05-Lundskow-45595:05-Lundskow-45595.qxd 5/20/2008 9:23 PM Page 209 CHAPTER 5 Religious Intolerance and Aggression Introduction In the world today, violence associated with religion, whether on a small or large scale, seems almost like a normal part of life. However, this was not always the case. Conventionally, we believe that the Romans persecuted Christians for their faith, but such is not exactly correct. Rather, the Romans perceived the Christians as a threat to their political hegemony, because the Christians refused to acknowledge the emperors (usually when deceased) as gods. Although it is true that the Christians did refuse to acknowledge the emperors as gods, they were not any more or less disloyal than their pagan contemporaries. By the fourth century, Christians served ably in the imperial legions, and eventually, as presented in Chapter 2, Christianity became the religion of the empire and thereafter reshaped Western civilization. Yet today, we find that religious intolerance and aggression have become part of every major religion. Although a small part, intolerance and violence influence reli- gion beyond their prevalence because they often produce dramatic and horrific acts, such as the destruction of the Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City on April 19, 1995 (Image 5.1) and the destruction of the World Trade Center towers on September 11, 2001. These are among the most infamous events, but there have been many others. We should also not imagine that religious violence takes the form only of terrorism, or that terrorism only takes the form of a quick, one-time event. Like war, terrorism can occur over long periods of time—sometimes spon- taneously, sometimes systematically. While intolerance may seem more the outcome of monotheism in that the one god tolerates no others, recent history shows that polytheistic Hinduism can pro- duce intolerance and violence, and so can nondeistic religions like Buddhism. 209 05-Lundskow-45595:05-Lundskow-45595.qxd 5/20/2008 9:23 PM Page 210 210—— THE SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION If Hinduism allows for innumerable gods, and Buddhism has no god, why do they sometimes develop forms based on intolerance? As always, we must think sociologically. Religion is far more than just a set of beliefs; it is also a lifestyle, a worldview, and a culture, and is often connected to political and economic interests. As we will see with the example of “Hindutva” (Hinduness) movements, polythe- ism can produce intolerance and violence if supporters understand their religion in cul- tural, political, and patriotic terms. In this chapter, we will first trace the origins of religious violence in Western civilization, and then consider contemporary Western and non-Western examples, including the attacks of September 11 (see Table 5.1). Exclusive Monotheism With the rise of Christianity and its concur- rent grip on political power, the one God, or at least His representatives on earth, could not tolerate dissention. Whereas the paganism Image 5.1 The Bombing of the Murrah Federal indigenous to Europe and the Mediterranean Building in Oklahoma City, April 19, celebrated polytheistic plurality, the universe 1995 was no longer big enough for multiple gods. Source: U.S. Department of Defense, Staff Sgt. Preston Chasteen. The one God expects one set of beliefs and one manner of worship. All competing approaches are heresy. Thus, the political and religious struggle began to define and enforce an official and exclusive version of Christianity. In 451 CE, the Council of Chalcedon, named after the city in Asia Minor where it took place, set forth various foundations of Christian doctrine, and in so doing, established the official basis of Christianity until the Great Schism of 1054, when Pope Leo IX and Michael I, Patriarch of Constantinople, excommunicated each other. This mutual excommu- nication established their respective Western Church and Eastern Church, both known officially as the One Holy and Apostolic Church, but commonly differenti- ated as the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church, respectively. Yet controversy began much earlier. At the Council of Nicaea in 325 CE, as men- tioned earlier, church scholars wrote the official statement of faith, now known as the Nicene Creed. It was revised in 381. In the original 325 and 381 versions, it stated that the Holy Spirit “proceeds from the Father.” Over the years, however, the Western Church began to insert “and from the Son,” which placed Jesus as separate and equal to God the Father. This is known as the filioque clause, and it constituted an unac- ceptable change of doctrine to the patriarchs of the Eastern Church. In an attempt to 05-Lundskow-45595:05-Lundskow-45595.qxd 5/20/2008 9:23 PM Page 211 Chapter 5 Religious Intolerance and Aggression—— 211 Table 5.1 Religious Intolerance and Violence: Selected Examples Event Religion(s) Involved Outcome 1095–1272, the Crusades— Christianity and Islam Exact death toll unknown, but at European invasion of the least 1 million Middle East Destruction of several centers of civilization, including Antioch, Alexandria, Constantinople, Edessa, and Jerusalem Radicalization of Christianity and Islam 1618–1648, Thirty Years’ Christianity—Internecine conflict Exact death toll unknown, but at War, Western Europe Catholic side—Austria, Bavaria, least 1 million Spain, Holy Roman Empire, Widespread disease and famine Prussia Mass persecutions, including the Protestant side—Bohemia, Inquisition and the witch burnings Denmark, Sweden, England, Flanders (afterward Holland and Belgium), France (although a Catholic state) 1983–2005, Civil War, Sudan, Islam in the North against 1.9 million people killed Africa Christianity and Indigenous 4 million refugees Animism in the South March 20, 1995, Sarin nerve Buddhism, with elements of 12 people killed gas attack, Tokyo subway Christianity and Science Fiction 54 seriously injured. thousands with injured eyesight April 19, 1995, Bombing of Christianity—White Supremacist 168 people killed Murrah Federal Building, variant 800 injured Oklahoma City September 11, 2001, Islam 2,749 people killed destruction of the World Thousands injured Trade Center, New York City Extensive and obdurate environmental contamination February–May 2002, Hindu– Hinduism and Islam 790 Muslims killed Muslim conflict, Gujarat 254 Hindus State, India 2548 injured reunite the increasingly divergent East and West, the Council of Chalcedon developed the Creed of Chalcedon in 451. Theologically, the Eastern Church never fully accepted the Creed of Chalcedon. Although it seemed to resolve the filioque issue, the key phrase, “in two natures,” recognized the duophysite belief over and against the monophysite belief. The 05-Lundskow-45595:05-Lundskow-45595.qxd 5/20/2008 9:23 PM Page 212 212—— THE SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION former term is the belief that Christ consisted of Nicene Creed, 381 CE two complete natures, one wholly divine, the other We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, wholly human, and both resided in Christ totally maker of heaven and earth, and of all and perfectly. He was both divine and human, things visible and invisible. equally. The monophysite tradition held that Christ And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only was of one nature only—purely divine—with no begotten Son of God, and born of the human essence. Monophysites believed that there is Father before all ages. God of God, light of light, true God of true God. Begotten only one God, who exists in three forms—God the not made, consubstantial to the Father, by father, the Son (Jesus), and the Holy Spirit. The whom all things were made. Chalcedon Creed states that Jesus is consubstantial Who for us men and for our salvation with the father (which Monophysites could accept) came down from heaven. And was incar- yet also says, “consubstantial with us,” as consistent nate of the Holy Ghost and of the Virgin Mary and was made man; was crucified with his human aspect. Monophysites could not also for us under Pontius Pilate, suffered accept this. While both sides accepted the notion and was buried; and the third day rose of the Trinity, the issue of Christ’s humanity still again according to the Scriptures. And divided the Church. The disagreement over the ascended into heaven, sits at the right nature of Christ fomented centuries of conflict. hand of the Father, and shall come again Of course, the battle was as much political as with glory to judge the living and the dead, of whose Kingdom there shall be no end. theological, with the various popes in the West and We believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord patriarchs in the East fighting for supremacy. Each and Giver of life, who proceeds from the side commanded great resources, though of differ- Father, and from the son, who together ent types. In the East, the orthodox patriarchs stood with the Father and the Son is to be as office holders within the unified and centralized adored and glorified, who spoke by the Prophets. And one holy, catholic, and Byzantine state. As such, they worked cooperatively apostolic Church. We confess one baptism and with great cohesion with the emperors, using for the forgiveness of sins. And we look for a combination of money—as the Byzantine Empire the resurrection of the dead and the life of generated vast amounts of wealth for most of its the world to come. Amen. [italics added] history—and the professional military of the Byzantine state. In the West, the pope and the church hierarchy stood outside and separately from the numerous and constantly changing, con- stantly fighting feudal lords and their estates. The Western Church relied principally on force of arms to conquer and then convert new territories. Divided into innu- merable feudal states, the economy in the West rarely rose above subsistence levels, and the vast majority of people, including the nobility, were unwashed, illiterate, and superstitious.