Subtitles and the Cultural Referent in Francophone Cinema
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SUBTITLES AND THE CULTURAL REFERENT IN FRANCOPHONE CINEMA By Elizabeth D. White A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of French, Language and Literature – Doctor of Philosophy 2016 ABSTRACT SUBTITLES AND THE CULTURAL REFERENT IN FRANCOPHONE CINEMA By Elizabeth D. White This dissertation focuses on the English translation of linguistic and cultural references in Francophone cinema. I have chosen films from France, Quebec, and Senegal. Based on the nine films that incorporated my filmography, I examine how subtitlers choose certain solutions when they encounter various cultural references found in Francophone films that may be misunderstood by the target viewers, as well as, if the different types of cultural references found are successfully translated in the English subtitles. This dissertation analyzes how English subtitlers deal with the difficulties of translating cultural references specific to the French, Quebec, and Senegalese cultures. The films chosen for this dissertation demonstrate how English subtitlers create new language combinations when translating various cultural references found in these Francophone films. English subtitlers are responsible for effectively communicating the cultural differences that exist to their target viewers in order to promote a better understanding and awareness of various Francophone cultures. Copyright by ELIZABETH D. WHITE 2016 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my family, especially Deborah White and Judith Ripton, who supported and encouraged me every single day while writing this dissertation. I would like to thank Professor Marshall Olds and Professor Laurence Porter who took over when I was lost and disheartened. I thank them as well as Professor Safoi Babana-Hampton and Professor Kenneth Harrow for their continued encouragement and guidance during the writing and analysis process. Their valued insight gave me a heightened sense and helped me established concrete conclusions about the subtitles for the cultural references found in these films. I would also like to thank Annie Schultz, Kim Rock, Colleen McCuskey, Emily Lewis, Kathleen Harville, and Amy Shaughnessy for their continual intellectual, emotional, and moral support. I would also like to thank Anouck Guinchard, Adeline Bertheault, Antoine Guibal, Denis Chenneveau, Fatou Faye, and Hélène Hermelin with the transcription of the French dialogue. I would like to thank everyone I met along the way of this arduous, yet incredible journey. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES xii KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS xiii 1. INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 BRIEF HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF FRANCE, QUEBEC, AND SENEGAL 2 1.2 PURPOSE OF A MULTI-CONTINENTAL STUDY FOCUSING ON THE TRANSLATION OF CULTURAL REFERENCES IN A POSTCOLONIAL WORLD 5 1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 12 1.4 ORGANIZATION OF THE DISSERTATION 13 1.5 CONCLUSIONS 16 BIBLIOGRAPHY 17 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 21 2.1 INTRODUCTION 21 2.1.1 FOREIGN FILM RATINGS, REVENUES, MARKETING TECHNIQUES, AND PREFERENCES 21 2.1.1.1 FOREIGN FILM RATINGS 21 2.1.1.2 RECENT FOREIGN FILM REVENUES 22 2.1.1.3 MARKETING TECHNIQUES OF FOREIGN FILMS 23 2.1.1.4 PREFERENCES OF THE INTENDED AUDIENCES 25 2.2 ADVANTAGES OF SUBTITLED FILMS 26 2.2.1 COST EFFECTIVE 27 2.2.2 ORIGINAL SOUNDTRACK 27 2.3 DISADVANTAGES OF SUBTITLED FILMS 28 2.3.1 READING PACE 29 2.3.2 LACK OF WRITTEN SCRIPT 30 2.3.3 DIFFERENT MEANINGS CONVEYED 31 2.4 BRIEF HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF TRANSLATION STUDIES 33 2.4.1 BRIEF OVERVIEW OF TRANSLATION STRATEGIES, PROCEDURES, AND TECHNIQUES USED IN BOTH WRITTEN AND AUDIOVISUAL TRANSLATION 34 2.5 TRANSLATION AND CULTURE 36 2.5.1 THE PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH THE TRANSLATION OF CULTURAL REFERENCES (WHEN USING CERTAIN STRATEGIES) 39 2.5.1.1 FLUENCY VERSUS FOREIGNISATION/FAITHFULNESS 41 2.6 LITERAL TRANSLATION 43 2.6.1 LOAN TRANSLATION (CALQUES) 45 v 2.6.2 PROBLEMS WITH LITERAL TRANSLATION 46 2.6.2.1 PROBLEMS WITH LITERAL TRANSLATION OF FOOD REFERENCES 48 2.6.2.2 PROBLEMS WITH LITERAL TRANSLATION OF POLITICAL, HISTORICAL, AND EDUCATIONAL REFERENCES 49 2.6.2.3 PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH THE LITERAL TRANSLATION OF VULGAR LANGUAGE 51 2.7 EQUIVALENCE 53 2.7.1 TYPES OF EQUIVALENCE 55 2.7.1.1 DYNAMIC EQUIVALENCE, EXACT EQUIVALENCE, CULTURAL EQUIVALENCE, LEXICAL EQUIVALENCE 55 2.7.1.2 LOSS AND COMPENSATION 59 2.7.2 PROBLEMS WITH EQUIVALENCE 61 2.7.2.1 PROBLEMS WITH EQUIVLENCE OF FOOD REFERENCES 63 2.7.2.2 PROBLEMS WITH EQUIVLENCE HISTORICAL, POLITICAL, AND EDUCATIONAL REFERENCES 65 2.7.2.2.1 PROBLEMS WITH EQUIVALENCE OF HISTORICAL REFERENCES 65 2.7.2.2.2 PROBLEMS WITH EQUIVALENCE OF POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE REFERENCES 66 2.7.2.2.3 PROBLEMS WITH EQUIVALENCE OF EDUCATIONAL REFERENCES 68 2.7.2.3 PROBLEMS WITH EQUIVALENCE OF VULGAR LANGUAGE 70 2.7.2.4 PROBLEMS WITH EQUIVALENCE OF SEXUAL REFERENCES 73 2.7.2.5 PROBLEMS WITH THE EQUIVALENCE OF LINGUISTIC DIFFERENCES 77 2.8 KEEPING THE ORIGINAL OF CULTURAL REFERENCES 79 2.9 OMISSION OF CULTURAL REFERENCES 82 2.9.1 PROBLEMS WITH OMISSION OF CULTURAL REFERENCES 86 2.9.1.1 PROBLEMS WITH OMISSION OF HISTORICAL, POLITICAL, AND EDUCATIONAL REFERENCES 87 2.9.1.2 PROBLEMS WITH OMISSION OF POP CULTURE REFERENCES 88 2.9.1.3 PROBLEMS WITH OMISSION OF VULGAR AND SEXUAL REFERENCES 89 2.9.1.4 PROBLEMS WITH THE OMISSION OF LINGUISTIC DIFFERENCES 91 2.10 CONCLUSIONS 93 BIBLIOGRAPHY 95 3. RATIONALE FOR FILM SELECTION 106 vi 3.1 INTRODUCTION 106 3.2 FILMOGRAPHY 107 3.2.1 NEUILLY, SA MÈRE (2009). Director: Gabriel Laferrière 114 3.2.2 BIENVENUE CHEZ LES CH’TIS (2008). Director: Danny Boon 114 3.2.3 LES VISITEURS (1993). Director: Jean-Pierre Poiré 115 3.2.4 LE BONHEUR DE PIERRE (2009). Director: Robert Ménard 115 3.2.5 BON COP, BAD COP (2006). Director: Erik Canuel 116 3.2.6 LA FACE CACHÉE DE LA LUNE (2003). Director: Robert Lepage 116 3.2.7 FAAT KINÉ (2004). Director: Ousmane Sembène 116 3.2.8 TGV (1998). Director: Moussa Touré 117 3.2.9 CAMP DE THIAROYE (1987). Director: Ousmane Sembène 117 BIBLIOGRAPHY 119 4. METHODOLOGY 123 4.1 DATA COLLECTION METHODS: CATEGORIZATION OF TRANSLATION SOLUTIONS AND TYPES OF REFERENCES 123 4.2 IDENTIFYING CULTURAL REFERENCES 124 4.3 CATEGORIZING TRANSLATION SOLUTIONS 130 4.3.1 LITERAL TRANSLATION OF CULTURAL REFERENCES 130 4.3.1.1 EXAMPLE 1: LITERAL TRANSLATION OF FOOD REFERENCES 131 4.3.1.2 EXAMPLE 2: LITERAL TRANSLATION OF HISTORICAL REFERENCES 131 4.3.1.3 EXAMPLE 3: LITERAL TRANSLATION OF POLITICAL REFERENCES 131 4.3.1.4 EXAMPLE 4: LITERAL TRANSLATION OF EDUCATIONAL REFERENCES 131 4.3.1.5 EXAMPLE 5: LITERAL TRANSLATION OF VULGAR LANGUAGE 132 4.3.1.6 EXAMPLE 6: LITERAL TRANSLATION OF SEXUAL REFERENCES 132 4.3.1.7 EXAMPLE 7: LITERAL TRANSLATION OF LINGUISTIC DIFFERENCES AND CULTURAL CONSTRUCTS 132 4.3.2 EQUIVALENCE OF CULTURAL REFERENCES 132 4.3.2.1 EXAMPLE 1: EQUIVALENCE OF FOOD REFERENCES 133 4.3.2.2 EXAMPLE 2: EQUIVALENCE OF HISTORICAL REFERENCES 133 4.3.2.3 EXAMPLE 3: EQUIVALENCE OF POLITICAL REFERENCES 133 4.3.2.4 EXAMPLE 4: EQUIVALENCE OF EDUCATIONAL REFERENCES 133 4.3.2.5 EXAMPLE 5: EQUIVALENCE OF POP CULTURE vii REFERENCES (PROPER NAMES) 134 4.3.2.6 EXAMPLE 6: EQUIVALENCE OF VULGAR LANGUAGE 134 4.3.2.7 EXAMPLE 7: EQUIVALENCE OF SEXUAL REFERENCES 134 4.3.2.8 EXAMPLE 8: EQUIVALENCE OF LINGUISTIC DIFFERENCES AND CULTURAL CONSTRUCTS 135 4.3.3 KEEPING THE ORIGINAL OF CULTURAL REFERENCES 135 4.3.3.1 EXAMPLE 1: KEEPING THE ORIGINAL OF FOOD REFERENCES 136 4.3.3.2 EXAMPLE 2: KEEPING THE ORIGINAL OF HISTORICAL REFERENCES 136 4.3.3.3 EXAMPLE 3: KEEPING THE ORIGINAL OF POLITICAL REFERENCES 136 4.3.3.4 EXAMPLE 4: KEEPING THE ORIGINAL OF EDUCATIONAL REFERENCES 136 4.3.3.5 EXAMPLE 5: KEEPING THE ORIGINAL OF POP CULTURE REFERENCES (PROPER NAMES) 137 4.3.3.6 KEEPING THE ORIGINAL OF VULGAR LANGUAGE 137 4.3.3.7 KEEPING THE ORIGINAL OF SEXUAL REFERENCES 137 4.3.3.8 KEEPING THE ORIGINAL OF LINGUISTIC DIFFERENCES AND CULTURAL CONSTRUCTS 138 4.3.4 OMISSION OF CULTURAL REFERENCES 138 4.3.4.1 EXAMPLE 1: OMISSION OF FOOD REFERENCES 139 4.3.4.2 EXAMPLE 2: OMISSION OF HISTORICAL REFERENCES 139 4.3.4.3 EXAMPLE 3: OMISSION OF POLITICAL REFERENCES 139 4.3.4.4 EXAMPLE 4: OMISSION OF EDUCATIONAL REFERENCES 140 4.3.4.5 EXAMPLE 5: OMISSION OF POP CULTURE REFERENCES (SONG LYRICS) 140 4.3.4.6 EXAMPLE 6: OMISSION OF VULGAR LANGUAGE 140 4.3.4.7 EXAMPLE 7: OMISSION OF SEXUAL REFERENCES 141 4.3.4.8 EXAMPLE 8: OMISSION OF LINGUISTIC DIFFERENCES AND CULTURAL CONSTRUCTS 141 4.4 CONCLUSIONS 142 BIBLIOGRAPHY 144 5. ANALYSIS AND RESULTS 147 5.1 INTRODUCTION 147 5. 2 TRANSLATION OF FOOD REFERENCES 149 5.2.1 LITERAL TRANSLATION OF FOOD REFERENCES 150 5.2.2 EQUIVALENCE OF FOOD REFERENCES 151 5.2.3 KEEPING THE ORIGINAL OF FOOD REFERENCES 154 5.2.4 OMISSION OF FOOD REFERENCES 156 5.2.5 CONCLUSIONS FOR THE TRANSLATION OF FOOD 157 REFERENCES 5.3 TRANSLATION OF HISTORICAL REFERENCES 159 5.3.1 LITERAL TRANSLATION OF HISTORICAL REFERENCES 160 viii 5.3.2 EQUIVALENCE OF HISTORICAL REFERENCES 163 5.3.3 KEEPING THE ORIGINAL OF HISTORICAL REFERENCES 165 5.3.4 OMISSION OF HISTORICAL REFERENCES 166 5.3.5 CONCLUSIONS FOR THE TRANSLATION OF HISTORICAL REFERENCES 167 5.4 TRANSLATION OF POLITICAL REFERENCES 168 5.4.1 LITERAL TRANSLATION OF POLITICAL REFERENCES 169 5.4.2 EQUIVALENCE OF POLITICAL REFERENCES 169 5.4.3 KEEPING THE ORIGINAL OF POLITICAL REFERENCES 173 5.4.4 OMISSION OF POLITICAL REFERENCES 175 5.4.5 CONCLUSIONS FOR THE TRANSLATION OF POLITICAL REFERENCES 176 5.5 TRANSLATION OF EDUCATIONAL REFERENCES 176 5.5.1 LITERAL TRANSLATION OF EDUCATIONAL REFERENCES 177 5.5.2 EQUIVALENCE OF EDUCATIONAL REFERENCES 178 5.5.3 KEEPING THE ORIGINAL AND OMISSION OF