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Home , American Falls Dam, Bonneville Dam, Cascade Locks and Canal, Columbia Basin Project, Columbia Lake, Columbia River

THE SYSTEM INSIDE STORY THE SYSTEM INSIDE STORY

SECOND EDITION

FEDERAL COLUMBIA RIVER POWER SYSTEM

BONNEVILLE POWER ADMINISTRATION

U.S. BUREAU OF RECLAMATION U.S. ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS Published April 2001

This publication is an updated version of the original prepared for the System Operation Review, a joint project of the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and Bonneville Power Administration.

Photo Credits: U.S. Bureau of Reclamation U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Bonneville Power Administration Power Planning Council Philip W. Thor

If you have comments or questions, please contact:

Bonneville Power Administration U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, NWD U.S. Bureau of Reclamation 1-503-230-3000 1-503-808-3710 1-208-378-5021 P.O. Box 3621 P.O. Box 2870 1150 N. Curtis Road, Suite 100 , 97208-3621 Portland, Oregon 97208-2870 Boise, 83706-1234

Printed on recycled paper TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. Introduction ...... 2

II. The Columbia River System ...... 4 A. The Basin ...... 4 B. Uses of the River System . . 6 C. The and Water Projects ...... 9 D. The Coordinated Columbia River System ...... 16

III. The Agencies and the Operating Agreements ...... 18 A. The Forecasters ...... 18 B. Project Owner/ Operators & Affiliated Agencies...... 18 C. The NMFS Regional Implementation Forum...... 20 D. The Operating Agreements and Guidelines...... 21

IV. System Operation – The Big Picture ...... 26 A. Hydrology of the Basin . . 26 B. The Drivers of System Operations ...... 27 C. Overview of System Operations ...... 27

V. Multiple Uses of the System ...... 32 A. Control ...... 33 B. Fish and Wildlife . . . . . 38 C. Power Generation . . . . 45 D. Navigation ...... 52 E. ...... 53 F. Recreation...... 55 G. Water Supply and Water Quality ...... 55 H. Cultural Resources . . . . 56

VI. System Planning & Operations ...... 58 A. Operating Strategy ...... 58 B. The PNCA Planning Process ...... 60 C. In-Season Management for ...... 63 D. Real-Time Operations . . 64 E. System Operation: In Action...... 66

VII. Conclusion ...... 70

Appendix A Northwest Hydro Projects ...... 72

Appendix B Glossary...... 74

Appendix C Acronyms and Abbreviations ...... 76

Appendix D Reference List ...... 78 I. Introduction

Celilo Falls, shown here, was a Native American fishing site before The Dalles was built. The Federal government is working to encourage more tribal involvement in planning and operating decisions.

The Columbia River is projects throughout the system. Through cooperative one of the greatest natural region are fed by the waters efforts, that periodi- resources in the western of the Columbia Basin river cally threaten development . The river and near the river can be its touch the lives controlled. of nearly every resident of This publication presents the —from a detailed explanation of fostering world-famous the planning and operation Pacific salmon to supplying of the multiple-use dams clean natural fuel for 50 to and of the 65 percent of the region’s Columbia River system. It electrical generation. describes the river system, Since early in the 20th those who operate and use century, public and private it, the agreements and agencies have labored to Federal water projects, including policies that guide system capture the benefits of this Lower Dam on the Snake operations, and annual River, were constructed on the dynamic river. Today, dozens planning for multiple-use Columbia River and its tributaries of major water resource from the 1930s to the mid-1970s. operation. A glossary 2 and a reference list can be (USFWS) to recover several found at the end of this stocks of salmon document. and the River The Inside Story was white . The SOR originally written for the provided the environmental participants in a multiyear analysis of the ESA strategy environmental study of river and led to renewal of An operating operations called the the Pacific Northwest strategy was Columbia River System Coordination Agreement Operation Review (SOR). (PNCA) and other developed that The SOR was conducted agreements related to the supports recovery jointly by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Corps), the (Treaty) between the of Columbia Basin U.S. Bureau of Reclamation United States and . fish listed under (Reclamation), and the These complex contracts Bonneville Power Administra- are explained in the the Endangered tion (BPA). In 1995, as a following pages. Species Act, as result of actions under the Electricity generated on the river If you have questions Endangered Species Act powers homes and businesses or comments about the well as other, (ESA) and the SOR, the three throughout the Northwest. Columbia River system, non-listed species. Federal agencies formally we invite you to contact adopted an operating The strategy incorporated one of the agencies at the strategy for the river system the recommendations of the addresses and phone that supports the recovery National Marine numbers on the inside of Columbia River Basin Service (NMFS) and the U.S. front cover of this fish listed under the ESA. Fish and Wildlife Service publication.

The river and its reservoirs provide countless recreational opportunities for residents and visitors to the Northwest.

3 A. The Basin and . In addition, the empties into the Pacific Columbia River Basin near Astoria, Oregon. The Columbia River is drainage covers 102,300 The the predominant river in the square kilometers (39,500 to the east and north, the Pacific Northwest. It is the square miles) in British on the west, 15th longest river in North Columbia, Canada. and the to the II. and carries the sixth The Columbia River south are the principal largest volume of runoff. originates at boundaries of the Columbia The Columbia The river and its tributaries on the west slope of British River Basin. Within the River System are the region’s dominant Columbia’s Rocky Mountains. drainage, there are numerous water system. The system It flows from Canada into the sub-basins formed by drains 567,000 square kilo- United States and eventually tributaries of the mainstem meters (219,000 square miles) becomes the border between river. The major tributaries in seven western U.S. states: Oregon and . in the United States are the Washington, Oregon, Idaho, The river is 1,954 kilometers Kootenai, the Flathead/ , , , (1,214 miles) long, and it Pend Oreille, the Snake, and the Willamette. The Columbia River Uses The Highs and Lows of . On average, about 25 percent of the Columbia River flow comes from Canada. Before any mainstem dams were built, natural instantaneous at the border ranged from as low as 396 cubic meters per second (m3/s) (14,000 cubic feet per second (cfs)) to as high as 15,575 m3/s (550,000 cfs). This enormous variation in flow is seasonal. Most of the annual precipi- tation in the Columbia River Basin occurs in the winter with the largest share falling in the mountains as . The moisture that is stored during the winter in the snowpack is released in the and early A. D. Power G. Navigation B. Recreation E. H. Water Supply summer, and about 60 C. Irrigation F. Fish & Wildlife I. Cultural Resources percent of the natural runoff in the basin occurs The people of the Northwest use the Columbia River in nine primary ways. The water projects make up a multiple-use system. during May, June, and July.

4 The Columbia River Basin Major Federal Dams

Today, dozens - COLUMBIA RIVER AND MAJOR TRIBUTARIES - STATE BORDERS of major water - COLUMBIA RIVER BASIN - MAJOR FEDERAL DAMS resource projects throughout the

Hungry Horse region are fed BRITISH COLUMBIA Libby

Albeni Falls by the Columbia Grand

Lower Granite River. Dworshak

Little Goose Lower M Ice Harbor Runoff: That part of precipitation, Co ia River lumb onum , or irrigation water that runs M cNary ental PACIFC The Dalles off the land into or other Bonneville MONTANA OCEAN .

OREGON

IDAHO

S n ak Streamflow: Streamflow refers to the rate e Riv er and volume of water flowing in various sections of the river. Streamflow records are compiled from measurements taken at particular points on the river, such as The Dalles, Oregon.

The Columbia drains 258,500 square miles in the United States and Canada.

The Columbia River has acre-feet) annually. Southwest. Federal agencies an average annual runoff at For operational purposes, have built 29 major dams Major Dams: Large hydro-electric projects developed by Federal agencies within its mouth of about 244 billion runoff is usually measured on the river and its the Pacific Northwest. Twenty-nine major dams are in the Columbia River cubic meters (198 million at The Dalles, Oregon. Here tributaries. Dozens of Basin. Two dams are in the acre-feet) (average year- the annual average is 165 larger non-Federal projects, Basin. A total of 31 dams comprise the Federal Power System. round flows of 7,787 m3/s billion cubic meters (134 and hundreds of small Acre-feet: A common measure of the (275,000 cfs)), making it million acre-feet) (average impoundments, have been volume of water in the river system. It is 3 the amount of water it takes to cover second only to the Missouri- year-round flows of 5,038 m /s developed as well. These one acre to a depth of one foot. system in (177,900 cfs)). dams provide flood control, the United States in runoff. Beginning in 1909, the irrigation, navigation, and The Canadian portion of the Columbia River has been recreation benefits. In basin generally contributes harnessed for the benefit of addition, they form one of about 62 billion cubic the U.S. Pacific Northwest the largest hydroelectric meters (50.2 million and the Canadian Pacific systems in the world.

5 Columbia River Streamflows

1,400,000

- HIGHEST EVER OBSERVED 1,200,000 - AVERAGE

- LOWEST EVER OBSERVED 1,000,000 Flow (Cubic Feet Per Second)

800,000

600,000 Columbia River dams provide 400,000 flood control, 200,000 irrigation, 0 navigation, OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP power generation, and recreation Flow on the Columbia River is generally measured at The Dalles, Oregon. Historic records show an annual pattern, with peak flows in late spring. benefits to the B. Uses of the downstream migration. More salmon and sturgeon fall Northwest. work is under way to under the protection of River System enhance fish passage. the ESA, and this has Indian tribes and commer- become an important factor There are nine primary cial and sport anglers share in how the hydro system uses of the Columbia River the salmon and steelhead is operated. system. harvest in the river. Nearly • Fish and wildlife • Flood control. 401,000 kilograms (900,000 habitat. The Columbia Basin Because the Columbia pounds) of steelhead trout is alive with wildlife and River’s flow varies so widely, and chinook, coho, chum, both resident and migrating the river is subject to severe and were fish. State and Federal laws floods. Controlling the caught in 1998. Fish hatch- require protection of the damaging floodwaters was eries are an important part habitat that supports these one of the original purposes of the river system. Some animals. The region has spent for many of the dams on stocks of Columbia Basin hundreds of millions of dollars the river. Flood control restoring and protecting remains a high priority for habitat. The investments system operations during include programs to reestab- high runoff years. lish , control • Fish migration. The of streambanks, purchase Columbia River is famous for sensitive wildlife tracts, its salmon runs. Federal dams : A series of stair-step pools and acquire harvest rights in the lower Columbia and that enables salmon to get past the for old growth timber to dams. Swimming from pool to pool, Snake have salmon work their way up the ladder to fish ladders protect habitat. the top where they continue upriver. to help adult anadromous fish • Electric power gen- migrate upstream. Bypass sys- Anadromous Fish: Fish, such as salmon Barges travel up and down the river, eration. The hydroelectric and steelhead trout, that hatch in freshwater, tems have been installed to transporting fuel, , and migrate to and mature in the ocean, and dams on Columbia Basin help juvenile smolts in their return to freshwater as adults to spawn. agricultural products. rivers have a maximum

6 BPA Transmission Grid

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C la Substation/Complex rk Fo rk R iv er

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Pacific Ocean n a ke R iv e MONTANA

Salmon River

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i W pounds of steelhead trout OREGON and salmon were harvested

CALIFORNIA NEVADA UTAH in 1998. Power is delivered to cities around the region over a network of transmission lines. The BPA transmission grid interconnects with Canada to the north and California to the south. of about miles) from the Pacific water (measured at its 22,500 megawatts and Ocean. Four Federal dams mouth; 9 percent of flows Megawatts: A measure of electrical power equal to one million watts. produced in 1998 an average on the mainstem of the at The Dalles) is diverted Megawatts delivered over an hour are of about 12,000 megawatts Columbia River—Bonneville, for agriculture. Growers measured in megawatt-hours. of electricity. The dams The Dalles, John Day, and in arid parts of eastern are the foundation of the McNary—have navigation Washington, northeastern Northwest’s power supply. locks through which boats Oregon, and southern lines originate at and barges can pass. Locks depend on this water to generators at the dams and at Ice Harbor, Lower produce wheat, corn, pota- extend outward to utility Monumental, Little Goose, toes, peas, alfalfa, apples, customers throughout the and Lower Granite dams on grapes, and a vast assort- region and beyond. The the lower Snake River also ment of other crops. transmission grid in the accommodate river traffic. • Recreation. The Transmission Grid: The network of high- voltage transmission lines that serves the Northwest is interconnected • Irrigation. Six per- rivers and lakes in the region, carrying power from generating with Canada to the north, cent of the Columbia Basin’s Columbia Basin attract plants to cities. with California to the south, boaters, sport anglers, and with Utah and other swimmers, hunters, hikers states to the south and east. and campers throughout Power produced at dams the year. Thousands of in the Northwest serves sightseers visit the river and customers locally and thou- the projects. The wind in sands of kilometers away. the • Navigation. The has made the area a Columbia and Snake rivers world-class destination can be navigated as far for windsurfers. upstream as Richland, • Water supply and Marinas and boat launches give Washington, and Lewiston, quality. The Columbia recreational boaters ready access to Idaho, 748 kilometers (465 the reservoirs. River system supplies water

7 Columbia Basin Fish Facilities

Name Location Type In-Service Date Managing Agency Creek Washington Hatchery 1957 Wash. Fish & Wildlife Big Creek Oregon Hatchery 1941 Oregon Fish & Wildlife Oregon-Washington Ladders/Screens 1938/1998 Corps of Engineers Bonneville Hatchery Oregon Hatchery 1909 Oregon Fish & Wildlife Carson Washington Hatchery 1938 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Cascade Oregon Hatchery 1959 Oregon Fish & Wildlife Chelan Washington Hatchery 1965 Wash. Fish & Wildlife Clackamas Oregon Hatchery 1979 Oregon Fish & Wildlife Clearwater Idaho Hatchery 1987 Idaho Fish & Game Washington Hatchery 1967 Wash. Fish & Wildlife Dworshak Idaho Hatchery 1982 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Creek Oregon Hatchery 1956 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Eastbank Washington Hatchery 1989 Wash. Fish & Wildlife Elokomin Washington Hatchery 1954 Wash. Fish & Wildlife Entiat Washington Hatchery 1941 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Entist Washington Hatchery 1941 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Fallert Washington Hatchery 1895 Wash. Fish & Wildlife Gnat Creek Oregon Hatchery 1989 Oregon Fish & Wildlife Greys River Washington Hatchery 1961 Wash. Fish & Wildlife Indian cultures Hagerman Idaho Hatchery 1933 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Ice Harbor Washington Ladder/Screens 1961 Corps of Engineers Irrigon Oregon Hatchery 1985 Oregon Fish & Wildlife have existed in Oregon-Washington Ladders/Screens 1968/1999 Corps of Engineers Kalama Washington Hatchery 1958 Wash. Fish & Wildlife Klaskanine Oregon Hatchery 1911 Oregon Fish & Wildlife the basin up to Klickitat Washington Hatchery 1940 Wash. Fish & Wildlife Kooskia Idaho Hatchery 1969 U.S. Fish & Wildlife 10,000 years. Leaberg Oregon Hatchery 1953 Oregon Fish & Wildlife Leavenworth Washington Hatchery 1940 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Washington Hatchery 1979** Wash. Fish & Wildlife Washington Ladder/Screens 1970/1997 Corps of Engineers Little White Salmon Washington Hatchery 1896 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Looking Glass Idaho Hatchery 1982 Idaho Fish & Game Lost Creek Oregon Hatchery 1973 Oregon Fish & Wildlife Washington Ladder/Screens 1975/1996 Corps of Engineers Washington Ladder/Screens 1969 Corps of Engineers Lyons Ferry Washington Hatchery 1983 Wash. Fish & Wildlife Magic Idaho Hatchery 1986 Idaho Fish & Game Forks Oregon Hatchery 1950 Oregon Fish & Wildlife McCall Idaho Hatchery 1981 Idaho Fish & Game McKenzie Oregon Hatchery 1902 Oregon Fish & Wildlife McNary Dam Oregon-Washington Ladders/Screens 1953/1997 Corps of Engineers Merwin Dam Washington Hatchery 1993 Wash. Fish & Wildlife Methow Washington Hatchery 1992 Wash. Fish & Wildlife Niagara Springs Idaho Hatchery n.d. Idaho Fish & Game North Toutle Washington Hatchery 1985** Wash. Fish & Wildlife Oak Springs Oregon Hatchery n.d. Oregon Fish & Wildlife Oxbow Oregon Hatchery 1913 Oregon Fish & Wildlife Pahsimeroi Idaho Hatchery 1969 Idaho Fish & Game Priest Washington Hatchery n.d. Wash. Fish & Wildlife Idaho Hatchery 1940 Idaho Fish & Game Ringold Washington Hatchery n.d. Wash. Fish & Wildlife Roaring River Oregon Hatchery 1924 Oregon Fish & Wildlife Round Oregon Hatchery n.d. Oregon Fish & Wildlife Sandy Oregon Hatchery 1951 Oregon Fish & Wildlife Sawtooth Idaho Hatchery 1984 Idaho Fish & Wildlife South Santiam Oregon Hatchery 1923 Oregon Fish & Wildlife Skamania Washington Hatchery 1956 Wash. Fish & Wildlife Spring Creek Oregon Hatchery 1901 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Oregon-Washington Ladders 1957 Corps of Engineers Turtle Rock Washington Hatchery n.d. Wash. Fish & Wildlife Umatilla Oregon Hatchery 1991 Oregon Fish & Wildlife Vancouver Washington Hatchery 1930 Wash. Fish & Wildlife Wallowa Oregon Hatchery 1985* Oregon Fish & Wildlife Warm Springs Oregon Hatchery 1978 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Washougal Washington Hatchery 1959 Wash. Fish & Wildlife Wells Washington Hatchery n.d. Wash. Fish & Wildlife Willamette Oregon Hatchery 1955 Oregon Fish & Wildlife Willard Washington Hatchery 1952 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Winthrop Washington Hatchery 1940 U.S. Fish & Wildlife

* Hatchery built in 1920, modified in 1985 ** Total rebuild n.d., Date unavailable

The region’s fish and wildlife planners have recognized the importance of fish by calling for construction of fish facilities.

to numerous municipalities these users is maintaining beings in the Columbia and industries. While the high quality of River Basin spans thousands municipal and industrial Columbia River water so of years. Indian cultures uses do not consume a that it continues to provide may have existed in the significant portion of the an attractive source of basin perhaps 10,000 years river’s water, these with- supply for municipal and ago, and the European and drawals are considered in industrial purposes. American influence began system operations. Of • Cultural Resources. in the late 1600s and early particular importance to The prehistory of human 1700s. Because operations 8 Storage and Run-of-River Projects

Storage Project

Run-of-River Project Storage reservoirs help adjust the river’s natural flow to meet the various Storage projects are important for regulating river flow to serve multiple uses; run-of-river projects are primarily for navigation and power generation. needs of water of the hydro system affect Water flowing into the sys- storage projects vary greatly users. historic and cultural sites, tem is at its peak during the during normal river opera- the Federal agencies adopted spring snowmelt, and there tions. There is a significant a Record of Decision in the is more water than is needed difference between a storage SOR that acknowledges the for power production, when it is full and potential for adverse effects irrigation, and some other when it is down to its lowest and addresses long-term uses. Reservoirs capture a operating level (i.e., vertical protection and preservation small portion of the runoff. distance). For example, of significant cultural Traditionally, they have Hungry Horse operates over resources. held the water until the late a range of 68.3 meters (224 summer, fall, and winter. In feet); Libby, 52.4 meters (172 C. The Dams and the past several years, salmon feet); Dworshak, 47.2 meters recovery has become a (155 feet); and Grand Water Projects key factor in operating the Coulee, 25 meters (82 feet). The dams of the reservoirs. Depending upon Storage is the key to the Columbia River and its overall water conditions, operation of a multiple-use tributaries fall into two some of the runoff is stored river system. The total water major categories: storage and some is released to storage in the Columbia reservoirs and run-of-river speed migrating juvenile River system is 67.8 billion projects. It is important to salmon on their journey to cubic meters (55 million understand the difference the ocean. acre-feet), of which 51.8 between the two types. The top priority for billion cubic meters (42 mil- Storage Reservoirs. operating storage dams is lion acre-feet) are available The main purpose of storage to shape the heavy spring for coordinated operation. reservoirs is to adjust the and summer snowmelt Surprisingly, this storage river’s natural flow patterns runoffs to help prevent represents only about 30 to conform more closely to flooding. In the fall and percent of an average year’s water and energy-demand winter when streamflows runoff at The Dalles. By uses and to provide flood would ordinarily be low, comparison, dams on the control. Water from rain water is gradually released system hold and snowmelt is put into from the reservoirs for many two to three times its annual storage until it is needed. river uses. Reservoir levels at runoff. While there is storage 9 - FEDERAL DAMS - NON-FEDERAL DAMS Major Northwest Dams BRITISH - CANADIAN DAMS 14 COLUMBIAALBERTA RIVER BASIN The dams on this map generally represent the largest projects and those that have a significant role in river system management. A complete list of COLUMBIA projects in the basin can be found in Appendix A. Acronyms and abbreviations are defined on page 76.

1. BONNEVILLE 21. NOXON RAPIDS 41. BIG CLIFF Columbia River, USACE , WWP N. Santiam River, USACE 13 2. THE DALLES 22. KERR 42. DETROIT Columbia River, USACE , MPC N. Santiam River, USACE

3. JOHN DAY 23. HUNGRY HORSE 43. FOSTER 16 Columbia River, USACE Flathead River, USBR S. Santiam River, USACE

4. MCNARY 24. CHANDLER 44. COUGAR 15 Columbia River, USACE , USBR McKenzie River, USACE

K o 5. PRIEST RAPIDS 25. ROZA 45. GREEN PETER o t 12 e n Columbia River, Grant Co. PUD Yakima River, USBR M. Santiam River, USACE a i R i v e 18 r 6. 26. ICE HARBOR 46. DEXTER F 56 la Columbia River, Grant Co. PUD Snake River, USACE , USACE th e 55 P a 54 e d n

d R i

17 v 23 7. ROCK ISLAND 27. LOWER MONUMENTAL 47. LOOKOUT POINT O e 57 re r Columbia River, Chelan Co. PUD 10 ille Snake River, USACE Willamette River, USACE 11 Riv 9 er C 19 la rk 8. ROCKY BEACH 28. LITTLE GOOSE 48. HILLS CREEK 20 Fo rk 21 R Columbia River, Chelan Co. PUD Snake River, USACE Willamette River, USACE 8 iv er WASHINGTON 22 9. WELLS 29. LOWER GRANITE 49. MERWIN 7 Columbia River, Douglas Co. PUD Snake River, USACE Lewis River, PP&L

10. CHIEF JOSEPH 30. DWORSHAK 50. YALE 6 r ve Ri Columbia River, USACE N.F. , USACE Lewis River, PP&L r er e at 52 53 iv rw 25 R Clea e 29 5 k 27 28 30 11. 31. HELLS 51. SWIFT S n a Columbia River, USBR Snake River, IP Lewis River, PP&L 26 24 r 51 Rive 12. KEENLEYSIDE Pacific Ocean ia 32. OXBOW 52. MAYFIELD mb 49 50 olu MONTANA

C 4 Columbia River, BC Hydro Snake River, IP , TCL r e 3 1 iv 13. REVELSTOKE 2 R 33. BROWNLEE 53. MOSSYROCK s

e t on Riv Columbia River, BC Hydro Snake River, IP Cowlitz River, TCL u 31 Salm er h 41 42 c s

e D IDAHO 14. MICA 34. BLACK CANYON 54. GORGE e 39 32

v Columbia River, BC Hydro Payette River, USBR Skagit River, SCL i R 40 33

e t 45 t e 15. CORRA LINN 35. BOISE RIVER DIVERSION 55. DIABLO

m 43

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i , W. Kootenay Boise River, USBR Skagit River, SCL

W 44 34 46 16. DUNCAN 36. ANDERSON RANCH 56. ROSS 47 Duncan River, BC Hydro Boise River, USBR Skagit River, SCL 48 59 38 17. LIBBY 37. MINIDOKA 57. CULMBACK 35 36 Kootenai River, USACE Snake River, USBR Sultan River, Snohomish Co. PUD OREGON 58 18. BOUNDARY 38. PALISADES 58. LOST CREEK , SCL Snake River, USBR Rogue River, USACE

37 19. ALBENI FALLS 39. PELTON 59. LUCKY PEAK Pend Oreille River, USACE , PGE Boise River, USACE

20. CABINET GORGE 40. ROUND BUTTE 60. GREEN SPRINGS Clark Fork River, WWP Deschutes River, PGE Emigrant Creek, USBR

CALIFORNIA NEVADA UTAH

10 11 storage capacity. annual runoff than in havingmore River isunique The Columbia Colorado andMissouriRivers Storage Comparedtothe and Columbia RiverRunoff only about8percent ofthecapacityisinlower Columbia Riverbelowitsjunction with theSnakeRiver. (55.3 millionacre-feet). Asthisdiagramshows,most storagehasbeendevelopedon the upperColumbiasystem; Storage atallprojects onthemajortributariesand the mainstemColumbiaRivertotals 67.8billioncubicmeters Canadian andU.S.Storage more naturalrunoffshape. thus givingtheColumbiaa and ColoradoRiversystems, that existsontheMissouri is notthedegreeofcontrol on theColumbiaRiver, there Colorado andMissouri. of storagecomparedtotwootherlargeriversystems,the andasmallamount The ColumbiaRiverhashighrunoff Maf 150 100 50 0 Pacific Ocean COLORADO MISSOURICOLUMBIA 1 MillionAcreFeet=1.2335billioncubicmeters All Measurements inMillionAcre-feet OREGON - TOTALSTORAGECAPACITY - AVERAGEANNUALRUNOFF WASHINGTON CANADA The Dalles 133.6 55.3 12 1 MillionAcreFeet=1.2335billioncubicmeters Northwest, becausemostof those intheinterior operated differentlythan Cascade Mountainsare reservoirs westofthe All Measurements inMillionAcre-feet It shouldbenotedthat Keenleyside 29.6 STORAGECAPACITY - ACCUMULATEDUPSTREAM - AVERAGEANNUALRUNOFF Grand Coulee 20.7 81.5 39.5 River Basin. in theU.S.,holdmostofstorageColumbia including threeinCanadaandfive A fewkeyreservoirs, Storage Space Columbia RiverSystem Dworshak Duncan Albeni Falls - USAGE - DAMTYPE Ice Harbor Public Utilities 36.1 Keenleyside Mica Grand Coulee 11.7 Hungry Horse Hungry Corra Linn space incaseofheavy summer andfalltoprovide are loweredduringthelate At theseprojects,reservoirs the westsidefallsasrain. the winterprecipitationon Other Federal Private Utilities 20 Libby Brownlee Albeni Falls Non-Treaty Storage9% 12.7 18.3 7.1 Canadian Dams28% 9.5 1 MillionAcreFeet=1.2335billioncubicmeters 5.8 All Measurements inMillionAcre-feet IDAHO Dams 30% Storage Federal Major Other Dams 33% All MONTAN 0 10 20 30 40 50 55.3 A The Columbia Basin and Minidoka Projects

The , which be expanded to 445,000 hectares began in the late 1930s, uses water that (1.1 million acres). is diverted from Roosevelt Lake behind The consists of to irrigate crops. six storage dams and reservoirs and Water is drawn from Roosevelt Lake by two diversion dams. Four of the giant pumps and lifted into , facilities are on the upper Snake River which was formed by damming both in Idaho, and two reservoirs—Jackson ends of a natural geologic formation Lake and Grassy Lake—are in Wyoming. called the Grand Coulee. The water The project dates back to 1909. then flows through a system of tunnels , which backs up and to irrigate croplands many the largest of the reservoirs, was built kilometers away. The project currently in 1927. Thousands of kilometers of provides water to over 271,000 hectares distribution canals in the Minidoka Water from (670,000 acres) and had the potential to Project provide irrigation service to irrigation projects more than 445,000 hectares (1.1 million acres) of farmland. nurtures crops Lake Banks Roosevelt Grand Lake many miles away. Coulee Ephrata Dam MONTANA Main Portholes Moses Reservoir Lake

Snake River WASHINGTON Yakima Pasco

Columbia River

Columbia Basin Grassy Project Lake IDAHO WYOMING

Island Park Dam OREGON and Resevoir Jackson Lake and Dam

Pocatello Snake River Minidoka Dam and Resrvoir

American Falls Dam Twin Falls and Reservoir Lake Walcott

winter rains which can melt other obstacles to permit river and its reservoirs to snow and cause flooding. barge navigation. Run-of- nourish crops. These If space is used to control river projects pass water at projects, such as flooding, the water may be the dam at nearly the same Reclamation’s massive released immediately after- rate it enters the reservoir. Columbia Basin and wards to regain space for Water that backs up behind Minidoka irrigation projects, controlling future floods. run-of-river projects is have turned hundreds of Run-of-River Projects. referred to as pondage. thousands of hectares of These projects have limited Water levels behind these arid land into productive storage and were developed projects vary only three to farmland. Some of the primarily for navigation and five feet in normal operations. water that is diverted for hydropower generation. Diversion projects may irrigation eventually finds All run-of-river projects be either storage reservoirs its way back into the river provide hydraulic head for or run-of-river projects. downstream; the rest power generation, and They include irrigation re-enters the hydrologic cycle many also give sufficient canals and pumping systems through evaporation and water depth over rapids and that take water from the transpiration from plants. 13 Major Federal Columbia River Hydroelectric Projects 1 cubic foot per second = 0.028 meters • • • • • • • THE DALLES • • • • • • • McNARY • • • • • • • JOHN DAY • • • • • • • BONNEVILLE • • • • • • • ICE HARBOR Average annual of 177,900 cfs Run-of-river dam fish & wildlife Project uses include power, recreation, navigation, and 1,780,000 kilowatts of capacity In service May 13, 1957 Corps of Engineers Columbia River, Oregon/Washington Average annual discharge of 169,800 cfs Run-of-river dam and fish & wildlife Project uses include power, recreation, navigation, irrigation, 980,000 kilowatts of capacity In service November 6, 1953 Corps of Engineers Columbia River, Oregon/Washington Average annual discharge of 172,400 cfs Run-of-river dam flood control, irrigation, and fish & wildlife Project uses include power, recreation, navigation, 2,160,000 kilowatts of capacity In service July 16, 1968 Corps of Engineers Columbia River, Oregon/Washington Average annual discharge of 183,300 cfs Run-of-river dam fish & wildlife Project uses include power, recreation, navigation, and 1,050,000 kilowatts of capacity In service June 6, 1938 Corps of Engineers Columbia River, Oregon/Washington Average annual discharge of 47,680 cfs Run-of-river dam irrigation, and fish & wildlife Project uses include power, recreation, navigation, 603,000 kilowatts of capacity In service December 18, 1961 Corps of Engineers Snake River, Washington 1 Million Acre Feet= 1.2335 billion cubic meters DAM 14 • LOWER MONUMENTAL • • • • • • Willamette River • • • • • • • CHIEF JOSEPH Average annual discharge of 47,670 cfs Run-of-river dam irrigation, and fish & wildlife include power, recreation, navigation, Project uses 810,000 kilowatts of capacity In service May 28, 1969 Corps of Engineers Snake River, Washington Average annual discharge of 108,000 cfs Run-of-river dam irrigation, and fish & wildlife Project uses include power, recreation, navigation, 2,069,000 kilowatts of capacity In service August 20, 1955 Corps of Engineers Columbia River, Washington

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WASHINGTO C

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S Average annual discharge of 47,230 cfs • Run-of-river dam • include power, recreation, navigation, and Project uses • 810,000 kilowatts of capacity • In service May 26, 1970 • Corps of Engineers • Snake River, Washington • LITTLE GOOSE

na 5.19 million acre-feet of storage in Lake Roosevelt • Average annual discharge of 107,700 cfs • Storage dam • include power, recreation, navigation, flood Project uses • 6,494,000 kilowatts of capacity • In service September 28, 1941 • Bureau of Reclamation • Columbia River, Washington • GRAND COULEE

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S lo River almon IDAHO MONTANA 15 3.16 million acre-feet of storage in Hungry Horse • Average annual discharge of 3,517 cfs • Storage dam • include power, recreation, flood control, Project uses • 285,000 kilowatts of capacity • In Service October 29, 1952 • Bureau of Reclamation • Flathead River (South Fork), Montana • HUNGRY HORSE 4.98 million acre-feet of storage in • Average annual discharge of 11,350 cfs • Storage dam • include power, recreation, flood control, Project uses • 525,000 kilowatts of capacity • In service August 13, 1975 • Corps of Engineers • Kootenai River, Montana • LIBBY 2.02 million acre-feet of storage in Dworshak Reservoir • Average annual discharge of 5,820 cfs • Storage dam • include power, recreation, navigation, Project uses • 400,000 kilowatts of capacity • In service March 1, 1973 • Corps of Engineers • Clearwater River (North fork), Idaho • DWORSHAK Average annual discharge of 49,680 cfs • Run-of-river dam • include power, recreation, navigation, Project uses • 810,000 kilowatts of capacity • In service April 3, 1975 • Corps of Engineers • Snake River, Washington • LOWER GRANITE 1.16 million acre-feet of storage in • Average annual discharge of 25,340 cfs • Storage dam • • Project uses include power, recreation, navigation, Project uses • 2,000 kilowatts of capacity • In service April 1, 1955 • Corps of Engineers • Pend Oreille River, Idaho • ALBENI FALLS Reservoir irrigation, and fish & wildlife and fish & wildlife flood control, and fish & wildlife irrigation, and fish & wildlife flood control, and fish & wildlife D. The Coordinated Columbia River System

Operations on the Columbia River must take into account diverse interests and a broad spectrum of agencies and river users. This fact demands an inte- grated approach to planning and operations among the Coordination projects. This is known increases the as “coordination.” The Coordinated benefits the Columbia River System river provides. refers to projects operated under several separate arrangements: the Pacific Northwest Coordination The complex operation at each dam and its effect on other projects on the river make coordination essential. Coordinated planning and operations Agreement (PNCA), the maximize benefits. Columbia River Treaty, Federal flood control statutes, • fish ladders, spillways, Additionally, there are a and several environmental downstream bypass and number of Federal projects, and fish and wildlife statutes. collection facilities, and such as those in the In general, the planning and hatcheries; Willamette sub-basin west operations described of the Cascade Mountains, • irrigation diversions throughout this document which operate more inde- and pumps; refer to the Coordinated pendently. In system plan- Columbia River System. • parks and recreation ning terms, the Willamette Of the 31 hydro projects facilities; projects are referred to that make up the Federal as “hydro independents” Columbia River Power System • lands that are dedicated because they are not Multipurpose Facilities: The Columbia (FCRPS), there are 14 large- to the projects; coordinated as part of the River and the reservoir system are used for many purposes or uses. Projects scale multipurpose facilities PNCA. The output at these that were authorized to serve a • areas set aside to replace located in the interior of the projects is used in meeting variety of purposes are referred to wildlife habitat; and as “multipurpose.” basin that play a key role the region’s electricity in coordinated operations. • cultural resource demand, but the way they Along with dams and reser- protection areas are operated and the water voirs at these sites, there are:

• navigation channels and locks;

• hydroelectric power plants;

• high-voltage power lines and substations;

• boat launches; Planning accounts for water removed from the river system to irrigate crops.

16 Fourteen Federal multipurpose projects are the key to coordinated operations

The maintenance of major equipment is also considered in planning for coordinated river operations. they store is not factored and Keenleyside—add feet) of storage. These eight into the region’s coordinated another 25.3 billion cubic projects are particularly planning scenarios. meters (20.5 million acre- beneficial because they are Of the 14 Federal strategically located in the projects that are coordinated middle and upper basin to under the PNCA, five are capture runoff for later storage dams. They are release to control flood Libby, Hungry Horse, Albeni events and augment Falls, Grand Coulee, and downstream flows. Dworshak. The combined The remaining nine storage in the reservoirs projects are run-of-river behind these dams is about dams. They are Bonneville, 19.7 billion cubic meters Chief Joseph, Ice Harbor, (16 million acre-feet). John Day, Little Goose, Three Canadian dams also A fish counter tallies the number of Lower Granite, Lower fish that pass up the ladder at each included in coordinated dam. Fish protection figures promi- Monumental, McNary, planning—Mica, Duncan, nently in all operating decisions. and The Dalles. 17 A. The Forecasters

It all starts with the water cycle—evaporation, condensation, precipitation, and runoff. Sophisticated III. forecasts of weather and The Agencies water conditions in the Columbia River Basin each and the year make it possible to Operating manage the coordinated system for maximum benefit. Agreements There are two general types of forecasts required: water supply forecasts, which predict the volume of runoff expected over a given time period; and rate-of-flow fore- Water from snowmelt and rainfall is the essential ingredient in all river casts, which predict - operations. The depth and water content of the winter snowpack are used to flows. Several organizations forecast the volume of spring runoff. have a role in collecting and coordinating multiple- analyzing information that B. Project purpose use of the system. goes into these forecasts. Owner/Operators It also shares responsibility Among them are: and Affiliated with BPA and B.C. Hydro • U.S. Army Corps of Agencies in determining operation Engineers (Corps); of Columbia River Treaty • U.S. Bureau of The Corps and Reclama- reservoirs. The Corps is Reclamation responsible for flood control (Reclamation); tion planned, designed, con- structed, and currently own operations at all reservoirs • British Columbia Hydro in the basin both in the U.S. and Power Authority and operate the Federal (BC Hydro); water projects in the and Canada. In addition, the Corps has constructed • Columbia River Northwest. The BPA mar- Forecasting Service; kets and distributes the and maintains all navigation channels to accommodate • National Weather power produced by the Service’s Northwest projects. Together, the three barges and other river River Forecast Center; agencies for ESA biological traffic, as well as providing • U.S. Geological Survey; opinion purposes are called operations to accommodate irrigators, recreators, • Natural Resources “action agencies.” Conservation Service U.S. Army Corps of and fish and wildlife needs. (formerly U.S. Soil Engineers. The Corps U.S. Bureau of Conservation Service); operates 12 of the 14 major Reclamation. Reclamation • Columbia River Water Federal projects in the operates Grand Coulee and Management Group; and Columbia River Basin and Hungry Horse Dams, the • Northwest Power Pool. thus has a key role in two other major Federal

18 storage projects in the basin. B.C. Hydro is a Canadian Agency (EPA). State water Because of its size and key member of the reservoir resource agencies enforce location, Grand Coulee management team. This water rights laws and Crown Corporation: Canadian Federally or provincially owned organization. Dam plays a prominent Canadian Crown control how much water is U.S. examples would be the Postal role in the coordinated Corporation controls withdrawn from streams Service or Amtrak. operation of the Columbia projects on the upper and reservoirs for irrigation, River system. Reclamation Columbia River in Canada municipal and industrial Many agencies also operates numerous that provide storage for water supply, and other and organizations water resource projects flood control and power purposes. throughout the Columbia generation. These large-scale Bonneville Power have a stake in Basin, which provide projects contain over one- Administration. BPA was river management. irrigation, power, and other third of the storage on the created in 1937 as a part of uses, particularly in the system and are operated the U.S. Department of Upper Snake River Basin. under the Columbia River Interior. In 1977, it became Irrigation Districts. Treaty for the joint benefit a part of the newly created Irrigation districts also operate of Canada and the United Department of Energy. and maintain water resource States. B.C. Hydro also Owning no dams, the agency facilities in the basin, such contracts for coordination is charged with marketing as storage and diversion with owners of smaller the power generated at dams, pumping plants, and Canadian dams on tributaries the Federal dams on the canal and pipeline distribution of the Columbia River, such Columbia River and its systems. Some irrigation as the Columbia Power tributaries and some other district facilities are private- Corporation, Columbia Basin generating plants, to wholesale ly owned, and some were Trust, West Kootenay Power power customers, primarily constructed by Reclamation and Light, and Cominco. public and private utilities and are operated by the Other Agencies. Other and direct service industries. districts under contract. agencies act in a regulatory BPA has the obligation to Public and Private or advisory capacity to pay for the Federal Hydro Utilities. Public utility Columbia Basin project system on behalf of Corps districts, municipal utilities, operators. They include: and Reclamation. and investor-owned utility the Federal Energy BPA built and operates companies also own and Regulatory Commission over 25,000 kilometers operate dams and generating (FERC), a Federal agency (16,000 miles) of transmission projects in the Coordinated responsible for regulating lines that deliver electricity. Columbia River System. the interstate activities of Federal law requires BPA Three public utility districts the nation’s electric and to give priority rights to own five mid-Columbia natural gas utilities and electricity produced at the dams—Wells, Rocky Reach, non-Federal hydroelectric Federal dams to publicly Rock Island, Wanapum, power producers; the U.S. owned utilities and to Priority Rights: Publicly owned entities have priority over private entities to and Priest Rapids. These Department of State, which entities in the U.S. Pacific purchase the power generated at Federal projects. This priority right, owners plan and coordinate interacts with its Canadian Northwest. Under the granted by Federal law, is called their operations with the agency counterpart on 1980 Northwest Power “preference;” public and cooperative utilities that purchase power from BPA Federal agencies. Treaty matters; NMFS; Planning and Conservation are called “preference customers.” British Columbia Hydro USFWS; and the U.S. Act (the Act), BPA is also and Power Authority. Environmental Protection required to fund certain

19 fish and wildlife on dam and reservoir mitigation programs. operations to optimize For power purposes, passage conditions for the Corps, Reclamation, juvenile and adult and BPA collectively anadromous fish. are sometimes The TMT consists of referred to as the representatives from Operating Requirements: These are the limits within which a reservoir or dam FCRPS (Federal NMFS, USFWS, must be operated. Some requirements are established by Congress when a Columbia River Power Reclamation, the project is authorized; others evolve with operating experience. System). Corps, BPA, EPA, The Corps and National Weather Reclamation develop Service, state agencies, operating requirements and Indian nations. Dynamic policies for all the non-power The TMT operates The Natural Resources Conservation Service performs govern planning uses at their projects, snow course surveys to collect data about the annual year-round. It develops and, within these snowpack. The measurements are analyzed and a water management and operations. limits, BPA schedules translated along with other data into forecasts of the plan each year based volume of runoff that can be anticipated in the and dispatches power. on the annual runoff Columbia River system. System operation forecast. If necessary, requires continuous commu- replaced in 2000, which set the TMT meets weekly dur- nication and coordination measures for how annual ing the anadromous juvenile among the three agencies hydropower operations fish migration season (April and with other utilities that should be carried out so - September) to conduct own generation resources, that they do not jeopardize in-season management market power, and are listed species. USFWS also activities and make recom- interconnected by issued biological opinions mendations for implementing transmission facilities. in 1995 and 2000, which the plan. The “salmon addressed resident fish. managers,” representatives C. The NMFS The Forum provides for of state, tribal, and Federal regional discussion and agencies with anadromous Regional decisions on the operation fish responsibilities, provide Implementation and configuration of the biological information on Forum FCRPS. The Implementation salmon numbers, migration, Team and the Executive and timing to the group at As described later in the Committee, which constitute large. The USFWS and Fish and Wildlife section of the NMFS Forum, are others provide information Chapter V, NMFS, a Federal charged with implementing on other fish and wildlife agency of the U.S. Depart- the requirements of the resources. ment of Commerce, is biological opinions. There Using this information, charged with developing are several additional teams the TMT makes weekly recovery plans for species that work under the direction operating recommendations of ocean-going fish listed of the Implementation to the action agencies—the under the ESA. The USFWS, Team. These include the Corps, Reclamation, and part of the U.S. Department Technical Management BPA. TMT recommendations of the Interior, is responsible Team, Water Quality Team, are made by consensus for ESA listed resident fish and System Configuration when possible. If consensus and terrestrial animals. Team. is not reached, issues The NMFS Regional Technical Management are elevated to the Implementation Forum Team (TMT). The TMT is Implementation Team. resulted from the biological an interagency technical Implementation Team opinion issued by NMFS in group responsible for making (IT). The Implementation 1995, adjusted in 1998, and in-season recommendations Team consists of policy-

20 level managers from the wildlife in the Columbia been made in recent years. Federal and State agencies River Basin. Prior to construction, and tribal sovereigns Indian Nations. Congress specified the that are represented on Indian nations have historic major intended uses in the the TMT. One of the and treaty rights to take fish authorizing legislation for Implementation Team’s jobs from the Columbia River each Federal hydro project. Authorizing Legislation: Congress must is to resolve policy issues and its tributaries. They Most were authorized for approve the construction of all Federal water projects. The legislation that on which the TMT cannot carry out fish and wildlife one or more purposes, authorizes the project spells out its reach agreement. resource management including flood control, purposes, the agency in charge of construction and operation, and the Water Quality Team programs and have navigation, irrigation, and terms of financing under which it will be built, operated, and repaid. (WQT). The WQT is participated in a variety power production. However, composed of scientists and of forums in the past (for the laws seldom contain technical-level analysts example, the “three sover- explicit provisions for drawn together to explore eigns”—the Federal and operating individual The NMFS Forum ways to reduce the total dis- state governments and projects or for their has a dramatic solved gas levels and water Indian nations) that have coordinated operation temperatures harmful to fish discussed long-term institu- within the total system. influence on and wildlife in the Basin. tional arrangements for The Corps and system operations. This team’s ultimate goals making river governance Reclamation are responsible are to identify the sources decisions. for deciding how to operate of dissolved gas and high River Users. There their projects based on temperatures in the Basin’s are also dozens of agencies, requirements of the rivers at different times of organizations, and coalitions biological opinions, the year and to recommend that use the river and its recommendations from strategies to improve water resources or have an the NMFS Forum, principles quality for the benefit of fish interest in the way the river of multiple-use operation, and wildlife. system is managed. Their their agency charters, System Configuration opinions on Columbia River operating experience, Team (SCT). The SCT water management issues and public concerns. The reviews the physical make-up are diverse, and representa- Federal agencies and other of the hydroelectric system tives from many of these project operators have in the Basin—dams, fish groups participate in public developed principles screens and ladders, spill hearings, meetings, and and agreements among deflectors (“flip lips”), other forums that address themselves; some are in and other structures—to river operations. formal contracts, and Flip Lips: A structural device that redirects water as it comes over the of a determine what the optimal some are informal. dam. Flip lips reduce deep plunging of water into the pool below; this keeps system would look like that Among the laws and the water from becoming supersaturated incorporates all the needs D. The Operating agreements that have a with nitrogen. Fish are naturally attracted to the rapidly moving water at the base of the system. It meets Agreements direct bearing on system of the dam but can suffer from gas bubble disease when the water is regularly to prioritize capital and Guidelines operation are the following: supersaturated with gas. expenditures on system Endangered Species configuration facilities for Planning and operations Act. The ESA is a Federal improving fish passage. on the Coordinated Columbia law that protects threat- State Fish and Wildlife River System are guided by ened or endangered species Agencies. These agencies a complex and interrelated of plants and animals. are responsible for managing set of laws, treaties, Several species of fish and protecting fish and wildlife agreements, and guidelines. that live in the Columbia populations in each of the While some of the laws have and Snake rivers have Northwest states. They been in effect for many been listed for protection participate in the NMFS decades, the governing under the ESA (see Fish Forum and share responsi- policies are dynamic, and and Wildlife section, bility to protect fish and important additions have Chapter V).

21 International Joint Commission (IJC): The Board was appointed by IJC also serves as an arbitration body under the Columbia River Treaty. the International Joint Commission established by the 1909 Boundary Waters Treaty and studied whether an extension of the use of the Columbia River would be practical and in the interests of both nations. Concurrent with the Commission’s study, the Corps began updating its master plan for development on the Columbia River. The Endangered Both efforts indicated that Species Act has , shown here under construction, is one of three Canadian projects additional storage on the that are among the most recent major projects built on the river system. They upper reaches of the river dramatically have greatly increased the ability to control streamflows. would be of joint benefit for changed system As a result of the ESA, environmental impact flood control and power production. planning and a biological opinion issued statement (EIS) must be by NMFS in 1995 mandated prepared, and public hearings The Treaty required river operations. changes in Columbia Basin held, for any proposed building three storage system operations to action that might affect the reservoirs in Canada (Mica, emphasize salmon recovery. environment. Significant Hugh Keenleyside, and This biological opinion was modifications of existing Duncan) and the option to supplemented in 1998 and operations fall under the build a fourth (Libby) in the replaced in 2000. A second provisions of NEPA. The 1995 United States. The Canadian biological opinion for the SOR was a programmatic reservoirs built and operated Kootenai River in Montana, environmental analysis con- under the Treaty represent issued by the USFWS in ducted in accordance with almost half the water 1995 and replaced in 2000, NEPA requirements on the storage on the Coordinated outlined operations to operation of the FCRPS. Columbia River System.

Flood Control: Streamflows in the protect sturgeon initially, Columbia River Treaty. The Treaty dams added Columbia River Basin can now be much needed flood control managed to keep water below damaging and later, other species like The Columbia River Treaty flood levels in most years. This level of . Various measures between the United States along the entire river. They flood control is possible because storage reservoirs on the river can capture and to protect these fish have and Canada, signed in 1961 also made it possible to store heavy runoff as it happens. been implemented, such as and put into effect in 1964, deliver flood control more reliably and to “firm up” Flow: Agencies have agreed to increase increased and more carefully grew from the recommen- flows at certain times and at certain timed increased spill, dations of an International nonfirm energy. The benefits places to aid migrating fish. flow, and reservoir drawdowns, Engineering Board. This of the projects were divided Reservoir Drawdown: The water levels and others are under study, in a reservoir can be lowered, or drawn down, by releases from the dam. These such as habitat and drawdowns have the effect of speeding hatchery measures. up the water that flows through a reser- voir by decreasing its cross-sectional National Environ- area. mental Policy Act. The 1969 National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) requires environmental scrutiny of actions proposed by Federal agencies. Under NEPA, an environmental assessment, Parties to the Coordination Agreement have developed and use a variety of a finding of no significant computer modeling techniques to plan for upcoming power production and to impact (FONSI), or an guide system operation.

22 between the two nations in Storage Allocation at Mica Dam related agreements. The Treaty does not specify an end date. Instead, either country has the option, 0.5 Canadian Storage Full 2.5 New Non-Treaty Storage with 10 years’ notice, to ter- Pool Agreement (1990) Total minate the Treaty after 2.0 Non-Treaty Storage 12 Maf Agreement (1984) Usable September 2024. Storage

Pacific Northwest 7.0 Columbia River Treaty Storage Coordination Agreement.

Minimum The Columbia River Treaty Pool inspired the Pacific 8.1 Unusable Storage Northwest Coordination

All Measurements in Million Acre-feet The Coordination Agreement (PNCA, or 1 Million Acre Feet= 1.2335 billion cubic meters Coordination Agreement). Agreement calls for It is a complex agreement The Columbia River Treaty and subsequent storage agreements govern how for planned operation water held behind Canadian dams will be used. Mica Dam, the largest of the annual planning Treaty storage projects, is located near the headwaters of the Columbia and among the Federal project plays a pivotal role in storage operations. of reservoir operators and hydroelectric generating utilities of the giving priority to non-power associated transactions, is operations. Pacific Northwest. It was objectives. It recognizes discussed in Chapter VI. originally signed in 1964, with project and system After extensive Federal Project Operators: The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the U.S. an expiration date of 2003. requirements that are negotiations among all Bureau of Reclamation operate Federal water projects in the Columbia River The Coordination frequently changing to parties and completion of system and are known as the project Agreement calls for annual serve multiple river uses. the SOR environmental operators. planning, which must Individual project owners impact analysis, the revised accommodate all the set the requirements for Coordination Agreement authorized purposes of the using their own reservoirs. completed in 1997 was Columbia River hydro All Coordination submitted to FERC for projects. It establishes Agreement parties coordinate extension through 2024 and processes that coordinate to meet multiple-use system supplemented with a new the use of planned Canadian requirements. Power set of operating procedures. storage operations with generation, which is planned The 1997 Coordination Federal and non-Federal under terms of the agreement, Agreement is quite similar project operations in the complies with these to the 1964 agreement. Northwest. The Coordination requirements. The It retains a coordinated Agreement enables the Coordination Agreement planning process and region’s power producers to planning process, which provides for improved optimize system reliability establishes day-to-day power accommodation of non- and power production after operations and power requirements.

Parties to the 1997 Pacific Northwest Coordination Agreement • Federal Agencies: BPA, Corps, and Reclamation. • Investor-owned Utilities: Enron/Portland General Electric, Scottish Power/PacifiCorp, Energy, Avista, and Montana Power. • Municipal Utilities: Seattle City Light, Tacoma City Light, and Eugene Water & Electric Board. • Public Utility Districts: Grant PUD*, Chelan County PUD*, Douglas County PUD*, Pend Oreille County PUD, and Cowlitz County PUD (* mid-Columbia PUDs). • Private Company: Colockum Transmission Company, a subsidiary of Aluminum Company of America (ALCOA).

23 Columbia Storage Power Exchange and the Canadian Entitlement Allocation Agreements. Water released from reser- voirs in Canada increases production of power at dams in the United States. The Columbia River Treaty divides power benefits from the Canadian Treaty dams equally between Canada and the United States. Allocation Canada sold its share of the power for the first 30 years agreements divide The Northwest Power Planning Council is responsible for preparing a Fish and of project operation. Forty- Wildlife Program to protect, mitigate, and enhance the Columbia River Basin’s the power benefits one utilities in the United anadromous fish, resident fish, and wildlife. The program was adopted in and obligations States formed the Columbia November 1982, and amended in 1984, 1987, 1994, and 1995. Storage Power Exchange among U.S. parties. (CSPE) to purchase the generate from Canadian Canadian Entitlement power Canadian power benefits as flows for delivery to the CSPE was returned to Canada in each Canadian dam became utilities. The agreements 1998. The Canadian operational, beginning in were set to expire beginning Entitlement is delivered 1968. CSPE utilities receive in 1998. to points on the border CSPE Utilities: The Columbia Storage Canadian power from BPA In 1997, BPA, after between Canada and the Power Exchange is made up of four private utilities and 37 public utilities and the three mid-Columbia negotiations with the mid- United States, near Blaine, in the Northwest. In1968, these utilities public utility districts with Columbia PUD project Washington, and Nelway, purchased Canada’s downstream power benefits for 30 years with projects on the mainstem owners and completion of British Columbia, as a default. tax-exempt revenue bonds. Columbia River. the SOR, adopted a new set Following a 1999 exchange The Canadian of allocation agreements, of diplomatic notes between Entitlement Allocation the Canadian Entitlement Canada and the United States, Agreements are contracts Allocation Extension the Canadian Entitlement that divide the Treaty’s power Agreements. These distribute owner—the Government benefits and obligations the obligation for returning of British Columbia—may among the non-Federal the Canadian Entitlement elect to dispose of Canadian beneficiaries in the United between the downstream Entitlement power directly States. There are five Federal and non-Federal in the United States. The Canadian Entitlement parties that benefit from the new agreements extend Allocation Agreements, one upstream Canadian Treaty to 2024 since the United for each of the five public storage dams. These agree- States’ obligation to return utility district-owned dams ments allocate 72.5 percent the Canadian Entitlement on the mid-Columbia. These of the power generation to continues to at least dams are Wells, owned by the Federal hydro projects, September 2024. Douglas County PUD; Rocky and 27.5 percent to non- Non-Treaty Storage Reach and Rock Island, Federal (mid-Columbia) Agreement. In 1984, BPA owned by Chelan County hydro projects. and B.C. Hydro signed a PUD; and Wanapum and The new Canadian 10-year agreement to Priest Rapids, owned by Entitlement Allocation coordinate the use of an Grant County PUD. Extension Agreements began additional amount of the These agreements to replace the existing water stored in the reservoir determined how much power Entitlement Agreements behind Mica Dam in south- each of the five utilities must when the first portion of the eastern British Columbia.

24 Since the use of this storage treaties are contractual Pacific Northwest space was for power agreements between sover- Electric Power Planning production not covered in eign tribal nations and the and Conservation Act of the Columbia River Treaty, United States Government. 1980. Congress passed the the agreement is referred to Under the treaties, tribes Act on December 5, 1980. as the “Non-Treaty Storage ceded lands to the Federal This law created an eight- Agreement.” government in return for member Northwest Power The two agencies agreed reservation land and a Planning Council. The in 1990 to expand the Non- number of guaranteed rights. governors of the four Treaty Storage Agreement There are 13 Federally rec- Northwest states—Idaho, and extend it until 2003. ognized Indian tribes in the Montana, Oregon, and The new agreement more Columbia River Basin. The Washington—each appoint than doubled the amount original treaty councils were two members. The council of water storage covered held in 1855. After that time, is entrusted with adopting a The Act called for previously, from 2.5 billion other reservations were Fish and Wildlife Program a Fish and cubic meters (2 million created by executive order. for the Columbia Basin, acre-feet) to 5.6 billion The treaties and the which contains a number Wildlife Program. cubic meters (4.5 million acre-feet). BPA and B.C. Hydro equally share the power-generating benefits represented by this storage. In addition to BPA and B.C. Hydro, the owners of the five non-Federal mid- Columbia hydroelectric projects and their power purchasers are interested parties to the Non-Treaty Storage Agreement and share its obligations and Some wild fish runs are so depleted that they have been declared threatened or endangered under Federal law. benefits. BPA completed a companion agreement with executive orders are the of goals for restoring and these owners, and with many basis for recognizing Indian protecting fish populations, of the utilities that purchase lands, ceded lands, and usual and with encouraging a vig- power from these projects, and accustomed fishing sites. orous energy conservation because the hydropower Tribes retain privileges to program. The Fish and benefits represented by hunt, fish, gather wild sub- Wildlife Program has led the Non-Treaty Storage sistence foods, and pasture to changes in how the Agreement depend on the livestock on ceded lands. Coordinated Columbia River Trust Responsibility: The Federal Government is obligated as a cooperation of the mid- Subsequent interpretation System is operated. The consequence of treaties to provide those services required to protect and Columbia dam operators. of the treaties has identified a council also prepares a 20- enhance Indian lands, resources, and self-government, and to include social BPA, B.C. Hydro, and trust responsibility between year Regional Electric Power and economic programs necessary to Mid-Columbia parties have Indian nations and the and Conservation Plan, raise the standard of living and social well-being of the Indian people. re-opened negotiations on Federal government. The which is designed to ensure both Non-Treaty Storage trust responsibilities obligate the Pacific Northwest will Agreements to determine if the government to provide have an adequate, efficient, there are sufficient benefits services that protect and economical, and reliable to these parties to continue enhance Indian lands and electricity supply. The the agreements past 2003. resources, which includes the council periodically Tribal Treaties and need to maintain harvestable updates both plans. Executive Orders. Indian stocks of anadromous fish.

25 IV. System Operation – The Big Picture

Libby Dam, completed in 1975, is the key to controlling high spring runoff on the Kootenai River in Montana.

A. Hydrology of interior east of the Cascade are caused by variations in Mountain Range, and the sunlight and air temperature. the Basin rainfall runoff of the coastal Occasionally, spring and drainages west of the summer rainfall adds to The in the . In both areas, the runoff. Columbia River Basin most of the precipitation West of the Cascades, ranges from a moist, mild occurs during the winter winter storms tend to bring maritime condition near the months. rain rather than snow. mouth of the river to a near East of the Cascades, River levels can rise within desert climate in some of most of the precipitation falls hours during major storms. the inland valleys. The as snow in the mountains. Peak flows near the mouth Cascade Mountain Range Snow accumulates and water of the Willamette sub-basin, separates the coast from is held in the snowpack which drains over 28,500 the interior of the basin and until temperatures rise in square kilometers (11,000 has a strong influence on the spring. Streamflows square miles), can occur the climate of both areas. begin to rise in mid-April, within a few days of large There are two important reaching a peak flow rainstorms, with upstream runoff patterns in the basin: during May or early June. points flooding within the snowmelt runoff in the Fluctuations in streamflow hours of a major storm. 26 Most of the runoff occurs in is geared toward protecting Northwest homes and Demand: The amount of power being used at any given time. Demand in the the winter, from November endangered and threatened businesses need heating. Northwest is seasonal, with the highest use in the winter for heating and the through March, but moderate species of fish and manag- Demand for power in the lowest in the summer when temperatures streamflows continue ing operations in-season to Pacific Northwest is lowest are warmer. through the spring and early respond to water conditions in summer (with a concur- summer fed by precipitation, while recognizing the need rent higher California/Inland snowmelt from high areas, for flood control and power Southwest load as a result Flood control and groundwater outflows. generation operations. of cooling needs). Thus, is a vital function Reservoir operations today from the standpoint of power generation to serve of the reservoir B. The Drivers also attempt to balance the needs of migrating salmon Northwest loads, the objec- system. of System and steelhead with the tive of reservoir operation is to store snowmelt runoff Operations needs of resident fish that live Resident Fish: Fish that are permanent in the spring and early inhabitants of a water body. Resident in the reservoirs and riverine fish include trout, bass, and . Historically, the three sections year-round. summer for release from primary authorized purposes The major migration of storage in the fall and winter of the reservoir system in salmon and steelhead, both when streamflows are lower the Columbia River Basin upstream and down, occurs and demand is higher. have been flood control, during the spring, summer, Today, system opera- power generation, and and early fall. To improve tions are driven primarily navigation. The Columbia juvenile fish survival, changes by a blend of flood control, River Treaty recognizes were made in the operation fish migration, and power only power and flood of both run-of-river projects production needs. control. Power generation and at upstream storage operations are generally reservoirs during the compatible with flood C. Overview migration season. NMFS has control requirements. established flow objectives of System The primary goal of flood on the Snake and Columbia Operations control is to reduce high rivers aimed specifically at streamflows during the optimizing survival for All major dams and spring to protect areas below Snake River sockeye, Snake reservoirs in the Columbia dams, such as the intensively River spring/summer chi- River system are operated developed reach of the nook, Snake River fall chi- in coordination with one Columbia River below nook, and several other another to maximize the Bonneville Dam. non-listed anadromous fish. benefits provided by the Over the past several When natural flows recede, storage reservoirs. The years, the need to maintain reservoir operators release information below pertains high flows to aid the migra- water from storage to to the Federal reservoirs tion of juvenile salmon and attempt to meet these river located east of the Cascade steelhead from spring passage objectives. Mountains that drive coor- through fall has taken on The demand for water dinated operations. an heightened significance from the reservoirs for Reservoirs in a in determining operations. power generation occurs Nutshell. In the late spring The system operating throughout the year. and summer, the snowpack Peak Flow: The maximum rate of flow during a specified time period at a strategy adopted by the However, it reaches a peak melts and the reservoirs fill. particular location on a stream or river. Federal agencies in 1995 in the winter when Pacific Water is released as 27 necessary throughout the spring and summer to augment flows for fish migration, with an eye on keeping reservoirs full enough to enhance recre- ation and maintain resident Drafting: The process of releasing water from storage in a reservoir. Operators fish habitat. Some drawdown begin drafting reservoirs—through turbines or over the spillway of a dam of reservoir storage also —to lower the level for a number of reasons, including flood control or occurs in the summer for downstream flows for fish or power irrigation, water supply, generation. and power generation. Most of the water in the Columbia River system is stored naturally as snow When temperatures and until spring temperatures melt it and begin the seasonal runoff. Rule curves specify streamflows begin to drop reservoir levels in the fall, reservoir drafting to protect migrating fish elevations by the end of for power generation and to meet electric power December. Additionally by month to meet increases. Recreational use demand, and that elevations during this period, flows are project purposes. of the lakes and reservoirs do not drop to levels that managed at Bonneville Dam is decreasing at this time of are harmful for resident fish to enhance year, as are irrigation with- and wildlife. spawning and rearing below drawals. Drawdown in the System operators devel- the project. This operation fall also creates storage space op rule curves at the start extends into the next season, for winter flood control. of each operating year and concluding around March. The system is drafted update them as the year January into April. throughout the winter for progresses and more In the variable drawdown Snowpack: The accumulation of snow in power generation and to information on snowpack season, operation of the the mountains that builds up during the late fall and winter. provide flood control space and streamflow becomes reservoirs is guided by the for spring snowmelt. In the available. Each reservoir volume runoff forecasts. early spring, the reservoirs has several sets of curves. Reservoirs are drafted during are at their lowest elevation. Some curves set a maximum this period to provide flood Streamflows from snowmelt elevation, while others set a control space and to produce typically begin to increase minimum. The curves are power. Water must be significantly about mid-April used to operate individual available in the reservoirs and reach a peak in May reservoirs as well as the total early in April to meet the or June. A portion of the coordinated reservoir system. operating requirements of resulting high flows is stored Three Seasons of juvenile fish migration. to reduce flood danger Operation. The operating April through August. downriver and to augment year for flood control and In the refill season, reservoirs flows later in the fish power production of the are operated to meet flow migration season. Columbia River system can objectives at the Corps’ Rule Curves. Reservoirs be divided into three seasons: dams at Lower Granite on are operated according to September through the Snake River and McNary Rule Curves: Water levels, represented guidelines called rule curve December. In the fixed on the Columbia River. The graphically as curves, that guide reservoir operations. and for nonpower con- drawdown season, reservoirs flow objectives were estab- straints. Rule curves specify are operated according to lished to enhance the sur- reservoir water levels that predetermined rule curves vival of endangered species are desirable for each month because volume runoff of chum, sockeye, chinook and provide guidance in forecasts based on the salmon, and steelhead as meeting project purposes. snowpack are not available they migrate to the sea. They assure that adequate until January. The goal in Operations for flood control space is available for flood this period is to be sure that continue as needed and control, that there is water reservoirs reach specific power is generated, with

28 Three Seasons of Reservoir Operation

September through December

Reservoirs are operated seasonally based in part Fixed Drawdown: during the late summer and fall when the volume of the next spring runoff is unknown, reservoir operations are guided by fixed rule curves that follow historical patterns. on historical runoff patterns. January into April

Variable Drawdown: Spring runoff forecasts are available beginning in January. They are the basis for rule curves that guide operations through the runoff and refill season.

April through August

Refill Season: Operators focus on capturing enough runoff to refill reservoirs by the end of July. When runoff is low, reservoirs may not refill and future operations are partially shaped by how low reservoir levels are on July 31.

29 some restrictions on the curves for the multipurpose • Accommodating in-season amount of water that can operation of the dams on management of fish be put through turbines as the river. Once the basic passage, spawning, and opposed to over spillways. operating guidelines are set, stranding while providing The spring flow targets actual operation of the flows to aid juvenile go into effect April 3 on the system is based on meeting migration downstream Snake and April 10 on the several related but some- and managing water Columbia. They are followed times conflicting objectives: quality. by summer objectives on June 21 and July 1, respec- • Providing adequate flood • Maintaining a high prob- tively. Operators try to storage space for control ability that reservoirs will begin July with the reser- of the spring runoff. refill to meet recreation voirs full so summer flows needs and provide water Streamflow can be augmented through for next year’s power studies are made August without severe and fish operations. impacts on recreation or before each new resident fish habitat. There • Preserving and operating year. are draft limits at each enhancing habitat for reservoir to protect and resident fish. balance these other uses. Before each new • Optimizing power operating year begins in Forecasts of high runoff mean generation within the reservoirs must be drafted during the August, streamflow studies requirements necessary winter so there is adequate space to are made to derive the rule control flood waters in the spring. to meet other objectives.

Indicators, like this one at , are used to gauge the water level at each reservoir. Efforts are made to refill the reservoirs every year. Runoff is usually adequate to refill reservoirs about three out of every four years.

30 Historical patterns are well estab- lished, but there is always uncertainty about future runoff.

When runoff is high, BPA markets extra power to customers within and outside the region.

Because natural extent the need for flood streamflows are typically control space will allow. very low in the late summer Power is produced for and fall and because of the nonfirm energy markets uncertainty regarding future as water is released to runoff, reservoir operation make space in reservoirs in August through for flood control. December typically follows operating curves quite closely. Sometimes more rain causes temporarily higher flows in the fall. This water can be used to Nonfirm Energy: Energy planners sepa- rate energy from the hydro system into produce nonfirm energy, firm and nonfirm. Firm energy is pro- duced on a guaranteed basis with criti- increase spawning habitat cal water conditions. Nonfirm energy is for chum and chinook the energy that can be generated with water that is available in excess of what salmon, or left in storage is needed for firm energy generation. for future use. If abundant water is available from January through March, the water will be stored for flow augmentation to the 31 Operation of the Operating Requirements at Grand Coulee Columbia River system must take into account operating Reservoir Elevation Limits requirements that exist for 1 cubic meter per second= 35.31 cubic feet per second

each project. Almost all Full — 1290 Recreation (June - September)

Flood Control (Low-Water Year) operating requirements are 1280

defined in terms of river flow 1270 Maximum Rate of V. Draft 1.5' Per Day for Shoreline Stability or water surface elevation 1260 Multiple Uses (lake or downstream). 1250 Flood Control (Average Year) Minimum Level for of the System Operating requirements 1240 Irrigation Pumping (May 31) 1230 for project flows include Minimum Operating Level for Inchelium Ferry 1220 minimum instantaneous Flood Control (High-Water Year) discharge, minimum daily Minimum — 1210 discharge, and maximum Elevation in Feet hourly and daily rates of change. Operating requirements for reservoir Discharge Limits elevations include minimum Powerhouse Maximum Plus Spillway Outlet Tubes 500,000 Discharge and maximum reservoir in Cubic Feet 400,000 Per Second Powerhouse Maximum levels, downstream water 300,000 Maximum Tailwater 200,000 Elevation Average Annual Flow surface elevations, and Change 100,000 Minimum to Maintain Flow Below 3'-4' Per Hour maximum hourly and daily 0 rates of change. 1 foot = 0.3048 meters Operating requirements 1 cubic foot per second = 0.028 cubic meters per second can be either site specific or systemwide. Most are There are many operating requirements for each Federal project. The require- site specific, meaning they ments at Grand Coulee specify reservoir elevations and discharge limits which operators must follow. apply to only one project or one location on the river. When a water project is of a boat ramp or to accom- Sometimes a project’s designed, operating modate wildlife concerns. limits and requirements are requirements that relate to Sometimes requirements are defined after it is authorized. the physical features and included in the authorizing For example, at Dworshak functions of a dam and its legislation for Federal Dam, a “prime steelhead surrounding environment are projects or in the FERC harvest season” was estab- often defined. For example, operating license for non- lished for a 45-day period a requirement may specify Federal projects. Systemwide beginning October 1. The the lowest allowable reservoir requirements affect more requirement (set after the elevation for a project for use than one project. project was authorized but

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32 before it was built) increased A. Flood Control develop when extended public support for the project periods of warmer weather because it provided for a The Pacific Northwest combine with a large period of nearly natural has two principal flood accumulation of winter streamflows below the dam seasons. November through snow. The worst floods for steelhead fishing. New March is the rain-produced result when heavy rains fall requirements also are flood period. These floods during a heavy snowmelt. Most snowmelt developed through studies occur most frequently on Flood damage potential runoff in the and discussions with the streams west of the is greatest in the lower public and other agencies. Cascade Mountains. Columbia from the Portland- basin occurs In the following pages, the May through July is the Vancouver area to the from May categories of operating snowmelt flood period. mouth of the river. This requirements that must be East of the Cascades, area suffers winter rainfall through July. factored into Columbia snowmelt floods dominate floods from the Willamette River system planning and the runoff pattern for the River as well as snowmelt operation each year are Columbia Basin. The most floods from the Columbia, described in detail. serious snowmelt floods and it is the most highly

Snowmelt often causes streams and rivers to overflow their banks.

1500 The Columbia River historical runoff record, 750 as measured at The Dalles, Oregon, is depicted on the that begins at the bottom of this page and continues 0 throughout this chapter. The flow is shown 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 in thousands of cubic feet per second.

33 Snowmelt and rainfall can combine to produce devastating floods. The Columbia River community of Vanport, Oregon, was destroyed by a flood in 1948. It was never rebuilt. The frequency of damaging floods on the lower river can now be reduced by reservoir operations upstream.

developed and populated control floods in the region Presently, up to 49 reach of the river. were organized locally in billion cubic meters (39.7 Flood damage in the places subject to frequent million acre-feet) of storage past has also occurred damage. and flood- space can be made available along the Flathead River walls were built to protect for flood control from the near Kalispell, Montana; the flood-prone areas along the Coordinated Columbia Kootenai and Kootenay: The name of a Kootenai River between lower Columbia River and River System, including Northwest Indian tribe which has been used to name rivers, , and Bonners Ferry, Idaho, and elsewhere. 25.3 billion cubic meters lakes in the region. The spelling varies Lake; the Pend After the tragic flood of (20.5 million acre-feet) at between Kootenay (Canada) and Kootenay Kootenai (U.S.). Oreille River below Albeni 1948 that destroyed Vanport, the three Canadian Treaty Falls; the Columbia River Oregon, the Corps developed projects. This reservoir near Kennewick-Pasco- a multiple-use reservoir storage is supplemented by

Levees, Flood Walls, & Protection: Richland, Washington; and storage plan for the a system of local levees, A is a raised embankment built to the lower Clearwater River Columbia River Basin with keep out flood waters. Flood walls, such floodwalls, and bank as the concrete seawall along the near Lewiston, Idaho. flood control as a major protection. In addition, Willamette River in downtown Portland, are barriers constructed to hold out high Although many streams in the objective. This plan has many areas have adopted water. The soil on river banks is protect- ed from erosion in a variety of ways. basin remain uncontrolled, evolved over the years with measures such as flood River grasses and trees are cultivated in reservoirs on the major the projects authorized plain regulations, land use some areas, and fine mesh screens are laid on banks in other areas to keep soil rivers reduce flood damage by the Columbia River regulation, and improved in place. Rock are also used to protect against fast moving streams in most of these areas. Treaty bringing the system land treatment practices to or vigorous wave action. Organizing for Flood up to the desired level of minimize flood damage Control. Early efforts to protection. potential.

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0 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 34 Flood Control magnitude of the greater season. This concept of Operation. Floods occur source of potential— joint-use storage is practiced when rivers overflow their snowmelt—can be predicted for the reservoirs of the banks. The objective of several months in advance Coordinated Columbia any flood control operation with fairly high accuracy. River System. is to capture enough runoff As a result, flood Operating Objectives. Flood Control Storage Space: The space that is provided in a storage reservoir to in reservoirs to keep control storage space in Flood control operation has allow for the capture of runoff that could streamflows from reaching Columbia River reservoirs two objectives: operating otherwise cause flood damage. damaging levels. Timing is is made available only during the total reservoir system to critical. Filling of storage those months when flood minimize damaging flows on reservoirs must be timed so risk exists, and the amount the lower Columbia River, flows are reduced the most of space needed depends on and operating individual when runoff is highest. how much runoff is expect- reservoirs to minimize In many parts of the ed. This situation makes it damage to local areas. Timing is critical country, floods can occur in possible to use reservoir The first objective— to keep rivers any season, so flood control space for storing water for system flood control— space must be available fish flows, hydropower, reduces peak flows on the from overflowing year-round. In the Columbia irrigation, recreation, and lower Columbia. Streamflow their banks. River Basin, however, flood other purposes during measured at The Dalles, flows are limited to two periods when there is little Oregon, is the control point periods: rain-induced floods or no flood risk, and to use for this operation. The flow in the winter, and snowmelt the space jointly for flood objective varies depending floods in the spring and early control and the other on the runoff forecast. In summer. Furthermore, the purposes during the flood years of low to moderate

Flood control operations reduce the probability of property damage by capturing excess runoff in reservoirs and releasing it over time.

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0 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 35 The reservoir system is operated in most years to limit peak flows to Levee systems provide another method of flood protection. There are over 20 levee systems in the lower Columbia River, and, in high water years, they add another layer of security for residents in flood prone areas. 450,000 cubic feet per second runoff, the reservoir system that is available at no addi- during the fall and winter to can be operated to limit peak tional cost beyond the origi- meet the objectives outlined at The Dalles, flows to a maximum of nal lump sum payment. To above. These curves indicate Oregon 12,743 m3/s (450,000 cfs) at control very large floods, the the minimum reservoir The Dalles, the level above United States may choose elevation that must be which damage begins to to pay for additional storage maintained. The elevation occur in areas not protected in Canadian reservoirs. defined by the curve depends by levees. The second objective — on the magnitude of the flood There are over 20 levee controlling local floods— threat at that particular time. systems along the lower requires consideration in Flood control rule Columbia with varying pro- both winter and spring. curves have a fixed compo- tection capabilities. Some Each reservoir’s fall and nent, which usually defines are designed to sustain flows winter drawdown schedule operation during September of 22,653 m3/s (800,000 cfs) or is designed to provide space through December, when more. Others can fail at flows for controlling local rainfall less predictable rainfall as low as 16,990 m3/s (600,000 floods as well as snowmelt floods occur. Evacuation of cfs), which is considered the floods. Generally, during reservoirs begins in this “major damage” threshold spring floods, storage of period to ensure that space for the lower Columbia. runoff for system control will be available when Control to this level can be provides protection for needed to control floods. accomplished in high runoff local areas as well. Since snowpacks are just years using a combination Flood Control Rule beginning to build during of space in U.S. reservoirs Curves. Also called Upper this period, runoff forecasts and the 10.4 billion cubic Rule Curves, these limits are not available, so the meters (8.4 million acre-feet) specify the amount of storage curve is based on a statistical of Canadian Treaty storage that must be evacuated analysis of historical events.

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36 The variable component range of runoff forecasts. weather and other conditions of flood control rule curves The flood control curves result in reduced runoff, so defines operation from are updated monthly as the potential for flood con- January through April. In revised forecasts become ditions is never realized. In January, forecasts of seasonal available. those years, considerations volume runoff become Flood Control During such as refill requirements, available. This allows the Refill. From April through water releases for fish, variable portion of each July, reservoirs are allowed and power generation project’s flood control rule to refill gradually, at a rate opportunities heavily curve to be defined. It is that maintains downstream influence refill operation. based on the runoff volume flows at acceptable levels. Actual Operation. expected to occur and thus To guide this operation, the Flood control rule curves indicates the amount of Corps uses a computer define the minimum amount reservoir storage space model to simulate reservoir of storage space that must Flood control needed to control floods for operation on a daily basis in be provided at each project rule curves are the rest of the operating year. response to forecasted to meet system and local The flood control rule runoff. In moderate to flood control needs. Prior updated as runoff curve is developed using the high runoff years, careful to requirements contained forecasts become project’s storage reservation monitoring is required to in the biological opinions, diagram, which specifies the ensure that damaging flows actual reservoir levels available. amount of storage required do not occur. tended to be somewhere Operating Year: Detailed operations are to protect against a wide In other years, cool between the flood control planned over a 12-month period. The operating year begins on August 1 and ends on July 31.

Typical Storage Reservation Diagram Storage Reservation Diagram: Each storage reservoir has its own storage reservation diagram, which shows the pool levels that need to be maintained given various runoff predictions. Full Pool 0%

20%

Dry Year

40%

Average Year

60%

80% et Year

W

Minimum Pool 100% OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP

Each storage reservoir has its own storage reservation diagram, which shows the pool levels that need to be maintained given various runoff predictions.

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37 Ratepayer-funded hatcheries put millions of salmon smolts into the river each year. This practice augments the natural Rushing water fish stocks that have declined rapidly in recent years. attracts fish to fish rule curves and the some- adult fish. ladder entrances. what lower limits established Before for power generation. Since construction the biological opinions, began, they the levels tend to follow designed flood control curves. The measures to rule curves for power reduce this generation are described effect at All Federal dams on the lower Columbia and lower in section C. many of the Snake rivers have fish ladders similar to this one to aid fish migrating up the river. projects. Fish B. Fish and ladders were Wildlife built at middle and lower hatcheries, improving Columbia and lower Snake habitat, and screening The Columbia River river dams. Operators irrigation diversions. Other Basin is world renowned enhance passage by provid- measures, such as a “water for its salmon and steelhead, ing rushing water near the budget” to help “flush” two types of anadromous fish ladder entrances to juvenile fish down the river fish. A number of factors attract migrating adults. and a spill agreement to related to human activity Dams can also impede move fish over dams, were have contributed to the the migration of juvenile also implemented. decline of anadromous fish fish downstream. Juveniles Despite over a decade runs in the basin. Irrigation, can be killed when they of effort, some stocks of timber harvesting, commer- pass through turbines, and fish reached such alarmingly cial fishing, mining, pollution, they can be subject to low levels during the decade construction of structures predation in reservoirs. of the 1990s that they were in the river, flood control, Beginning in the early declared endangered or and other factors have 1980s, the Northwest Power threatened under Federal taken a toll on the once Planning Council’s Fish and law. In response to the ESA abundant fish populations. Wildlife Program called for listings, the Corps and Engineers and planners building bypass facilities to Reclamation have imple- recognized that dams block aid juvenile migration, mented major changes in the upstream passage of constructing more fish the way their projects are

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0 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 38 operated. Anadromous River spring and summer strategy for the hydro system fish recovery now has a chinook have fallen to that was based on the 1995 higher priority than ever 5 percent of their historical biological opinion and aimed before in system planning abundance. Only 350 Snake to operate the river to and operations. River fall chinook returned optimize fish survival and ESA Listings. In the to spawn in 1995, and one recover endangered salmon. early 1990s, NMFS deter- lone sockeye returned to On May 14, 1998, NMFS mined that, without ESA Idaho’s Redfish Lake in 1994. issued a supplemental protection, Snake River NMFS concluded that biological opinion which sockeye salmon, and spring, the impacts of the FCRPS responded to new listings summer, and fall chinook jeopardize the continued for Snake River steelhead were likely to become existence of the Snake (threatened), Upper extinct. The sockeye, River salmon. The Federal Columbia River steelhead poisoned during the 1960s operating agencies worked (endangered), and Lower Bypass facilities and 1970s by an Idaho state with NMFS to develop Columbia River steelhead aid downstream agency as “trash fish,” were operations that would avoid (threatened). The operating declared endangered in 1991. jeopardy. These operations strategy was similar to the migration of The chinook were listed as were set out in NMFS’ 1995 1996 strategy but continues juvenile fish. threatened in 1992 and were biological opinion. In 1996, to evolve to optimize reclassified as endangered after completing the SOR, species’ survival and in 1995. According to NMFS, the Corps, Reclamation, and recovery. A new biological the populations of Snake BPA adopted an operating opinion was issued in

Screens are placed at the entrance to irrigation canals to keep fish from being diverted into channels that carry water away from the river.

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0 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 39 Anadromous Fish Flow Objectives

Wells Chief Joseph

Rocky Reach

Grand Coulee

Lower Little Goose WASHINGTON Monumental Lower Granite Ice Harbor Wanapum Priest Rapids PACIFIC OCEAN

Ice Harbor Flow augmentation McNary Dworshak John Day The Dalles provides higher Bonneville Oobow flows to aid Brownlee migrating fish. OREGON 1 cubic meter per second = 35.31 cubic feet per second

The Water Budget, begun in 1982, and subsequently replaced with flow augmentation, provided additional flow in the spring to move juvenile salmon downriver to the ocean. Some of the water was stored at upstream projects on the Snake and Columbia rivers until it was requested.

December 2000. The Granite Dam on the Snake both the spring and summer operating requirements are River and for Priest Rapids seasons. On April 3, fish similar to the 1995 NMFS and McNary dams on the migration operations begin opinion with changes to Columbia. If natural runoff on the lower Snake; seven improve anadromous fish is inadequate to meet the days later the Priest Rapids passage through the hydro objectives at these measuring objective of 135 kcfs system. The new opinion points, water is released becomes effective through also covers habitat, hatchery, from storage reservoirs to June 30. On April 10, fish and harvest activities. augment flows. In order to operations begin on the rest Freshet: The heavy runoff that occurs in The objective of the protect other parts of the of the Columbia. The the river when streams are at their peak flows with spring snowmelt. Before the system operations in the ecosystem, as well as resi- spring flow objective is in dams were built, these freshets moved spring juvenile salmon quickly downriver. spring is to restore the effects dent fish and wildlife, there force until June 20 on the of a spring freshet to move are limits on how much Snake, at which time a Smolt: A juvenile salmon or steelhead migrating salmon smolts reservoirs will be drafted. summer target goes into migrating to the ocean and undergoing physiological changes to adapt its rapidly past the dams and out The biological opinion effect. On the Columbia, body from a freshwater to a saltwater environment. to the ocean. Flow objectives gives a range in which flow the spring objective is in are the way operators assure objectives are set, depending effect until June 30, and the that the volume of water in upon the runoff forecast. summer objective takes the river is adequate to The objectives are expressed effect on July 1. speed the fish along. The in thousands of cubic feet Another aspect of the biological opinion sets a per second (kcfs), and operating strategy concerns flow objective for Lower there are objectives for spill. Flows keep the fish

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0 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 40 moving, and spill helps steer passed over the spillway. Little Goose, Lower them away from generating Seven Corps projects have Monumental, and McNary. units. The original biological been equipped with bypass In order to provide the opinion recommended that facilities: Bonneville, John flows and spill called for in Spill: Water released from a dam over the spillway instead of being directed a target of 80 percent smolt Day, McNary, Little Goose, the biological opinion, the into the turbines. passage via non-turbine Lower Granite, Lower operating agencies attempt routes unless the dissolved Monumental, and Ice Harbor. to store water through the Dissolved Gas Level: As falling water hits the river surface, it drags in air as it gas level in the water These divert juvenile fish winter for the fish migration plunges. With increasing water pressure, this air dissolves into the water and became too high. Now, the away from turbine intakes season. The reservoirs increases the levels of pre-existing goal is to move as many and into special conduits or begin the season fuller than dissolved gases. fish as possible via non-tur- sluiceways where they can they would have under the bine routes. This means either be bypassed around old operating guidelines the majority of fish must go the dam or collected at four that gave power production through collection and sites for transport down- a higher priority in system When water is bypass systems or be stream—Lower Granite, operations. Additionally, spilled, fish are storage is tempered by the need to provide flows for drawn over the chum salmon during late spillways and fall and winter. Transportation. The away from Corps operates an extensive turbines. program for transporting smolts past the dams. An experimental barging program was begun in the early 1970s because of the problems with cumulative impacts of gas supersatura- tion, turbine mortality, and predators on the juvenile fish moving through the reservoirs and past the projects. Specially constructed barges or tank trucks are used to move the fish from collector dams to release sites below Bonneville Dam. Four lower Snake and Columbia river dams (Lower Granite, Little Goose, Lower Monumental, and McNary) have juvenile collection and transport facilities; however, The fall chinook spawning grounds at Vernita upstream from the Tri-Cities, Washington, are protected by a special agreement known as the Vernita Bar in-season operations under Agreement. the biological opinion

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0 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 41 Dam Cross-sections Showing Various Pathways for Fish

The region is committed to protecting This cross-section of a typical run-of-river dam shows the The spillway is the overflow structure on the dam where water intake (penstock), the turbine generator which is water passes over and down a concrete chute. The dwindling spun by the falling water, and the water outlet (tailrace). amount of water passing over the spillway is controlled salmon stocks. through gates.

determine which will be used and how many fish will be transported. Research over the years has resulted in many improvements to barging. A constant supply of pumped into the barge directly from the river provides fish with homing cues they will need later as returning adults. The number and type of fish that can be safely carried is factored into the operation. The barges are equipped with aeration chambers that remove supersaturated gases from the water. Operations to Recover Sturgeon and Bull Trout. The Kootenai River white sturgeon, which lives in Canada’s but With the attention on wild salmon stocks, river managers and others in the travels upriver into the U.S. region are exploring new methods for improving juvenile salmon migration.

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Fish ladders are a series of gradual steps that enable fish Bypass systems are pathways made up of pipes and conduits pikeminnow will to swim around or over a dam. Ladders are in place at that carry juvenile fish that enter the penstocks away from tur- all Federal projects on the lower Columbia and lower bines and around a dam. In some cases, bypasses guide fish dine heavily on Snake rivers. to collection points where they are loaded into barges or juvenile salmon. trucks and transported downstream below other dams. to spawn, has also been provide flows of 255 m3/s protect and preserve salmon declared endangered. The (9,000 cfs) from the Libby spawning and hatching at USFWS listed the sturgeon project at Bonners Ferry Vernita Bar below Priest in 1994, citing Libby Dam as during their summer Rapids Dam. This is the the most significant factor in spawning period. largest fall Fall Chinook Salmon: This salmon stock returns from the ocean in late summer the species’ decline. In 1995, Vernita Bar spawning area on the main- and early fall to head upriver to its spawning grounds, distinguishing it the Corps began operating Agreement. In the past, stem of the Columbia River. from other stocks which migrate in the reservoir at Libby Dam operators of Federal projects An agreement is under different seasons. according to the USFWS had informally cooperated development to reduce biological opinion for white to ensure lower flows over stranding of juvenile sturgeon. The objective is Vernita Bar during the fall salmon along the Hanford to regulate the flows at spawning period and higher Reach of the Columbia Libby during the spring and flows in the winter while River. If water levels drop summer to release water at eggs are incubating. The off rapidly after a rainstorm, an appropriate temperature 1988 Vernita Bar Agreement snowmelt, or a change in and provide an adequate made formal the efforts by project operations upstream, volume of flow downriver Grant County PUD, BPA, salmon can become to the sturgeon’s spawning and others to deliver flows trapped in pools no longer grounds to meet its biological needed to encourage and connected to the river. needs. protect salmon spawning at Without any means to Bull trout are a threat- this location. return to the river, the ened species in the Colmbia Under the agreement trapped fish die as pool River Basin. One measure signed in 1988, operators temperatures rise and being implemented to provide certain flow levels the dissolved oxygen assist their recovery is to from fall to early spring to is exhausted.

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0 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 43 Life Cycle of Columbia River Anadromous Fish Salmon are anadromous fish, which means they are born in freshwater, migrate down- stream to the ocean where they spend most of their lives in saltwater, and then return to freshwater to reproduce (spawn). Both salmon and steelhead are strongly affected by the natural ups and downs of river flows that occur with the changes of seasons. Salmon hatch in freshwater gravel beds of the Columbia River and its tributaries. About 50 days after eggs are laid, embryonic fish called alevins emerge. Alevins live on nutrients stored in their yolk sac until they grow large enough (about 2 centimeters (cm)(1 inch)) to emerge as young fish, or fry, that eat insects and organic matter. They quickly grow to 8 to 10 cm (3 to 4 inches) before seeking sheltered spots in freshwater streams to spend the winter. As winter ends, their bodies begin changing to adapt to seawater, and the young There are special salmon and steelhead, now called smolts, are ready to begin their migration down the operating tributaries to the Columbia River and out to sea. Most of the young fish migrate out of the river during spring and early summer when natural waterParties flows to the are Coordination highest. Agreement requirements at Once they arrive in the ocean, a trip that can take a month or two,have developedthe fish feed—andand use a variety some projects to are fed upon—voraciously as they grow into adults. Many are ofcaught computer or modeling eaten by techniques to native predators during the two to five years the salmon spendplan in thefor upcoming ocean. power production and to guide system operation. protect native fish Fish that have grown to maturity and survive the many dangers and predators at sea then begin their long return journey. They undergo another set of physiological and waterfowl changes to allow them to return to freshwater and swim up the river. Most adults habitat. return to the same streams and tributaries where they were spawned, guided by complex homing instincts. Once they arrive, the adult fish pair up and spawn, releasing and fertilizing their eggs. Female fish cover their nests (called redds) with gravel from the streambed. Adult salmon die after spawning, but some steelhead survive and return to the ocean to restart the cycle.

Controlling Predation go through turbines, large dissolved gases (principally and Fish-Killing Gases. amounts of air become trap- nitrogen), can damage and, BPA began a project to ped in the water. This water, if exposure time is high, even Northern Pikeminnow: A giant member control northern pikeminnow, which is supersaturated with kill fish. Flow deflectors of the minnow family, the northern pikeminnow (formerly known as squaw- a prime predator of juvenile (flip lips) have been fish) is native to the Columbia River and fish, in 1990. Commercial installed on the spillways at its tributaries. Studies show a northern pikeminnow can eat up to 15 young and sport anglers are paid most of the Corps’ dams to salmon a day. a bounty for each adult reduce the plunge of water northern pikeminnow, into the basin below. caught and turned in at a Project operators also northern pikeminnow work with fisheries agencies check station. to reduce nitrogen supersat- Action agencies are uration with “spill transfers.” also working to solve the Supersaturation and spill problem of nitrogen super- Many species of waterfowl, such as are reduced and power Canada geese, rely on the banks saturation. When water is of the Columbia River and its generation is increased at spilled that would otherwise tributaries for food and nesting. one project where gas

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0 1938 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 44 entrainment is a problem sites, special operating when it is surplus to their to migrating fish. Power requirements are put into needs. The balance of the generation is decreased and effect at certain projects to region's electricity comes spill increased at another keep them from building from thermal resources, project where fish have nests in areas that may primarily nuclear, coal-fired, already migrated. The total later be inundated. For and gas-fired plants. outflows at both projects example, a reservoir level Hydropower operations remain constant. Research is raised every three days are based on a determination on the effects of gas super- to keep geese from nesting of how much firm energy saturation on fish life is too low on the bank of the the system can generate. In continuing so additional John Day and McNary most years, there is enough measures to reduce this reservoirs. Other wildlife water in the system to pro- problem can be found. protection measures are duce additional energy, called Nurturing the Natives. included in the council’s nonfirm or secondary energy. Hydropower Rivers and reservoirs are also Fish and Wildlife Program. Striking the Balance generation is home to native freshwater between Fish and Power. the backbone fish that do not migrate to C. Power Streamflows in the region do the sea. These are resident Generation not follow the same pattern of the region’s fish, such as trout, sturgeon, as electric energy use. and kokanee. System Falling water is the ‘fuel’ for Customers in the Northwest electricity supply. operators monitor water power-generating turbines use more electricity in the levels in the reservoirs to at the dams. Hydropower winter than in the summer. protect the shallow spawning supplies approximately 60 to The Columbia River, however, habitat of resident fish. 70 percent of the electricity is driven by snowmelt, with In the early spring, in the Northwest. It is also high runoff in the late spring when geese and pelicans exported by BPA and the and early summer. Natural are selecting their nesting region's generating utilities flows are low in the fall and

Energy Northwest’s Columbia Generating Station, at Hanford, Washington, is one of the Northwest’s large thermal generating plants. With the hydro system extensively developed, the region has turned to thermal generation to serve the growing load. Thermal resources now supply about 30 to 40 percent of the region’s electricity.

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0 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 45 Speaking the Power Planners’ Language Planners categorize power according to a number of factors, such as whether generation can be guaranteed under various circumstances and whether the energy is surplus to the needs of Northwest customers. Some common terms are defined below. Capacity and Energy: Capacity refers to the maximum amount of power a generator can produce or a power line can carry at any instant. A generator with a capacity of 100 megawatts can produce that amount of power when needed. However, it may rarely be run at full capacity. The same is true of an automobile engine with 350 horsepower; it can produce that maximum horsepower but is not often required to do so. Excess capacity makes it possible to meet upswings or peaks in utility Nuclear and system load. Energy is the actual measure of generation or consumption over time. One kilowatt-hour is 1,000 watts of energy provided for one hour. Both a 100-watt coal-fired power light bulb burning for 10 hours and a 1,000-watt hair dryer running for one hour plants and result in the consumption of one kilowatt-hour. Seasonal Firm and Nonfirm Energy: These are terms planners use to distinguish combustion generation that is guaranteed—given the region’s worst historical water conditions— turbines add to from generation that depends upon better than worst-case streamflows. Firm energy is available even if the lowest recorded streamflows recur; nonfirm energy can be the Northwest’s produced when streamflows are better than worst case, which is usually what happens. generating Nonfirm is also called secondary energy, and, in the developing marketplace, its delivery is almost as certain as firm energy. resources. Firm surplus and firm deficit: These terms refer to supply and demand conditions. BPA has a firm surplus when the amount of energy the system can produce on a firm basis exceeds anticipated demand from BPA’s customers. There is a firm deficit when the anticipated demand exceeds the firm energy that the system can produce.

winter, when demand for Conflicts between power the past. The result is more power is high. generation and fish are water for fish but a decline Storage reservoirs can be generally resolved in favor in annual hydropower operated to at least partially of the fish. Only flood generation and, therefore, correct the discrepancy control takes absolute reduced revenue from between seasonal runoff precedence over fish. power sales. With lower and power demand. Storage The current operating winter flows and higher reservoirs hold energy—in strategy requires increased spring and summer flows, the form of water—until water storage in the fall and BPA is likely to need to system operators determine winter and increased flows purchase power more often it can be released for and spill during the spring during high load periods in various system needs. and summer to benefit the winter and to have surplus Under the current migrating juvenile salmon. power to sell in the spring operating strategy, operation This creates more of a mis- and summer. BPA replaces of the reservoirs is adjusted match between streamflows this power through power to match the needs of the and generation than occurred purchases or the acquisition ESA-listed fish species. with operating strategies in of new resources.

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0 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 46 42-Month Critical Period 12-Month Critical Period

Full Pool Full Pool 100% 100%

80% 80%

60% 60%

40% 40%

20% 20% Power operations are planned 0% 0% Minimum SEP 1928 JULY 1930 FEB 1932 Minimum AUG OCT DEC FEB APR JUN Pool JULY 1929 JULY 1931 Pool SEP NOV JAN MAR MAY JUL according to the This graph illustrates the reservoir levels for a typical After the 1995 biological opinion the Federal system reverted project if the lowest recorded runoff condition in the to a one-year critical period (the four-year critical period came worst water region were repeated. Under critical-period operation, a about with the construction of the Canadian Treaty projects). reservoir is operated to optimize power production while Here, “empty” is a relative term not meaning dry, but rather conditions. being drafted from full to empty over 42 months. dropping below 40% of full (flood control rule curve at the end of April). The actual draft period would be 8 months, September through April, under 1937 water conditions.

Northwest Thermal Hydroelectric generating Critical Period Plants. In the U.S. Pacific plants can be quickly and Planning. On the Northwest, there is one easily ramped up and down Coordinated Columbia River operating commercial to produce more or less System, a multi-layered nuclear plant: the Columbia electricity at any given planning system for power Generating Station (formerly time. As a result, these generation has evolved, WNP-2) at Hanford, plants historically followed based on the possibility Washington, owned and the ups and downs in that the lowest historical operated by Energy demand very efficiently and streamflow conditions Northwest (formerly the were the key to meeting could recur in the future. Washington Public Power peak power loads before System planners call this Supply System). The region’s fish requirements limited worst-case sequence of water coal plants include Enron/ them. Large thermal plants years the “critical period.” Portland General Electric’s are not so flexible and are Critical period planning plant at Boardman, Oregon; not easily switched on is essentially a reliability Reliability Standard: Just as there are reliability standards for electrical appli- the Centralia, Washington and off. They are called standard that defines how ances, there are standards for entire electrical supply systems. The standards plant operated by Scottish baseload plants since they much hydro system energy are set in a way that ensures electricity Power/PacifiCorp; and the function best when meeting should be considered firm, will be delivered reliably, or without interruption. four-unit Colstrip facility in a constant, stable load, or guaranteed. It serves as Montana. There are also 24 hours a day, week in a basis for determining how several natural gas and oil- and week out. Newer much non-hydro power will fired combustion turbines in gas-fired turbines have be needed to meet expected Combustion Turbines: This type of gener- ation uses some form of combustible fuel the region that are used peri- been called upon to pick energy loads in the region. to power turbines, similar to aircraft engines, which in turn spin generators. odically during high demand. up peaking loads. This power could come from Combustion turbines (or CTs, as they are commonly called) can either gas or oil, depending upon availability and cost of the supply. CTs are often 1500 used in the Northwest to meet peak winter heating loads because they can be switched on quickly and easily. 750

0 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 47 thermal plants in the region planning and the resulting Operating Rule Curves or from power purchases. coordination allowed for for Power Operation. A In the past, the critical more power generation than set of operating guidelines, period has been determined if operations were estab- or rules, called “operating each year by analyzing a 60- lished on a 12-month cycle. rule curves” is developed year streamflow record and The biological opinions annually to guide reservoir isolating the portion that have introduced a variety of operations for power would produce the least nonpower requirements that production. These rule amount of energy, with all have to be accommodated curves result from numerous reservoirs drafted from full into the critical period plan- studies of historical water to empty. Reservoirs were ning process. The amount conditions. The rule curves assumed to be full at the of storage available for determine whether water beginning of the critical power production has been can be used for producing The worst water period and drawn down to reduced, and, as a result, firm or nonfirm energy. conditions in the their lowest operating levels the amount of firm power The planning and by the end. the system can produce has operating year for power basin occurred Before the biological decreased because reservoirs production is August 1 during the years opinions were issued, the cannot be drafted as deep. through July 31. The PNCA critical period was usually The current mix of power Coordinating Group, made of 1928 to 1932. based on the 42-month inter- and nonpower requirements up of BPA, the Corps, val from September 1, 1928, has led to the use of a one- Reclamation, and public through February 29, 1932, year critical period (August 1, and private utilities in the which was referred to as the 1936 through July 31, 1937), U.S. Northwest and western “four-year critical period.” instead of a four-year Canada, administers planning In general, critical period critical period. and operations under the Coordination Agreement. Each year, the Northwest Critical Rule Curves for a Typical Power Pool Study Group Columbia River Reservoir constructs numerous rule curves for reservoir opera- Full Pool tions for the upcoming 100% operating year to be used First Year by the Coordinating Group. 80% In the fixed drawdown Second Year period—from September 60% through December—before the year’s runoff forecast is 40% available, hydro system Third Year operation is guided by three

20% fixed rule curves. These

Fourth Year are the flood control rule

0% curve, the critical rule Minimum Pool AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL curve, and the assured refill curve. After runoff forecasts This graph separates the critical period rule curve into four operating years. are available, during the Water levels on July 31 influence which of the rule curves operators will follow in drafting reservoirs over the coming year. variable drawdown and fish

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0 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 48 Deregulation Means Changes for BPA and All Utilities

The electricity industry in the United States is in the midst of a significant restructuring to promote more competition. In 1996, the four Northwest governors appointed a 20-member committee to consider changes in the institutional structure of the region’s electric utility industry. The Comprehensive Review of the Northwest Energy System aimed to protect the region’s natural resources and distribute the costs and benefits of a more competitive marketplace equitably while assuring the region of an adequate, efficient, economical, and reliable power system. The Comprehensive Review Steering Committee met throughout 1996 and produced a series of recommendations for restructuring the Northwest electricity industry. Early in 1997, the governors appointed a four-member Northwest Energy Review Transition Board to oversee implementation of the recommendations of the Comprehensive Review. The planning Transmission. BPA has separated its transmission business from its power sales process yields business to conform to recommendations from the Comprehensive Review and national open-access transmission directives from FERC, as interpreted by U.S. Department rule curves to of Energy officials. BPA is participating in discussions aimed at creating one regional guide reservoir transmission operator (RTO) for all the Pacific Northwest’s transmission facilities. operations. Federal Power Subscription Process. BPA has long-term firm power sales contracts with over 120 utilities, including municipalities, public utility districts, and rural cooperatives. The agency also sells firm power directly to some Federal agencies and some of the region’s largest industries, including aluminum smelters. These companies are called direct service industries or DSIs. The Northwest’s publicly owned utilities have first call on power produced at Federal hydro projects, a principle known as preference. As deregulated wholesale energy markets become a reality, BPA’s customers have a greater number of power suppliers from which to choose. To meet the challenges of the competitive market while still providing stability to BPA, its customers, and the U.S. Treasury, the Comprehensive Review recommended that the region develop a subscription-based system for marketing the electricity produced by the Federal system. BPA and its customers have worked together to develop the terms and conditions of the subscription relationship. Subscription will guide the process for disposition of Federal power after BPA’s existing contracts expire in September 2001. Its outcome will determine the types of long-term contracts BPA and its customers will have in the future.

migration periods (January operating strategy. biological opinions, storage through August), reservoir Flood Control Rule reservoirs are managed to operations may be guided by Curve (FCRC). The provide specified percent- one more rule curve called flood control rule curve ages of confidence of refill Flood Control Rule Curve: The curve is also called the upper rule curve. It sets the variable energy content specifies the level of reser- to flood control levels by the amount of storage space that must be maintained in a reservoir to reduce curve. This curve cannot be voir drawdown required to April 10 of each year. damaging flood conditions downriver. lower than the flood control ensure adequate flood Critical Rule Curves. rule curve, under the current control space. Under the Critical rule curves specify

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0 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 49 Flood Control Rule Curve Critical Rule Curve with Flood Control Rule Curve

100% 100%

80% 80%

60% 60%

40% 40%

20% 20% The variable

0% 0% energy content ASON DJ F M A MJ J ASON DJ F M A MJ J

Flood Control Rule Curve Flood Control Rule Curve curve limits the Critical Rule Curve amount of nonfirm energy The flood control rule curve defines the drawdown The critical rule curve defines the reservoir elevations that required to assure adequate space is available in the must be maintained to ensure that firm hydro energy reservoir to regulate the predicted runoff for the year requirements can be met under the most adverse stream- that can be without causing flooding downstream. flows on record. produced.

reservoir elevations that critical period then the levels, as specified in the must be maintained on a second-, third-, or fourth-year biological opinions, by the monthly basis to ensure that critical rule curve would following spring. Reservoirs firm hydro energy require- guide operations during the are not drafted as deeply as ments can be met even if year, depending on how low they were when a four-year there is a reoccurrence of the the reservoirs and streamflows critical period was being worst historical streamflow actually were. Operation with used. Thus, under current conditions. In the past, Critical Rule Curve 2, 3, or operations, the critical rule during the planning process, 4 is known as proportional curve will not be lower than a critical rule curve was draft. It means that each the flood control rule curve, derived for each of the four reservoir is operated the which ensures that the years in the critical period. same distance proportionally maximum amount of stored These were called Critical (expressed in feet of water is available for fish Rule Curves 1, 2, 3, and 4. elevation) between the flows every season. If reservoirs in the guiding critical rule curves. Assured Refill Curve system began an operating With the one-year critical (ARC). The assured refill year full, the rule curve used period currently being used, curve is used to limit to guide actual drawdown reservoirs are assumed to reservoir draft for energy that year was usually Critical start the operating year less production before the year’s Rule Curve 1. If reservoirs than full, due to summer runoff forecasts are known began the operating year less flow augmentation for fish, to assure there is a high than full, or if streamflows and to be drawn down no probability of refill by July. were lower than those in the lower than flood control The ARC concept is still used

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0 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 50 Assured Refill Curve Variable Energy Content Curve with Flood Control & Critical Rule Curve with Flood Control Rule Curve, Critical Rule Curve & Assured Refill Curve

100% 100%

80% 80%

60% 60%

40% 40%

20% 20% Reservoirs are

0% 0% ASON DJ F M A MJ J ASONDJ F M A MJ J operated seasonally

Flood Control Rule Curve Flood Control Rule Curve Critical Rule Curve Critical Rule Curve based in part Assured Refill Curve Assured Refill Curve Variable Energy Content Curve on historical The assured refill curve is based on the Coordination The variable energy content curve, which guides nonfirm runoff patterns. Agreement refill test. energy generation, is usually the lowest of the four curves during the winter and early spring and is based on predicted runoff for the year. in Coordination Agreement the flood control rule curve. January, the beginning of the planning, but, as a practical From January through variable drawdown period. matter, it has been super- the remainder of the A new forecast is produced seded in current operations operating year, when actual every month from January by the biological opinions, streamflow data and runoff through August and is used which require that reservoirs forecasts are known, a new to calculate a new VECC. achieve flood control eleva- for nonfirm energy When it is lower than the Draft Limits: The lowest level to which draft limit a reservoir can be drawn down. The tions by mid-April. In other production at each reservoir energy content curve, the limit is based on rule curves that are calculated on both historic and current words, the priority is on is calculated regularly. If VECC is used to limit the streamflow data. having as much water as the latest snowpack and draft on reservoirs to possible in the reservoirs precipitation measurements produce nonfirm energy. in the spring to aid fish show that the ECC can be Operators may draft below migration while still having lowered, this new draft limit the VECC to meet firm adequate flood control space. is known as the variable hydroelectric energy Energy Content energy content curve. requirements. Curve (ECC). The energy Variable Energy The ECC and VECC content curve, also known Content Curve (VECC). concepts continue to be used as the operating rule curve, The variable energy content in Coordination Agreement defines the level of draw- curve shows how much planning. However, under down for producing nonfirm water must remain in each current ESA-driven opera- energy. The ECC is the reservoir to create a 95 per- tions, reservoirs are not higher of the critical rule cent probability of refill by generally drafted below the curve and the assured refill July 31. The first runoff flood control rule curve. curve; it must be at or below forecast is made in early

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0 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978

51 BPA Power Sales Take Many Forms

Out-of-Region Sales, Exchanges, and Purchases. Intertie transmission lines connect BPA’s high-voltage grid with California and, from there, with utilities throughout the . Other lines add eastern Montana, British Columbia, and Alberta to the interconnected grid. Power sales and trades between regions reduce electricity costs and the need for new power plants at both ends of the lines. BPA’s 25,000 circuit-kilometer (16,000 circuit-mile) transmission grid is the backbone of power transfers within and passing through the Northwest. BPA has bought power from as far away as Texas to meet power peaks in winter storms. It stores water in Canadian reservoirs as an energy reserve to draw on in a power crunch. BPA swaps spare capacity and surplus hydroelectric power in the The river provides spring for winter energy from California. All of these actions increase the Northwest’s energy supply without requiring new resources. BPA sells power outside the transportation Northwest only when the power is surplus to regional needs. for agricultural Surplus Power Sales. BPA may have firm surplus power to sell each spring and early summer from water sent downstream to help migrating salmon. BPA has products from the entered into several long-term extraregional sales or exchange contracts for power interior basin. excess to Northwest needs. In 1995, Congress gave BPA greater flexibility to market surplus power outside the Northwest. Previous energy call-back requirements of 60 days’ notice were removed. BPA can now sell this power for up to seven years. The legislation also gave BPA greater flexibility to do business with power marketers, load aggregators, and brokers. Short-term Trading. In the new competitive power market, utilities are seeking more short-term energy sales and are making deals at a faster pace. BPA is an active player in this market. In 1995, BPA set up an electricity “trading floor” where it does short-term commodity-type trading. The trading floor brings together current West Coast electricity market conditions, up-to-the-minute hydro and power system status, and short-term weather and streamflow projections to develop a daily marketing strategy. Deals that previously took hours or days are closed in minutes. DSI Sales. BPA, under its current rate schedule, serves with firm energy just under 1500 MW of the direct service industries’ 3000 MW total load. This service is fixed through the year 2006, at which time the allocation of firm resources among BPA’s customers may be reviewed. The remainder of the DSI loads is served through purchases the DSI’s themelves make in the marketplace.

D. Navigation dam. The Columbia-Snake kilometers (106 miles) from Inland Waterway from the the ocean to Portland, Construction of dams Pacific Ocean to Lewiston, Oregon, and Vancouver, greatly improved conditions Idaho, has been developed Washington. The second for navigation on the lower in two segments. The first is the 4.3-meter-deep Columbia and Snake rivers, is the 12.2-meter-deep (14 feet) barge and river traffic has been (40 feet) open river channel that extends 578 kilometers extended and increased for ocean-going vessels, (359 miles) from Vancouver with the completion of each which extends 171 to Lewiston.

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0 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 52 Northwest. About 2.95 million hectares (7.3 million acres) IDAHO Columbia River are irrigated in the Columbia WASHINGTON River Basin. Of this, 2.9 Snake River ASTORIA TO million hectares (7.1 million VANCOUVER Lewiston 106 RIVER MILES acres) are in the United

Snake River PACIFIC OCEAN States, and 0.1 million Vancouver Columbia River hectares (0.2 million acres) 1MILE= 1.61 KILOMETERS Portland 1FOOT= 0.3 METER are in Canada. Besides agri- culture, these figures cover

OREGON VANCOUVER TO LEWISTON irrigated lands in urban use, 359 RIVER MILES nurseries and seed A 40-foot-deep channel accommodates large ships 106 miles inland on the orchards, recreation sites, Columbia River to Vancouver, Washington. A combination of dams, locks, and and other non-agricultural The Columbia keeps a channel of 14 feet open to Lewiston, Idaho, on the Snake uses. Irrigation uses approx- River, an additional 359 miles upriver. and its tributaries imately 6 percent of total Navigation above Operating requirements annual Columbia Basin provide a vital Bonneville Dam is made for navigation are based on flow, or about 9 percent source of water possible by the Corps’ the waterway’s two segments. of annual flows past The eight-dam complex of In the first segment, the Dalles. Much of this water for farmland in locks and reservoirs from river channel from the ocean eventually finds its way the U.S. and Bonneville through Lower to Vancouver, Washington, back into the rivers as Granite Dam to Lewiston, navigation requirements are irrigation return flows, Canada. Idaho. The channel satisfied by natural river although the returns are accommodates shallow-draft flows without special not “credited” against the Locks: The key to inland navigation on tugs, barges, log rafts, and releases. Periodic dredging original withdrawal figures. the Columbia-Snake River Waterway, locks raise and lower ships between recreational boats, and maintains the channel depth Water releases for pools on the river, i.e., from below a dam to the pool above it. On the trip connects the agricultural to support navigation even irrigation are scheduled on a from the ocean to Lewiston, Idaho, ves- interior basin with deep- at normal low flows. sels travel from through eight local basis, not as a central- locks to an elevation of over 700 feet. water ports on the lower In the second segment, ized system function. Columbia and Snake rivers. the barge channel to Dredging: The Corps regularly removes Meeting Navigation Lewiston, the Corps has from the river bottom to keep Needs. Barges and other established maximum and the channel at the proper depth for navigation. The continual moving and traffic plying the Columbia minimum reservoir eleva- shifting of sediment makes dredging an ongoing activity. and Snake rivers need tions to maintain the minimum water depths to authorized channel depth. navigate successfully. Unlike Thus, navigation require- other uses, navigation has ments are fully met within depth requirements that do the flexibility provided under not vary with the seasons. normal system operation. Irrigation projects supply water for a Corps operators must variety of crops, including orchards, regulate water releases and E. Irrigation nursery stock, and wheat. Many maintain reservoir levels to agricultural products grown in the provide minimum navigation Irrigation has brought Northwest are exported to other agricultural prosperity to parts of the country and abroad depths behind the dams and return significant economic all year. vast arid areas of the benefit to the region.

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0 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 53 Major Irrigation Areas in the Columbia drafted to supply irrigation water. Releases continue River Basin throughout the growing season, which usually ends in September. During the winter, some projects release water for resident BRITISH COLUMBIA fish, minimum streamflows, and livestock watering. Many of the reservoirs that were originally constructed primarily for irrigation are being operated to satisfy When natural flood control, power, recre- WASHINGTON streamflows are ation, and other purposes.

C a Ri Since water conditions olumbi ve r MONTANA inadequate, water vary greatly from year to is released from year, demands for irrigation OREGON IDAHO water also vary, as does the reservoirs to ability to refill the storage S n ak e Riv supply irrigators. er space in reservoirs. It is usually desirable to hold 1 acre = 0.405 hectare unused irrigation water in a reservoir from one year to Water from the Columbia River system irrigates about 2.95 million hectares the next to help meet (7.3 million acres) of farmland; major areas are shown shaded on this map. demands in subsequent Reclamation, local irrigation the mainstem Columbia. low-water years. districts, and water compa- All of these effects are Holding water from one nies operate most of the accounted for in the annual year to the next depends on irrigation reservoirs in the studies used to guide the the available storage and Columbia River system. operation of the Columbia competing uses for that These projects are River system. Operating storage. In some years, for generally operated to benefit requirements for irrigation example, water cannot be local water users. The effect aim to have the reservoirs held over because it has to be on the overall water supply capture and hold as much evacuated for flood control. from individual projects is runoff as possible during When dry conditions relatively minor. But the the fall, winter, and early persist over several years, combined impact on the spring. there may not be enough river system is important. The Growing Season. water to meet all irrigation Storing water in reservoirs In the early part of the demands. In such cases, to meet irrigation demands irrigation season, demands supplies to some users may alters river flows for other for water are often met by be curtailed, depending uses. The effects are much diverting natural stream- on their water rights and larger proportionally on flows. When natural storage rights, as determined some tributaries, such as streamflows are no longer by state water resource the Snake River, than on adequate, the reservoirs are agencies.

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0 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 54 F. Recreation

Recreation facilities are available at many locations in the Columbia River Basin. Recreation was identified as a project purpose when many of the dams were built, and it has become increasingly important. It was often a key selling point to win local support for the construction of a Recreational use of the Columbia River is increasing as the region’s population The public uses the dam. The public uses the grows and more visitors are drawn to the Northwest every year. , water projects for fishing, Oregon, in the Columbia River Gorge, is known around the world as a projects for fishing, swimming, waterskiing, ‘Mecca’ for windsurfers. watersports, windsurfing, picnicking, provided in storage is of relatively minor camping, , boating, picnicking, reservoirs in June to protect consequence in the Columbia and sightseeing. against a late runoff, refill River system. The Columbia camping, and Recreational use of the could be delayed until July River does supply water to lakes behind the dams occurs sightseeing. or early August. some cities and industries throughout the year but Outflows from dams by diversion, but these mostly in the summer and affect recreation activities diversions are small and Diversions: Refers to taking water out of early fall. The goal of oper- the river channel for municipal, industrial, in the river reaches below have little measurable ators frequently is to keep or agricultural use. Water is diverted by them. The amount of flow impact on system operation. pumping directly from the river or by the lakes as full and stable as filling canals. and the rate at which it The quality of water in possible without jeopardizing changes play a large part in the Columbia River is other project uses. the success of activities such generally very good, but Normal power genera- as fishing, rafting, or swim- there are some exceptions. tion and flood control ming. Reservoir operators Pesticide runoff in areas of operations are often often provide certain flows heavy agriculture jeopardizes compatible with recreational at the request of organizers wildlife populations. Changes needs at the lakes during of special recreational events. in reservoir operation to the summer. If runoff is During certain recreation alleviate water quality low or delayed, if there are seasons, there are limits on problems are minor unexpected shutdowns of flow amounts and hourly compared to operational thermal power plants, or if changes to flows and changes to meet other needs. forecasts prove wrong, lake reservoir elevations. Nevertheless, there are levels may have to be drawn ertain water quality require- down to provide water for ments in the tributaries and power generation to meet G. Water Supply on the mainstem Columbia regional loads or to provide & Water Quality River that must be included fish flow augmentation for Use of reservoir storage in the multipurpose goals part or all of the summer. If to meet municipal and of the system. flood control space must be industrial water supply needs In the tributaries,

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0 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 55 aquatic life, water tempera- however, incomplete in two ture is an important consid- significant ways. First, there eration in project operation. is not a comprehensive In winter, stored water can understanding of the context be warmer than natural of cultural resources as flows. In summer, the sun viewed by Native Americans heats up surface waters in (see box on page 57). the reservoirs while the Second, not all project natural streams are often lands have been surveyed much cooler. The outlets at for cultural resources nor the storage dams generally have all those identified Water from the Columbia River are located in such a way been evaluated. quenches the thirst of many resi- that they draw water from Archeologists have Water quality dents in the region. Unlike many the lower levels. As a result, identified prehistoric sites other rivers, it remains an excellent must be high to source of domestic water supply. water released from the in the basin that date back reservoirs is at a different over 10,000 years. In contrast, sustain aquatic life streamflows from reservoir temperature than in the European and American and recreation. projects must be adequate open river. This water settlements began to appear to maintain water quality temperature difference about 300 years ago. Native requirements for aquatic can harm or benefit fish American sites include pit- life, as well as for municipal downstream of the dams. house villages and seasonal

Temperature Control: The Corps and or industrial use and for To provide temperature camps, sweat lodges, fishing Reclamation have installed equipment water recreation. Minimum at some dams that can regulate the control that benefits fish, the stations, storage pits, burial temperature of water released from the outflow requirements are Corps has installed multilevel grounds, , and reservoirs. This allows water temperature downstream in the river to be controlled. specified for each project withdrawal gates at Libby rock cairns. The historic Temperature control is achieved by drawing water from different elevations based on downstream con- and Dworshak Dams, as has sites attributed to Europeans in a reservoir. Cold water is drawn from ditions. Sometimes require- deep in the reservoir; warm water is Reclamation at Hungry and Americans include fur drawn from near the surface. ments vary with the seasons. Horse. The gates can be trade camps, homesteads, On the mainstem, operated to supply water at mines, and ferry landings. spilling water over the dams any temperature available Fluctuating water levels to facilitate juvenile fish within the range of temper- and shoreline erosion have passage or to pass flows in atures in the reservoirs. the potential to damage or excess of the powerhouse destroy significant cultural capacity can increase H. Cultural resources at the reservoirs. dissolved gas saturation to Resources The National Historic lethal levels for fish. Most Preservation Act requires of the reservoir control Cultural resources are Federal agencies to take challenge is to minimize spill found throughout the into account these effects through upstream flow Columbia River system. A and to develop ways to regulation and installation significant amount of the address them. One such and operation of dissolved scientific information about device is a Programmatic gas abatement structures cultural resources comes Agreement to guide the on the dam spillways. from archeological studies creation of a Historic Adjusting Water associated with construction Preservation Management Temperatures. Because of of the Federal dams in the Plan for each reservoir, its impacts on fish and basin. This information is, currently under development.

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0 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 56 These plans identify signifi- ship to the earth and natural to work with the Native cant cultural resources; resources as a cultural Americans to ensure that approaches to resource resource. The Federal their perspective is a part protection, preservation, agencies committed through of future cultural and treatment; and research the System Operation Review resource activities. designs for data recovery. They also provide for site monitoring, public education and interpretation of cultural materials, and the long-term curation of recovered arti- facts and information. The management plans address issues required by other Native Americans relevant legislation, including view their heritage enforcement of the Archeological Resources and spiritual Protection Act, provisions of relationship the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation to nature as a Act, and the American Indian culture resource. Religious Act. The academic and legal definitions of cultural resources tend to focus on tangible evidence, such as sites and artifacts. Many Native Americans find these definitions too narrow. They view their entire heritage, and their spiritual relation-

The Sacredness of the Natural World Native Americans have traditionally conducted their lives based on the belief that there is a close physical and spiritual interrelationship between humans and nature. This relationship extends from time immemorial to the present and continues infinitely into the future. Native Americans do not assume that humans are superior to animals or other aspects of nature. They view human existence as an integral part of the natural and spiritual world. All that exists is alive and sacred, and land, rock, water, air, animals, and humans occupy unique roles in the universe. Life is seen as a process of maintaining a balance with the rest of the world, and failure to respect the proper place of all things in the natural world could upset this balance and destroy it. Native Americans deeply respect tribal elders as the ones who traditionally preserve and transmit cultural information and language to the younger generation. The main body of cultural knowledge contained in tribal traditions and practices is unwritten, and the process of teaching it to future generations depends on a personal relationship between elders and the younger tribal members. This knowledge is sacred and cannot be given to just anyone who asks for it. From the traditional tribal perspective, elders are the primary and most authoritative source of cultural information.

57 A. Current Operating Strategy

The current system VI. operating strategy for the Federal Columbia River System Power System reflects the Planning & following priorities:

Operations • Supporting the recovery of ESA-listed fish species by storing water during the fall and winter to increase spring and summer flows for fish.

• Protecting other resources Coordination allows generators to plan routine maintenance at individual by managing the detri- plants, such as Bonneville Dam, without disrupting their ability to serve load. mental effects caused by operations for ESA-listed at Lower Granite Dam on 80 percent of the smolts to species. This includes the Snake River, and at pass the projects over the establishing minimum Priest Rapids and McNary spillways and through summer reservoir levels. Dams on the Columbia bypass systems, avoiding The Corps’ flood control River, based on runoff the turbines. Current operations are unchanged. forecasts. The four Federal requirements set forth in projects on the lower Snake the 2000 biological opinion • Producing power. River are drawn down to are to maximize smolt their minimum operating passage around turbines via The Federal agency pools during the spring and spill and bypass systems. project operators now summer, and John Day Spill can be limited, if conduct river operations reservoir is operated at an necessary, to prevent total year-round in accordance elevation of 79.9 meters dissolved gas from building with the biological opinions (262 feet), plus or minus up in the water, a condition issued under the ESA. 0.15 meter (one-half foot) which can harm fish. Federal reservoirs must be from August 20 through Fish transportation is operated during the winter September 30. an important feature of the in a way that will leave them Prior to 1998, water current strategy. In high- full enough in the spring was required to be released flow years, more fish are and summer to provide over the spillways at Federal passed with spill and fewer flows for migrating salmon. projects in the system in an fish transported. In low-flow Water must be released effort to achieve an 80 years, when there is less from storage in an attempt to percent fish passage water to spill, more fish are meet streamflow objectives efficiency. The aim was for transported.

58 The current strategy protect resident fish and Kootenai River white Fish Passage Efficiency: The percentage of the total number of fish that pass a imposes draft limits at recreation. Libby Dam sturgeon and bull trout; dam without going through the turbine Hungry Horse, Libby, Grand must be operated to that is, water is released to units. Coulee, and Dworshak to enhance conditions for enhance spawning.

Current Operating Strategy Requirements Coordinated The operating requirements Federal project operators adopted as a result of planning yields biological opinions, can be summarized as follows: rule curves that • Manage reservoir operations during the fall and winter to achieve a high confidence guide operations of refill to flood control elevations by early spring of each year to maximize the water available for flow augmentation and spill while providing late fall and at each project. winter flow for chum salmon spawning and rearing below Bonneville Dam. • Provide flow augmentation in the Columbia and Snake rivers and manage these flows during the fish migration season according to decisions from the in-season management (technical, policy) teams. • Release the stored flow augmentation water during the migration season in a manner that strives toward specified flow objectives measured at Lower Granite and McNary projects and, during the spring, at Priest Rapids. During the fall and winter, release stored water for chum and fall chinook salmon. • Manage spill at mainstem projects to improve fish passage efficiency (non-turbine fish passage) up to specified levels of total dissolved gas. Many projects are spilling up to the maximum of 120 percent of total dissolved gas. • Transport all juvenile anadromous fish collected at the lower Snake River collector projects during the spring and summer and from McNary Dam in the summer, or as otherwise directed through regional in-season management decisions. • Operate lower Snake River reservoirs within a limited range of 0.3 meters (one foot) from early April through August each year. • Operate John Day reservoir at an elevation of 79.9 meters (262 feet), plus or minus 0.45 meter (one and one-half feet) from mid-April through September each year. • Seek to refill storage reservoirs by the end of June to maximize summer flow augmentation. • Operate turbines within 1 percent of peak efficiency during the juvenile and adult fish migration seasons, defined as March 15 through October 31 in the Columbia River and March 15 through November 30 in the Snake River. • Operate Libby Dam to provide flows for Kootenai River white sturgeon and bull trout, and restrict daily flow changes to minimize downstream effects. • Manage reservoir elevations at storage projects to minimize detrimental effects on resident fish, wildlife, and recreational facilities. Summer draft objectives are to be met at Hungry Horse, Libby, Grand Coulee, Banks Lake, and Dworshak projects while attempting to meet flow objectives for juvenile salmon migration.

59 While the biological opinions and current operating strategy spell out general operating guidelines, the agencies also follow the concept of “adaptive man- agement” in the operation of the Columbia River system. Adaptive management allows river managers to learn from actual experience and adapt the resulting operating principles or actions to what The Coordination is expected to be best for Agreement fish. Periodic review may Generating resources can be used most efficiently when utilities coordinate and result in course corrections cooperate with one another. Close coordination is essential between operators planning studies to be put into place based of dams adjacent to one another on a river reach. assume the on new information from monitoring, research studies, coordinated The Columbia River Canada. The two plans are or other sources. Treaty. The Columbia factored into the annual system has a River Treaty requires the plan developed by parties to single owner. B. The PNCA United States (the Corps’ the Coordination Agreement Planning Division Engineer and BPA’s because releases of water Administrator, acting as the from the Canadian storage Process U.S. Entity) and Canada reservoirs are crucial for Pacific Northwest (B.C. Hydro acting as the coordinated system planning Coordination Agreement Canadian Entity) to prepare in the United States. annual planning is done to an Assured Operating Plan The Pacific Northwest factor in all uses of the system and a Detailed Operating Coordination Agreement. such as the requirements of Plan each year. The Assured Operation of water storage the biological opinions; this Operating Plan dictates how for power generation is annual planning process Treaty storage will be oper- coordinated through the allows for different owners to ated six years in advance. PNCA. This Agreement coordinate generation so that The plan is developed to among the major generating the system can produce as meet the flood control and utilities of the region provides much power as possible with- power objectives of the for planned electric power in the operational constraints Treaty, the only recognized operation during the operat- for nonpower purposes. purposes for project opera- ing year. The Coordination The Coordination tion when the Treaty was Agreement gives nonpower Agreement annual planning signed, and to define with requirements priority over process begins each an associated document power needs. February. Planning gives the amount of Canadian Coordinating system the operating agencies the Entitlement to be returned operations through annual ability to look at a variety for that year. The Detailed planning provides many of potential reservoir and Operating Plan addresses advantages. It enables Exchange Power: Utilities frequently runoff conditions. Computer operations over the next utilities to exchange power swap power with one another to use their resources more efficiently. Rather models simulate the system’s 12 months. and to help each other than sell excess power, Utility A may loan it to Utility B. Utility A will take ability to meet reservoir The Assured Operating when planned shutdowns equivalent power back, for example, operating requirements and Plan and the Detailed of transmission lines or when it must shut a generator down for maintenance. assess the power supply Operating Plan are the basis turbines occur. Utilities can impact of various scenarios for the operating rule curves take advantage of their on the system. for the Treaty projects in differences in streamflows,

60 loads, generation, and Northwest Power Pool. Each Coordination Agreement maintenance schedules to reservoir owner submits must work out a way to meet share resources. Coordination multiple-use operating nonpower requirements. also lets utilities operate requirements that must be Once the data are submitted, hydro and thermal resources accommodated in the studies are conducted to more efficiently. resulting plan. Utility parties identify the critical period. The Synchronized also submit forecasts of Firm Energy Load Concept. An important their electricity loads, the Carrying Capability. point to understand about output of their non-hydro Assuming critical period the Coordination Agreement generating resources, and conditions, the next step in is that the planning studies planned maintenance outages coordinated planning is are made as if the total for both hydro and thermal determining Firm Energy coordinated system had a resources. The resources Load Carrying Capability single owner, although actual include any contracts a (FELCC) for the system The Actual Energy operations must reflect utility has for firm power as a whole and for each Regulation meshes individual utility’s needs. If purchases or exchanges. Coordination Agreement all projects in the system Coordination Agreement party. The firm energy load all requirements belonged to a single utility, planning and operating carrying capability of each throughout the the owner would synchronize studies must accept and plant, each individual utility operations to maximize accommodate nonpower system, and the coordinated operating year. power production. requirements. Whenever a system as a whole is the

Coordinated planning nonpower requirement can amount of energy each is Planning Studies: Computer studies model attempts to duplicate that be implemented by a single capable of producing during the impacts of alternative operations. Modelers may examine spill levels, hypothetical situation. The reservoir owner, that owner the critical period after potential changes in the weather, moveable maintenance outages, and Coordination Agreement includes it in the data nonpower requirements many other factors to determine the contains a number of submittal to the annual have been accommodated. It optimal operation for all concerned. provisions, some of which planning process. If is the amount of energy the are described below, to make Maintenance Outage: All generating plants, hydro and thermal, require the synchronized concept routine maintenance. Utilities generally work on a day-to-day basis, schedule maintenance outages during periods when energy demand is low or while still meeting the hydro supplies are high. For example, Energy Northwest may shut down its deregulating requirements Columbia Generating Station nuclear plant for maintenance, or for economics, of FERC’s orders. in the spring when runoff levels are high. The Northwest Power Pool Study Group in Portland Northwest Power Pool Study Group: This organization, headquartered in Oregon, performs the Portland, Oregon, collects operating data from the utilities and conducts Coordination Agreement regulation studies under the Pacific studies. The products of the Northwest Coordination Agreement. planning process are rule curves and estimates of the amount of firm energy that can be produced by each project for each month of the critical period. Coordinated planning and operation is essential to meet multiple needs, Development of the including agriculture through irrigation. annual operating plan begins in February and is completed coordination between two system and individual parties in July of every year. By or more owners is needed, could produce if streamflows February 1 prior to each they are to make the were as low as they were in operating year, parties to the arrangements, and when the the critical period. Coordination Agreement coordination of many is FELCC is also the provide study data to the needed, parties to the amount of energy that the

61 In low water years, draft is distributed equally among Operators work around the clock to meet load with the best combination of resources. all reservoirs. system may be called on to Parties review the curves and FELCC for each

Preliminary Regulation: A computer produce on a firm, or guar- Preliminary Regulation and month in the critical period. study that develops a set of rule curves anteed, basis during actual adjust their data submittals The final analysis made that guide project operation under terms of the Coordination Agreement. operations. The system and before a Modified Regulation in developing the annual individual parties’ FELCC is produced. The Modified operating plan is the may or may not be sufficient Regulation is then fine-tuned Coordination Agreement to meet power loads in the to make sure the hydro refill test conducted by the region. If it is insufficient, system is used to its fullest Corps. It simulates how the utilities with a firm deficit must potential. Part of this hydro system would operate seek other sources of power. fine-tuning includes under the runoff conditions The Preliminary determining interchange in each of 60 years of

Streamflow Records: For over 100 Regulation. Once the critical energy obligations and streamflow records. This years, water resource managers in the period studies have been shifting and shaping FELCC analysis determines whether Northwest have maintained records on the seasonal volume and rate of flow in conducted, the Coordination (see boxes). the energy content curves the Columbia River. These historical records are of profound importance to Agreement parties have their After adjustments to are constructed in a way planning system operations each year. first estimates of the amount FELCC have been made, that does not threaten the and distribution, month by the Final Regulation is coordinated system’s ability month, of their FELCC. published. It provides each to generate its firm energy This initial step is called the party to the Coordination capability under historic Preliminary Regulation. Agreement with critical rule streamflow conditions.

Interchange Energy The concept of “interchange” is fundamental to the Coordination Agreement. Interchange energy assures all parties an equal ability to serve their firm loads. Each party to the Coordination Agreement is expected to use its own resources to supply its own firm energy load carrying capability (FELCC) over the critical period. At any time, however, a party may not be able to produce enough energy to meet its FELCC. That party has a right to request the deficiency from other parties with resource capabilities that exceed their FELCC. Parties with excess FELCC are obligated to supply all or part of that excess energy to parties that need it. Energy transferred in this way is called interchange energy.

62 Shifting and Shaping FELCC In preparing the annual plan, some utilities can make changes to reservoir operations to match generation more closely with loads or to optimize sales of surplus FELCC, as long as nonpower requirements have been satisfied. This process is referred to as “shifting and shaping FELCC.” Shifting and shaping moves surplus or deficit FELCC from one period to another during the year to increase the FELCC’s value or to more closely match load varia- tions. Shifting and shaping FELCC may reduce the coordinated system’s overall capabilities somewhat, but the energy is more valuable because it is produced at a time when natural streamflows are lower. These shifting and shaping changes are limited to those that do not threaten the basic concept of operating as a single system to meet a single load. Hydro projects in the same river reach are C. In-Season water conditions is known, special operations for a Water Mangement Plan is research and other uses. coordinated on Management developed by the operating The TMT considers a for Salmon agencies and coordinated variety of factors in preparing an hourly basis. through the TMT. The Water the plan, such as the location, In-season management Management Plan is a part timing, and passage indices coordinates system operation of the larger Implementation of listed and non-listed during the fish migration Plan, which the operating juvenile salmon and how to season. That’s when decisions agencies must prepare as a match flows and spill to actu- have to be made about how result of the current biological al fish migration within the water in the system will be opinion. The Water Manage- parameters of the biological moved on a weekly basis. ment Plan describes measures opinions. The plan focuses It is the job of the Technical that are desired to optimize on implementation of the Management Team, first passage conditions for current biological opinions, discussed in Section III.C., juvenile and adult anadro- the Northwest Power to advise the Federal project mous salmonids. It covers Planning Council’s Fish and operators on operations that all aspects of operations of Wildlife Program, state and optimize passage conditions the FCRPS, including turbine tribal plans and programs, for anadromous and outages, power generation and other relevant opera- resident fish. schedules, water temperature tional requirements. The TMT, established by control, spill, total dissolved The Water Management the 1995 biological opinion, gas management, and Plan summarizes final water originally had three periods supply forecasts and of operation: pre-season discusses the outlook for planning, in-season manage- meeting flow objectives in ment, and post-season the upcoming year based reviews. With the additional on monthly computer requirements of the 2000 simulations of flows. It also biological opinion, the TMT sets forth flood control now operates year-round. requirements at each It generally meets on a project and addresses total weekly basis. With its huge storage capability and dissolved gas management, Each year prior to the five non-Federal mid-Columbia dams fish transportation, and spe- start of the spring fish downstream, operation at Grand cial operations for research. Coulee Dam plays an integral role migration and once some in the Coordination Agreement’s The plan specifically information about expected interchange energy transactions. addresses spring operations

63 the numbers of fish and the status of fish migration. Flow levels can be adjusted at any time, based on biological factors as well. The TMT makes recommendations to the Corps, Reclamation, and BPA each week, and the agencies then make their decisions about the following week’s operations. The Corps’ in-season decisions on the timing and Operations vary in amount of releases for accordance with salmon and sturgeon, spill, and fish transportation are water conditions. based on the recommenda- 1997-98 was an tions of the TMT, which monitors and evaluates the average year. shaping of available water While each operating year is different, lessons from the past can be valuable in guiding operations in the future. based on real-time flow and biological information. In (April-June), summer TMT recommends FCRPS coordination with NMFS operations (July-August), operations for the following and the USFWS, the Corps and fall/winter operations week. If forecasts indicate may operate differently for (September-March). that flows will not meet the approved research, flood During the anadromous objectives recommended in control, emergency power fish migration season, the the biological opinions, the needs, or multiple-purpose salmon managers (NMFS TMT may consider whether operations for other and state and tribal to recommend lower summer project uses. managers) provide biological reservoir elevations to allow information on salmon to the for more drafting to meet D. Real-Time TMT. The USFWS provides flow objectives or whether Operations information on other fish to establish alternative flow and wildlife resources. Data objectives. The TMT takes Real-time operations are a provided to the TMT at its into account runoff conditions combination of experience, in-season meetings also and fish movements, as well craft, and science—a blend- include: reservoir status, as the impact achieving flow ing of the immediate (next streamflow forecasts, the objectives will have on hour, next day) needs of the results of biological moni- reservoir operations, partic- Pacific Northwest community. toring, juvenile fish passage ularly the ability to achieve Those needs include electric indices, adult fish counts, flow objectives in the future. power, fish and wildlife white sturgeon movement, Fish numbers and protection, protection of life status of fish transportation, migration timing are used and property from floods, and the results of dissolved as indicators to adjust flow navigation, irrigation, gas and water temperature measures within the season, municipal water, recreation, monitoring. particularly in low-flow years. project maintenance and Using this data and the The TMT may recommend repair, scientific research, curtailing or extending the and so on. Sometimes they River Forecast Center’s use of available flow-aug- compete with one another streamflow forecast for the mentation water at the end for priority; most often Columbia River Basin, the of the season, depending on planners, dispatchers, and

64 real-time schedulers working which define drafting points week a new operating plan together can accommodate for all reservoirs. is prepared that looks a all the needs. Again, at Nonpower month ahead. These weekly different times of the water Requirements. The fish operating plans are an year, different needs will and wildlife needs are important tool to enable BPA take top priority—flood addressed as described in to make decisions about the control, fish and wildlife, the previous section. availability of energy for power production. Other nonpower needs may Northwest utility and indus- Actual Energy include enough depth at trial customers and for Regulation. Reservoir ferry crossings so ferry export from the region. operators begin the operating boats will not run aground They let BPA “determine its year with rule curves based or the slight raising of a inventory” so that it can on historical streamflows. lake level to free a grounded function efficiently in the They must also satisfy boat from a sand bar. When energy marketplace. Water stored numerous project and divers are in the water In-Lieu Energy. In-lieu during a ‘wet’ system requirements and making repairs to a project, energy is another key feature meet electricity loads with or cleaning debris screens of day-to-day operations. year can be a combination of hydro near a spillway, lake levels In-lieu energy, established carried over to and other power plants. and flows are carefully in the PNCA, is the means To reconcile all of these controlled to maximize by which a downstream the following requirements, an Actual safety considerations. party to the PNCA can year. Energy Regulation (AER) BPA’s Day-to-Day receive energy in-lieu of study is produced at least Operations. BPA has its own water stored in an upstream twice a month throughout planning process to determine reservoir. the operating year. The the power generating If there is water stored AER updates the system’s requests it will make to the in the reservoir above the operation and draft rights Corps and Reclamation and energy content curve draft and obligations as they to guide operation of thermal level, owners of projects change with new stream- resources and decisions on downstream from that flow forecasts. power purchases. Each reservoir may request the The Northwest Power Pool Study Group conducts the AER regulation studies. One input to the studies is an energy content curve for each storage project, supplied by the project’s owner, that accounts for specific conditions in the current operating year. The AER combines each utility’s FELCC with actual and current estimates of stream- flow and defines draft points to produce the FELCC and meet other system and project requirements. In low water years, when reservoirs must be drafted below their energy content curves to Proportional Draft Points: PDPs are produce FELCC, the AER will is an important component of the region’s power genera- drawdown limits for reservoirs when water conditions require drafting below set proportional draft points, tion system, turning water into kilowatts of electricity. energy content curves to serve firm load.

65 release of the water under coordinates the hourly are under the control of a the Coordination Agreement. operation of the chain of ten single utility or agency to The upstream reservoir projects on the Columbia assure coordinated owner is obligated either and lower Snake rivers, from operation. to release the water or to Lower Granite and Grand deliver the energy equivalent Coulee to Bonneville Dam. E. System in lieu of the release of The seven projects on Operation: water. Downstream parties the middle Columbia River In Action that have received in-lieu from Grand Coulee through energy must return it as the Priest Rapids are also in a While storage reservoirs upstream storage reservoir continuum along the river. follow a fairly similar returns to the energy These projects, owned by pattern of operation each content curve level. several different utilities, are year, operation does vary Weather is Hourly Power operated as a group under in accordance with water always the Operation. Hydroelectric the Hourly Coordination conditions. This section generating projects adjacent Agreement and dispatched describes actual operations driving force to one another are coordi- by Grant County PUD in for 1996 and 1998 based on behind a nated on at least an hourly Ephrata, Washington. the Columbia River Water basis to be efficient. BPA’s Most of the hydro projects Management Group’s hydroelectric main scheduling center along other river reaches Annual Reports. system.

River Reaches: A general term used to refer to lengths along the river from one point to another, as in the reach from the John Day Dam to the McNary Dam.

Flow at The Dalles was 93 percent of normal in 2000.

66 Operation of the system some set in the preceding 89.2 percent of full, far in a high-runoff water November. higher than the previous year, 1995-96 The most serious flooding year’s beginning of 74.7 Flood Control. Water between February 2 and 9 percent of full. Due to high year 1996 was full of chal- occurred in northwestern streamflows during the year, lenges, the first of which Oregon—between 25 and the system generally operated was a precipitation pattern 38 cm (10 and 15 inches) to operating rule curves or which brought six flood of rain fell in Coastal and flood control for the entire events, two of which were Cascade locations. With the period, producing large record-setting. A well-above- Columbia River running amounts of surplus energy. normal snowpack brought high (8.29 m, or 27.2 feet, At the close of 1995-96, the above-normal river discharges at Vancouver, Washington) system storage energy was presenting challenges in and the Willamette River 99.4 percent of full. water quality, fish migration, mainstem flooding, the On July 2 and 3, low Fish habitat can energy production, and Willamette crested in voltage at a thermal plant in be damaged if energy marketing. The only Portland at the top of the Wyoming resulted in a non-challenge was an seawall (elevation 8.70 m, or Pacific Northwest blackout. water from early abundance of irrigation 28.55 feet). Severe flooding On August 10, a combination snowmelt or heavy water which met all irrigation occurred between Salem of factors resulted in a demands and refilled and Portland and from blackout affecting 4 million rains cannot be irrigation reservoirs Portland to the Columbia’s utility customers in 14 controlled. depleted after 10 years mouth at Astoria, Oregon. Western states. Those of low water years. Through optimal factors included: lack of A moist tropical airmass operation of Canadian generation at The Dalles due on a strong jet stream, storage dams and the skillful to fish spill requirements, with origins near , actions of the Corps and heavy loads over the arrived in the Northwest at Reclamation, an estimated Southern Intertie due to a Thanksgiving 1995, resulting $2.3 billion of February in California, in heavy rains and high river flood damage was avoided. and an electric arc-over discharges in northwest Navigation in the Portland between sagging high-voltage Oregon and western Harbor was closed for lines and nearby trees. Washington. Record floods several days during the Fish. On July 21, 1995, were observed in some flood peak, and tugboats the power supply managers Washington streams, some were freed up to prevent of BPA and B.C. Hydro in excess of their 100-year floating homes from being signed a short-term letter floods. washed away and to prevent agreement which stored With eight weeks of pier and bridge abutment water at Libby while drawing recovery and cool-to-cold damage from floating debris out the same amount from weather and a mounting and debris buildup. the Treaty’s Duncan snowpack, the same pattern The February flood Reservoir during mid-July arrived in early February. damaged salmon redds in through August, and then Immediately preceding this the Columbia; some of that returning that water to storm, warm temperatures impact was reduced by using Duncan while drawing arrived and began melting project storage to reduce Libby down September the snowpack. Five days of water velocities, preserve through December 1995. warm rain on the snowpack, redds, and reduce the Subsequently, the Treaty from Puget Sound through flushing of immature Operating Committee the mid- salmon downstream. signed a nonpower uses and eastward through the Electric Energy. The agreement, running from Snake River basin in Idaho Coordinated System storage January 1, 1996, though July created many new peak level at the beginning of the 31, 1996, which: (1) allowed flow records, breaking even 1995-96 operating year was storage of flow augmentation

67 streamflow, three were below the 80 percent mark (and five below 90 percent) while four were above 120 percent of normal. The fall of 1998 marked the end of the 20th century’s longest and strongest El Niño pattern, the breakup of which split the jet stream to force the major storm tracks into British Columbia and south into California, Even in a ‘normal’ leaving the Pacific Northwest runoff year, the in a “weather backwash.” Temperatures in the basin shape—or timing averaged slightly above —of the runoff is normal, which kept the Droughts hurt many water uses, including fish migration. snowpack below normal. important. Numerous small (but no major) floods occurred water in early spring with a Operation of the system from October through April. release in late spring and in a normal-runoff water In May, a storm circled early summer; (2) preserved year, 1997-98 through California and then the minimum streamflow Flood Control. Water up into central and eastern over salmon redds at year 1997-98, in terms of its Oregon, producing extreme Vernita Bar below Priest volume runoff as measured rainfall in the Rapids; (3) protected at The Dalles Dam, was plains around Prineville, Canadian whitefish eggs 100 percent of normal. Oregon—causing significant in the Columbia during However, the detail of when flood damage. January through March; and where rain fell and Electric Energy. The and (4) provided minimum when snow melted to Coordinated System storage flows below Arrow Reservoir produce streamflow was level at the beginning of for trout spawning during anything but normal. the 1997-98 operating year April and May. In looking at the mean was 99.1 percent of full. With the February streamflow on a monthly Due to high streamflows snowpack washout, the basis and a “normal” during the year, the system flows in the Columbia were streamflow range of 80 generally operated to occasionally less than percent to 120 percent of the operating rule curves or required by fisheries long-term mean, the following flood control for the entire agencies. Intentional spill months in water year 1998 period, producing large for fish passage was fully were higher than normal: amounts of surplus energy. implemented. The flows October, November, May, At the close of 1997-98, the resulted in temperatures July, and August. The fol- system storage energy was lower than the previous year lowing months were lower 99.4 percent of full. but also in increased total than normal: December, On April 1, BPA, as a dissolved gas. February, April, and June. part of the Treaty’s U.S. Nearly 76 million juvenile Of the remainder, March Entity, began delivering salmon were released from and September were within Canadian Entitlement hatcheries, a 10 percent shouting distance of normal; power from U.S. dams to decrease in numbers released in January, of 14 major Canada. The Entitlement from the previous year. stations which track is Canada’s half of the

68 increased firm power made Arrow during August with of 1997. An Operating available by the construction a subsequent release in Committee agreement on of Mica, Duncan, and Arrow. September through the reduced flows below Arrow Canada’s share for the first following January (the for Canadian whitefish in 30 years of the Treaty had “Libby-Arrow Swap”). December through mid- been sold to a consortium Water that otherwise would January was also signed in of U.S. utilities; as that have been released from a September, 1997. sale expires in phases, Libby 6.1 m (20 ft) drawdown Juvenile salmon the entitlement returned to meet biological opinion outmigration was greater to Canada increases flows in the U.S. was than normal, but most incrementally. instead provided by Arrow. returning adult runs were Fish. An August 1997 A nonpower uses below 10-year averages, agreement among BPA and agreement similar to the one except for coho and Snake B.C. Hydro power managers described earlier for the River fall chinook runs, Within a water and the Treaty Operating period January 1 through which were above their year, operating Committee provided for July 31, 1998, was signed 10-year averages. water storage in Libby and by the Treaty Operating agreements can concurrent release from Committee in September mitigate the impacts of unusual runoff patterns.

BPA purchased power from utilities outside the region in 1988 to keep reservoirs from being drafted too heavily when runoff forecasts were poor.

69 Thanks to cooperation among all the river’s users, the dams and reservoirs of the Columbia River now serve more purposes than was ever anticipated when VII. they were built. As demands on the river multiply and Conclusion the region’s population grows, the system will continue to be hard pressed to meet all needs fully. The Columbia River System Operation Review While electricity generation was an important stimulus for building many gave us a chance to step Federal projects, it is only one aspect of multiple-purpose operations today. back and examine how each use of the river affects all among uses? Can we agree works today. Our response other uses and to consider on future courses of action to changing needs and what the consequences that will provide more conditions will determine might be of changing the benefits? This publication how it will be operated way the system operates. Do has tried to describe how tomorrow. we have the best balance the Columbia River system

The Columbia River system provides countless benefits to the region in wet and dry years alike. River managers face the challenge of continually balancing the benefits among all users.

70 The System Operation Review gave us a chance to step back and examine river management.

Fish ladders provide adult fish a way around dams.

71 The Pacific Northwest contains a variety of hydro projects. This appendix lists the major projects by general owner (Federal ownership versus private, state, country, etc., collectively described as non-Federal), by river basin, and by whether electric power is produced at the project. Not every dam in the region is included in this list. The focus is on larger dams.

Fred Burr Federal without Power Kootenai Basin Mill Lake Mill Creek Canada Painted Rocks Indian Lake Aberfeldie Ashley McKay Brilliant Upper Twin Lake Three Mile Falls Duncan Little Blue Willow Creek (Heppner) Priest Lake Trout Creek Lower Bonnington Sullivan Creek Olive Lake Seven Mile Crane Prairie Little Three Creek Upper Bonnington Sparks Waneta Upper Columbia Basin Suttle Lake Whatshan Canada Three Creek Federal with Power Hugh Keenleyside Wickiup Libby Mica Appendix A. Hungry Horse Revelstoke Prineville Albeni Falls Federal with Power Happy Valley (Canyon) Pacific Federal without Power Chief Joseph Haystack Gold Lake Grand Coulee Wasco Northwest Horte Federal without Power King Reservoir (Walton Lake) Lower Crow Twin Lakes Non-Federal with Power Mud Lake Beth Lake Twin Reserviors Hydro Nine Pipe Banks Lake () Condit Fish Lake Owhi Lake Odell Creek Projects Lake Como Aloma 1 (Conconully) Powerdale Jessup Spectacle Spring Creek Twin Lake Nada Bend Power Lion Lake Upper Snow Lake Cline Falls Black Lake Opal Springs Dry Creek (Tabor) Columbia Marsh Pelton Hillside Lake Pelton Reregulation Lower Goose Hubbart Round Butte Jocko (Lower Jocko Lake) Non-Federal without Power Scooteney Reservoir Kickinghorse Milton-Freewater Non-Federal with Power Little Bitterroot Poplar Springs Deep Creek Lower Dry Fork Crow Creek Lower Lake No. 2 Meyers Falls Green Point McDonald Wells Lake Laurance Mission Chelan Pablo Company Creek Canyon Creek Meadows Post Creek (McDonald) Main Canal Headworks Bull Prairie Tabot Potholes East Canal Headworks Arnold Upper Dry Fork O’Sullivan Dam Odell Lake Stony Lake Quincy Chute North Fork Creek Potholes East Canal 66.0 Antelope Flat Non-Federal with Power Russell D Smith Bear Creek Smith Creek Rock Island Ochoco Rocky Reach Badger (Hood River) Milltown Wanapum Pine Hollow Big Fork (Flathead) Trinity Kerr Summer Falls Cabinet Gorge Priest Rapids Lower Columbia Basin James E. White Non-Federal without Power Federal with Power Noxon Rapids Enloe Bonneville Thompson Falls Patterson Federal without Power Boundary Manson (Antilon) Trillium Lake Box Canyon Wapato Wahkeena Rearing Reservoir Power Lake SRS Monroe Street Colchuck Non-Federal with Power Post Falls Dryden Bull Run No. 1 Upper Falls Eightmile Bull Run No. 2 Upriver Tumwater Canyon Cowlitz Falls Little Falls Upper Wheeler Little Sandy Long Lake Bennett Marmot Nine Mile Long Lake (Pinto) Roslyn Non-Federal without Power Ariel () Kootenai (Zonolite) Swift Basin Creek Middle Columbia Basin Yale Tin Cup Federal with Power Packwood Lower Willow Creek McNary Mayfield Nevada Creek John Day Mossyrock Big Creek The Dalles Continued on next page 72 Non-Federal without Power Deer Flat Bull Run Golden Gate Yakima Basin Lackamas Hubbard Federal with Power North Fork Lower Deer Roza Barrier Nampa (Deer Flat Upper) Chandler Bear Creek Dam (Astoria Beulah (Agency Valley) Federal without Power Reservoir) Juntura (Warmsprings) Cle Elum Indian Creek Mahon s Reservoir Easton Wickiup () Harper Kachess Bully Creek Keechelus Deadwood Roza Harry Nelson Bumping Lake Upper Snake Basin Mann Creek Clear Creek Federal with Power Mason Dam (Phillips Lake) French Canyon Palisades Thief Valley Tieton Minidoka Non-Federal with Power Sunnyside Federal without Power Owyhee Tunnel No 1 Non-Federal with Power Cross Cut Atlanta Naches Grassy Lake Lucky Peak* Wapato Dam-Drop No 2 Grays Lake - Clarks Cut Cascade Wapato Dam-Drop No 3 Ririe C.J. Strike Blackfoot Swan Falls Blackfoot Equalizer Barber Willamette Basin Non-Federal with Power Horseshoe Bend Federal with Power Island Park Brownlee Dexter American Falls* Oxbow Hills Creek Little Wood Reservoir Hells Canyon Lookout Point Idaho Falls (City Plant) Goodrich Cougar Idaho Falls (Lower Plant) Big Cliff Idaho Falls (Upper Plant) Non-Federal without Power Detroit Lodge Long Tom Foster Ashton Mountain Home (Rattlesnake Green Peter St. Anthony Creek) Federal without Power Felt Antelope Fall Creek Gem State Kirby Cottage Grove Blacks Lake Dorena Billingsley Creek Orchard Fern Ridge Bliss Cottonwood (Drewsey) Blue River Briggs Creek Malheur Mill City Diversion Clear Lake Paddock Valley Morgan Brothers Faulkner Sage Hen Scoggins Water Power Hazelton Callender Timber Lake Lower Salmon Hancock (Fish Lake) Non-Federal with Power Falls Little Payette Thompson s Mills Twin Falls Payette Lake Carmen-Smith Upper Salmon Falls C. Ben Cross Leaburg Wilson Lake Clear Creek McKenzie Birch Creek Oxbow Bypass Trail Bridge John H. Koyle Unity Walterville Lower Malad Creek Water Street Magic Dam Upper Malad Brunswick Creek Shoshone Lower Snake Basin Faraday Non-Federal without Power Federal with Power North Fork Arcadia Little Goose Oak Grove (Frog Lake) Twin Lower Granite Oak Grove () Hawkins Ice Harbor Oak Grove (Timothy Lake) Portneuf (Chesterfield Reservoir) Lower Monumental River Mill Magic Water Dworshak Lake Oswego Salmon Falls Federal without Power Non-Federal without Power Big Lost River Lower Pine Lake North Fork (Benton) Bliss () Upper Bear Lebanon Dog Creek Manns Lake Franzen Malad High Drop Soldiers Meadow Mercer Ryegrass Non-Federal with Power Mompano Fish Creek Mill Creek Haskins (Walter Link) Wallowa Falls Silver Creek Sunshine Binford Middle Snake Basin Hettinger Federal with Power Non-Federal without Power Anderson Ranch Beaver Creek (La Grande) Rogue Basin Black Canyon Wallowa Lake Federal with Power Boise Diversion Spring Valley Green Springs Federal without Power Mosquito Flat Lost Creek Pot Holes Creek Indianola Lapwai Lake (Winchester) Mountain View (Boyle Creek) * Originally constructed as Atlanta Troy a federal project; power is Arrowrock River non-federal.

73 Acre-foot: The amount of Demand: The amount of Firm Energy: Energy pro- water necessary to cover one power being used at any given duced on a guaranteed basis acre (43,560 square feet) to a time. Northwest demand is with critical water conditions. depth of one foot. seasonal, peaking in the winter with heating loads; Fish Ladder: Series of stair- Anadromous Fish: Fish such in the Southwest, the peak step pools that enables fish to as salmon and steelhead trout demand is in the summer with get past a dam by swimming that hatch in fresh water, cooling loads. and jumping from one pool migrate to and mature in the elevation to another. ocean, and then return to fresh Dissolved Gas Level: Air, water as adults to spawn. and more specifically nitro- Fish Passage Efficiency: gen, which dissolves in water Percentage of the total number Authorizing Legislation: falling onto a river surface as of fish that pass a dam with- Congressional approval for that air is pushed under water. out going through turbines. the construction of any Federal water project. Diversion: Taking water out of Flip Lip: Structural device Appendix B. a river channel for municipal, on some dams that redirects Bank Protection: Techniques industrial, or agricultural use. water coming through a Glossary for preventing washout of spillway, which prevents the bank soils, such as planting Draft Limit: Lowest level to deep plunging action creating vegetation, covering with rock, which a reservoir can be nitrogen gas supersaturation. or introducing fine mesh drawn down. screening over the surface. Flood Control Rule Curve: Drafting: Process of releasing Also called the Upper Rule Combustion Turbine: water from storage in a reservoir. Curve, the elevations that set Electricity-generating device the amount of storage space that burns fossil fuels—gas, Dredging: Removal of rock that must be maintained in a diesel, or oil—to create steam, and sediment from the bottom reservoir to reduce damaging which then turns a generator of ship channels to maintain flood conditions downstream. and produces electric power. sufficient depth for ships to pass. In some combustion turbines, Flood Control: Management the steam-creating process is Exchange Power: The of space behind a reservoir or bypassed and the turbine acts process of one utility lending series of reservoirs to capture like a large-scale jet engine to power to another to be paid runoff in volumes sufficient to produce power. back at a later date. prevent flooding of normally dry land. Critical Water Conditions: Fall Chinook Salmon: The worst streamflows on Anadromous salmon stock Flood Wall: Barrier, usually record; for the Columbia River which returns from the ocean concrete or metal, constructed basin, the period 1928-1932. in late summer and early fall to keep out high water—often to spawn. found near a pier or urban Crown Corporation: A waterfront. Canadian government-created Federal Project Operators: corporation designed to carry Those Federal agencies that Flow: Rate and volume of out functions in the public operate dams and reservoirs. water in a river past a given interest, such as the B.C. In the case of the Columbia point. Hydro and Power Authority. River, the U.S. Army Corps of Crown corporations can be Engineers and the Bureau of Freshet: Heavy runoff that created either by Federal or Reclamation in the U.S. occurs in the river when Provincial law. Department of the Interior. streams are at their peak with spring snowmelt. CSPE Utilities: Those 41 Federally Recognized Tribes: utilities which banded together An Indian group or confedera- International Joint in the 1960s, sold municipal tion of groups officially Commission: Six-person bonds for $254 million, and acknowledged as a tribe by Canada- U.S. board created purchased the first 30 years’ the U. S. government for by the 1909 Boundary Water worth of the Canadian purposes of legislation, Treaty to resolve disputes Entitlement (one-half of the consultation, and benefits. Of on waters shared by the two downstream benefits) created over 400 groups nationwide nations. by erection of Mica, Duncan, identifying themselves as and Keenleyside dams in Indian tribes, fewer than 300 Levee: A raised embankment British Columbia. have been Federally recognized. built to keep out floodwaters.

74 Locks: Mechanical devices, Priority Rights: In Federal Streamflow Records: shaped like an elongated box, statutes, the favoring of one Historical records of annual which add or drain water to group over another, such as streamflows; for the Columbia raise or lower ships around public entities over private River, over 100 years’ of dam structures. utilities, in the purchase of streamflow records are Federal electric power, also available. Maintenance Outage: The known as “preference.” shutting down of a generating Streamflow: The rate and unit for routine maintenance. Proportional Draft Points: volume of water flowing in Drawdown limits for reser- various sections of a river. Megawatt: Measure of voirs when water conditions electrical power equal to one require drafting below energy Temperature Control: The million watts. Megawatts content curves to serve firm Corps and Reclamation have delivered over time are load. installed equipment at some measured in megawatt-hours. dams that can regulate the Reservoir Drawdown: temperature of water released Multipurpose Facilities: Lowering of the level of from the reservoirs. This The Columbia River and the a reservoir for the purposes allows water temperature reservoir system are used of increasing water velocity downstream in the river to for many purposes or uses. and mimicking the original be controlled. Temperature Projects that were authorized river cross section present control is achieved by to serve a variety of purposes before the reservoir’s drawing water from different are referred to as “multipur- construction. elevations in a reservoir. Cold pose.” water is drawn from deep in Resident Fish: Fish that are the reservoir; warm water is Nonfirm Energy: Energy that permanent inhabitants of a drawn from near the surface. can be generated with water . The two water segments are that is available in excess of then released from the dam that needed for firm energy River Reach: General term at the same time. production. used to refer to a specific stretch along a river from one Transmission Grid: The Northern Pikeminnow: A point to another. regional network of high- giant member of the minnow voltage lines that transmits family, native to the Columbia Rule Curve: Water level, electric power from generating River, that is a predator of represented graphically as a sources to points of young salmon. curve, that guides reservoir consumption. operations. Operating Requirements: Trust Responsibility: The Limits within which a Runoff: That portion of Federal obligation to provide reservoir, dam, or system precipitation, snowmelt, or services to protect and must be operated. Some are irrigation water that runs off enhance Indian lands, required by Congress, while the land into streams or other resources, and self-government others evolve with operating surface water. and to include social and experience. economic programs to raise Smolt: Juvenile salmon or standard of living and Operating Year: The period steelhead migrating to the well-being of Indian people. August 1 through the follow- ocean and beginning its ing July 31. transformation from a fresh water fish to a saltwater Peak Flow: The maximum environment. rate of water flow during a specific time period at a Snowpack: Accumulation of specific location on a stream snow in the mountains that or river. builds up in the late fall and winter. Planning Studies: Hydroelectric operating Spill: Water released from a studies that simulate how the dam over the spillway instead river will be operated in of being directed through the certain conditions (total turbines. streamflow, shape of spring snowmelt) in the near term.

75 AER Actual Energy Regulation aMW Average Megawatt ARC Assured Refill Curve B.C. Hydro British Columbia Hydro and Power Authority BPA Bonneville Power Administration cfs cubic feet per second cm Centimeter Corps U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (also USACE) CRC Critical Rule Curve CSPE Canadian Storage Power Exchange DGT Dissolved Gas Team (fish) DSI Direct Service Industry ECC Energy Content Curve EIS Environmental Impact Statement Appendix C. EPA Environmental Protection Agency ESA Endangered Species Act Acronyms FCRC Flood Control Rule Curve and FCRPS Federal Columbia River Power System FELCC Firm Energy Load Carrying Capability Abbreviations FERC Federal Energy Regulatory Commission FONSI Finding of No Significant Impact IPC Idaho Power Company kcfs thousand cubic feet per second kW kilowatt m3/s cubic meters per second Maf Million acre-feet MPC Montana Power Corporation MW megawatt NEPA National Environmental Policy Act NMFS National Marine Fisheries Service NWPPC Northwest Power Planning Council ORC Operating Rule Curve PGE Portland General Electric subsidiary of Enron PDP Proportional Draft Point PNCA Pacific Northwest Coordination Agreement PP&L Pacific Power and Light subsidiary of Scottish Power PUD public (or people’s) utility district Reclamation U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (also USBR) SCL Seattle City Light SCT System Configuration Team (fish) SOR System Operation Review TCL Tacoma City Light TMT Technical Management Team (fish) USACE U.S. Army Corps of Engineers USFWS U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service VECC Variable Energy Content Curve VRC Variable Rule Curve WWP Washington Water Power, now Avista

76 Fish habitat revitalization is important to species recovery.

77 Bonneville Power System Operation Review Administration. July 1990. Interagency Team. 1990. “the “Multipurpose Dams of the Columbia River: A System Pacific Northwest.” Under Stress.” U.S. Army Corps of Bonneville Power Engineers, North Pacific Administration. March 1989. Division. 1985. “Preliminary “The Columbia River Treaty Review of Flood Control - Revisited.” Backgrounder. Columbia River Basin.”

Bonneville Power U.S. Army Corps of Administration. July 1987. Engineers, North Pacific “The World’s Biggest Fish Division. 1984 “Columbia River Basin Master Water Story: The Columbia River’s Control Manual.” Appendix D. Salmon.” Backgrounder. All three system Operation Reference Bonneville Power Review agencies have List Administration. September extensive libraries and 1985. “Running the Rivers: welcome public inquires. How the Federal Power System Operates in Low- Water Years.” Issue Alert.

Bonneville Power Administration. 1964. “ The Pacific Northwest Coordination Agreement.” A paper presented to the Winter Power Meeting of the Institute of Electronics Engineers in New York, January 1965.

Columbia River Water Management Group. 1988. “Columbia River Water Management Report for Water Year 1988.”

Columbia River Water Management Group. 1987. “Columbia River Water Management Report for Water Year 1987.”

Columbia River Water Management Group. 1987. “Columbia River Water Management Report for Water Year 1986.”

Northwest Power Planning Council. The NWPPC publishes a variety of papers and reports on energy and fish and wildlife issues in the Northwest. The Council’s most recent Fish and Wildlife Program and Regional Energy Plan are also useful references.

78 DOE/BP-3372 April 2001 3M