Mass cannibalism in the Linear Pottery Culture at Herxheim (Palatinate, Germany) Bruno Boulestin1, Andrea Zeeb-Lanz2, Christian Jeunesse3, Fabian Haack2, Rose-Marie Arbogast3 & Anthony Denaire3,4
The Early Neolithic central place at Herxheim is defined by a perimeter of elongated pits containing fragments of human bone, together with pottery imported from areas several hundred kilometres distant. This article offers a context for the centre, advancing strong evidence that the site was dedicated to ritual activities in which cannibalism played an important part. Keywords: Europe, Germany, Linearbandkeramik pottery, LBK, human bone, cannibalism, butchering
Introduction Since the early 1990s, archaeological and anthropological research into violence and war has become increasingly dynamic. The number of recent publications on the subject confirms this growing interest, for instance in the theoretical basis for the understanding of violence and war, and their relationships with social structures (Haas 1990; Reyna & Downs 1994; Keeley 1996; Martin & Frayer 1997; Carman & Harding 1999; Kelly 2000; Guilaine & Zammit 2001; Leblanc & Register 2003; Arkush & Allen 2006). The Neolithic of the Old World plays a particularly important part in this debate. While the problem of Neolithic violence was already tackled in early archaeological papers, it has recently been re-activated (Keeley 1996; Carman & Harding 1999; Guilaine & Zammit 2001; Beyneix 2001, 2007; Thorpe 2003; Christensen 2004; Pearson & Thorpe 2005; Schulting & Fibiger 2008), and debates about the importance of violence during the Neolithic, and how it should be qualified (should we speak of war?) remain heated. In particular, several discoveries made in Germany and Austria in the past 30 years raise the question of the reality of a climate of collective violence as early as the beginning of the Neolithic, that is at the end of the Linear Pottery Culture (end of the sixth millennium cal BC). Due to the exceptional nature of the cases, all from a limited chronological period, 1 UMR 5199-PACEA, Laboratoire d’anthropologie des populations du pass´e, Universit´e Bordeaux 1, Avenue des Facult´es, 33405 Talence Cedex, France 2 Generaldirektion Kulturelles Erbe Rheinland-Pfalz, Direktion Landesarchaologie,¨ Außenstelle Speyer, Kleine Pfaffengasse 10, 67346 Speyer, Germany 3 UMR 7044, Universit´eMarcBlochStrasbourg2,RueRen´e Descartes, 67084 Strasbourg, France 4 Antea-Arch´eolegie, 11 rue de Zurich, 68440 Habsheim, France Received: 18 March 2009; Accepted: 5 May 2009; Revised: 27 May 2009
ANTIQUITY 83 (2009): 968–982 968
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Research Mass cannibalism in the Linear Pottery Culture at Herxheim (Palatinate, Germany)
Figure 1. The Herxheim Linear Pottery Culture settlement: a) site location in Germany; b) plan of the excavation and location of deposit 9 (1. reconstruction of the ditch system; 2. ditch system as seen by geophysical prospection; 3. ditch system as revealed through test trenches; A. excavation area 1996-1998; B. excavation area 2005-2008; black circle indicates location of deposit 9 in the inner pit alignment).
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Research Mass cannibalism in the Linear Pottery Culture at Herxheim (Palatinate, Germany)
Figure 2. Deposit 9: view after excavation of the upper level of the deposit, with (right) plan of the deposit showing conjoined fragments: 1) bone; 2) pottery sherd; 3) grinding stone.
are among the most remarkable pieces of the various ceramic traditions found at the site.
Human remains from deposit 9 Deposit 9 was excavated during the summer of 2007 and is among the few deposits which were subjected to a stratigraphic excavation leaving all artefacts in place. This allowed an overview of the feature in situ (Figure 2). The deposit was located in the lower level of the fill of one of the pits in the inner pseudo-ditch, and is over 7.75m long and of irregular width. The finds are extremely dense, reaching a level seldom found in other deposits, making it
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Research Mass cannibalism in the Linear Pottery Culture at Herxheim (Palatinate, Germany)
one of the most quantitatively important of all excavated deposits, yet it is also perfectly representative of most of them (as regards the high degree of fragmentation of the bone remains). The study of the distribution of conjoining sets of human remains and ceramics shows that all the objects were deposited at the same time in a single event, and that the artefacts and bones discovered at the southern end, which were barely mutilated and still partially connected, should probably be considered separately. The identification, classification and quantification of the bone from deposit 9 were made according to the conventional procedures for human anatomy and quantitative analysis. Each piece was systematically analysed with a binocular microscope (LeicaR MZ 16) to observe bone modifications. These modifications were studied and quantified according to criteria established elsewhere (White 1992; Boulestin 1999). The study of the breakage, particularly for the larger long bones of the limbs, was carried out according to procedures specifically developed for human bone (Villa & Mahieu 1991; White 1992; Boulestin 1999). The human assemblage consists of 1906 very well preserved specimens with a total weight of 6468.5g, of which 1184 specimens could be precisely determined, that is 62.1% (5975.5g or 92.4% of the total weight). These remains belong to at least 10 individuals: two perinates, one aged 34 to 36 weeks in utero; two infants aged respectively 5 to 7 years and about 15 years; and six adults (among them at least one man). The refitting of fragments allowed 75 conjoining sets consisting of a total of 217 specimens to be identified. Most sets are composed of only two specimens, although some can contain as many as 13. A count of the pieces after refit produced a total minimum number of skeletal elements (MNE) of 359, without including the isolated teeth (Table 1). The human bones show abundant and unequivocal evidence of human-induced modifications, the antiquity of which is attested by matrix superimposition (on fractures or cut marks), patina, as well as by multiple cut marks crossing ancient fracture edges of refit pieces discovered in different parts of the deposit (Figure 3). Modifications induced by the cutting up of corpses are cut marks and scrape marks. Among the former we can distinguish between two major types; on the one hand cut marks of various length and depth, isolated or with minimal concentrations, corresponding to the cutting of soft tissue (often ligaments and tendons for the purpose of disarticulation) or to skinning. On the other hand short, shallow cut marks, at right angles to the long shaft of the bones, appear in highly concentrated ladder-rung like series and correspond to defleshing. Modifications induced by fracturation are percussion striae; inner conchoidal scars, some with adhering flakes; anvil striae on the shaft of larger long bones; internal vault releases and concentric fracture cracks on the skulls; crushing of spongy bones; and peeling, predominantly on vertebrae, ribs, scapulae and coxal bones. As for the shaft of the larger long bones, the form of the fragments (shaft circumference and length), as well as the fracture outline, angle and edges, prove green bone breakage: fragments with a circumference less than half the shaft’s original circumference represent 85.0% of all fragments, in particular long and narrow fragments (at least half the shaft’s original length). Fractures mainly display curved/V-shaped fracture outlines (63.8%), oblique angles (52.6%) and smooth edges (64.5%). All these results are similar to those observed in Fontbregoua´ (France), Mancos (Colorado, USA) and Agris (France), and very different from those measured on dry fractured bones (Villa & Mahieu 1991; White 1992; Boulestin 1999).
974
Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 30 May 2017 at 19:59:51, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00099282 at Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms etba nteoehn,ado h otro at fterb ha,nc n uece on tubercle) and thoracic neck (head, on ribs processes the of transverse parts posterior the is the of techniques of and butchery destruction hand, typical one systematic the and on the bodies vertebrae by the illustrated of well treatment the very between analogy the stage, extraction 1999). the with Boulestin consistent 1992; elements (White its treatments nutrition and human body of the the that of and exploitation – functional butchered a been indicate have must remains faunal that assumption ean eesbetdt iia ramn (Villa treatment similar to human and subjected faunal that different, were demonstration: two of on remains types relied now complementary to and up exclusive has non context although prehistoric a in cannibalism of assessment The cannibalism for Evidence eaod .%010/1 0/9 0/1 0/9 1/6 0/23 0/26 4.0% 3.1% 3/11 0/3 1/23 0 0 5/6 3/26 4/11 41.1% 4/15 32.5% 1/9 37.5% 0/3 68.8% 0 0 0 1 1 18.8% 6/15 0/32 0 0/7 2/9 93.8% 0 1 1 1 3/11 56.3% 0 0/32 1 0/21 1 1 0/7 14.3% 0 0 0 3/14 3 0 6/11 4 3 5.5% 3/21 0/5 2/13 0 6 2 68.8% 26.3% 5/14 3/11 0 0 2 0 0/0 3 1 0 1 1 87.5% 9/13 0 0 1/5 5 2 0/60 0/1 1 9 81.3% 7/11 0 4 0 1 31.3% 0/0 0 1 2 Total 68.8% 2 1 3 2 0 7/60 2 0.0% 0 Sesamoid* 3/5 0/56 0 0/1 22 4/6 31.3% 0 0 26 2 4 2 5 9 0 Foot 12.5% 0 3 5 2 1 5/56 Metatarsal 0 5/5 3 2 0 5 0 6/6 1 Tarsal 29.2% 1 0 10 62.5% Fibula 6 6 0 75.0% 3 2 7 1 Tibia 0 1 5 1 0 Patella 3 2 26 0 2 0 Femur 0 4 coxae Os 2 0 6 4 1 0 8 19 0 2 4 6 Hand 0 3 10 Metacarpal 0 2 5 Carpal 4 9 0 5 Ulna 18 1 9 1 Radius 0 2 Humerus 0 42 Clavicle 2 1 0 Scapula 2 Sternum 54 Ribs 5 Sacrum 4 Vertebrae Mandible Cranium modifications cutting-related of frequencies element. and skeletal remains per human scrapemarks) of and quantification (cutmarks 9: Deposit 1. Table feeet ME ihtemdfiain h eodnme steMEfraut n hlrn Ssmi ftefirst the of *Sesamoid children. percentage and adults PR, for portion; MNE number the skeletal the is is per number column each second individuals in the number modification, of first the metatarsal. the number scrapemarks, with and (MNE) minimum cutmarks elements For MNI, of only). children elements; and adults of (for representation number minimum MNE, lmn dlsCide eiae dlsCide eiae A Perinates Children Adults Perinates Children Adults Element phalanges phalanges oemdfiain niaeta h ua niiul eefis ucee.Frthis For butchered. first were individuals human the that indicate modifications Bone https:/www.cambridge.org/core 8 61 46 53527/345 75/345 24.6% 2 2 6 14 56 289 . https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00099282 N MNI MNE . University of BaselLibrary rn Boulestin Bruno , on 975 30 May2017 at19:59:51 tal. et tal. et 96 )–bsdo the on based – b) & 1986a , subjectto theCambridgeCore termsofuse,available RCtak Scrapemarks Cutmarks PR + CA + CA + C
Research Mass cannibalism in the Linear Pottery Culture at Herxheim (Palatinate, Germany)
Figure 4. Butchering patterns of the torso: a) destruction of the posterior part of the ribs (head, neck and tubercle) (scale = 150mm); b) systematic destruction of the transverse processes of the thoracic vertebrae and of the vertebral bodies (rich in spongy bone); c) these patterns show that the spines were separated from the carcass according to the method used in butchery (two parallel cuts close to the spinal cord and breaking of the thoracic rib articulations).
the other hand. This pattern is quite similar to the technique used to separate the ribs from the vertebral column observed in animal butchery (Figure 4). After this, heads were skinned following a recurrent pattern: a long incision was made from the root of the nose to the nape of the neck in order to cut the scalp and pull it aside (Figure 3a). Then the temporalis muscles were removed from the cranial vaults and the skulls were broken, perhaps to extract the brain, but carefully so as to preserve the vault. Cut marks and scrape marks on the lingual surface of the mandible show that the tongue was also cut out, while separation of the skull from the mandible caused further marks on the anterior and posterior edges of the ramus. Regarding other parts of the bodies, the long bones of the limbs were intensively defleshed (Table 1) and their marrow cavity exposed, probably by a hammer-on-anvil technique. Processing for marrow is also documented by the presence of scrape marks in the marrow cavity on two fragments. All these observations are similar to those observed in animal butchery. Nutritionally motivated exploitation of the corpses is also demonstrated by quantitative analysis, and qualitative and quantitative studies of modifications. The distribution of the skeletal parts is very different from that observed in funerary or scavenged assemblages (Haglund 1991). It shows in particular quantitative anomalies that cannot be explained by natural causes (such as differential preservation or loss) and are similar to those observed in Agris or Mancos (White 1992; Boulestin 1999): relative over-representation of the skull, relative under-representation of the rachis (with systematic destruction of the vertebral bodies of the lumbar and thoracic vertebrae, Figure 4), the patella and the iliac part of
976
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Research Mass cannibalism in the Linear Pottery Culture at Herxheim (Palatinate, Germany)
Figure 5. Differential treatment of the long bones: a) diaphyses of the femurs, large and rich in marrow, are systematically broken; b) the radii, not so large and rich in marrow, have a high proportion of unbroken diaphyses. Moreover, most of the more voluminous extremities of the bones, rich in spongy bone, are destroyed. (Scales = 150mm).
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Research Mass cannibalism in the Linear Pottery Culture at Herxheim (Palatinate, Germany)
fundamental material for our knowledge of the societies in this region at the transitional period between the Early and Middle Neolithic.
Acknowledgements From 2004 a multidisciplinary, international team was assembled around a research project financed by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (German Research Foundation): Siedlung und Grubenanlage des linearbandkeramischen Fundplatzes Herxheim (Settlement and ditched enclosure of the Linear Pottery Culture site at Herxheim). This team, directed by Andrea Zeeb-Lanz, groups together specialists in physical anthropology, archaeozoology, ceramics, bone and stone tools and botany. We acknowledge our thanks to all the members of the Herxheim research team involved in the recovery and study of the archaeological and anthropological record, and Ludger Schulte for the restoration of artefacts and bones. We thank Jean-Paul Cros for his involvement in the excavation of deposit 9, and Emilie´ Cartier and Amandine Mauduit for their help in the study of the human remains from this deposit. Our thanks are also due to Emmanuelle Boulestin for the translation of the original French manuscript, and David Wigg-Wolf for revising the English version. We also acknowledge the comments and suggestions made by the reviewers of this article, Daniela Hofmann and Alison Sheridan. The picture ‘a’ in Figure 3 is by Pascal Disdier (CNRS Strasbourg). This research was sponsored by the municipality of Herxheim (excavations) and the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft. Additional support is granted to Bruno Boulestin by the Agence Nationale de la Recherche (French State Research Agency) through the project Guerre et violence dans les premi`eres soci´et´es d’Europe : approche int´egr´ee (War and violence in the first European societies: an integrated approach). Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to Bruno Boulestin (b.boulestin@ anthropologie.u-bordeaux1.fr) or Andrea Zeeb-Lanz ([email protected]).
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