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Geographies and Infrastructures of School Segregation: a Historical Case Study of Rochester, NY

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Geographies and Infrastructures of School Segregation: a Historical Case Study of Rochester, NY Geographies and Infrastructures of School Segregation: A Historical Case Study of Rochester, NY by Symon A. James-Wilson A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Graduate Department of Geography and Planning University of Toronto © Copyright by Symon A. James-Wilson (2020) Geographies and Infrastructures of School Segregation: A Historical Case Study of Rochester, NY Symon A. James-Wilson Master of Arts Department of Geography and Planning University of Toronto 2020 Abstract School segregation in the United States is at a crisis point. The educational landscape in Rochester, NY has become increasingly segregated along the lines of race, class, and geography in recent decades. This thesis investigates the geographies and infrastructures that laid the foundation for Rochester’s school segregation crisis. In particular, it asks how settler colonialism and racial capitalism have sculpted urban and suburban communities’ socio- spatial histories. This research aims to support academics, policymakers, and activists who are committed to developing more historically informed school desegregation policies, and to actualizing “equal educational opportunities for all.” ii TABLE OF CONTENTS i. LIST OF COMMONLY USED ABBREVIATIONS………………………………….v ii. LIST OF MAPS AND TABLES…………………….....................................................v 1. PREFACE………………………………….....................................................................1 1.1. The Front Seat………………………….....................................................................1 1.2. A Curious Cartographer……………………………………………………….…….2 1.3. Im/mobility is Alert and Alive……………................................................................4 1.4. Space Matters………………………………………………………………….…….7 2. INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………8 3. METHODS……………………………………………………………………………..12 3.1. Research Objectives………………………………………………………………..12 3.2. Rationale for an Archival Approach……………......................................................13 3.3. Conceptual Implications of the Archival Approach……………………………..…14 3.4. Research Design……………………………………………………………………17 3.5. Data Collection……………………………………………………………………..18 3.6. Data Analysis……………………………………………………………………….19 4. LITERATURE REVIEW…………………………………………………………..…22 4.1. The Geographies of Education Subfield……………………………………………22 4.2. Existing Geographic Research on School Segregation…………………………….25 4.3. Current Gaps in the Geographies of School Segregation Literature……………….28 5. THE MAKING OF ROCHESTER’S SEGREGATED LANDSCAPE…………….31 5.1. Geographies and Infrastructures of Settler Colonialism: Remembered and Forgotten……………………………………………………………………………32 5.2. Racial Capitalism and the Racialization of Poverty………………………………..40 5.3. Racial Capitalism, Redlining, and Housing Discrimination……………………….47 5.4. The Birth and Rebirth of School Segregation……………………………………...56 6. SPATIAL COLLAGE AND SCHOOL DESEGREGATION………………………70 6.1. Introduction to Spatial Collage……………………………………………………..70 6.2. The Six Components of Spatial Collage…………………………………………...72 6.3. Spatial Collage and the School Segregation Crisis in Rochester, NY……………..75 6.4. Spatial Collage and Project UNIQUE……………………………………………...77 7. RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS……………………………………………………….95 7.1. Project UNIQUE as Evidence of Best Practice in School Desegregation Policy……………………………………………………………………………… 95 7.2. Additional Lessons from the School Segregation Crisis in Rochester, NY……….96 iii 8. CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………………98 9. REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………….101 10. APPENDICES…………………………………………………………………….......113 10.1. Appendix One: Detailed Record of Archival Data Sources……………………..113 10.2. Appendix Two: Maps……………………………………………………………115 10.3. Appendix Three: Images…………………………………………………………126 10.4. Appendix Four: Project UNIQUE Mission Statement…………………………..127 iv LIST OF COMMONLY USED ABBREVIATIONS D&C Democrat & Chronicle GRA Greater Rochester Area HOLC Home Owners’ Loan Corporation I-490, I-390, I-590 These are abbreviations for various interstate highways in Rochester, NY NYS New York State Project UNIQUE Project United Now for Integrated Quality Urban-Suburban Education RCSD Rochester City School District RMAPI Rochester-Monroe Anti-Poverty Initiative Urban-Suburban Urban-Suburban Interdistrict Transfer Program or USITP LIST OF MAPS AND TABLES Map One Monroe County (https://www.mapsofworld.com/usa/states/new- york/new-york-maps/monroe-county-map.jpg) Map Two Upstate Western, NY (http://www.visitrochester.com/about- roc/transportation/maps/) Map Three U.S. Rust Belt (https://futureofutica.wordpress.com/tag/rust-belt/) Map Four Ward Map of (https://fineartamerica.com/featured/vintage-map-of- Rochester, NY rochester-ny-1901-cartographyassociates.html) Map Five Map of the Third Ward, (https://fineartamerica.com/featured/vintage-map-of- Rochester, NY rochester-ny-1901-cartographyassociates.html) Map Six Map of the Seventh (https://fineartamerica.com/featured/vintage-map-of- Ward, Rochester, NY rochester-ny-1901-cartographyassociates.html) Map Seven HOLC Appraisal of (Nelson et al, 2016) Rochester, NY Map Eight HOLC Appraisal of (Nelson et al., 2016) Rochester, NY— Zones D1, D2, D5, D6, and C24 Map Nine Map of the Sixteenth (https://fineartamerica.com/featured/vintage-map-of- Ward, Rochester, NY rochester-ny-1901-cartographyassociates.html) Map Ten Map of the Fifth, (https://fineartamerica.com/featured/vintage-map-of- Seventh, and Eighth rochester-ny-1901-cartographyassociates.html) Wards, Rochester, NY Map Eleven Map of the Second and (https://fineartamerica.com/featured/vintage-map-of- Ninth Wards, rochester-ny-1901-cartographyassociates.html) Rochester, NY v Map Twelve Map of the I-490 (https://www.interstate-guide.com/i-390-ny/) expressway Table One Children Living Below (ACT Rochester, n.d.; U.S. Census Bureau’s American the Federal Poverty Community Survey, 2018) Line in Rochester, NY by Race/Ethnicity, 2014-2018 Table Two Public School (Kuscera & Orfield, 2014; US Department of Education, Enrollment by Race in National Center for Education Statistics, Common Core of Data, Public Elementary/Secondary School Universe Urban and Suburban Survey Data) School in the Greater Rochester Area, 1989- 2010 Table Three Student Exposure Rates (Kuscera & Orfield, 2014; US Department of Education, to Low-Income Student National Center for Education Statistics, Common Core of Data, Public Elementary/Secondary School Universe in Public Schools in the Survey Data) Greater Rochester Area, 1999-2000 and 2010-2011 Table Five Spatial Collage (James-Wilson, 2020) Table Six The Central Objectives (Young & Staff, 1969) of Project UNIQUE’s Ten Sub-Initiatives vi PREFACE The Front Seat Imagine that you are sitting next to me in the front row of a school bus. The seat is slightly sticky, yet oddly comfortable. Pineapple hand sanitizer, lavender hand cream, and diesel fumes lightly perfume the air that passes through the center aisle. The early morning sun shining through the window is both blinding and cheerful. It is the fall of 2006 in Rochester, NY. I am thirteen years old, and today is my first day of middle school. A wave of rambunctious laughter flows from the back of the bus. Grumbling, hungry stomachs can be heard in the middle rows. The front most section, where you are seated, feels quiet and unassuming at first. You being to notice a faint, yet pronounced, sound of fluttering wings. They are butterflies attempting to escape the caverns of my racing heart, one at a time. Slowly, your gaze returns to me. You watch as I quickly paint my face with two thick coats of enthusiasm. My reluctant smile makes an honest attempt at concealing the prevailing wind of nervousness that has overtaken me; but it is largely unconvincing. Both you and my parents sense that I am slightly afraid of the current tide of change. As the bus drives away, I wave goodbye to my mother and father. They stand proudly on the front porch with soft grins that linger. As the porch fades from my view, and I accept that I am alone now. I remind myself that middle school will to be different from elementary school in more ways than one. Moving from a co-ed primary school to an all- girls secondary school, and shifting from the public city school to a private suburban school promised a new set of challenges and possibilities. The doubt in my ear whispers, “Am I prepared for this? 1 A Curious Cartographer Eager to regain my bearings, I scan the length of bus in search of something familiar. As I do this, I begin to draw a mental map of the space. I identify a noticeable rift between the back, the middle, and the front of the bus. I quickly understand the three-fold partitioning of the space to be both physical and symbolic in nature. I understand the bus to be a microcosm of the community that I have grown up in. I discern that the three-way division of the bus mirrors the social divisiveness of race, class, cultural identity, and geographic location in the Greater Rochester Area more broadly. I determine that these four spatial organizing principles, among others, operate within a binary of ‘similar versus different.’ I witness how they ultimately combine to create an unspoken seating arrangement on the bus. I reflect on the ways in which I have been socialized to recognize these segregationist logics, whether it has been in school, at home, or in other communal and educational spaces. I pause to consider how these spatial organizing principles have influenced my ways of knowing and being in the world. I stop to acknowledge the magnitude of the
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