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U niversi^ M io O T l m s International 300 N. Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Ml 48106
8410355
Woodard, Susan Jeanne
THE DIES IRAE AS USED BY SERGEI RACHMANINOFF: SOME SOURCES, ANTECEDENTS, AND APPLICATIONS
The Ohio State University D.M.A. 1984
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University Microfilms International
THE DIES IRAE AS USED BY SERGEI RACHMANINOFF:
SOME SOURCES, ANTECEDENTS, AND APPLICATIONS
DOCUMENT
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Degree Doctor'of Musical Arts in the Graduate
School of The Ohio State University
By
Susan Jeanne Woodard, B.A., M.M.
*****
The Ohio State University
1984
Reading Committee : Approved By
Richard Tetley-Kardos
Keith Mixter
Rosemary Platt Adviser Department of Music Copyright by Susan Jeanne Woodard 1984 IN MEMORIAM: MARJORIE ARTHE WILHELM 1892-1959
11 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank Dr. Keith Mixter for his invaluable assistance and encouragement during the preparation of this paper.
The integrity of his scholarship is sincerely admired, and serves as an enduring model. The guidance of Dr. Rosemary Platt and
Dr. Burdette Green throughout my graduate study is also deeply appreciated.
Special gratitude is expressed to Professor Richard Tetley-
Kardos, whose keen insights, dedication, and continual support has provided a lasting inspiration.
iii VITA
August 31, 1945... Born-Long Island, New York
1963-1964 ...... The Eastman School of Music, Rochester, New York
1964-1967 ...... B.A. in Music, Adelphi University, Garden City, New York
1968-196 9 ...... Teaching Associate, School of Music, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
1969-197 2 ...... Director of Music, The Brookville School, Long Island, New York
1972-1977...... Teaching Associate, School of Music, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
1973...... M.M., The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
1977-1981...... Visiting Assistant Professor of Music, Lawrence University, Appleton, Wisconsin
1981-present.....Assistant Director of Admission and Counselor for the Conservatory, Lawrence University, Appleton, Wisconsin
FIELDS OF STUDY
Major Field: Music Performance
Studies in Piano Performance. Professor Richard Tetley-Kardos
Studies in Music Literature. Professor Rosemary Platt, Professor Burdette Green, Professor Herbert Livingston
Studies in Music History. Professor Keith Mixter, Professor Herbert Livingston
iv PERFORMANCES
Graduating Recital Series, 1973-74 Sunday, May 26. 8:00 p.m. Hughes Hall Auditorium
Gordon Baughman, violin
Susan Woodard, piano
This recital is presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Musical Arts
PROGRAM
Scherzo...... Brahms
Sonata in G, K. 301...... Mozart Allegro con spirito Allegro
Sonata in A ...... Franck Allegretto ben moderato Allegro Recitativo-Fantasia Allegretto poco mosso
INTERMISSION
Sonata in E Flat major. Op. 11, No. 1 ...... Hindemith
Cantabile in D major...... Paganini Polonaise Brillante, Op. 4 ...... Wieniawsky Graduating Recital Series, 1975-76 Wednesday, May 5. 8:00 p.m. Hughes Hall Auditorium
Susan Woodard, piano
This recital is presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Musical Arts
PROGRAM
Siciliano...... Bach-Hughes Organ Prelude in G minor...... Bach-Siloti
Prelude, Chorale and Fugue...... Franck
INTERMISSION
Images, Set II...... Debussy I. Cloches a travers les feuilles II. Et la lune descent sur le temple qui fut III. Poissons d'or
Andante spianato and Grande Polonaise...... Chopin
Graduating Recital Series, 1978-79 Sunday, May 20, 1979 5:00 p.m. Hughes Hall Auditorium
Susan Woodard, piano Assisted by Richard Tetley-Kardos, piano
This recital is presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Musical Arts
PROGRAM
Piano Concerto in C Major, K. 246 (Salzburg, 1776)... Mozart I. Allegro aperto II. Andante III. Tempo di Menuetto
vi Graduate Student Recital Series Wednesday, August 11, 1982 Weigel Auditorium 8:00 p.m.
Susan Woodard, piano
This recital is presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Musical Arts
PROGRAM
Prelude and Fugue in G-sharp minor...... Bach
Sonata in E major. Op. 109...... Beethoven I. Vivace ma non troppo-Adagio espressivo II. Prestissimo III. Andante molto cantabile ed espressivo- Leggieramente-Allegro vivace-Un poco meno andante c 6 e un poco piu adagio come il tema-Allegro ma non troppe-Tempo primo del tema
Sonata Breve (1976)...... Schonthal
INTERMISSION
Sonata in B flat major, K. 570...... *...... Mozart I. Allegro II. Adagio III. Allegretto
Nocturne in C sharp minor. Op. post...... Chopin Barcarolle, Op. 60
vii TABLE OF CONTENTS
PPage a g ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......
VITA...... iv
LIST OF EXAMPLES...... viii
LIST OF FIGURES...... xiil
CHAPTER
I. INTRODUCTION...... 1
II. THE DIES IRAE: AN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE...... 4
Origin...... 4 Poetic Structure and Plainsong...... 6 Early Polyphonie Settings...... 7 Toward Secularization: Instrumental Effects...... 12 The Early Nineteenth Century...... 16 Humanized Catholicism...... 22 The Dies Irae Achieves Secular Identity...... 28
III. THE MUSICAL PROTOTYPES...... 30
Symphonie fantastique...... 30 Totentanz...... 33 Night on Bald Mountain...... 39
IV. DOCUMENTABLE USE OF THE DIES IRAE...... 43
Sonata No. 1 ...... 49 The Isle of the Dead...... 49 The Bells...... 53 Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini...... 57
V. THE DIES IRAE AS A STYLE COMPONENT...... 62
Single Appearances...... 63 Textural Devices...... 70 Transformations...... 73
VI. SUMMARY...... 94
BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 97 LIST OF EXAMPLES
Example Page
1. Sequence, Dies Irae...... -7
2. Brumel, Missa Pro Defunctis. Sequentia, mm. 1-6...... ••8
3. Victoria, Missa Pro Defunctis. Dies Irae, mm. 1-7...... 9
4. Anerio, Missa Pro Defunctis. Dies Irae, mm. 1-6...... 10
5. Lully, Motet "Dies Irae," mm. 37-41...... 11
6. Kerll, Missa Pro Defunctis. Dies Irae, mm. 11-17...... 13
7. Mozart, Requiem, Tuba mi rum, mm. 1-7...... 14
8. Mozart, Requiem. Dies Irae, mm. 51-53...... 15
9. Salieri, Requiem. Dies Irae, mm. 1-3...... 17
10. Cherubini, Requiem Mass in C Minor. Dies Irae, mm. 9- 13...... 19
11. Cherubini, Requiem Mass No. 2 . Dies Irae, mm. 1-5...... 21
12. Berlioz, Grande Messe des Morts. Dies Irae, mm. 1-12....26
13. Berlioz, Symphonie fantastique. Fifth movement, mm. 127-47......
14. Berlioz, Symphonie fantastique. Fifth movement, mm. 414-17...... ?2
15. Liszt, Totentanz, mm. 1-6...... 35
16. Liszt, Totentanz, mm. 41-45...... 35
17. Liszt, Totentanz, mm. 124-27...... 36
18. Liszt, Totentanz, m. 144...... 36
19. Liszt, Totentanz, mm. 166-69...... 37
20. Liszt, Totentanz, mm. 183-8 4...... 37
viii 21. Liszt, Totentanz, mm. 259-62...... 38
22. Musorgsky, Night on Bald Mountain, m. 3 ...... 40
24. Musorgsky. Night on Bald Mountain, mm. 119-23...... 42
25. Rachmaninoff, Sonata No. 1. First movement, ...... 45
26. Rachmaninoff, Sonata No. 1. Third movement, mm. 1-2.. 46
27. Rachmaninoff, Sonata No. 1. Third movement, mm. 43-44.47
28. Rachmaninoff, Sonata No. 1. Third movement, mm. 85-87 .48
29. Rachmaninoff, The Isle of the Dead, mm. 390-91...... 50
30. Rachmaninoff, The Isle of the Dead, mm. 356-59...... 51
31. Rachmaninoff, The Isle of the Dead, mm. 261-63...... 52
32. Rachmaninoff, The Bells. First movement, mm. 153-55...54
33. Rachmaninoff, The Bells. First movement, m. 28...... 54
34. Rachmaninoff, The Bells. First movement, m. 40...... 55
35. Rachmaninoff, The Bells. Second movement, mm. 1-3....55
36. Rachmaninof f, The Bells. Second movement, mm. 153-55.55
37. Rachmaninoff, The Bells. Third movement, mm. 176-77..56
38. Rachmaninoff, The Bells, Fourth movement, mm. 25-27..56
39. Rachmaninoff, Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini, ...... 59
40. Rachmaninoff, Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini...... 59
41. Rachmaninoff, Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini. mm, 376—77••• ...... 60
42. Rachmaninoff, Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini. mm. 922-28. .60
ix 43. Rachmaninoff, Moment musical. Op. 16 No.
44. Rachmaninoff, Suite No. 2 for Two Pianos Introduction, mm. 146-49..
45. Rachmaninoff, Suite No. 2 for Two Pianos
46. Rachmaninoff, Suite No. 2 for Two Pianos mm. 157-63...... 66
47. Rachmaninoff, Prelude, Op. 32 No. 4, mm. 150-51...... 67
48. Rachmaninoff, Prelude, Op. 32 No. 4, mm. 2-3...... 67
49. Rachmaninoff, Prelude, Op. 32 No. 4, mm. 27-28...... 68
50. Rachmaninoff, Etude-tableau, Op. 33 No. 1, m. 62...... 68
51. Rachmaninoff, Piano Concerto No. 1, (unrevised) m. 302...... 69
52. Rachmaninoff, Piano Concerto No. 1, (revised) m. 291..*69
53. Rachmaninoff, Prelude in A Minor, Op. 32 No. 4, m. 1..-71
54. Rachmaninoff, Prelude in A Minor, Op. 32 No. 4, m. 4..-72
55. Rachmaninoff, Prelude in A Minor, Op. 32 No. 4, mm. 20-21...... 72
56. Rachmaninoff, Prelude in A Minor, Op. 32 No. 4, m. 43.-73
57. Rachmaninoff, Etude-tableau in A Minor. Op. 32 No. 4, mm. 3-4. ,74
58. Rachmaninoff, Symphony No. 3. First movement, mm. 11-16...... ,76
59. Rachmaninoff, Symphony No. 3 Second movement, m. m. 135...... ,76
60. Rachmaninoff, Symphony No. 3 Third movement, mm. 26-28...... 76
61. Rachmaninoff, Symphony No. 3 Third movement. mm. 94-96...... 77 62. Rachmaninoff, Symphony No. 3. Third movement, m. 342..77
63. Rachmaninoff, Symphony No. 3. Third movement, m. 349..78
64. Rachmaninoff, Prelude, Op. 23 No. 4, mm. 1-4...... 78
65. Rachmaninoff, Prelude, Op. 32, No. 12, mm. 1-3...... 79
66. Brahms, Intermezzo, Op. 118 No. 6, mm. 1-4...... 79
67. Rachmaninoff, Symphony No. 2. First movement, mm. 3-5...... 81
68. Rachmaninoff, Symphony No. 2. Second movement, mm. 3-7...... 82
69. Rachmaninoff, Symphony No. 2. Second movement, mm. 78-81...... 83
70. Rachmaninoff, Symphony No. 2. First movement, mm. 142-45...... 83
71. Rachmaninoff, Symphony No. 2. Third movement, mm. 1-3...... 85
72. Rachmaninoff, Symphony No. 2. Third movement, mm. 48-50...... 85
73. Rachmaninoff, Sonata No. 2. First movement, mm. 1-2...g7
74. Rachmaninoff, Sonata No. 2. First movement, m. 3 ...... 87
75. Rachmaninoff, Sonata No. 2. First movement, m. 5...... 88
76. Rachmaninoff, Sonata No. 2. First movement, mm. 19-23...... 88
77. Rachmaninoff, Sonata No. 2. First movement, m. 38.....89
78. Rachmaninoff, Sonata No. 2. First movement, mm. 41-42.... .89
79. Rachmaninoff, Sonata No. 2. First movement, mm. 68-70...... 90
80. Rachmaninoff, Sonata No. 2. First movement, mm. 72-73.... .90
xi 81. Rachmaninoff, Sonata No. 2. Second movement. mm. 145-47...
82. Rachmaninoff, Sonata No. 2. Third movement. mm. 228-29...
83. Rachmaninoff, Sonata No. 2. Third movement. mm. 250-53...
84. Rachmaninoff, Sonata No. 2. Third movement. mm. 298-99...,
85. Rachmaninoff, Sonata No. 2. Third movement. mm. 452-54....
xli LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1. Rachmaninoff, The Isle of the Dead, mm. 25-37, 63-65, 158...... 49
2. Sequence, Dies Irae...... 84
xiii CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Although Sergei Rachmaninoff (1873-1943) achieved most of his professional career in the twentieth century, he was an inveterate
Romanticist. One clear indication of Rachmaninoff's kinship with the nineteenth century was his frequent allusion to the medieval chant
Dies Irae. A readily distinguishable "motto" quotation permeates many of Rachmaninoff's compositions, and further observation reveals numerous abstract references and transformations as well. With new and special attention to the works for solo piano, this study observes quotations of the Dies Irae, their function, behavior and effect.
A reliable biography of Rachmaninoff^ acknowledges the profusion of
Dies Irae references among his compositions, but aside from assuming the composer's preoccupation with death, it offers little justifica tion for such excessive chant quotation. Beyond supporting a personal concern for the mysteries of death, the Dies Irae served Rachmaninoff's literary programs, his musical designs, his sardonic wit, and his remarkable portrayals of triumph and redemption.
For historical perspective, the origin and early development of the chant are traced in the initial chapter. Chapter II explores a
^Sergei Bertensson and Jay Leyda, Sergei Rachmaninoff (London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd., 1956), 52, 198-99, 321 and 358. rich literary potential disclosed by employment of the Dies Irae during
its important transition from sacred to secular context. The third
chapter examines the prototypical works with which Rachmaninoff was
familiar as conductor and pianist. Subsequently, the composer's original works for which there is documentable evidence of the Dies
Irae are examined for characteristic settings. The fourth chapter offers information useful in defining Rachmaninoff’s method of quoting the Dies Irae, and in determining the qualifications for quotation.
Chapter V focuses upon Rachmaninoff's music for piano and its concen trated and differentiated employment of the Dies Irae. In a paper presented by the author in April, 1982, to the Wisconsin Academy of
Sciences, Arts and Letters entitled "Rachmaninoff's Fingerprints: The
Dies Irae," these compositions were categorized according to types of chant appearances. The resulting categories classify usages of the
Dies Irae as single appearances. The resulting categories classify usages of the Dies Irae as single appearances, textural devices, and transformations. Chapter VI summarizes the observations made during t the study.
Throughout the present investigation, chant usages are observed with regard to their thematic function,% and described in terms which derive from macro-and micro-analysis.^ Due to a complex
^Jan LaRue, Guidelines for Style Analysis (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1970), 153-166. Applications of LaRue's hierarchy of the chief Growth functions appear in Chapters III, IV, and V.
3john D. White, The Analysis of Music (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Incorporated, 1976), 15-23. international publishing history, the titles of Rachmaninoff's
compositions vary widely in language and style. For the sake of uni
formity, the titles appear in this paper as they are cited in The New
Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians.^ The bibliography lists
editions which are available in the United States. ^
See the list in Geoffrey Norris, "Rakhmaninov, Sergey," The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. 20 vols., ed. Stanley Sadie (London: Macmillan, 1980), XV, 557-58.
5Comprehensive publication information can be found in Robert Threlfall and Geoffrey Norris, Catalogue of the Compositions of S. Rachmaninoff (London: Scolar Press, 1982), 29-144. CHAPTER II
THE DIES IRAE: AN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Origin
The liturgical Sequence Dies Irae is ascribed to Thomas \ Celano
(c. 1190-c. 1260), to whom the first biography of St. Francis of
Assisi is also attributed. One of the earliest citations of Thomas' authorship was that found in a treatise printed at Milan in 1510. The writer was Bartolomeo degli Albizzi, also known as Bartholomus
Pisanus.G The issue of authorship has long been disputed, and conflicts in opinion have often reflected the traditional rivalry between
Franciscan and Dominican Orders. One example of such confusion stems from an early manuscript version of the Dies Irae dating from the late fourteenth century and found in a Dominican Missal used at Pisa.^
This appearance cast a shadow of doubt among early researchers who might otherwise have readily accepted authorship by the devout
%ohn Julian, "Dies Irae," Dictionary of Hymnology. (London, 1907), reprinted unaltered (New York: Dover Publications, 1957), I, 296.
^Ibid., 295-96. Julian expresses certainty of the Sequence's Italian origin, and probability that its author was Thomas \ Celano. Arguments favoring Franciscan authorship include not only the attribu tions to Thomas by the reliable scholars, Bartolomeo degli Albizzi and Lucas Waddingus (1650), but also refutation of the Sequence by the prominent Dominican, Sixtus Senensis. In his Bibliotheca Saneta of 1566, Senensis called the Dies Irae an "uncouth poem." Less authori tative opinions support Dominican authorship strictly on the basis of the early presence of the text in a Dominican Missal. Franciscan, Thomas a Celano. Although Julian concludes that this is
the oldest extant manuscript of the Dies Irae, modem scholarship has
revealed earlier sources and considerable evidence that establishes
Franciscan origin. In a comprehensive study entitled Dies Ire Dies
Ilia, Kees Vellekoop cites fifteen manuscripts from the twelfth, thir teenth, and fourteenth centuries, five of which predate the Dominican
Missal from Pisa.® A remarkably well-preserved manuscript from the
Convento San Damiano at Assisi (c. 1244) illustrates what is perhaps the earliest known inclusion of the Dies Irae Sequence within a 0 Requiem Mass.
The second verse of the Responsorium 'Libera me' is believed to be the principal source of the rhymed trope 'Dies ilia. Dies irae.'
This Responsorium was in use in France during the tenth century, and combines elements of both the text and melody as known in the later
Sequence.10 Other portions of the text derive from the Old Testament, chiefly frou Zephaniah 1:15-16, though the presence of Sybilline prophecy suggests secular and pagan influences as well. Robertson points out that the pagan influence of the opening stanza, 'Teste David cum Sibylla' ('As David and the Sibyl say') offended theologians to the extent that some versions of the Dies Irae replace the line with
'Crucis expandens vexilla' ('The banners of the Cross streaming forth'). In agreement with Archbishop Chevenix Trench, Robertson
g Kees Vellekoop, Dies Ire Dies Ilia (Ph.D. dissertation, Utrecht: Creyghton-Bilthoven, 1978), 29-33.
*Ibid., 22-25.
l°Ibid., 98. supports the original line as being in the spirit of early and medieval
theology. The Archbishop maintained that in such an uncritical age,
the Sybilline verses were hardly "transparent forgery" and instead, they ranked only second in authority to Scriptural prophecy.
The Sequence has been found in Italian Missals, in French Missals from Arras and Tournay, and in the Roman Gradual, all dating from the late fifteenth century.This would suggest that it was widely practiced prior to its official acceptance following the Council of
Trent in 1570. The Council (1545-63), confronted with a profusion of rhymed Sequences, voted to abolish all those except Victimae paschali laudes, Veni sancte spiritus, Lauda Sion, and Dies Irae. By the end of the sixteenth century, the Dies Irae was in common liturgical use, found following the Gradual in the Mass for the Dead.
Poetic Structure and Plainsong
Consisting of seventeen verses of three lines each, to which four lines from an earlier source and the non-rhyming prayer 'Pie Jesu' were added, the poetic structure of the Dies Irae is identical to that of its plainsong. The twentieth century scholar Robin Gregory expresses the pattern as AABBCC: AABBCDE, and points out further that "all the sentences except C end in identical cadences;This cadential
^^Alec Robertson, Requiem: Music of Mourning and Consolation (New York: Praeger, 1967), 16. 12 Julian, loc. cit. 13 Robin Gregory, "Dies Irae," Music and Letters, XXXIV (1953), 134. similarity serves as a strong unifying factor.
The plainsong is an example of the mode Dorius mixtus, having the
same finalis (d) and dominant (a) as the Dorian mode, but exhibiting a
wider ambitus, A-d'. Verses 1, 3, and 5, and the 'Lacrymosa" and Pie
Jesu' are as follows:
-4 — M r) h. - r ■V, ) h M M r i i - 1 "i #
r 4 - )■ L i 1, i t r JÉ-J M s 4 -4 - 'T” M) 1..K . ^ J à à 4 - — -h — jj j j7 J Jj j 1^' J # ^Ubtrscrjptuiprottrt+xc, In coo+iUndtwn,«iydl-«*-tur-
è ^94,— ----- "«g----- T (k-cri-no'Sadi'tS iI•l».j9i)»f€S«irje?îj; f&.vîH*3u-di candüjho—m« r«.-»S
T»---i/ - #-p> " 0 g Hwit «f)« p a p % D t US. Pic J W Oomiw.,d«na. «-<6 - rejaitm m tn
14 Example 1. Sequence, Dies Irae.
Early Polyphonic Settings
The earliest polyphonic setting of the Requiem Mass can be traced to the late fifteenth century, that by Johannes Ockeghem, dating from
1485-90, being the oldest preserved. As was often the case, the
^^The Sequence as it appears in Graduale Sacrosanctae Romanae Ecclesiae (Paris: Desclee, 1924), 83*. Sequence was not Included in Ockeghem's Missa Pro Defunctis.^^ Thus,
Che first extant polyphonic setting of the Dies Irae within the
Requiem is that by Antoine Brumel (c. 1460-C. 1515). A most progres
sive composer, Brumel served at Chartres (1483), Notre Dame in Paris
(1498-1500), and at the court of the Duke of Sora in Lyons (1500-05).
From 1506 to 1510, Brumel was chapel master to Duke Alfonso I of
Ferrara, and it was during this period that his most advanced works were composed. Brumel's polyphonic Dies Irae^^ states the chant melody first in the alto at the fifth, imitated by the soprano in the original mode:
v~ •fi r Oi es i - rae, d; . es il -
r r , r ^ Oi as * " rat, di • ts g Oi- M I - rae, di es il
A w ■— «----- %-- --- fi------/ w " ::3: Oi - es i - r&e, di - eS il - - -
Example 2. Brumel, Missa Pro Defunctis. Sequentia, mm. 1-6.
15 Robertson, op. cit., 38.
^^Antoine Brumel, Opera omnia. 8 vols, to date, ed. Armen Carapetyan and Barton Hudson (Rome: American Institute of Musicology, 1970), IV, 69. The fluidity of Brunei's vocal writing anticipates the styles of
Josquin des Pres (c. 1440-1521) and Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina
(c. 1525-94). Imitative treatment and polyphonic texture prevail
throughout Brumel's setting.
A setting of the Sequence which illustrates another polyphonic
style is that by Tomas Luis de Victoria (c. 1548-1611)^^ which first appeared in a Roman edition dated 1583. Victoria prefaced the poly phonic portion of the Sequence with an intonement of the 'Libera me,' and began the polyphonic setting with the text 'Dies ilia.' Victoria employs anticipatory imitation in a manner similar to Brumel's setting:
d ^—Jr- " ■ <7“ di ~ ~ t i il - l a . , d, . t i rat
------j-—0 IT * ~ ' ----- — 1 --- d-- f N ^ di «.S it - /4,, d i - es . r a i , d i- 45 r r a i., CO.
------? --- — 7 / L ------„ .1.... i é = ü 4 = = ^ __ j : AC
Example 3. Victoria, Missa Pro Defunctis. Dies Irae, mm. 1-7.
A setting by.Giovanni Francesco Anerio (1567-1630) uses organ accompaniment, and presents odd-numbered verses as plainsong. Accord ing to Robertson, the latter procedure is generally considered
Tomas Luis de Victoria, "Dies Irae," Missa Pro Defunctis, ed. and trans. by C. Buell Agay (New York: G. Schirmer, 1969). 10
liturglcally and aesthetically correct.It would seem likely that
such an exponent of the stile antico as Anerio might employ this highly acceptable format to mollify the disciples of the stile antico.
His progressive tendencies with polyphony and use of the organ are highly significant. Anerio's Missa Pro Defunctis figured among some fifty to be written between the late fifteenth century and its publication date of 1614 19
Quan-to3 trt-mof — fu • to - - ruS, ffoaw-do ju - - d tx
Qoo.n-ioi irt- i»i* *at - f"- rus ÛKan- àoju- -tr(r *- Y t t t T”" 1 1 L . l UJ iLn-do *iü*d^^ Quan-tuS tnS'mor esd— •fu-tu- rwÆ Qu&n - -do ju - dex Example 4. Anerio, Missa Pro Defunctis. Dies Irae, mm. 1-6. 18 Robertson, op. cit., 47. ^^Anthony G. Petti, Introduction to Missa Pro Defunctis {l58][| by Giovanni Francesco Anerio (London: J. & W. Chester, 1966), 1. 11 The dramatic imagination of seventeenth century composers seized the expressive potential of the Sequence, and expanded traditional settings of the Dies Irae in scope. One such setting was that by Jean-Baptiste Lully (1632-87). Of Lully’s twenty-three motets, six 20 were selected by Louis XIV for the chapel repertory at Versailles. The publication of these motets was by Ballard in 1684. Among the six was one entitled "Dies Irae," composed between 1668 and 1677. This is a setting of the complete text for double choir, solo voices, organ, and strings.Lully’s work clearly embraces principles of the stile rappresentativo, realising numerous dramatic elements in the text. For example, in the ’Tuba mirum,’ the word ’spargens’ ('fling ing’) is set as a rapidly ascending pattern: b/- jg. P 11 If# tit Example 5. Lully, Motet "Dies Irae," mm. 37-41. The style of choral writing is somewhat declamatory, and contra puntal texture prevails throughout the motet. An interesting feature of this work is the juxtaposition of instrumental and choral forces. 20 Felix Range1, insert to recording of Jean-Baptiste Lully’s Motet "Dies Irae," performed by the Choir and Orchestra Lamoureux, conducted by Marcel Courant (Archive 3097, [n.d] ). ^^Jean-Baptiste Lully, Oeuvres completes de J. B. Lully (1632-87) ed. Henri Prunieres (Paris: Seditions de La Revue Musicale, 1931), Tome I, 211—61. 12 The architectural considerations and opposition of sonorities found later in the music of Hector Berlioz (1803-69) can been seen here, with petit choeurs and organ contrasting with grand choeurs and full orchestra. This may well account for what Bukofzer calls an "over- 22 whelming effect of ceremonial brilliance." The dramatic content of the Dies Irae text is served well by this treatment. Only one phrase of the plainsong appears in Lully's setting, in the opening vocal solo. From that point on, the text is set in free composition. In those settings of the Dies Irae found within the following Requiem Masses to be observed, the text alone is preserved. Toward Secularization: Instrumental Effects As Robertson notes, the Mass was hardly a chief form of composi tional expression during the seventeenth century.Opera and new forms such as the sonata provided more challenging opportunities. Yet, we find concurrently a trend toward subjectivity in liturgical music, which was expressed through elements of effect. A particularly graphic representation of the text 'Quantus tremor' ('Oh, what trembling') exists in the Missa Pro Defunctis of 1689 by Johann Kaspar Kerll (1627-93)(See Example 6.) ^^Manfred Bukofzer, Music in the Baroque Era (New York: W. W. Norton, 1947), 164. 23 Robertson, op. cit., 57. Johann Kaspar Kerll, Missa Pro Defunctis ([1689)) ed. by Guido Adler as Vol LIX of DenkmMler der Tonkunst in Osterreich (Wien: Universal-Edition, 1923), 73-99. 13 ^ %- è — f f Ï / t B . # é £ i" If / f f .. W r = r r ~ ~ -> — T T —— T y T'f r T" I c $ / f | : a - = f f - - f { I t 1 JjkÜ ? À J / i f f * — — i - L . f fi r. *— f f H T I V (f 7 r- y * t » y » c - — f t - 4 - £------ k i l A- 1 M - f fs ------*" — -J?—j n n ------w. ^ ------1— IJ — 1 - "J u (-.f ^UAK'da ju Example 6. Kerll, Missa Pro Defunctis. Dies Irae, mm. 11-17. This work demonstrates Kerll's highly developed orchestral technique, which was perhaps the result of Italian Influence. Although this Requiem was composed In Munich, Kerll was known to have studied In Rome with Carlsslml, and was believed to have studied with Frescobaldl. The use of Instrumental effects within the Requiem Mass continued through the eighteenth century, with that by FrancoIs-Joseph Gossec (1734-1829) being particularly worthy of note. Snow considers „26 Gossec's Requiem of 1760 "the first typically concert hall approach. ^^Albert C. Glebler, "Kerll, Johann Kaspar," The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 20 vols., ed. Stanley Sadie (London: Macmillan, 1980), IX, 875. 26 R. Snow, "Requiem Mass, Music of," New Catholic Encyclopedia, 17 vols., ed. by staff of Catholic University of America (New York: McGraw Hill, 1967), XII, 385-86. 14 and supports attention to this work. Regarding the Dies Irae movement, an anonymous French source recalled the "terrifying effect" of three trombones joined by four clarinets, four trumpets, four horns, and eight bassoons, announcing Judgment Day from high and distant places within the Church.It is apparent that the architectural setting played an essential part in the production of this revolutionary work. The Requiem Mass by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-91) must be counted among those calling for special instrumental effects. Despite conflicting opinions concerning the intentions of the composer with regard to instrumentation, Blume states with certainty, that the solo trombone which intones the 'Tuba mirum' continues to measure 18 in 28 Mozart's own hand: m I m Tu - bo- m'lrumspu^nj So - " Example 7. Mozart, Requiem. Tuba mirum, 1-7. The thorny question of authentic instrumentation in Mozart's Requiem embraces that of the authenticity of basset horns beyond the Introit, 27 Vellekoop, op. cit., 241. 28 Friedrich Blume, "Requiem But No Peace," from Paul Henry Lang, The Creative World of Mozart (New York: Norton and Co., 1963), 119. 15 Kyrie, and Recorders. Thus, the expressive effect achieved when these instruments combine with two bassoons to depict the pleading qualities of the Sequence may be less the invention of Mozart and more that of Süssmayr, who completed the work: I hp«-v»53 i i Ü! a a 11 TT T T ti m cun Vii jrito * , ju-Stui cum Vix ju-JtoS, ju-StuS cum vix ju-stirs, ju.a(u3 If Cvm VII jU'itus ju-xtus 29 Example 8. Mozart, Requiem. Dies Irae, mm. 51-3. Although this is the instrumentation which is widely performed, Mozart's sketches reveal a string accompaniment;^® thus, the true instrumental quality of the composer's intended expressiveness is impossible to determine. 29 Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Neue Ausgabe sHmtlicher Werke, Ser. 1, Abteilung 2: Requiem, Teilband 1: Mozarts Fragment, ed. Leopold Nowak (Kassel: BMrenreiter Verlag, 1965), 82. 30 Ibid., 13. 16 Other trends toward secularization which can be seen in Mozart’s Requiem include frequent repetition of the text for intensification, and considerable dynamic expansion. The symphonic techniques with which Mozart achieved a new and highly subjective expressiveness derive from the influence of the Mannheim School. This symphonic emphasis replaced the vocal stile antico and stile moderno in the Requiem, and contributed to the trend away from liturgical music. In the resulting symphonic church music, instrumental writing set the pattern for vocal style. Ultimately, thematic treatment within indi vidual movements of the Requiem Mass prevailed, and length, scope, and content of the movements rendered them unsuitable for liturgical use. Instead, in the following century, the Requiem Mass became a concert form, and the Sequence Dies Irae was its dramatic focal point. The Early Nineteenth Century Church music in the nineteenth century sought to recapture a true spirituality founded upon art. Ecclesiastic and artistic profundity were the primary efforts of the symphonic Requiems of this period. The following settings of the Dies Irae by Antonio Salieri (1750-1825) and Luigi Cherubini (1760-1842) are representative works of signifi cant influence. A teacher of Beethoven, Czerny, Hummel, Schubert and Liszt, Antonio Salieri completed his Requiem of 1804 in Vienna. The work was reportedly to have been intended to mark Salieri's withdrawal from public life as a composer. The work was not performed, however, until 17 after his death in 1825. The opening of Salieri's Dies Irae demonstrates the dramatic and declamatory style of the entire work. A late Neapolitan vocal style and the dramatic ideals of Gluck are combined in this setting, in which the syllabic statement of the text, the contrasting dynamics, and the wide vocal range give evidence of operatic proportions: Di-«S i - pat. d i-e s il-la S d - v t t - è Oi - ts I - r a t I I - I t S U -v tt E Df-tS i- rtt, d i-« 3 il - la. Sot' wef m Di-fcS i-roe, di -*s ri-it Set- &tr(,y g Example 9. Salieri, Requiem, Dies Irae, mm. 1-3. 31 In 1815, Luigi Cherubini was commissioned to write a Requiem Mass for a memorial service for the guillotined Louis XVI. The resulting work was the first of ,,two Requiems, that in C minor of 1816. LUck 31 Antonio Salieri, Requiem, ed. Johannes Wojciechowski (Frankfurt; Henry Litolff, 1978), 12. 18 reports that Beethoven admired this work, and that it was performed at his funeral in 1827.^^ Cherubini's Requiem Mass in C Minor is known more today for its legendary use of the gong than for its style, which is somewhat conservative. Deane refers to this "deliberately conserva- O Q tive idiom," and notes a particularly pedantic use of counterpoint. However, the frequent use of counterpoint does seem to serve the nine teenth century spirit in another manner. The portrayal of the agitation of Judgment Day is most effectively served by this multi layered treatment. The imitation between treble and bass voice parts illustrates this conservative contrapuntal usage. (See Example 10.) 32 Rudolf Lück, Foreword to his edition of Requiem in C Minor by Luigi Cherubini (New York: Peters, [n.djj’). 33 ’ Basil Deane, "Cherubini, Luigi," The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 20 vols., ed. Stanley Sadie (London: Macmillan, 1980), IX, 203. 19 -Mt di - es es es Example 10. Cherubini, Requiem Mass in C Minor. Dies Irae, mm. 9-13. In 1826, Cherubini composed a second setting of the Requiem, which called for a three-part male chorus and large orchestra. Reportedly, the Catholic church had objected to the use of female operatic artists at the funeral of Francois-Adrien Boieldieu,^^ and Cherubini did not wish to recreate this incident. The Requiem Mass No. 2 serves as a fitting, if somewhat arbitrary demarcation between settings of the Irae dating from the early and from the middle nineteenth century. ^^Robertson, op. cit., 82. Francois-Adrien Boieldieu (1775-1834) was an eighteenth century Parisian opera composer. 20 The large-scaled proportions and massive sonic effects were features central to the Semantic spirit. The use of a male chorus recalls an earlier age of Catholicism, while the grandeur and massiveness of Cherubini's Requiem Mass No. 2 must have had great appeal to those seeking new definitions and relevance in religion. The effect of the sudden, cumulative crescendo which begins the Dies Irae, creates a sense of momentum characteristic of this move ment. The crescendo results from an imaginative use of imitative counterpoint among the strings, followed by the thunderous entrance of choral and orchestral forces. (See Example 11.) 21 ------,r ■■T-OT'p r - 1 j . ftttolo f - t f ------—-— =------J) „,Obo,Liyfit f f * f - - 1 ------j ekrimcW, f ...... ffff * 11 11 W 'T ^ ------OT H = H ------1 1 inF fi fPFF I . - .. - ■1------LLU- f e M ------— ------T3 = IH ^ I H ...' • ^ __*ftiM jHAi------ f ^ t, vtoUoitg . J. • P — f —1 - f f ,r y ^ P- “(îvw aî J J i - J ------(V - «« ' • fall, Di ■ «!) f J =1 loi • 4A 1 - r««, . , y-Ca\>..f»-Ue______f |»jt ,y . J ur , d>vd:r.>.Wa«ao , f,!, f - 35 Example 11. Cherubini, Requiem Mass No. 2. Dies Irae, mm. 1-5. 35, Luigi Cherubini, Requiem Mass No. 2 , Urtext (London: E. Eulenberg with consent of C.F. Peters, 19623), 12. 22 Humanized Catholicism The trend of matching means to expressive ends continued with the works of Hector Berlioz (1803-69). Early In 1837, Berlioz was commissioned to compose music In commemoration of those who died In the July Revolution of 1830. Such commissions from the state were also designed to restore sacred music to the premier position It once held In France.At this point, a brief digression to consider France's religious condition appears essential to an understanding of Its sacred music. As a result of the French Revolution, traditional Catholicism was waning, and In Its place one found many fragmentary movements extolling the rational spirit Initiated by Voltaire and Diderot during the Age of Enlightenment. The distorted absurdities of earlier dog matic belief were replaced by a mechanistic approach and a humanitarian view of God. Sufficiently removed from religiosity per se, this "God of good people" was the expression of extremist writers such as Pierre Jean de Beranger. Varying degrees of such thought, practice, and reaction sprang up throughout France. The need for relevant religion was both clear and justifiable. The elation and suffering of Revolution, and the adjustments necessary for transforming an agricul tural France Into an Industrial nation had been costly In human Jurgen Klndermann, "Foreword" of his edition of Grande Messe des Morts by Hector Berlioz (Kassel; BÏrenrelter, 1978), vlil. 23 terms.A humanized Catholicism, accessible to a population of wide disparity in education and literacy, was in order, and music was the common language for such a challenge. In an article entitled "On the Church Music of the Future" published in the Gazette musicale of 1834, Franz Liszt called for a "musique humanitaire," which should be: ...devotional, strong and effective; it should unite on a colossal scale theatre and church; should be at one and the same time dramatic and sacred, splendid and simple, ceremonial and sincere, fiery and free, stormy and calm, clear and profound.3 In order to implement such an address to mankind, expanded proportions for the Requiem Mass had to be found. The liturgical spirit with a true foundation in art had to be communicated. A resurgent interest in liturgical chant^^ accompanied an historical period which also saw large, outdoor, instrumental forces in common practice. Of the latter, Macdonald notes that this ceremonial style was a vestige of the French Revolution, when "immense forces of wind and percussion were assembled for public occasions.The aggregate of ^^David Owen Evans, Social Romanticism in France, 1830-48 ()xford: Clarendon Press, 1951), 3-8. ^®Cited in Gerald Abraham, A Hundred Years of Music, 3rd ed. ^ i c a g o : Aldine Publishing Company, 1964), 70-71. OQ Karl Gustav Fellerer, Geachichte der katholischen Kirchenmusik, (Düsseldorf, 1949), new edition translated by Francis A. Brunner (Baltimore: Helicon Press, 1961), 174-75. ^®Hugh Macdonald, "Berlioz, (Louis-) Hector," The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 20 vols., ed. Stanley Sadie (London: Macmillan, 1980), II, 597. 24 (1) religious revitalization, (2) a passionate embracing of things ancient, and (3) the need for large artistic structures, found expression in the revival of medievalism in nineteenth century France. This all-encompassing movement (1820-1860) caused an intensive interest in French histories and criticism of literature of the Middle Ages cast in the uniquely French literary form of "tragédie historique" and in references to medieval architecture. Victor Hugo's Odes et Ballades (1825) have been considered "the first creative works of the Romantic School to reveal Medievalist tendencies, though secular uses of the Dies Irae, namely those of Goethe and Sir Walter Scott, indicate that an earlier date might well be consid ered. The spirit of Romantic Medievalism is captured in Berlioz' Grande Messe des Morts, a work in which solemnity is preserved, while "opera, cantata, song, and symphony all merge imperceptibly one 42 into another." The idea of composing a Requiem was not new to Berlioz when he began the Grande Messe des Morts in 1836. In 1825 he had completed a mass incorporating a 'Resurrexit' which presented a fanfare that: 41 Dorothy W. Doolittle, "The Relations Between Literature and Medieval Studies in France from 1820 to 1860" (Ph.D. dissertation, Bryn Mawr, 1933), 22. 42 Macdonald, op. cit., 593. 25 improved on Relcha's use of chords on the timpani and on Gossec's fanfare for the 'Tuba mirum.' This predecessor of Berlioz' celebrated 'Tuba mirum' of 1836 along with earlier plans for a Judgment Day oratorio prompted the rapid completion of the Sequence for the Grande Messe des Morts. In a letter to his sister, Berlioz described the effect of the Dies Irae upon his creative impulse: ...the poem of the Dies Irae so intoxi cated and excited me that nothing lucid came to me. My head boiled, I felt dizzy. Today the eruption is under control and, God willing, all will go well.44 It would appear to be most significant that Berlioz employs a chant-like melody as the quasi ground of the Dies Irae in the Grande Messe des Morts. However no use of the traditional plainsong Dies Irae is made; (See Example 12.) 4^Jacques Barzun, Berlioz and the Romantic Century. 3rd ed., 2 vols., (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969), I, 81. 44puoted in Kindermann, op. cit., VIII. 4^Hector Berlioz, Grande Messe des Morts, Vol. IX of Hector Berlioz New Edition of the Complete Works, 23 vols, to date, ed. J. Kindermann (Kassel: BSrenreiter, 1978). 26 S m m S é Example 12. Berlioz, Grande Messe des Morts. Dies Irae, mm. 1-12. Such deliberate omission invites inquiry regarding the secular implica tion of the original Dies Irae chant. Was the melody suggestive of a secular program at the time of the Grande Messe des Morts, some six years after it played an essential part in Berlioz’ Symphonie fantastique? Had the plainsong melody become dissociated from its place in the Requiem Mass? A brief examination of an appearance of the Dies Irae in Goethe's Faust may provide insight germane to these questions. According to Barzun, Gerard de Nerval's French translation of Faust appeared in 1828, and Berlioz "read it constantly and urged everyone to read it."^^ The fact that Berlioz introduced Faust to Liszt, who in turn became a devotee of both the drama and the Symphonie fantastique, is of future significance to the present study. The Sturm und Drang period in German literature was distinguished by certain qualities which were also championed by those radicals 46 Barzun, op. cit., 31. 27 and libertarians who advocated a revolutionary spirit in France and the United States. An anti-rationale approach to art and a passion ate, emotional zeal were paramount to both spirits, as was the heroism of the mortal mind. In Faust, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832) combined these qualities with the revival of medievalism in the Cathedral scene. Published in Part I of Faust (1803), the Cathedral scene (lines 3776-3834) calls for the Dies Irae to be sung, and organ chords to be sounded.^h® elements surrounding the Dies Irae in parody of the Requiem Mass help to explain its secularity and ultimate nineteenth century fate. Its presence is a gesture of final judgment prior to the beheading of Gretchen. A warning of mortal violence, the Dies Irae in Faust shares a context with Orphic legend, alchemy, and witchcraft, all of which conditioned its appearance. The figure of Faust himself was a likely subject for nineteenth century composers. He, who at once represented the scholarly, passionate, tender, heroic, and the possessed soul, "stood for genius in all its greatness and misery."^® In an age when art was projected most personally, these traits were also assigned to the virtuoso performer. Another literary influence worthy of consideration is that of Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832). The historical plots and realism found Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Faust. ed. Cyrus Hamlin, newly translated by Walter Arndt (New York; W. W. Norton and Co., 1976) 93-94. ^^Barzun, loc. cit. 28 in the "Waverley" novels had a strong effect upon Romantic composers, and, ultimately, upon French Grand Opera. In 1823, the French medi evalist, Charles Nodier recognized the fact that the influence of Sir Walter Scott played a great part in awakening the tast for both the architec ture and the customs of the Middle Ages. Scott used the poem "Dies Irae" in popular English translation as the climax to Canto VI of The Lay of the Last Minstrel (1805). Shortly after this translation was published, a hymn with the same text appeared "for public worship, in various collections."^^ Although it is difficult to ascertain whether Berlioz knew of Scott's reference to the Sequence, the frequent allusions throughout his Memoirs to works such as Rob Roy. Old Mortality, and Guy Mannering indicate a famil iarity with Scott's themes. It is also significant that Berlioz wrote a musical setting of Waverley in 1827-1828. The Dies Irae Achieves Secular Identity The trend toward secularization can be attributed to various interpretations of the Dies Irae text. The inherently dramatic content of the Sequence made it adaptable to changing historical contexts. This drama was characterized musically through instrumental effects and virtuoso demands upon increasingly large forces, which may be noted as early as the seventeenth century. In the concert Requiems 49 Doolittle, op. cit., 14. ^*^Julian, op. cit., 297. 29 which followed, the traditional Dies Irae plainsong was not widely used, rather Its text was set to new music. However, In the nine teenth century, a literary association joined the plainsong and programmatic Implication. It was this Instantaneous recognition factor that provided Romantic composers with countless symphonic possibilities. CHAPTER III THE MUSICAL PROTOTYPES The compositional style of Sergei Rachmaninoff (1873-1943) is highly representative of the nineteenth century. Many of the forms in which Rachmaninoff wrote, including the symphony, symphonic poem, piano sonata, and piano character piece support this statement, as does a preference for programmatic implication. The fact that Rachmaninoff was an active pianist and conductor throughout his life time suggests that the nineteenth century repertoire he performed may have influenced his compositional process. In this light, the following works are examined as prototypical. These compositions are Hector Berlioz' Symphonie fantastique, Franz Liszt's Totentanz, and Modeste Musorgsky's Night on Bald Mountain. Each of these was performed by Rachmaninoff, and contains considerable use of the Dies Irae motive. Symphonie fantastique In his second tour of Russia (1867) Berlioz introduced the Symphonie fantastique (1845) to audiences in Moscow and St. Petersburg. The work made a significant impression upon the Russians, most notably upon Nicolai Rimsky-Korsakov and Modeste Musorgsky. 30 31 At the time of its composition, which began as early as 1830, Berlioz drew upon two movements from a derelict Faust ballet, begun in 1828. These movements became the "Ball" and the "Witches' Sabbath" movements of the Symphonie fantastique.^^ The fifth movement, "Songe d'une nuit du sabbat," contains a well-known secular statement of the Dies Irae. which depicts that portion of the program in which the young, dreaming musician imagines his funeral. The evocation of grotesque witches and monsters, combined with the joy which marks the arrival of his beloved, and the ensuing devilish orgies are reflected in the parody of this reference to the Dies Irae played by the bassoons and ophicleides: Example 13. Berlioz, Symphonie fantastique. Fifth movement, mm. 127-47. The chant melody serves an essential thematic role here. If the movement is viewed as an extended sonata form which parallels that of the first movement, the Dies Irae functions as a first theme. It appears as a thematic fragment in the development at measures 348-54, and, in the recapitulation, it is ingeniously combined with the Sabbath Round. (See Example 14.) ^^Hector Berlioz, Fantastic Symphony, ed. Edward T. Cone (New York: W. W. Norton, 1971), 81-106, 143-196. 32 A------r-A ----- r-A------A t e ------ ? F =/• N eJ - J - J — 3 Example 14. Berlioz, Symphonie fantastique. Fifth movement, mm. 414-17. The Dies Irae is thematic material in the fifth movement, and helps to outline the form of an extended sonata-allegro. Although form in the Symphonie fantastique is somewhat ambiguous, owing to episodic develop ment, frequent variation, and the transformation of the idee fixe, the large architectural structure is outlined by recurring themes, one of which is the Dies Irae. Rachmaninoff used the chant motive to define formal boundaries in his Sonata No. 1 and Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini, both of which compositions reveal programmatic intentions as well. Rachmaninoff conducted Berlioz' Symphonie fantastique for the season debut of the Moscow Philharmonic in 1912. No record exists of his initial contact with the work, however he was known to have been "dazzled" while listening to Mahler conduct it in 1910.^^ The occasion was a rehearsal at which Rachmaninoff's Piano Concerto No. 3 was also being played. 52 Bertensson-Leyda, op. cit., 164. 33 Referring to a national predilection for fantasy, Gerald Abraham asserts that "no composers in the world have written more avowedly 53 fantastic music than the Russians," and this Russian preference for the fantastic seems to be reflected in the compositions Rachmaninoff selected to conduct along with the Symphonie fantastique. It appeared with Edvard Grieg’s Peer Gynt, Richard Strauss' Don Juan, and Modeste Musorgsky's Night on Bald Mountain. Describing Russia's indebtedness to Berlioz, Barzun recalls that ...someone has said— the Witches' Sabbath, with its Stravinskyesque sonorities and the orchestra play ing in two keys, is thg^first piece of Russian music The Totentanz As noted earlier, Franz Liszt (1811-86) was impressed with the Symphonie fantastique in 1830, and his piapo transcription of 1832 attests to his total comprehension of the work. Liszt encountered another significant figure in 1830, that being Nicolo Paganini (1782- 1840). Paganini's satanic concert appearance and remarkable technical facility on the violin had become the object of a relatively new phenomenon— the connection of the virtuoso with the demonic. Presumably, only one possessed by the devil could so easily transcend the technical limitations imposed by the instrument. This triumph of 53 Abraham, op. cit., 150. 54 Barzun, op. cit., 162. 34 human mind over mere physical obstacles is reminiscent of the scholarly Faust. Liszt's admiration for Paganini, and his ingenious transfer of idiomatic figures from the earlier master's Ventiguattro Capricci per violino solo dedicate agli artisti. Op. 1 (1801-04) can be seen in the six Grandes Etudes de Paganini (1830-48, published in 1851) for solo piano. The broad definition of virtuoso piano writing which is suggested by Liszt's treatment in these etudes includes the following characteristics : 1) a constant display of power 2) sudden shifts in dynamics and articulations 3) a strongly articulated staccato touch 4) patterns of off-beat accent at fast tempi 5) contrasting material alternating the demoniacal with the expressive and poetic With the Dies Irae as a thematic subject, the elements for a large- scale work were at hand for Liszt. In 1839, following a visit to Pisa, where he and the Comtesse d'Agoult viewed Orcagna's fresco, "Triumph of Death" at the Campo Santo, Liszt began composing the Danse Macabre Paraphrase Uber "Dies Irae". Many revisions took place (1849, 1853, and 1859), and the Totentanz was not performed until 1865. A set of thirty continuous variations for piano and orchestra, the Totentanz^^ begins with a forty measure introduction, which pre sents fragments of the theme interrupted by brilliant cadenzas for the piano. In the opening measures, the Dies Irae is found in the ^^Franz Liszt, Totentanz "Danse Macabre Paraphrase Uber 'Dies Irae,'" ed. Max Alberti (New York: Edition Eulenberg, [n.dj ), 1. 35 lower instrumental parts, while the piano and timpani outline a diminished chord : - ' iH- T 4' c i.. . - T. -hi -■ -- ' W J J— W J J ^W-JJ ■ Example 15. Liszt, Totentanz, mm. 1-6. The augmented fourth (F-B) in measure 1 obscures the tonal establish ment. Liszt maintains the tension and anticipation of the introduction by prolonging this tonal establishment until measure 41, where the theme is stated by the solo piano: £ ^4 ^ iP nf ÿEltzzîz. “ .-1- J----1 --- -1— ^ — p ---1 J JU J 1 ..M 4 y ■ ■ —^ gl---jt.4 ^ - Z t Î ÿ r r P i " ZL. r Example 16. Liszt, Totentanz, mm. 41-45. The dynamic or tempo effects are often cumulative in velocity in the Totentanz. For example. Variation I states the chant melody in the bass over which a countersubject appears in the treble. In Variation II, the dotted rhythm of the countersubject is maintained, while the 36 treble part Increases to sixteenth note passages. These become glissandi at measure 83, and double gllssandi at measure 91. This process recurs throughout the Totentanz. Another example begins with a Variation IV,. a canonic exposition: — ------• CJT ij| ) V i n . 0 Example 17. Liszt, Totentanz, mm. 124-27. The freely written canon is interrupted by a cadenza ad libitum at measure 141, which modulates from the Dorian setting of the theme (see Example 16) to the key of B major. The new and delicate setting of the Dies Irae demonstrates the contrast in mood which was charac teristic of virtuoso works in the nineteenth century. jt pf ho \e.t g f Example 18. Liszt, Totentanz. m. 144. 37 Following the cadenza, the second phrase of the Dies Irae is treated as an energetic figure utilizing contrasting dynamics and finger staccato. The technical difficulty is increased by the tempo marking of Presto. At measure 173, this figure is enlarged to octaves: V 3 V Example 19. Liszt, Totentanz, mm. 166-69. Immediately following is a section marked Fugato, in which the Dies Irae appears as rapidly repeated notes at the dynamic level of forte and at a tempo marked vivace: -----W ^ Wr.-- ^ .. . t ^ f t T T — f1— 1— 1— 1— / 9 — ------ Example 20. Liszt, Totentanz, mm. 183—84. The variety of pianistic challenges in the Totentanz is tantamount to its broad range of expressiveness. A necessary property of the virtuoso was the ability to stimulate an immediate emotional response 38 from the listener. A favorite mood of the nineteenth century seems to have been that of the heroic, and this feature appears in the Totentanz as well. A transformation of the chant found at measure 259 illustrates a triumphal setting of the Dies Irae, which contrasts with other variations in key and mood: Example 21. Liszt, Totentanz, mm. 259-62. The presence of a contrasting theme or transformation of the Dies Irae in the major mode often serves both the structure and the mood of a piece. In the Totentanz, the heroic variation follows a group of extremely difficult variations, more figurative than melodic. Thus, it provides textural contrast and new melodic content. In works by Rachmaninoff, this heroic, contrasting theme assumes great importance. Early in 1866, Musorgsky's teacher, Anton Herke, introduced the work to the public in St. Petersburg, and reportedly, the young 39 nationalist composers were fascinated with the Totentanz and the Mephisto Waltz. Although documentation of Rachmaninoff's first contact with Liszt Liszt's Totentanz cannot be found, it is known that he performed the work in the United States in 1939. Rachmaninoff's teacher and cousin, Alexander Siloti (1863-1945), had studied with Liszt. Siloti revised and published the Totentanz in 1911. It is likely that Rachmaninoff knew of the work early in his compositional career. Night on Bald Mountain It was under the direct influence of Liszt's Totentanz^^ that Modeste Musorgsky (1839-81) sketched an orchestral fantasy entitled 58 St. John's Night on the Bare Mountain (1867). A motivic pattern which occurs throughout the work strongly resembles a fragment of the Dies Irae. The style of this opening figure is reminiscent of that in the Totentanz (see Example 15). ^^Gerald Abraham, On Russian Music (London, 1939), reprinted New York: Johnson Reprint Corporation, 1970), 81-90. ^^Ibid., 84. 58 Rimsky-Korsakov revised and orchestrated the present version of this work. Night on Bald Mountain, following Musorgsky's death. 40 w/-, fp- Example 22. Musorgsky, Night on Bald Mountain, m. 3. An inscription, presumably by the composer, states the intended program, and links the Dies Irae fragment with demonic implication: Subterranean sounds of supernatural voices-Appearance of the spirits of darknessj followed by that of Satan himself. -Glorification of Satan and celebration of the Black Mass. -The Sabbath Revels. -At the height of the orgies the bell of the village church, sounding in the distance, disperses the spirits of darkness. Daybreak. Abraham suggests that the witches' dance introduced at measure 79, derives from the second phrase of the chant, though he admits this was probably an unconscious use of the Dies Irae.^^ (See Example 23.) 59This inscription appears immediately preceding the music in all scores of Night on Bald Mountain examined. 60 Abraham, On Russian Music, op. cit., 84-85. 41 r r m u f r ' Example 23. Musorgsky, Night on Bald Mountain, mm. 79-80T®l Liszt's influence is also evidence by Musorgsky's use of the symphonic poem. This single-movement, freely constructed sonata form was inaugurated by Liszt, and served to express the favorite extra musical inspirations of the nineteenth century. Liszt's symphonic poems include Ce qu'on entend sur la montagne (1848), lasso (1849, Mazeppa (1851), and Hamlet'(1858). Thematic transformation, which distinguished these works by Liszt, was replaced by repetition of fragmentary and episodic motives in Musorgsky's Night on Bald Mountain. The use of foreshortened motive from the Dies Irae chant was adopted by Rachmaninoff in such works as the symphonic poem. Isle of the Dead, and among the pieces for solo piano. Another important feature which Rachmaninoff later adopted is the brief fanfare for brass instruments found at measure 119. (See Example 24.) G^Mbdeste Musorgsky, Night on Bald Mountain (Leipzig; Edition Eulenberg,[n.d%), 16. 42 7 « -y m Example 24. Musorgsky, Night on Bald Mountain, mm. 119-23. This fanfare probably pertains to that portion of the program entitled "The Sabbath Revels," and perhaps derives from the association of brass fanfares with the 'Tuba Mirum' (see page 25 ). Rachmaninoff included Night on Bald Mountain on many programs which he conducted. In 1905, it was positioned among works by Glazunov and Borodin in a Russian performance, while in 1908, it appeared on a program in Antwerp. That Rachmaninoff chose to make his American donducting debut with it in 1909 is testimony to his high regard for the work. Since Rachmaninoff composed the Isle of the Dead in 1909, it is likely that his compositional process and preparation of Musorgsky's score overlapped, whether consciously or unconsciously. With Berlioz' Symphonie fantastique. Liszt's Totentanz. and Musorgsky's Night on Bald Mountain, three significant steps closer to Rachmaninoff's fixation with the Dies Irae have been taken. Three general features derive from these models: (1) the suitability of the Dies Irae for depicting the fantastic, (2) the potential for virtuoso keyboard figures, and (3) an identifiable four-note motive, which renders the Dies Irae highly applicable for symphonic use. CHAPTER IV DOCUMENTABLE USE OF THE DIES IRAE It Is curious that Rachmaniuoff first requested historical 62 information about the Dies Irae as late as 1931. Joseph Yasser reported that: He began to tell me that he was then very much interested in the familiar medieval chant. Dies Irae, usually known to musicians (includ ing himself) only by its first lines, used so often in various works as a 'Death theme.' However, he wished to obtain the whole music of this funeral chant, if it existed (though he wasn't sure of this). He also asked about its origin— without offering a word of , explanation for his keen interest in this... A logical conclusion to be drawn from this discussion is that Rachmaninoff was basing his knowledge of the Dies Irae upon other compositions which employed it. Thus, the influence of the models cited previously would seem to have been very strong. Within the forms of the symphony, the symphonic poem, and variations, the Dies Irae could be employed thematically, motivically, and figuratively. Beyond this, the programmatic implications expanded to include elements of virtuosity. The unlimited number of possible applications of the 62 Joseph Yasser (1893-) was an organist, musicologist and author of the treatise, "A Theory of Evolving Tonality." A friend of Rachmaninoff's, Yasser maintained active correspondence with the composer. 63 Cited in Bertensson-Leyda, op. cit., 278. 43 44 Dies Irae was recognized by Rachmaninoff. Motivic usage became a favorite device. A four-note fragment of the chant suited Rachmaninoff's symphonic style, as it afforded episodic treatment, sequential development, and contrasted with the long, lyrical themes of which he was so fond. Functional categories of Dies Irae usage rest upon these capabili ties and their expansion. These categories resulted from observations of the chant within the following works; the Sonata No. 1, the Isle of the Dead, The Bells, and the Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini. The sources of extra-musical inspiration can be documented for these works, however Rachmaninoff gleaned only suggestive ideas from them. Sonata No. 1^^ In 1907, Rachmaninoff composed his first sonata for piano. The pianist Konstantin Igumnov, first performed the Sonata No. 1 in 1908. The Sonata No. 1 is among the few works Rachmaninoff did not play the premier performance of himself. The archives of Igumnov report the following: ... I learned from him that when he composed this Sonata he had Goethe's Faust in mind, and that the first movement corresponds to Faust, the second to Gretchen, and the third, to the flight of Brocken, and Mephistopheles, in the exact order of Liszt's "Faust" Symphony.66 G^Ibid., 156. ^^Sergei Rachmaninoff, Sonata No. 1 in D Minor, Op. 28 fNew York: International Music Company)^ Ih.d3 ), 3-63. , 153. Quoted from "Iz arkhiva K. N. Igumnova," Sovietzkaya Muzyka, No. 1, (1946). Cited in Bertensson-Leyda, 393. 45 Symphonie proportions are evident throughout this work. The first movement alone consists of 357 measures, while the third movement contains 505 measures. The themes and motives are repetitious, and treated episodically. The Dies Irae serves in various thematic and motivic roles which appear at critical points in the structure. The first such appearance follows the introduction to the first movement : à -*e~ r W T -«tf _ cum mÇ dim. P j : era a -r -r Example 25. Rachmaninoff, Sonata No. 1, first movement, mm. 15-21. Clearly articulated and presented as primary material, the Dies Irae functions as a first theme, appearing again at measure 256, preceding the recapitulation. Among other cursory fragments and motives, this theme stands out by contrast. The longer note values and stark modality within a tonal context enable this theme to be heard and recognized. Thus, the Dies Irae frames subordinate material and defines formal outline. In compositions where subordinate material is not so closely related to primary material, this point is obvious. However, Rachmaninoff extracts fragments of the motive itself for transitional purposes, and this clouds the lines of formal 46 demarcation for the listener. Examples of these transitional figures which derive from the chant motive occur at measures 33, 45, and 50. Lengthy transitions incorporating considerable motivic material, relentless rhythmic drive, and somewhat static hi *'>onic relationships give an extensive nature to the sonata form. The nebulous formal lines account for what Newman considers the "problematic sonata- rondo designs"^? of the first and third movements. The third movement begins with the chant motive displaced among different octaves : Example 26. Rachmaninoff, Sonata No. 1, third move ment, mm. 1-2. ^^William S. Newman, The Sonata Since Beethoven, 2nd ed. (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1972), 718. 47 The movement's chief transitional figure illustrates the motive, freely inverted, in imitation : éî ,i- C ^ -ft' Example 27. Rachmaninoff, Sonata No. 1, third movement, mm. 43-44. Once again, the use of closely-related motivic material in lengthy transitions accounts for problematic formal clarity. However, this episodic approach seems more successful in the present example of a rondo than in the first movement, where sharper contrast between themes is necessary. In this respect, it is understandable that Rachmaninoff was most successful with smaller forms, such as preludes. 48 His highly refined techniques of figurative writing find appropriate application in these more textural studies. An obvious reference to the Dies Irae occurs at measure 81, which prefaces a fugato in which the chant serves as a subject; ■mPlDd SS molto Oi'solLJ-to Example 28. Rachmaninoff, Sonata No. 1, third movement, mm. 85-87. The appearance of contrapuntal textures (at measures 85, 241, and 314) is evidence of the pervasive symphonic style of this sonata. A heroic contrasting theme (measure 117) constitutes the central portions of the exposition and recapitulation. The mood created by this theme seems antithetical to the demonic nature of the Dies Irae themes. Other works by Rachmaninoff which demonstrate this juxta position include the Isle of the Dead and the Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini. One wonders whether the composer had in mind a victory as it pertained to death, or perhaps redemption. At measures 189 and 410, a quotation from the first movement (see Example 25) interrupts the prevailing momentum, and unifies the sonata cyclically. The Dies Irae theme and motive provide the Sonata No. 1 with a programmatic unity, which traces back to Rachmaninoff's intended program. It also occurs at structural points which assist in clarifying complex sonata-rondo forms. 49 The Isle of the Dead Composed in 1909, Rachmaninoff’s symphonic poem. The Isle of the Dead was inspired by a reproduction of Arnold BWcklin’s painting of the same name, which the composer saw in Paris in 1907. After seeing the original, Rachmaninoff commented: I was not moved by the color of the painting. If I had seen the original first, I might not have composed my Isle of the Dead. I like the picture best in black and white. The application of SBcklin's title implies that the Dies Irae serves a programmatic purpose. Since the work is largely motivic and textural, the chant appears as a subordinate figure. The motives often contain slight modifications, which appear to be transformations. In the following figures, the final descending interval of the chant motive is varied. In the original plainsong, this interval is a minor third: measures 25-37 measures 63-65 measure 158 horn part violin part flute part Figure 1 68 Bertensson-Leyda, op. cit., 156. 50 The fact that Rachmaninoff employs a motive from the chant and then transforms it, further concealing its identity, arouses skepticism in at least one scholar. The British writer, Malcolm Boyd considers the appearance of-the Dies Irae "borderline,"^® that is, it is impossible to ascertain whether or not the chant reference is inten tional. However, a clear statement of the motive containing the original descending interval of a minor third appears near the end (measure 388) of the symphonic poem. Rachmaninoff's setting of this statement helps to confirm the identity of the Dies Irae, and Threlfall 7 0 believes this identity to be unmistakable. This statement is preceded by a pause at measure 387, and set as a string tremolo figure, with the tempo indication of Largo: y i j - L A \ A t » . . ii'ft ^®Malcolm Boyd, "The Dies Irae: Some Recent Manifestations," tkisic and Letters, XLIX/4 (October 1968), 353. 70, Threlfall-Norris, op. cit., 93. 51 Such delayed confirmation of the Dies Irae within certain composi tions of Rachmaninoff is a significant feature. It occurs again in his Moment Musical Op. 16 No. 3 . and Symphony No. 2. among other works. Recognition of this feature enables one to positively identify the chant motive, retroactively. The motive is used as transitional material throughout The Isle of the Dead, and the figure which follows shows a transitional usage that depicts the lilting motion of the water that dominates BBcklin's painting : Example 30. Rachmaninoff, The Isle of the Dead, mm..356-59. At measure 261, a highly expressive theme is introduced. Con trasting with all previous motivic material in both key (E flat major) and mood, this figurative theme is subjected to episodic treatment, which culminates in the climax of the symphonic poem at measure 365. In a letter to Leopold Stokowski, Rachmaninoff described the effect he sought : It should be a great contrast to all the rest of the work— faster, more nervous and more emotional— as that passage does not belong to the 'picture,'— it is in reality a 'supplement' to the picture— which fact makes the contrast all the more neces sary. In the former is death— in the latter is life.71 71cited in Patrick Piggott, Rachmaninov Orchestral Music (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1974), 19. 52 Examination of this theme suggests derivation from the Dies Irae. The first four notes are a permutation of the motive, referred to by the present writer as a variant, while the extended outline forms a transformation. Such configurations, which employ an extended version of the chant motive, account for some of Rachmaninoff's most characteristic melodies. Such melodies appear in the Suite No. 2 for two pianos, the Sonata No. 2 , and the Symphony No. 2, and are discussed in Chapter V, X Example 31. Rachmaninoff, The Isle of the Dead, mm. 261-63.72 The motivic use of the Dies Irae in The Isle of the Dead is representative of that which can be observed in the figurative preludes and etudes for solo piano. The delayed confirmation of the chant within this piece illustrates the composer's fondness for impli cation and sustaining the mystery of his intentions. 72 Sergei Rachmaninoff, The Isle of the Dead, Op. 29 (Moscow: Gutheil, 1909), 38. 53 The Bells During the summer of 1912, Rachmaninoff received an anonymous 73 letter containing a translation by Konstantin Balmont (1867-1943) of Edgar Allen Poe's poem. The Bells.^4 Abandoning the symphonic sketches then in progress, the composer began to work on a choral symphony. Following its completion at Rachmaninoff's Russian estate, Ivanovka, The Bells was first performed in 1913 in St. Petersburg. In the poem, a different bell is symbolically assigned to each phase of the human life cycle. The four movements of Rachmaninoff's choral symphony are as follows : 1. Silver Sleigh Bells II. The Mellow Wedding Bells III. The Loud Alarum Bells IV. Mournful Iron Bells The Dies Irae appears thematically and figuratively, and the presence of a text, sung by soloists and chorus, offers valuable clues as to the composer's intentions. A statement of the chant appears near the end of the first movement, in the violin part. (See Example 32.) Konstantin Balmont was a Russian poet and writer, whose texts often appear in Rachmaninoff's songs. An English translation of Balmont's version appears in the score; Sergei Rachmaninoff, The Bells, Op. 35 (New York: Boosey and .Hawkes, 1979). ^^The poem is found in Edgar Allen Poe, Collected Works, 3 vols., ed. Thomas Olliver Mabbott (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1969), I, 434-38. 54 Example 32. Rachmaninoff, The Bells, First movement, mm. 153-55. Although Norris cites this example alone, and maintains that its sole function is unification with subsequent movements,earlier refer ences do exist in the movement. At measure 28, the trumpets articulate a statement of the figure: Example 33. Rachmaninoff, The Bells, First movement m. 28. Both Examples 32 and 33 demonstrate quotations which are isolated within a movement. They are not related to other thematic material, but yet are presented in the foreground. Presumably, Rachmaninoff intended that they be audible. Another implication of the chant is considerably more abstract. It states a rhythmic figure identical ^^Geoffrey Norris, Rakhmaninov (London: J. M. Dent and Sons, 1976), 164. 55 with that of Example 33, however there is no melodic outline: •r p Example 34. Rachmaninoff, The Bells, First movement m. 40. Consistent with Norris' idea, the Dies Irae does unify the first and second movements. The chant motive is set as a waltz at the beginning of the second movement: i Wr- I K Example 35. Rachmaninoff, The Bells. Second movement mm. 1-3. Rachmaninoff employs the motive throughout the second movement as brief thematic fragments in the choral episodes. The final such statement is representative of this usage: 1^- HarK r# TXf. Sowed Example 36. Rachmaninoff, The Bells, Second movement, mm. 153-55. 56 There is but a single reference in the third movement. This isolated statement appears to function only as a unifying device, in a manner similar to that of the first movement references; 32 23 Example 37. Rachmaninoff, The Bells. Third movement, mm. 176-77. In the funereal fourth movement, the Dies Irae appears as thematic material. The composer achieves a modification by appending an upbeat to the chant fragment. The present study refers to this upbeat as a prefix, as it can contain more than one note. When pre fixed, the Dies Irae becomes a longer, more elusive reference. Rachmaninoff achieves highly expressive melodies with this technique. In the following example, the identity of the Dies Irae is also suggested by the gloominess of the text: Example 38. Rachmaninoff, The Bells. Fourth movement, mm. 25-27. 57 The significance of the Dies Irae in this choral symphony centers upon the chant's function as a unifying feature. The single refer ences found in the first and third movements demonstrate important symphonic usages, wherein the motive is a sub-structural event. In particular, the brass statements (Examples 33 and 34) demonstrate Rachmaninoff's mastery of orchestration. The second and fourth move ments illustrate the Dies Irae in two individual transformed versions. The waltz figure (Example 35) exemplifies the motive in a new rhythmic setting, and the extended motive (Example 38) provides an expressive thematic fragment. Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini Villa Senar (an acronym for Sergei and Natalie ^chmaninoff) was a favorite Swiss summer retreat for Rachmaninoff, and it was there that he composed the Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini, between July 3 and August 18, 1934. The theme was borrowed from the A minor study of Nicolo Paganini, the last of his Ventiquattro Capricci per violino solo dedicati agli artisti. Op. 1. The variations in Rachmaninoff's rhapsody illustrate a pianistic adaptation of idiomatic violin writing, not unlike those adaptations by Liszt (1838, and 1851) and Brahms (1866). The Dies Irae supplements several aspects of this work. It serves as a counter-melody to the Paganini theme, enriches the harmonic fabric with modality, and provides a programmatic factor which Rachmaninoff himself documented. 58 In 1937, the composer received a request from choreographer Michael Fokine to write a program for the Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini. The resulting ballet, Paganini; Fantastic Ballet in Three Scenes, was performed in 1939 at Covent Garden.The program which Rachmaninoff submitted provides insight into his application of the Dies Irae in this work: Consider the Paganini legend— about the sale of his soul to the evil spirit in exchange for perfection in art, and for a woman. All varia tions on the Dies Irae would be for the evil spirit. The whole middle from the 11th variation to the 18th— these are the love episodes.. It seems that Rachmaninoff had the Faust program in mind, which the nineteenth century has assigned to Paganini and which had its origins in his virtuosity. The chant first appears in this rhapsody for piano and orchestra in Variation VII, where it is combined with the Paganini theme. The piano states the Dies Irae in long, chant-like note values. (See Example 39.) ^^Threlfall-Norris, op. cit., 139. ^^Cited in Bertensson-Leyda, op. cit., 333. 59 g i Example 39. Rachmaninoff, Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini, mm. 242-49. Only the first phrase of the original chant Is used, this differing from Berlioz* and Liszt's usages. The Dies Irae Is then used episodi cally, maintaining the style of the chant Instead of further quotation. The next appearance occurs In Variation X, where again the piano quotes the chant as a counter-melody : Example 40. Rachmaninoff, Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini, mm. 368-72. ^^Sergel Rachmaninoff, Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini, Op. 43 (New York: Charles Foley, 1934) 22. 60 In the same variation, an interesting figure, the Dies Irae motive in rhythmic diminution, is assigned to the brasses; g Example 41. Rachmaninoff, Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini, mm. 376-77. The climaxes to Variations XXII and XXIV employ the Dies Irae as a counter-melody; in the case of this representative example, however, the parts are exchanged. The piano plays a figurative variation on Paganini's theme while the brasses quote the chant: - ■» ...... -■©------h " > * . L } 1 - r I r L W y 4 - n U A . ^ f P : • Example 42. Rachmaninoff, Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini, mm. 922-2 5. 61 Although motivic and episodic uses of the Dies Irae occur through out the Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini, the transformation of the chant is minimal. This would suggest that Rachmaninoff's intentions regarding the role of the chant as representative of the "evil spirit" (see page 58) were conscious. The prominence of the chant in this work demonstrates the composer's skill with orchestration, as it is not primary thematic material but rather a subordinate theme given considerable importance. CHAPTER V THE DIES IRAE AS A STYLE COMPONENT From examination of the Dies Irae in historical sequence, this study now investigates the absorption of the chant motive into Rachmaninoff's style. The applications which follow are presumed to be unconscious quotation. In most cases cited from the piano compositions, such performance aspects as fingering and dynamics are considered to be essential to an understanding of Rachmaninoff's unique style of pianism. Those figures resulting from new applica tions of the Dies Irae imposed different technical demands upon the performer. Therefore, it seems evident that usage of the chant motive by Rachmaninoff transcended the traditional boundaries of idiomatic keyboard writing. Most notable in this regard, is the issue of fingering. Extensive patterns of Dies Irae configuration require a digital control as unique as the composer's own pianistic dexterity and represent a peculiarity in the repertory of Rachmaninoff's piano music. This aspect of technical demand is most apparent when the chant is used motivically, and symphonic style is adapted to the keyboard. In addition to this figurative usage (textural devices), two other varieties of chant function can be observed in the piano music: obvious references often appearing late 62 63 In a composition (single appearances), and those variants and deriv atives that represent the summit of Rachmaninoff's craft (transformations). Single Appearances Moment musical, Op. 16 No. 3 An isolated quotation sometimes occurs near the conclusion of pieces. These single statements of the Dies Irae can serve the purpose of drawing attention to the preceding or following material which is related to the motivic cell and which might otherwise go undetected. In the Moment musical. Op. 16 No. 3 (1896), a single statement of the chant appears at measure 33 out of a total of 54 measures. The bass octaves outline the Dies Irae in a funereal, march-like style: Example 43. Rachmaninoff, Moment musical. Op. 16 No. 3, mm. 32-33.79 79gergei Rachmaninoff, "Moment musical. Op. 16 No. 3," 6 Moments musicaux pour Piano, ed. Pavel Lamm (Moscow; Muzgiz, 1948), mm. 32-33. 64 The right hand simultaneously states the principal thematic Idea, to which the Dies Irae is a counter-melody. Examination of the fragment stated in the right hand reveals that it, too, may be a variant of the Dies Irae. It appears to be a freely inverted form of the chant fragment with a slight rhythmic alteration. Positive identification of this principal theme with the Dies Irae would most likely escape detection without a clear quotation near the end of the piece. This procedure, along with the gloomy mood of the Moment musical. Op. 16 No. 3, help to establish a strong resemblance between the two themes. A consideration required for the performance of this Moment musical is the matter of touch. The passage cited in Example 43 indi cates that a legato right hand is to be contrasted with a detached left hand. The sonorities Eachmaninoff creates demand arm weight from the pianist, and this fact in combination with the duality of touches pose a challenge to the performer. The legato effect is more a matter of timing and duration than actual physical connection, while the staccato must then be synchronized accordingly. Suite No. 2 for Two Pianos Another single appearance of the Dies Irae occurs twelve measures from the end of the first movement, "Introduction ," of Rachmaninoff's Suite No. 2 for Two Pianos^^ (1900-1901). This soli tary reference foreshadows skillful thematic usage in the second 80 Sergei Rachmaninoff, Suite No. 2 for Two Pianos (New York: International Music Company, 1953), 8. 65 movement, "Valse." The musical context is that of a march: 9#-ÉfT Tfft4- Example 44. Rachmaninoff, Suite No. 2 for Two Pianos, Introduction, mm. 146-49. This announcement of the Dies Irae (Example 44) is justified, since the second movement of the Suite No. 2 contains two themes based upon the motive. The figure which begins the "Valse" is the Dies Irae extended by two notes. The melodic projection of this figure rests upon the weaker fingers, 4 and 5: it- Example 45. Rachmaninoff, Suite No. 2 for Two Pianos, Valse, m. 9. 66 In the trio section of the Valse, Rachmaninoff cites the chant as a principal theme; m a m Example 46. Rachmaninoff, Suite No. 2 for Two Pianos, Valse, mm. 157-63. Thus, the chant motive is at once the figurative and thematic material of the second movement. Since no program for the Suite No. 2 exists, one relies upon the example of the waltz figure in The Bells (see page 55), and wonders further whether the bright mood of the Valse is a disguise for Rachmaninoff's sardonic wit. Prelude Op. 32 No. 4 The Prelude Op. 32 No. 4 (39L0) contains a single reference similar to the Dies Irae six measures from the end. A highly motivic setting of the chant, this exemplifies rhythmic augmentation of the figures prededing it. (See Example 47.) 67 & m m m m iz= iz= t m Example 47. Rachmaninoff, Prelude, Op . 32 No . 4 . mm. 150-51.8% The Prelude's chief configuration, presumably inspired by the Dies Irae, is an irregular pattern of double notes which present a significant challenge to the performer's kinesthetic sense of fingering: T' z J L . . ■? . H 7 é - • > d w 7 -■ 3 r J Example 48. Rachmaninoff, Prelude, Op. 32 No. 4, mms. 2-3. Qi Sergei Rachmaninoff, "Prelude Op. 32 No. 4," Thirteen Preludes. Op. 32 (New York: G. Schirmer, 1942), 23. 68 This same melodic figure enters at measure 27, stated by the left hand and imitated by the right. Symphonic in design, the figure is unpianistic for the left hand, and both the rapid tempo and detached articulation increase the difficulty of execution: Example 49. Rachmaninoff, Prelude, Op. 32 No. 4, mm. 27-28. Etude-tableau, Op. 33 No. 1 A single appearance of the Dies Irae found near the end of the Etude-tableau Op. 33 No. 1 (1911) is somewhat cryptic. It evidently serves an implicit programmatic function for the grotesque march which precedes it. However, no other use of the chant motive can be found within the etude: ij/' If Irfffji Example 50, Rachmaninoff, Etude-tableau, Op. 33 No. 1, m. 62.82 QO Sergei Rachmaninoff, "Etude-tableau, Op. 33 No. 1," Etudes-tableaux 0pp. 33 and 39, (New York: MCA Music, Inc., 1950), 8. 69 Plano Concerto No. 1 An interesting comparison exists between the unrevised Piano Concerto No. 1 (1891) and its later version (1917). The coda of the youthful work (measure 287) contains a subtle reference, which may only be coincidental. No articulation markings emphasize its importance, and the Dies Irae motive barely projects beyond the passage work: Example 51. Rachmaninoff, Piano Concerto No. 1, (unrevised), M. 302.83 Yet in the widely performed revised version, the motive is stated incisively by the flutes and trumpets, in a high register with staccato articulation: Example 52. Rachmaninoff, Piano Concerto No. 1, (revised), m. 291.84 83 Sergei Rachmaninoff, Piano Concerto No. 1, (first version) (New York: Edwin F. Kalmus, n.d. ), 44. 84gergei Rachmaninoff, Piano Concerto No; 1, (revised version) (New York: G. Schirmer, 1943), 22. 70 The revisions of the 1917 version clearly reveal maturation in Rachmaninoff's pianistic style as well as in his techniques of orches tration.®^ His attention to this figure in the revised edition raises the suspicion that the quotation was a conscious effort. The only circumstances common among single appearances is that they occur near the conclusions of pieces. They often point to an additional use of the motive, as in the cases of Examples 43-49. In a few cases (Examples 50, 51, and 52) no other references to the Dies Irae are evident. Among the former, it might be hypothesized that the compositional process took place in reverse order: that is, that an obvious quotation evolved from subconsciously related material. In these pieces, development essentially precedes thematic statement. In works such as the revised Piano Concerto No. 1 and Etude- tableau,, Op. 33 No. 1, it is possible that the solitary element of the Dies Irae became integrated with the style, requiring no further statement or development. This procedure is exemplified by the Symphony No. 3, a highly integrated work. Textural Devices Those uses of the chant motive which occur throughout a given composition and which are essentially figurative, may be considered textural devices. Included in this category of chant usage are prelude configurations, accompaniment patterns, and motivic fragments 85 An account of these revisions can be found in Threlfall-Norris, 31-36. 71 employed symphonically. Several such examples are found in the shorter piano pieces by Rachmaninoff, as well as in the symphonic works. Prelude in A Minor, Op. 32 No. 4®® A figure which appears throughout the Prelude in A Minor, Op. 32 No. 4 (1910) strongly resembles the Dies Irae. Although this state ment in rapid sixteenth notes contrasts sharply with the broad, chant like quotation in the Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini (see Example 39), their virtuoso contexts are comparable. Consequently, both suggest programmatic implications. The opening figure of the prelude recalls the nineteenth century notion that connected the demonic with the virtuoso (see page 58): Example 53. Rachmaninoff, Prelude in A Minor, Op. 32 No. 4, m. 1. ®^Sergei Rachmaninoff, "Prelude in A Minor, Op. 32 No. 4," Thirteen Preludes for the Piano (New York: G. Schirmer, Inc., 1942), 35. 72 The writing style in this prelude is reminiscent of Liszt's keyboard apadtations of Paganini's caprices for violin. There is considerable hand crossing, and a variety of touches which must be executed simultaneously : g Example 54. Rachmaninoff, Prelude in A Minor, Op. 32 No. 4, m. 4. Two passages which are illustrative of the pianistic demands of Rachmaninoff's music and which appear in this prelude, contain the Dies Irae motive. The first requires a characteristic coordination between sets of the right hand fingers 1,2,3 and 4,5: Example 55. Rachmaninoff, Prelude in A Minor, Op. 32 No. 4, mm. 20-21. The second passage expands this principle by using double notes in the right hand and moving in contrary motion at half the pace in the left hand. The fingering shift on the second beat, which facilitates the 73 widening intervals, is especially critical: Example 56. Rachmaninoff, Prelude in A Minor, Op. 32 No. 4, m. 43. Beyond the difficulty of the extended hand positions demonstrated by Examples 54 and 55 are the considerations of velocity (Vivo), dynamic level (fortissimo), and articulations. This combination accounts for the power and fine coordination necessary to perform the virtuoso works of Rachmaninoff. The Dies Irae figure is quite adaptable to idiomatic keyboard writing, since the four-note motive lies within a five-finger hand position. However, the difficulty arises when a passage that employs the motive extends outside this natural position. A hand shift must be made rapidly, and the fingers must readily adapt to the new position. Such patterns of fingering are characteristic of Rachmaninoff's style. Etude-tableau in A Minor, Op. 39 No. 2 The ostinato accompanying pattern in the Etude-tableau in A Minor Op. 39 No. 2 (1917) is a quotation of the chant. Rachmaninoff's use 74 of the double-stemmed notes emphasizes the importance of the Dies Irae: m Example 57. Rachmaninoff, Etude-tableau in A Minor, Op. .32 No. 4, mm. 3-4757 The gloominess of the Isle of the Dead is recalled in this etude. The key of A minor and tempo marking of Lento are common to both works, as is an intervallic similarity between the descending figures above the ostinato. The obvious use of the Dies Irae might suggest some likeness in program between the two works. Although each has an undulating ostinato, which may depict water, Rachmaninoff made but one reference to a program for the etude. In a letter to Ottorino Respighi, which responded to the letter's interest in orchestrating a group of the Etudes-tableaux, Rachmaninoff divulged an image of the sea and sea gulls for this composition. However, the true nature of his intent remains a mystery. Reportedly, this image was suggested to the composer by his wife.®® Five of the etudes were subsequently transcribed for orchestra by Respighi in 1930 and published as 87 Rachmaninoff, Etudes-tableaux 0pp. 33 and 39. op. cit., 47, 88 Cited in Bertensson-Leyda, Op. cit.. 262. 75 cinq Etudes-Tableaux de S.R. Orchestration de Ottorino Respighi.89 Symphony No. 3 The Symphony No. 3 (1935-36, revised 1938) Is one of Rachmaninoffs most Integrated compositions. Stylistic elements such as 1) modal, chant-llke subjects 2) brass fanfare figures, and 3) contrapuntal development are Interfused with skill and economy In this work. The Dies Irae figures prominently, and performs several functions simultaneously. The motive Is at once thematic, textural, and transformed; thus It Is a difficult work to categorize according to chant function. Since each of the chant's appearances contribute a vertical detail to the overall texture of the symphony. Inclusion In the present discussion of textural devices seems appropriate. Significant appearances of the Dies Irae motive occur primarily In the third movement. However, allusions to the motive can be traced to the first and second movements as well. These mere suggestions are not to be confused with quotations, as they are fragments combined with other composed material. The organic unity of the 90 Symphony No. 3 Is predicated upon such relationships, and the Influence of the Dies Irae upon Rachmaninoff's late style can be realized by observing representative examples In this work. The second theme of the first movement suggests the melodic contours of the chant In two places. (See Example 58.) 89 Cited In Threlfall-Norrls, op. cit., 125. 90 Sergei Rachmaninoff, Symphony No. 3 (New York: Belwln Mills Publishing Corp., 1973), 209-60. 76 jirniim Example 58. Rachmaninoff, Symphony No. 3 . First movement, mm. 11-16. The second movement employs an accompanying ostinato figure in which the identity of the motive is clarified beyond the previous example. This figure is a non-thematic, sub-structural feature, however it is highly exposed, stated by the cellos: Example 59. Rachmaninoff, Symphony No. 3. Second movement, m. 135. The third movement contains several fragmentary references to the chant, the first being a fanfare-like motive stated by the brasses. This figure is transitional, and adds color and rhythmic vitality to the texture: X < JC 'k X m ^ If- iC Example 60. Rachmaninoff, Symphony No. 3■ Third movement, mm. 26-28. 77 A fugue subject at measure 94 consists of previously stated elements, namely the first motto theme of the movement and the Dies Irae; • > i. t L — * » % * Example 61. Rachmaninoff, Symphony No. 3. Third movement, mm. 94-96. This is a thematic appearance of the motive, which Threlfall acknowledges.^^ The usage within a contrapuntal texture, however, justifies its consideration as a vertical feature of the symphony. The notes marked with x's (see Example 61) represent a fragment of the subject used sequentially in the episodes which begin at measure 136. The finale of the third movement makes extensive use of the motive. At measure 342, an articulated reference presages the coda: Example 62. Rachmaninoff, Symphony No. 3. Third movement, m. 342. 91 Threlfall-Norris, op. cit., 143. 78 The chief figure of the coda is clearly derived from the same source: '4JG- Example 63. Rachmaninoff, Symphony No. 3. Third movement, m. 349. Transformations When the Dies Irae is transformed, the usage of the chant ceases to be mere quotation. Instead, the motive gains new identity and autonomy. Within the many works in which the motive appears, redundancy is avoided due to the variety that imaginative transforma tion affords. However, positive identification of the Dies Irae becomes an increasingly subjective judgment. The question of precisely when a transformation becomes a new melody might well be asked. This is especially problematic in those pieces which present a motive or theme that resembles the Dies Irae without the context (program matic implication, virtuoso effect, etc.) or compositional process to verify its identification. The chief melodic figures from two preludes exemplify the dilemma: Example 64. Rachmaninoff, Prelude, Op. 23 No. 4, mm. 1-4.®^ Q2 Sergei Rachmaninoff, Prelude in D Major, Op. 23 No. 4, 10 Preludes (New York: G. Schirmer, 1942) 18-21. 79 S Il fT I tuî Exampile 65. Rachmaninoff, Prelude, Op. 32, No. 12, mm. 1-3.93 It seems plausible that an unconscious assimilation of the motive is manifest in the themes of these preludes. Yet such melodic shapes were not uncommon among nineteenth century composers, who demonstrated little or no interest in the Dies Irae. One such example was discovered during the preparation of the present study. The Intermezzo, Op. 11,8 No. 6 by Johannes Brahms (1833-97) was one of the few works by this composer which Rachmaninoff performed. The primary thematic idea in the intermezzo strongly resembles the Dies Irae theme : a f t a r Example 66. Brahms, Intermezzo, Op. 118 No. 6, mm. 1-4.94 93 Rachmaninoff, 13 Preludes, op. cit., 50. 94 Johannes Brahms, Samtliche Werke, Band 14: Kleinere Klavierwerke. ed. E. Mandyczewski (Leipzig: Breitkopf und HSrtel, 1926-27), 159. 80 In a New'York recital given on February 19, 1927, Rachmaninoff performed this piece by Brahms. The following day, in the New York Evening Post, pianist Olga Samaroff reflected upon his unorthodox treatment of this theme: This directness destroys in my opinion, the mystery and "half-lights" which under the fingers of a Gabrilowitsch seem to form the undeniable characteristic note of the piece. Brahms clearly indicated the establishment of this general mood in the opening of the said work by marking the first four measures :piano," "sotto voce" and the repetition of the phrase beginning at the fifth measure, pianissimo in the treble with a triple pian issimo in the bass. Mr. Rachmaninoff played all these measures forte or mezzo forte, thus throwing a clear, decisive light on the outlines of the music. Rachmaninoff's choice of this piece and direct interpretation of its theme suggest his assumption that Brahms was quoting or implying the Dies Irae prominently. Rachmaninoff's performances as a pianist were notoriously idiosyncratic, and it stands to reason that this opportun ity to bring the Dies Irae to the collective consciousness of his listeners was irresistible. The transformations that follow occur in works of large enough structure to permit their compositional processes to be traced. If the Dies Irae is accepted as a pliable motive, then deliberate use by Rachmaninoff can be verified beyond mere conjecture. 95 Cited in Bertensson-Leyda, op. cit., 247. 81 Symphony No. 2 During the years 1905-06, Rachmaninoff was preoccupied with vocal music. He continued work on the unfinished opera Monna Vanna, com posed the fifteen songs which comprise his Op. 26, and saw productions of his two completed operas. The Miserly Knight and Francesca da Rimini, at the Bolshoi Theater in Moscow. As a conductor, he performed Rimsky-Korsakov's newest opera. Pan Voyevoda.^^ It is not surprising then that his symphonic creation of 1906-07 is a highly thematic work. To the composer's rich melodic talents, the Symphony No. 2 owes much of its success and enduring popularity. In an article which reveals the presence of the Dies Irae theme throughout the Symphony No. 2 , David Rubin notes that the motive 97 accounts for structural unity and coherence of an organic nature. The motive is implicit in the introductory Largo of the first movement: r Example 67. Rachmaninoff, Symphony No. 2 , First movement, mm. 3-5 .9° ^^Bertensson-Leyda, op. cit.. 112-117 97oavid Rubin, "Transformations of the Dies Irae in Rachmaninov's second Symphony," The Music Review XXIII (1962), 134. 98sergei Rachmaninoff, Symphony No. 2 (Melville, New York: Belwin Mills Publishing Corporation, 1972), 160. 82 A true quotation of the chant appears near the opening of the second movement : Example 68» Rachmaninoff, Symphony No. 2. Second movement, mm. 3-7. This appearance demonstrates a transformational technique which extends the Dies Irae motive, and provides a subtle approach to Its quotation. The three notes preceding the actual chant fragment serve as an anacrusis. Borrowing a linguistic analogy, the present writer has assigned the term "prefix" to that material which precedes the Dies Irae. A prefix may consist of a single note (see Example 65) or several (see Example 67). The prefixes are responsible for much of the rhythmic vitality found In Rachmaninoff's transformed Dies Irae themes. The characteristic Interval of a second, derived from the original chant. Is sometimes repeated within a thematic phrase. Therefore, when the Dies Irae Is of verifiable Identity, as few as two notes In context become evidence of the motive. The following musical passage Is further transformed by chromatic alteration. (See Example 69.) 83 » y % K d t L A#/ 3p : zjjj: 'Example 69. Rachmaninoff, Symphony No. 2 Second movement, mm. 78-81. Another transformational technique can be seen in the second theme of the first movement. When the Dies Irae fragment is relocated to a position at the end of a phrase, it then serves as a "suffix" to a thematic idea. r-— srrrrjr Example 70. Rachmaninoff, Symphony No. 2 First movement, mm. 142-45. In the position of a suffix, the Dies Irae successfully releases the melodic tension created by the ascending line that precedes it. One element accountable for Rachmaninoff's prolonged climaxes is evidenced here. When handled skillfully, the alternating motion of the motive 84 descends at two discrete levels: «■ u I 1 ---- i t ------Cl , ------:------ u i v e u r Figure 2 Through careful use of the anticipation, Rachmaninoff assigns a primary role to the level higher in pitch (Level 1), and a secondary role to that which is lower (Level 2). In Example 70, the higher notes form a series of suspended anticipations which sustain the melodic climax. The descent occurs more slowly than the ascent, while Level 2 in this example is a single note, B. The Dies Irae suffix in Example 70 has an urgency about it, resulting from a rhythmic design based upon an inherent property of the chant melody. No mention of the Symphony No. 2 would be complete without comment on the third movement Adagio theme. Rubin considers it "the most ingenious variation of the motive," and explains its relationship to the Dies Irae as follows.(See Example 71.) 99 Rubin, op. cit., 35. 85 I Example 71. Rachmaninoff, Symphony No. 2. Third movement, mm. 1-3. Such usages of the Dies Irae are most elusive because the actual notes of the chant are widely separated. The identity of the motive in Example 71 is further clouded by tonal context. To facilitate the distinction between these extended outlines and their more audible counterparts, in which the chant notes are close together, two classes of transformation are noted in this study. The first class is called variants. Variants are concise units of chant reference which are generally linked together to form transitional figures. Sequential treatment often occurs within these figures. Such an example appears as the transitional figure at measure 48 in the third movement of the Symphony No. 2 : Example 72. Rachmaninoff, Symphony No. 2. Third movement, mm. 48-50. 86 The second class of transformation is called derivatives. Deriva tives are those quotations in which the notes of the Dies Irae motive are widely separated (see Example 71), and which serve as primary thematic material. Themes which are derivatives of the Dies Irae often transcend recognition as the chant motive. As such, they constitute some of Rachmaninoff's most sophisticated trans formations. The Isle of the Dead incorporates simultaneous use of variant and derivative in its central theme (see Example 31). A true symphonist in the tradition of Berlioz and Liszt, Rachmaninoff was both facile and imaginative in his symphonic applications of transformation. These symphonic applications increase the unity within the works for solo piano, such as in the Sonata No. 2. Sonata No. 2 Rachmaninoff revised the original version of the Sonata No. 2^^^ (1913) during the summer of 1931. The revisions were extensive and focused upon condensing and thinning out dense textures.The composer achieved a succinct second version, in which the three move ments are linked together in the style of a single-movement fantasy. Newman points out that the most vital structural principle of the Sonata No. 2 is its type of variation. Variation, as it appears throughout this work, is based upon repetition through free alteration ^^^Sergei Rachmaninoff, Sonata No. 2 in B-flat Minor, Op. 36. New York: International Music Company, [n.d^ ), 2-31. ^®^An account of these revisions is found in Threlfall-Norris, 116. 87 102 of melodic, rhythmic, harmonic, and figurative aspects.The use of the classes of transformation, variants and derivatives, assists with an understanding of the application of the Dies Irae in this work. Although the Dies Irae is an essential structural element in the Sonata No. 2, its identity is implicit through a number of seemingly related motives. No programmatic intentions exist for the work. The sonata begins with a rapidly descending figure that is largely triadic in construction: Example 73. Rachmaninoff. Sonata No. 2 First movement, mm. 1-2. At measure 3, the primary motive of the movement is stated: Example 74. Rachmaninoff. Sonata No. 2. First movement, m. 3. 102, Newman, op. cit., 721. 88 It is likely that Rachmaninoff chose these closely-related motives because of their tonal strength and the potential contrast with lyrical themes. It would be surprising if the composer had any connection with the Dies Irae in mind at this point in the work. The characteristic alternating motion of the chant becomes audible when the first transition to the restatement of the principal motive appears, % % Example 75. Rachmaninoff, Sonata No. 2 . First movement, m. 5. and again in one of the episodes which precedes the second theme: Example 76. Rachmaninoff, Sonata No. 2 First movement, mm. 19-23. Examples 75 and 76 illustrate the Dies Irae as a variant. Each is a figure in which the chant notes are close together, and in which they serve a transitional function. The exposition is dominated by such variants; among the others most notable are those found at measures 28 and 36. 89 The lyrical second theme begins exactly as did the first theme (see Example 74), and outlines the chant clearly. This theme is a derivative, with its chant notes separated by passing tones. The recognition of the Dies Irae is further disguised by the harmonization, which gives the chromatic alteration a new character by using parallel harmonies; % % X X Example 77. Rachmaninoff, Sonata No. 2. First movement, m. 38. The second theme closes with a figure which appears to be the Dies Irae functioning as a suffix: ¥ i Example 78. Rachmaninoff, Sonata No. 2. First movement, mm. 41-42. Within the exposition, the chief source of variety is found in the harmonic style. There is a constantly shifting presence of chromatic and diatonic harmony. The parallel harmonic construction which supports the second theme (see Example 77) preserves a chant like .quality, and contrasts with other settings throughout the Sonata No. 2. 90 The development section reaffirms the identity of the motive as it appeared in the exposition. Two episodic variants are expecially significant. The first is a thematic fragment: Example 79. Rachmaninoff, Sonata No. 2. First movement, mm. 68-70. The second is a motivic fragment: Example 80. Rachmaninoff, Sonata No. 2. First movement, mm. 72-73. The central theme of the second movement is a chant motive which has been inverted and stated sequentially: itTViiinr Example 81. Rachmaninoff, Sonata No. 2. Second movement, mm. 145-47. 91 The structural unity of this movement is reinforced by the Dies Irae in two ways, for the motive is the subject for continuous variations within the movement, while it also appears as a cyclic element. The third movement presents a series of motivic fragments based upon the Dies Irae in a manner similar to the first movement. A cumu lative and nervous energy is created by the linkage of these fragments, which gradually increases in rhythmic momentum. At two points within the movement, the relentless motion created by these fragments yields to chant quotation. The first interruption occurs at the juncture of the second and third movements, where it increases the tempo: Example 82. Rachmaninoff, Sonata No. 2. Third movement, mm. 228-29. The second transitional motive is more prominent and appears in quarter note values, which retard the prevailing triplet movement: - w # I Example 83. Rachmaninoff, Sonata No. 2. Third movement, mm. 250-53. 92 One should observe the prominence of the chant when it is quoted directly, within a work which is predicated upon the Dies Irae in its transformed state. The contrasting lyrical theme, which ultimately becomes its "heroic" or "triumphal" element, parallels that theme which appeared antithetically to the Dies Irae in the Isle of the Dead. Although a thematic relationship to the Dies Irae is not immediately apparent in the contrasting theme from the third movement of the Sonata No. 2 , the chant motive is employed as a suffix: Example 84. Rachmaninoff, Sonata No. 2. Third movement, mm. 298-99. Final confirmation occurs in the last cadential figure. Here, the displacement of chant notes is most deceiving and easily overlooked in favor of concluding bravura: Example 85. Rachmaninoff, Sonata No. 2. Third movement, mm. 452-54. 93 The performance demands of the Sonata No. 2 fall clearly into the domain of the virtuoso. The work is characterized by wide leaps and unrelenting momentum. However, the nature of the Dies Irae in its transformed versions endow this sonata with special profundity. The categories of (1) single appearances (2) textural devices, and (3) transformation constitute representative treatment of the Dies Irae by Rachmaninoff. As thase usages vary in type, they also vary in function. In summary, single appearances are statements which direct attention to preceding or subsequent chant material, while textural devices are figurative usages, and transformations are thematic applications of the classes variant and derivative. Through his constant employment of the Dies Irae in the piano music, Rachmaninoff transcended traditional idiomatic boundaries. From the single element of the chant, new problems of execution have become standard demands of the pianist. These new problems include touch, fingering, phrasing, and virtuoso effect. The transferral of symphonic compositional technique to music for piano is particularly evident within these uses of the Dies Irae. CHAPTER VI SUMMARY The Sequence Dies Irae has indeed stimulated artistic imagination throughout history. The medieval chant was particularly represen tative of the (1) literary inclinations (2) revitalized Catholicism, and (3) revival of medievalism which characterized the nineteenth century in France. Within that historical context, the Dies Irae was incorporated into two highly influential works : Berlioz' Symphonie fantastique and Liszt's Totentanz. These compositions, which demonstrate thematic applications of the chant, exercised significant influence upon Russian composers of the late nineteenth century. Through his conducting and experiences as a pianist, Rachmaninoff gained intimate familiarity with these works. The assumption that Rachmaninoff's chief exposure to the secular use of the chant melody was with these scores, is fundamental to this study. A peculiar Russian predilection for fantasy and episodic treat ment altered the role and function of the Dies Irae. Musorgsky's Night on Bald Mountain exemplifies usage of the first four chant notes, in comparison tc the seven chant notes quoted in the Symphonie fantastique. Such usage shifted the role of the chant from the thematic to the motivic. Further development of foreshortening and transformational techniques resulted in a subtle difference between quotation and implication. The degree of episodic usage and 94 95 transformation achieved by Musorgsky suggests new standards for identifying the motive within Rachmaninoff's works. Tracing the historical development of the Dies Irae provides a perspective on the inherent properties of the Sequence as perceived by other composers. One such property, which developed concurrently with historical trends was the association of the brass fanfare with the portion of the text 'Tuba mirum.' The transition from a sacred to secular context introduces another dimension which Rachmaninoff would ultimately explore. The purpose of investigating quotational techniques in Rachmaninoff's prototypes and works of known intention is to establish criteria against which to judge more abstract examples. The resulting standards facilitate understanding of Rachmaninoff's ability to supply his music with extra-musical implication. The present study concludes these standards to be: (1) four notes from the chant may constitute quotation (2) acceptable quotation may include intervallic alteration (3) suspected quotation may be verified retroactively, upon observation of substantial evidence. The question of the composer's motivation for quoting the Dies Irae in such abundance remains unanswered. Surely, his gloomy, depressive personality is partially accountable, as is his character istically emotional Slavic background. However, the present study infers a relationship between a nineteenth century perception of virtuosity and the Dies Irae figures found in the solo piano music. Liszt's expansions of idiomatic piano technique, and their violinistic 96 counterparts in the works of Paganini, demonstrated a supernatural or demoniacal dimension of perfection. Rachmaninoff's continuation of this idiomatic development was often achieved through figures based upon the Dies Irae. Consequently, the motive supplies Rachmaninoff's piano music with a quintessentially Romantic element, the expressive perfection of virtuosity. The Dies Irae motive, in its appearances as programmatic quotation, textural device, and transfozmation, endows Rachmaninoff's music with the boundlessness that epitomizes the spirit of the nineteenth century. BIBLIOGRAPHY Abraham, Gerald. On Russian Music. New York; Johnson Reprint Corporation, 1970, reprint of edition of London, 1939. A Hundred Years of Music 3rd ed. Chicago: Aldine Publishing Co., 1964, reprint of ediction of London, 1938. Barzun, Jacques. Berlioz and the Romantic Century. 3rd ed. 2 vols. New York: Columbia University Press, 1969. Berlioz, Hector. The Memoirs of Hector Berlioz, trans. David Cairns. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1969. Bertensson, Sergei and Jay Leyda. Sergei Rachmaninoff'. London: George Allen and Unwin, Ltd., 1956. Blume, Friedrich. "Requiem But No Peace," The Creative World of Mozart. Paul Henry Lang. New York: W.W. Norton and Co., 1963, 103-26. Boyd, Malcolm. "The Dies Irae: Some Recent Manifestations," Music and Letters XLIX (1969), 347-56. Bukofzer, Manfred. Music in the Baroque Era. New York: W.W. Norton and Co., 1947. Deane, Basil. "Cherubini, Luigi," The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 20 vols., ed. Stanley Sadie. London: Macmillan, 1980, IV, 203-13. Doolittle, Dorothy W. The Relations Between Literature and Medieval Studies in France from 1820 to 1860. Ph.D. dissertation, Bryn Mawr, 1933. Evans, David Owen. Social Romanticism in France, 1830-48. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1951. Fellerer, Karl Gustav. Geschichte der Katholischen Kirchenmusik. trans. Francis A. Brunner. Baltimore: Helicon Press, 1961. Giebler, Albert. "Kerll, Johann Kaspar," The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 20 vols., ed. Stanley Sadie. London: Macmillan, 1980, LX, 874-76. Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von. Faust, ed. Cyrus Hamlin, trans. Walter Arndt. New York: W.W. Norton and Co., 1976. 97 98 Gregory, Robin. "'Dies Irae,'" Music and Letters XXXIV (1953), 133-39. Julian, John. "Dies Irae," Dictionary of Hymnology, reprint of the edition of London, 1907, New York: Dover Publications, 1957, I, 295-300. Kindermann, Jürgen. "Foreword" his ed. of Grande Messe des Morts by Hector Berlioz: Bürenreiter Verlag, 1978. La Rue, Jan. Guidelines for Style Analysis. New York: W.W. Norton and Co., 1970. Lück, Rudolf. "Foreword" of his edition of Requiem in C Minor by Luigi Cherubini. New York: C.F. Peters, [n.djj , vili-xii. Macdonald, Hugh. "Berlioz, (Louis-) Hector," The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 20 vols., ed. Stanley Sadie. London : Macmillan, 1980, II, 579-610. Newman, William S. The Sonata Since Beethoven. 2nd ed. New York: W.W. Norton and Co., 1972. Norris, Geoffrey. Rakhmaninov. London: J.M. Dent and Sons,’ 1976. ______. "Rakhmaninov, Sergey," The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. 20 vols., ed. Stanley Sadie. London : Macmillan, 1980, XV, 550-58. Petti, Anthony G. "Introduction" to his edition of the Missa Pro Defunctis ([ l 5 8 ^ ) by Giovanni Anerio. London: W. & W. Chester, 1966, 1. Piggott, Patrick. Rachmaninov Orchestral Music. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1974. Poe, Edgar Allen. Collected Works, 3 vols., ed. Thomas Olliver Mabbott. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1969. Primmer, Brian. The Berlioz Style. London: Oxford University Press, 1973. Robertson, Alec. Requiem: Music of Mourning and Consolation. New York: Praeger, 1967. Rubin, David. "Transformations of the Dies Irae in Rachmaninov's Second Symphony," The Music Review XXIII (1962) 132-36. 99 Seroff, Victor I. Rachmaninoff. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1950. Snow, Robert. "Requiem Mass, Music of," The New Catholic Encyclopedia, 17 vols., New York: McGraw Hill and Co., 1967, XII, 385-87. Threlfall, Robert and Geoffrey Norris. A Catalogue.of the Compositions of S. Rachmaninoff. London: Scolar Press, 1982. Vellekoop, Kees. Dies Ire Dies Ilia. Ph.D. dissertation, Rijksuniversiteit "Utrecht, Holland, 1978. White, John D. The Analysis of Music. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1976. RECORD NOTES Raugel, Felix, insert to recording of Jean-Baptiste Lully's Motet "Dies Irae," performed by the Choir and Orchestra Lamoureux, conducted by Marcel Courant (Archive 3097),In.(^. MUSICAL EDITIONS Berlioz, Hector. Hector Berlioz New Edition of the Complete Works, 23 vols, to date, ed. J. Kindermann. Kassel: BËrenreiter, 1978. Fantastic Symphony, ed. Edward T. Cone. New York: W.W. Norton, 1971 Brahms, Johannes. SMmtliche Werke, Band 14: Kleinere Klavierwerke, ed. E. Mandyczewski. Leipzig: Breitkopf and HSrtel, 1926-27. Brumel, Antoine. Opera omnia, 8 vols., ed. Armen Carapetyan and Barton Hudson. Rome: American Institute of Musicology, 1951, IV, 65-79. Cherubini, Luigi. Requiem Mass in C Minor, ed. Rudolf Lück. New York: C.F, Peters, ^n.d^. ______. Requiem Mass No. 2 . London: Eulenberg, 1962. Graduale Sacrosanctae Romanae Ecclesiae. Paris: Desclee, 1927. Kerll, Johann Kaspar "Missa Pro Defunctis," ([l68^) Vol. LIX of DenkmMler der Tonkunst in Dsterreich, ed. Guido Adler. Wien: Universal-Edition, 1923. Liszt, Franz. Totentanz "Danse Macabre Paraphraseraphrase tiber 'Dies Irae,'" ed. Max Alberti. New York: Eulenberg , t'n.S.J. 100 Lully, Jean-Baptiste. Oeuyres completes de J.B. Lully (1632-87), 10 vols., ed. Henri Prunl&res. Paris: Editions de La Revue Musicale, 1931. Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus. Neue Ausgabe sHmtlicher Werke, Ser. 1, Abteilung 2; Requiem, Teilband 1; Mozarts Fragment, ed. Leopold Nowak. Kassel: B^renreiter Verlag, 1965. Musorgsky, Modeste. Night on Bald Mountain. Leipzig: Eulenberg,(^.d^). Salieri, Antonio. Requiem, ed. Johannes Wojciechowski. Frankfurt: Henri Litolff, 1978. Victoria, Tomas Luis de. "Missa Pro Defunctis," edited and translated C. Buell Agay. New York: G. Schirmer, 1969. 101 WORKS BY RACHMANINOFF CITED IN THIS STUDY Rachmaninoff, Sergei. [1890-9^ Concerto No. 1 ([First versiotj ) New York: Edwin F. Kalmus n.d. . Jl896] 6 Moments musicaux pour Piano. ed. Pavel A. Lamm. Moscow: MUZGIZ, 1948. (l900-190^ Suite No. 2 for Two Pianos. New York: International Music Company, 1953. [l906-190!^ Symphony No. 2 . Melville, New York: Belwin Mills Publishing Corporation, 1972. ______. ^ 907} Sonata No. 1 . New York: International Music Company,[n.d^. _ . [190^ Die Toteninsel-The Isle of the Dead. Moscow: Muzyka, 1973, reprint of edition of Moscow, 1909. ______. [1910I Thirteen Preludes for the Piano. New York: G. Schirmer, Incorporated, 1942. ^19i 4 Etudes Tableaux 0pp. 33 and 39. New York: MCA Music Incorporated, 1950. ______. [1913) Die Glocken-The Bells, translated into Russian by Konstantin Balmont, retranslated into English by Fanny S. Copeland. New York: Boosey and Hawkes Music Publishers, Limited, 1979. [1917} Concerto, No. 1 ( [Revised version^ ) . New York: G. Schirmer,'Incorporated, 1943. ______. ^193^ Rapsodie sur un theme de Paganini pour Piano et Orchestre. New Yotk: Belwin Mills Publishing Corporation, 1973, reprint of edition of New York of 1934. ______. ^193^ Sonata No. 2 ([Revised version]). New York; International Music Company,[n.d.]. . [1935-36 and 193bJ Symphony No. 3 . Melville, New York: Belwin Mills Publishing Corporation, 1972.