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Cultural Studies on Folk Religion in Scandinavia Gustavsson - Religiøsitet Ombrukket6 Gustavsson 04.07.12 10:52 Side 2 Gustavsson - Religiøsitet ombrukket6_Gustavsson 04.07.12 10:52 Side 1 Cultural studies on Folk Religion in Scandinavia Gustavsson - Religiøsitet ombrukket6_Gustavsson 04.07.12 10:52 Side 2 To my wife Kristina Gustavsson - Religiøsitet ombrukket6_Gustavsson 04.07.12 10:52 Side 3 Cultural Studies on Folk Religion in Scandinavia Anders Gustavsson NOVUS PRESS OSLO 2012 Gustavsson - Religiøsitet ombrukket6_Gustavsson 04.07.12 10:52 Side 4 Front cover Carl Gustaf Bernhardson’s grandmother reads the morning prayers from her prayer book to her grandchildren seated on the sofa. Painting privately owned. Photo: Bodil Nelson. Back cover The singing Åstol brothers have released CDs of religious songs, including Revival Songs from Åstol. Photo: Björn Edlund, 1980. Printed with economic support from The Royal Gustavus Adolphus Academy for Swedish Folk Culture, Uppsala, Hilding Pleijels fond, Lund, Aina Barnevik, Stock- holm and Herman Zetterbergs stiftelse. © Novus AS 2012. Cover: Geir Røsset ISBN: 978-82-7099-696-4 Print: Interface Media as, Oslo. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retri- eval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of Novus Press. Gustavsson - Religiøsitet ombrukket6_Gustavsson 04.07.12 10:52 Side 5 Contents Introduction . 7 1 Folk Religion as a Field of Research . 9 2 The Role of Religion in Everyday Swedish Folk Life . 34 3 A Nineteenth-Century Peasant and Intra-Church Revival Movements in Bohuslän, Sweden . 49 4 The Use of the Senses in Religious Revival Movements . 66 5 Religious Contacts in Swedish-Norwegian Border Regions . 83 6 The Pentecostal Movement in a Local Community in Western Sweden. The Process from a Minority to a Dominant Local Culture . 106 7 The Free Friends in a Southern Norwegian Coastal District. A Local Revival Movement as a Minority Culture . 159 8 Free-Church Membership and Folk Beliefs. Conflict or Accommodation? . 167 9 Rumours and Breaches of Norms in a Mission Congregation . 179 10 Mortal Life and Eternity. Conceptions in Different Generations of a Religious Movement compared with a Labour Education Movement . 192 Gustavsson - Religiøsitet ombrukket6_Gustavsson 04.07.12 10:52 Side 6 Gustavsson - Religiøsitet ombrukket6_Gustavsson 04.07.12 10:52 Side 7 Introduction Popular religiosity has been one of the fields of research with which I have been con- cerned since the 1970s. My first effort was my doctoral thesis in 1972 on the church- ing of women after childbirth in Sweden. Later I have also studied church customs in connection with weddings, deaths and burials. In 1982, a “Centre for Research in the Ethnology of Religion” was established and of which I became the first director. I was the leader for the group of Swedish scholars active in the interdisciplinary Scan- dinavian “Kattegat-Skagerrak Project” operative during the 1980s. One object of our research was a clarification of religiosity among the many religious revival move- ments in the coastal regions along the straits of Kattegat and Skagerrak. I was in charge of the field work whose results were published, in the three Scandinavian lan- guages (Danish, Norwegian and Swedish), in the series “Kattegat-Skagerrak Pros- jektet Meddelelser” (nos. 1, 4, 11 and 15, 1982-1987) (see chapters 6-9). Within the international organization “Society International of Ethnology and Folklore”, abbreviated SIEF, a commission was established in 1990 for the study of Folk Religion. I was chosen as its first president and continued in this office during the whole of the 1990s. The commission has arranged conferences at intervals of about three years since 1993. I have participated continually by presenting papers based on effected archival and fieldwork studies (see chapter 2 1993, chapter 5 1996, chapter 4 2006, chapter 3 2010). During the 1990s I took part in a Scandinavian research project named “Cultural Encounters on the Borders”. The focus of the project was border relations during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries in the area around the southernmost area of the Norwegian-Swedish border. I studied religious contacts over this national border (see chapter 5). Since 1999 a network of Nordic researchers and research on revivals and revival culture has been operative under the name of NORDVECK. Conferences on differ- ent themes have taken place every second year since 2001. Here I have presented a number of papers (among them chapter 3 in 2009). With one exception in English, all the publications issued by this network have been published in the Scandinavian lan- guages. My research on popular religiosity has for the most part been published in Swedish, with only shorter versions printed in the journals and anthologies published in connection with SIEF conferences on folk religion. After having conferred with in- ternational colleagues I have now collected the various partial results of my research Gustavsson - Religiøsitet ombrukket6_Gustavsson 04.07.12 10:52 Side 8 8 Introduction in a separate publication in English. This has been done in order to provide an inter- national circle of readers with a single volume covering the research I have conducted with different themes and within different research projects. Ample illustrations, in both black-and-white and colour, have been provided by archives, but a great num- ber have also been taken from the fieldwork material that I have collected over the years together with other scholars and students. The present volume opens with a chapter on folk religion as a field of cultural re- search in Scandinavia. The emphasis in this publication is for the most part on Swe- den. A major portion of the research has been concerned with conditions in the coastal province of Bohuslän in western Sweden, with glimpses of neighbouring areas in Norway. Following the introductory chapter, a study is presented showing the vari- ous forms of expression taken by folk religion in the daily life of past times, with stress on the early 1900s all over Sweden. Using a diary and letters written by a farmer living in the 1800s, I have been able to study how folk religion functioned on the local level (chapter 3). The issue of how the human senses make themselves felt in popular religiosity is the subject of a separate chapter (chapter 4). In Sweden, and not least in Bohuslän, free churches and intra-church revival movements, such as Schartauanism and the Evangelical National Missionary Society (EFS), have played an important role since the late 1800s. I have therefore studied different aspects of such movements in some of the chapters. This relates to periods of revivals (chapter 6), the connections between different generations (chapter 6 and 10), the construction and control of norms (chapter 6 and 9), connections to other local revival movements (chapter 6 and 7), and also to the surrounding secular society (chapter 6, 7 and 10). Religious contacts over the national border between Norway and Sweden (chapter 5) and attitudes towards older popular conceptions about supernatural spirits (chapter 8) have also been subjects of research. The most intensive study has focused on the many different aspects of the Pentecostal Movement on the island of Åstol in Bo- huslän, where it was possible to follow a process leading over a great length of time from existence as a local minority to that of being a cultural majority and its effects on the local society (chapter 6). Summaries have been placed at the end of every chapter. The different chapters can be read separately, but access to the entirety and the comparisons will be best when all chapters are read in sequence. References to sources and literature have been placed at the end of every chapter. Translation: Jean Aase Gustavsson - Religiøsitet ombrukket6_Gustavsson 04.07.12 10:52 Side 9 1 Folk Religion as a Field of Research Areas of Investigation People’s beliefs, whether they fall within the teachings of the church or not, have a place in folk religion. This is true irrespective of whether people believe in and put their trust in divine beings, or relate to evil entities like the devil or other supernatu- ral beings. Popular visions as well as experiences of miracles and religious healing are included in the field of study (cf. Selberg 2011). It is not relevant when discussing folk religiosity to separate popular belief from other kinds of belief that would be la- beled religious belief (cf. Velure 1983). Whatever people believe in must be possible of being viewed as belonging to the field of folk religion, even though earlier folk- loristic researchers often separated the religious dimension from popular belief. The latter was seen as being part of the folkloristic field of study, while religious belief was placed within the realm of religious studies. Folklorists were not supposed to concern themselves with folk religion, but a shift in this respect came about when a new gen- eration of folklorists began establishing themselves during the 1970s. In Oslo these changes were initiated by Bjarne Hodne (cf. Amundsen 2004). Studies of folk religion comprise all social classes – peasant, middle class and workers. Religion is evident both in ordinary people and in members of revival move- ments and in immigrants belonging to a religion other than Christianity. Folk reli- gion, in the form of specific conduct and rituals, is not exercised only in public places of worship like churches and chapels, but also to a large extent in homes, both in the everyday life and on Sundays and other holidays, during what we now call leisure time. Studies of folk religion have focused in several contexts on customs and beliefs linked to annual festivals as well as to life cycle celebrations, and also to the existence hereafter. Investigations of folk religion do not only focus on the pre-industrial era when Christianity had a stronger position, but also on religiously oriented beliefs and cus- toms among people in our rather secularized modern society.
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