose when the website Watching the Watchers analyzed the photo alongside the World War I

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SECTION III: History, Art, Economics recruitment poster titled Destroy This Mad Brute. James reportedly however liked the cover shoot. In February 2011, just before the 2011 Syrian protests unfolded, Vogue published a controversial piece by Joan Juliet Buck on Asma al-Assad, wife of the Syrian president Bashar al-Assad. A number of journalists criticized the article as glossing over the poor human rights record of Bashar al-Assad. It has been reported that the Syrian government paid the U.S. lobbying firm Brown Lloyd James $5,000 per month to arrange for and manage the article.

The First Magazine in the U.S.A The first magazine to be published in the American colonies was called The American Magazine. It began publication on February 13, 1741 in Philadelphia and covered proceedings of colonial government, in addition to moral, political and historical topics. Andrew Bedford was the publisher. The magazine lasted for three months. Today, you can access hundreds of magazines through your public library. The Magazine Room upstairs in the West Hempstead Public Library has hard copies of many popular journals. P.S. The first Magazines According to several sources, Erbauliche Monaths-Unterredungen is considered the world's first magazine (published in Germany). It was started in 1663 by Johann Rist, a theologian and poet of Hamburg. The Gentleman's Magazine, first published in 1731 in England, is considered to have been the first modern magazine. Later in 1741, Benjamin Franklin hoped to publish America's first magazine called General Magazine, but was beaten to the finish line when American Magazine came out three days earlier.

References:

1. “2011 Cosmo Bachelor of The Year - Interview with Chris Van Vliet”. Cosmopolitan. Retrieved 2011-11-16. 2. Brehm, Denise (September 10, 2004), "Two MIT Students Make Glamour Magazine's Top 10 College Women List", MIT News (Massachusetts Institute of Technology), retrieved April 9, 2010

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3. Charlotte Cowles (September 4, 2012). "Joanna Coles Replaces Kate White at Cosmopolitan Magazine". New York Magazine. Retrieved January 13, 2013. 4. David, Jessica (29 May 2012). "Woman Of The Year Winners List 2012". Glamour. Retrieved 30 May 2012. 5. Kaplan, David (April 1, 2009). “Glamour.com Gets Traffic Touch-up Courtesy Of Google”, paidContent.org, retrieved April 9, 2010. 6. Marks, Jason. “Around the World in 72 Days: The Race between Pulitzer's Nellie Bly and Cosmopolitan's Elizabeth Bisland” (Gemittarius Press 1993) (ISBN 978- 09633696283) 7. “Men's Magazines: an A to Z”, Magforum.com, accessed November 6, 2006 8. Walt, Vivienne (February 3, 2009). “A 10-Year-Old Divorcée Takes Paris”, Time/CNN, retrieved February 16, 2010

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Rap Music, the Voice to the Voiceless

NINO BARIKHASHVILI

Abstract My research topic is about rap music, originated in South Bronx, New York City. The major objective of the thesis is to qualitatively demonstrate that rap music is not simply what some people may perceive to be a disgusting display of violent and misogynistic music. In rap music there are great frustrations of the lived experiences of African Americans, specifically men, in today’s society. In this paper I touch upon the roots of Rap music, specifically the founders of early rap music: Afrika Bambaataa, and Kool Herc are bright examples of old-school masters. Since Rap is a part of African American culture, elements of this culture, are vividly expressed in rap music. The Gangsta rap gained a great popularity during the rap evolution and it stretched its wings through some very famous superstars of rap music like: Tupac Shakur, Grandmaster Flash, Furious five, Chuck D, and many others.

Keywords: Rap, Gangsta Rap, African American, Tupac

 M.A. Student, Faculty of Education and Humanities, Direction of U.S. Foreign Affairs, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

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Rap Music, the Voice to the Voiceless

NINO BARIKHASHVILI

Introduction Jay-Z, Kanye West, Snoop Dogg, 2pac, Eminem, Doctor Dre, Diddy, all of them are very affluent, reach and powerful people in American Popular Culture. Moreover, these people are stars in a genre called Rap. This music happens to be enormously popular around the world, along with Georgia. However, there have been times when this type of music was severely attacked and criticized by public, and so called “professionals”. They claimed that it was: non melodic, very primitive, useless and senseless act. After a while, maybe their ears got used it, and today it is quite trendy to sing in this genre. I attempt to argue that, a very small number of Georgian individuals are aware that Rap gave the Voice to the Voiceless…. Rap music gives the “construction of truth.” Individuals with similar experiences can have different interpretations for that experience. Some of these artists attempt to bring to the public’s attention to the experiences of some weak African American families. Tupac Shakur not only provided the listener with an image of urban life, they also invite the listener to understand their experience and why they live their lives as they have chosen. Because of significance of white consumption of black popular culture, it was virtually inevitable that important events and factors would produce a white rapper. The development of rap music becomes increasingly complicated when discussing white rappers, most notably, Eminem.

 M.A. Student, Faculty of Education and Humanities, Direction of U.S. Foreign Affairs, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

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Rap Music Rap music originated in the mid-1970s in the South Bronx area of New York City. The rise of rap in many ways draws parallels with the birth of rock and roll in the 1950s. Both originated within the African American community, and both were initially recorded by small, independent record labels and marketed almost exclusively to a black audience. In both cases, the new style step by step attracted white musicians, a few of whom began performing it. For rock and roll it was a white singer from Mississippi, Elvis Presley, who broke into the Billboard magazine popular music charts. For rap it was a white group from New York, the Beastie Boys, and the hit song “Walk This Way” (1986), a collaboration of the black rap group Run-DMC and the white hard-rock band Aerosmith. Soon after 1986, the use of samples and declaimed vocal styles became widespread in the popular music of both, black and white performers, significantly altering previous notions of what constitutes a legitimate song, composition, or musical instrument. Alongside the rise of political rap came the introduction of gangsta rap, which attempts to depict an outlaw lifestyle of sex, drugs, and gang violence in inner-city America. Gangsta rap is a product of the gang culture and street wars of South Central Los Angeles, Compton, and Long Beach and the culture of East Oakland. The gangsta rap was composed by the group NWA. This genre of music in rap has given rap its criminal image and raises the whole questions about authenticity. Understanding of the lyrics, we can examine how rap provides critique of an oppressive political and economic system and human values. Most importantly rap music gives the “construction of truth.” In lyrics “truth” of life of these musicians, African Americans, draws bright colors of real life. We are aware that individuals with similar experiences can have different interpretations for that experience. Nevertheless, rappers such as Tupac Shakur, in his hit single “Dear Mama” (1995) for example, often presents generalizable first-hand accounts of the horrid lived realities of urban life such as poverty, family bonding through street gang affiliation, drug dealing, and attitudes about single-family headed households as told through their personal lenses: “I hung around with the thugs and even though they sold drugs

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They showed a young brother love I moved out and started really hanging I needed money of my own so i started slanging I ain’t guilty. . . cause even though i sell rocks It feels good putting money in your mailbox I love paying rent when the rent’s due Hope you got the diamond necklace that i sent to you Cause when i was low you was there for me You never left me alone because you cared for me And i can see you coming home after work late You in the kitchen trying to fix us a hot plate Just working with the scraps you was given Momma made miracles every thanksgiving But now the road got rough you’re alone Trying to raise two bad kids on your own There’s no way i can pay you back But my plan is to show you that I understand…”

Clearly, these lyrics serve as the window illustrating the world of an African American male rapper who is in search to escape from social isolation that sometimes results from living in an impoverished condition. Tupac recognizes that there are institutional factors limiting his ability to achieve the American dream. Consequently, he does not enjoy his career as a drug dealer. However, this does not suggest that every rap artist depicts events and situations as they really exist. Rappers such as Tupac Shakur not only provide the listener with an image of urban life, they also invite the listener to understand their experiences and why they live their lives as they have chosen. Melle Mel, through the song “The Message” expressed very clearly the hard times experienced by some African Americans as a result of inflation, increased unemployment, being

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SECTION III: History, Art, Economics forced to live below the poverty line. This critique was vividly articulated in the song “The Message” (1982) written by Melle Mel who communicated to society to: “Don’t push me cause i’m close to the edge I’m trying not to lose my head It’s like a jungle sometimes it makes me wonder How i keep from going under”

Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five are credited for incorporating personal narratives into rap songs, they are verbally illustrating the weak state of urban life, and try the audience better understand the living conditions of many urban African American families. Additionally, other facts of urban life are included in their seminal work “The Message” (1982): “A child is born with no state of mind Blind to the ways of mankind God’s smiling on you and he’s frowning too Cause only god knows what you gon’ do Now you grow up in the ghetto livin’ second rate And your eyes will sing a song of deep-seated hate The places you play and where you stay Looks like one great big alleyway” (ibid). “The Message” became the first nationally recognized socially conscious rap song and it provided many young African Americans with an example of how to use their owned lived experiences as a point of persuasion by using musical style that they loved.

White Consumption of Black Popular Culture and Eminem Because of significance of white consumption of black popular culture, it was virtually inevitable that important events and factors would produce a white rapper. The development of rap music becomes increasingly complicated when discussing white rappers, most notably, Eminem. Eminem’s rise from poverty is well documented, from being raised in the working class suburbs of Detroit to his presence in Detroit’s underground battle scene, where his ability to

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SECTION III: History, Art, Economics freestyle got him a recording agreement with local producer Marky Bass. Dr. Dre released Eminem’s commercial debut, The Slim Shady LP in 1999. Teenaged Eminem was a part of the original young white male demographic that helped push gangsta rap to prominence. “With its rhymes about rape, drug abuse, and murder, its expressions of white poverty, and punch lines that humorously appealed to white popular culture, Eminem used his alter-ego, “Slim Shady,” as a means of challenging all that white America, its moral and cultural ideals, and its glorious notions of “whiteness,” hold dear. A suicide attempt, estranged relationships with his wife and mother and a missing father are all recurring subjects in his lyrics.

“Rock Bottom” “I’m hoping things look up but there ain’t no job openings I feel discouraged, hungry, and malnourished Living in this house with no furnace… I’m sick of working dead-end jobs for lame pay And I’m tired of being hired and fired in the same day” (Eminem, 1999). Eminem’s lyrics acknowledged a population of white poor and dispossessed and proved that the rage and frustration of “poor white trash” could be just as desperate as a black gangsta’s. The phenomenal success of Eminem included global recognition, high record sales and high praise from white America. He was eager to support mainstream media, and he used personal freedom to say what he wanted, however he wanted to say it. Meanwhile, black rappers were strongly encouraged by labels to rap about niggas, bitches and riches.

Conclusion By understanding the lyrics, we could examine how rap provides critique of an oppressive political and economic system and human values. Most importantly rap music gives the “construction of truth.” In lyrics “truth” of life of these musicians, African Americans, draws bright colors of real life. We are aware that individuals with similar experiences can have different interpretations for that experience.

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SECTION III: History, Art, Economics There is no doubt that gangsta rap represents a religion and ideology of actuality. Hip hop very often speaks to youth generation’s desire for their identity, also for a sense of self-definition and purpose, no matter how lawless and pointless is the language of rap artists widely used in their musical lyrics. The word Nigger, provide harsh commentary on how many young urban African American males, from possibly fatherless and low socio-economic backgrounds, conceptualize the social conditions in some African American neighborhoods throughout the United States. Herewith, there is proof that a teenaged Eminem was a part of the original young white male demographic that helped push gangsta rap to prominence. Finally we can summarize that these rap lyrics serve as the window illustrating the world of an African American male rappers who try to escape from social isolation that sometimes results from living in an impoverished condition. Tupac Shakur recognizes that there are institutional factors that limit his ability to achieve the American dream. Consequently, he does not enjoy his career as a drug dealer. However, this does not suggest that every rap artist depicts events and situations as they really exist. Based on the example of Tupac we clearly understand that rap music represents a voice of frustrated and alienated youth black society.

References:

1. Armstrong, E. G. (1993). “The Rhetoric of Violence in Rap and Country Music”. Sociological Inquiry, 63(1), 64-83. 2. Ballard, M. E., Dodson, A. R. & Bazzini, D. G. (1999). “Genre of Music and Lyrical Content: Expectation Effects”. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 160(4), 476-487. 3. Barongan, C. & Hall, G. C. N. (1995). “The Influence of Misogynous Rap Music on Sexual Aggression against Women”. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 19(2), 195-207. 4. Bennett, A. (1999). “Hip Hop am Main: The Localization of Rap Music and Hip Hop Culture”. Media Culture and Society, 21(1), 77-91. 5. Binder, A. (1993). “Constructing Racial Rhetoric: Media Depictions of Harm in Heavy Metal and Rap Music”. American Sociological Review, 58(6), 753-767.

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6. Dyson, M. E. (1996). “Between God and Gangsta Rap: Bearing Witness to Black Culture”. New York: Oxford University Press. 7. Rose, T. (1994). “Black Noise: Rap Music and Black Culture in Contemporary America”. Hanover, NH: Wesleyan University Press: Published by University Press of New England. 8. Rubin, A. M., West, D. V. & Mitchell, W. S. (2001). “Differences in Aggression, Attitudes toward Women, and Distrust as Reflected in Popular Music Preferences”. Media Psychology, 3(1), 25-42. 9. Stephens, G. (1991). “Rap Music’s Double-voiced Discourse: A Crossroads for Interracial Communication”. Journal of Communication Inquiry, 15(2), 70-91. 10. Watts, E. K. (1997). “An Exploration of Spectacular Consumption: Gangsta Rap as Cultural Commodity”. Communication Studies, 48(1), 42-58. 11. Wester, S. R., Crown, C. L., Quatman, G. L. & Heesacker, M. (1997). “The Influence of Sexually Violent Rap Music on Attitudes of Men with Little Prior Exposure”. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21(4), 497-508.

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Abraham Lincoln Phenomenon

NINO GAMSAKHURDIA

On November 19, 2013, the world celebrates the 150 years anniversary of Lincoln’s milestone Gettysburg address. Abraham Lincoln - Who was this man? Was he a racist? Brilliant mind? Murderer? There are a lot of controversies when speaking about this man. What place does he occupy in national consciousness? We can debate over these questions endlessly. However I will try to formulate some thoughts and attitudes towards this exceptional person. Don Fehrenbacher interestingly notes that, during the presidential campaign Hebert Hoover took special care in order to be associated with Abraham Lincoln., but so did his opponent Franklin D. Roosevelt. During his campaign both men visited his tomb. It was a ceremonial visit. I strongly believe that this fact speaks for itself. “By the 1930s, “getting right with Lincoln” in this manner had become an almost universal custom among public figures. Not only Republicans and Democrats, but also Communists, Socialists, and Prohibitionists, business executives and labor leaders, black Americans and members of the Ku Klux Klan - all seemed to want him on their side” (Fehrenbacher, 2010). Eric Foner says “the Lincoln we should remember is the politician whose greatness lay in his capacity for growth” (Foner, 2009). Some scholars believe that, Lincoln does not deserve to call him the “Great Emancipator”. During the Civil War there were three main causes of hostility to Lincoln: enemies, these were the members of the Confederacy and part of the Southern Border states population; the political opposition consisting of Northern and Border states Democrats, including quite a number of Whigs as well, and antislavery radicals. Southerners blamed him for the commencement of the war, he was “a military conqueror” For Confederates Lincoln was "tyrant," a "fiend," and a "monster" mostly, because of the

 Associate Professor, Dr., Faculty of Education and Humanities, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

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SECTION III: History, Art, Economics emancipation, “which they viewed as an incitement of slaves to rebellion and wholesale murder” (Fehrenbacher, 2009). During the Civil War, in his letter to Horace Greeley, Lincoln wrote: “My paramount object in this struggle is to save the Union, and is not either to save or destroy slavery. If I could save the Union without freeing any slave I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone I would also do that” (Friedmen, 2008). In the 1880s, Frederick Douglass said that Lincoln “was unprejudiced against the color.” On the other hand, in 1876 during the Lincoln’s monument presentation, Douglass argued that Lincoln was a white man, in his interests, in his habits of thought, and his prejudices. “He was preeminently the white man’s President entirely devoted to the welfare of white men...” (Fredrickson, 1989. P. 54). What did Lincoln think about slavery? In 1837 Lincoln and other member of the Illinois state legislature protested for the confirmation of the previously approved resolution condemning abolitionism. The reason was that in the original resolution it was not clearly defined, indicated, stated that slavery was an evil, which was established on injustice and bad policy. In 1841, Lincoln privately talked about his impression of slaves met on an Ohio riverboat. He was surprised by the visible happiness of the slaves, rather than by their misery. Until 1850s Lincoln did not discuss openly the phenomenon of racial prejudice. In 1842 he followed the traditional view that “firmly established public opinion on any question must be respected, because it was providential and would therefore change only in God’s good time” (ibid. p. 59). Fredrickson argues that “if opposition to black equality constituted a strong and general conviction of the white community, Lincoln would be prepared to accept it as a fact of life, not readily altered even if morally wrong” (ibid.). Following the passage of the Kansas Nebraska Act in 1854, Lincoln turned into known as a spokesman for free soil principles. Before his presidency, Lincoln’s speeches and his racial philosophy consisted of moral opposition to slavery, acceptance of the moral humanity of blacks and “a conservative position on the prospects for racial equality in the United States”. In order to

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SECTION III: History, Art, Economics understand these views, it must be admitted that after 1854, there were no efforts to nationalize slavery along with a flood of racist propaganda. Racism based on the concept of genetic inferiority, was to downgrade blacks to the status of animals; Douglas and the supporters of popular sovereignty used racism to demonstrate that democracy and the Declaration of Independence was only for whites; and some Republicans use racism to represent the “containment of slavery as the penning up of a radically inferior black population” (ibid. p. 60). All of these would seem to imply that differences in racial philosophy are not relevant to the ideological origins of the Civil War. Undoubtedly there was a conflict of sectional interests and possibly an irrepressible conflict among the societies with different values. The degree, emphasis and application of racism were inseparable from the conflict of interests. On the one hand, there were Republicans who competed, challenged the Democrats and the southerners in their racism; on the other hand, there were some Republicans who virtually agreed with the radical abolitionist principle of racial equality. Yet, there were ex-Whigs, representing its basic position in the 1850s, with holding a middle ground on questions of antislavery policy and supporting a moderate racial philosophy. Even though, these people tried to defy the extreme racism, they carefully avoided “what they regarded as the dangerous racial utopianism of the abolitionists” (ibid. p. 63). Undoubtedly, Don E. Fehrenbacher convincingly proved that Lincoln did not support the extension of slavery on moral, economic, and social grounds. Nevertheless, Lincoln’s racial statements need some analyses. Until his senatorial campaign of 1858, Lincoln kept away from the question of innate biological differences between the races. In his Illinois campaign against Stephen Douglass, (1958), he spoke differently appealing to people for putting aside the question whether one race was inferior to another. He expressed his strong belief that all men are created equal. Nevertheless, two months later, Lincoln told his listeners, audience: “I will say, then, that I am not, nor ever have been, in favor of bringing about in any way the social and political equality of the white and black races; that I am not, nor ever been, in favor of making voters or jurors of Negroes, nor of qualifying them to hold office, nor to intermarry with white people... And inasmuch as they cannot so live, white they do remain together must be the

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SECTION III: History, Art, Economics position of superior and inferior, and I much as any other man am in favor of having the superior position assigned to the white race” (Zinn, 1999, p. 188). As Zinn argues, Lincoln completely combined the needs of business, the political ambition of the Republican Party and the rhetoric of humanitarism. Even though he did not keep the abolition of slavery as a top priority, but it was kept close enough to the top in case it needed to be pushed there for the short term by abolitionist pressures and by practical political advantage. Lincoln was able to blend the interests of the very rich and the interests of the black at a moment in history when these interests met (ibid.186). During his senatorial campaign, Lincoln replied to Douglass at Ottawa, that to his judgment a physical difference between two races would forever forbid their equal living. Lincoln tried to refute the Douglas’s early argument, when he argued that the Declaration of Independence was not entitling the Negroe to equality. Lincoln argued that even though he agreed with Douglass that the Negroe was not his equal in many respects- color, in moral, intellect “but in the rights to eat the bread without the leave of anybody else, which his own hand earns, he is my equal and the equal of Judge Douglass, and the equal of every living man” (Fredrickson, 1988, p. 61). According to Fredrickson, Lincoln separated the basic human equality confirmed by the Declaration of Independence and denied by slavery and a social or political equality that might legally be suspended on racial grounds. Fredrickson believes that Lincoln was unconfident about the question of intellectual and moral distinction between whites and blacks. All of these meant relatively liberal position, in the situation when the dogmatic assertions of innate inferiority were seen and heard all around. Lincoln was only willing to admit explicitly the white superiority of color. Some of the most radical republicans were ready to admit the possibility of innate white superiority. Winthrop Jordan’s analyses of racial attitudes in early America makes difficult not to admit that “Anti- Negroe feelings, actions at least partially come from a color complex deeply embedded in western culture- a tendency, inclination that can become strong racial prejudice when connected with the social fears and economic interests”. It must be stated that Lincoln believed that colonization was the only solution to the race problem, since white prejudices made racial equality impossible in the United States. In 1852 he made public comments on this issue. In 1854 in his Peoria speech he argued that emancipation accompanied by colonization was the only, single realistic way of getting rid of slavery. In 1857, during his Springfield speech he more

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SECTION III: History, Art, Economics openly promoted the idea of colonization. However, Lincoln did not underline this idea during his senatorial campaign against Douglas in 1858. Most Northern blacks, as well as white abolitionists opposed the idea of Colonization. As Foner argues “they (abolitionists) offered an alternative vision of America as a biracial society of equals. Through the attack on colonization, the modern idea of equality as something that knows no racial boundaries was born “(Foner, 2009). At the time of his election as president, however, Lincoln shared the idea of Northerners “who were willing to go to war over slavery's expansion yet thought of America as essentially a country for white people” (ibid.). While supporting gradual emancipation for slaves, the Emancipation Proclamation was obviously different from Lincoln’s previous ideas on slavery. First of all it was immediate emancipation without making any reference to colonization. The focal point is that this document authorized the enrolment of black soldiers into the Union Army. Consequently, around 200,000 black men in the last two years of the war fought for the Union. “Putting black men into the military implied a very different vision of their future place in American society than earlier plans for settling freed slaves overseas”(ibid.) . Funer interestingly notes that, when Lincoln did not mention colonization in this document, he in a way launched the process of Reconstruction-“the remaking of Southern society, politics and race relations” In the last years of war Lincoln thought about the question concerning the role of freed slaves in the American society. Equality was desirable not only politically or economically, but psychologically and from “a religious standpoint” as well. As Woodward interestingly suggests, it was essential for abolitionists to accomplish their purposes. Their struggle against slavery rested on the proposal that it was a “sin”. Sin had to be expiated and the “sinner purified” (Woodward, 1993, p. 72). Here it is crucial to recognize that without the war having being converted into morale struggle, the radicals would have never achieved the formal commitment to equality. The association, tie between the equality and freedom as an aim was carried by the antislavery Congressmen into framing, creating, forming the Thirteenth Amendment. The evidence of congressmen aiming as the emancipation as well as to equality is seen in the debates over this question in Senate (1864 spring) and in the House of Representatives, January 1865. As supporters declared, the Amendment was designed to accomplish the abolition of slavery and the

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SECTION III: History, Art, Economics political, social Elevation of Negroes to all rights of white men. The equal protection of laws, guarantee against deprivation of life, liberty and property for Negroes. The main aspect for the objection, opposition of this amendment was the aim of equability. The opponents argued that amendment would turn Negroes into their equals before the law. However the radicals did not abandon the strife towards equality. They did their best, or tried to make equality as law of the land. The Civil Rights Act of 1866 guaranteed Negroes full benefit of all laws and proceedings for security of person and property, as is enjoyed by white citizens” (The Civil Rights Act of 1866). When the questions arose concerning its constitutionality, the most provisions were enacted into the Fourteenth Amendment. The Fifteenth Amendment protected the Negroe franchise. Finally, the Civil rights Act of 1875 stated: “all persons within the jurisdiction of the United States shall be entitled to the full and equal enjoyment of the accommodations, advantages, facilities, and privileges of inns, public conveyances on land or water, theatres, and other places of public amusement, subject only to the conditions and limitations established by law and applicable alike to citizens of every race and color, regardless of any previous condition of servitude” (The Civil Rights Act of 1875). No discussion about Lincoln would be complete without the mentioning of his famous Gettysburg Address (November 19, 1863, Pennsylvania.). A speech that lasted only for two minutes is one of the most famous and one of the most quoted speeches in the world. The speech was delivered at the Soldiers' National Cemetery. “It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us… that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion … that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain … that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom … and that government of the people … by the people … for the people … shall not perish from the earth” (Gettysburg Address, 1863). In this brilliant speech, Lincoln, appealed that it was a focal point for America; It was a time to prove that the Nation which was founded on equality and freedom, would not fail to realize its’ ideals. In a way, he gave different perspectives on the war- it was the war for freedom. This particular speech provided a source form much of the future political thoughts.

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SECTION III: History, Art, Economics It must be understood that Lincoln first of all was a politician, which automatically means to have broader views on certain subjects in order to serve the countries’ interests. Compromises are necessary. Rapid changes might not lead to desirable results. However, gradualism would play a crucially negative role for African-Americans in their struggle for equality in the twentieth century. William Lee Miller in his speech “A New Birth of Freedom” compared and contrasted the inaugurations of Abraham Lincoln and Barack Obama. He believes that the focal issues for both presidencies are issues of racial equality. During his campaign, Barack Obama declared that the presidency of Lincoln “in so many ways made my own story possible”. This statement was made on Lincoln’s 200th birthday on February 12, 2009, in Springfield. Here he quoted what Lincoln wrote in 1854, on a little piece of paper: “The legitimate object of government is to do for the people what needs to be done, but which they cannot, by individual effort, do at all, or do so well, by themselves”. Miller thinks that when setting a tone for his stimulus package, Obama used Lincoln’s words in order to argue another “newness in our concept of individual freedom: that it does not conflict with common purpose carried out by governmental action but indeed requires such purpose and such action in order to complete “ (Miller, 2009). Lucas E. Morel in his lecture, Lincoln on Race, Equality, and the Spirit of ’76, notes that, “the declaration of Independence taught Lincoln that slavery was an incorrect political practice, whereas the liberty was right for all human beings” (Morel, 2009). It is evident that Abraham Lincoln, with his Emancipation Proclamation, played significant role towards the advancement of black people. Though post-Proclamation period broke many promises and brought huge disappointments, African Americans did not give up. I believe that the religion, particularly church, played a crucial role in their survival. Since, it was the place which gained the socially significant status in the lives of African Americans. Apart from providing the religious services, people freely interacted with each other. It was the best place of self-realization. It was the church which provided them with powerful leaders, who were responsible for landmark changes in the lives of African Americans. To summarize, I will use Eric Foner’s words that the questions raised by emancipation continue to bedevil American society. The challenge confronting President Obama is to move beyond the powerful symbolism

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SECTION III: History, Art, Economics of his election as the first African-American president towards substantive actions that address the still unfinished struggle for equality (Foner, 2009).

References:

1. Fredrickson, G. (1988). “The Arrogance of Race; Historical Perspectives on Slavery, Racism, and Social Inequality” (pp. 54; 59-61; 63; 190-191,197). Middletown, Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press. 2. Lincoln, A. (1863). “The Gettysburg Address”. Abraham Lincoln Online. Available at: http://showcase.netins.net/web/creative/lincoln/speeches/gettysburg.htm. 3. “The Civil Rights Act of 1875”. Available at: http://www.blackpast.org/?q=primary/civil- rights-act-1875 4. Woodward, V. (1993). “The Burden of Southern History”, Third Edition. (p.83) Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rouge. 5. Zinn, H. (1999). “A People's history of the United States” (pp.186;188). New York: Harper Collins Publishers 6. Friedman, T.L. (2008, November 4) “Finishing Our Work”. N.Y. Times. Available at: http://www.nytimes/com/2008/11/05/opinion/05friedmna.html 7. Foner, E. (2009, January) “Our Lincoln”. From The Nation. Available at: http://www.ericfoner.com/articles/012609nation.html 8. Fehrenbacher, D. (2009 Vol. 3, March). “The Anti-Lincoln Tradition”. Library of Congress, Information Bulletin. 9. Miller, W. W. (2009 Vol. 3, March). “New Birth of Freedom”. Library of Congress, Information Bulletin. 10. Morel, L. E. (2009 Vol. 3, March). “Lincoln on Race, Equality, and the Spirit of ‘76”. Library of Congress, Information Bulletin.

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