Geohydrology, Water Levels and Directions of Flow, and Occurrence of Light-Nonaqueous-Phase Liquids on Ground Water in Northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet Area of Northeastern Illinois
By Robert T. Kay, Richard F. Duwelius, Timothy A. Brown, Frederick A. Micke, and Carol A. Witt-Smith
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Water-Resources Investigations Report 95-4253
Prepared in cooperation with the
U.S ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
De Kalb, Illinois Indianapolis, Indiana 1996 CONTENTS
Abstract...... 1 Introduction...... 1 Purpose and Scope...... 6 Previous Work...... 6 Acknowledgments...... 10 Description of Study Area...... 10 Physiography and Climate...... 10 Land Use ...... 11 Geohydrology ...... 11 Geology...... 14 Bedrock Deposits...... 14 Unconsolidated Deposits...... 15 Hydrology ...... 25 Surface Water ...... 25 Ground Water ...... 29 Calumet Aquifer ...... 29 Confining Unit...... 32 Silurian-Devonian Aquifer ...... 36 Water Levels and Directions of Flow ...... 36 Surface Water ...... 37 Ground Water ...... 41 Water Table ...... 41 Silurian-Devonian Aquifer ...... 44 Surface-Water and Ground-Water Interactions ...... 45 Horizontal Hydraulic Gradients and Ground-Water Velocities...... 48 Vertical Hydraulic Gradients and Ground-Water Velocities ...... 54 Occurrence of Light-Nonaqueous-Phase Liquids on Ground Water...... 59 Summary and Conclusions ...... 62 References Cited ...... 63 Appendix 1: Summary of Information and Data Collected During the Synoptic Survey of Wells and Surface-Water Stations in Northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet Area of Northeastern Illinois, June 23-25, 1992...... 68
PLATE In pocket Plate 1. Water-table configuration, northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois, June 23-25, 1992.
Figures 1-9. Maps showing: 1. Location of study area, political boundaries, large sewer lines, and surface-water bodies, northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois ...... 2 2. Land use in northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois ...... 4 3. Surficial geology, northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois...... 8 4. Location of important topographic features and selected monitoring wells, northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois ...... 12 5. Bedrock geology, northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois...... 16 6. Bedrock surface, northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois...... 18 7. Thickness of fine-grained unconsolidated deposits, northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois ...... 20 8. Thickness of sand deposits, northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois...... 22
Contents III CONTENTS
9. Typical directions of surface-water flow, northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois...... 26 10. Graph showing water-level change as a function of time during slug testing, well S65, rising-head phase ...... 31 11. Map showing distribution of horizontal-hydraulic-conductivity values at wells within 30 feet of the water table, northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois ...... 34 12-14. Graphs showing: 12. Water-level trends in well S297, northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois, Oct. 1, 1991-Sept. 30, 1992 ...... 38 13. Water-level trends in wells S299 and S277, northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois, June 18-25, 1992 ...... 39 14. Water-level trends in wells S57, S59, and S64, northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois, June 22-24, 1992...... 40 15-20. Maps showing: 15. Direction of surface-water flow, northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois, June 23-25, 1992...... 42 16. Potentiometric surface of the Silurian-Devonian aquifer, northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois, June 23-25, 1992...... 46 17. Location of transects where horizontal hydraulic gradients along the water table were calculated, northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois, June 23-25, 1992...... 50 18. Location of transects where horizontal hydraulic gradients in the Silurian-Devonian aquifer were calculated, northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois, June 23-25, 1992...... 52 19. Direction of vertical hydraulic gradient within the Calumet aquifer, northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois, June 23-25, 1992...... 56 20. Location of wells where light-nonaqueous-phase liquids were detected, northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois, June 23-25, 1992 ...... 60
TABLES 1. Horizontal hydraulic conductivities calculated from slug-test data, northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois...... 30 2. Calculated horizontal hydraulic gradient and ground-water velocity at the water table along transects, northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois ...... 49 3. Calculated horizontal hydraulic gradient and ground-water velocity in the Silurian-Devonian aquifer along transects, northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois...... 54 4. Calculated vertical hydraulic gradient at selected points, northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois ...... 55 5. Light-nonaqueous-phase-liquid thickness (LNAPL), northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois, June 23-24, 1992...... 59
IV Contents CONVERSION FACTORS AND VERTICAL DATUM
Multiply By To obtain
inch (in.) 25.4 millimeter foot (ft) 0.3048 meter foot per foot (ft/ft) 0.3048 meter per meter mile (mi) 1.609 kilometer acre 4,047 square meter foot per day (ft/d)1 0.3048 meter per day foot per mile (ft/mi) i 0.1894 meter per kilometer cubic feet per second (ft /s) 0.02832 cubic meter per second
Temperature in degrees Celsius (°C) can be converted to degrees Fahrenheit (°F) as follows:
°F = 9/5 (°C) + 32
Sea level: In this report, "sea level" refers to the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 (NGVD of 1929) a geodetic datum derived from a general adjustment of first-order level nets of both the United States and Canada, formerly called Sea Level Datum of 1929.
Foot per day is the mathematically reduced term of cubic foot per day per square foot of aquifer cross-sectional area.
Contents Geohydrology, Water Levels and Directions of Flow, and Occurrence of Light-Nonaqueous-Phase Liquids on Ground Water in Northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet Area of Northeastern Illinois
By Robert T. Kay, Richard F. Duwelius, Timothy A. Brown, Frederick A. Micke1 , and Carol A. Witt-Smith1
Abstract 4.4x10 4 to 1.0x10 3 feet per day. Horizontal ground-water velocity in the Calumet and A study was performed by the U.S. Geolog Silurian-Devonian aquifers ranged from ical Survey, in cooperation with the U.S. Environ l.OxlO"2 to 3.4X10"1 and from 1.4xlO~2 to mental Protection Agency, to describe the geo- 2.9xlO~2 feet per day, respectively. hydrology and distribution of light-nonaqueous- Vertical hydraulic gradients indicate gener phase liquids in an industrialized area of north ally downward flow from the Calumet aquifer western Indiana and northeastern Illinois. The into the confining unit, then into the Silurian- geologic units of concern underlying this area are Devonian aquifer. Calculated vertical ground- the carbonates of the Niagaran Series, the Detroit water velocity through the weathered and River and Traverse Formations; the Antrim Shale; unweathered parts of the confining unit are and sands, silts, and clays of Quaternary age. 3.8xlO~2 and 1.5xlO~3 feet per day, respectively. The hydrologic units of concern are surface water, the Calumet aquifer, the confining unit, and the Silurian-Devonian aquifer. INTRODUCTION Water levels collected in June 1992 indicate that the water-table configuration generally is a In June 1992, the U.S. Geological Survey subdued reflection of topography. Recharge (USGS), in cooperation with the U.S. Environmental from landfill leachate and ponded water, dis Protection Agency (USEPA), began a study of the charge to sewers, and pumping also affect the geohydrology and distribution of light-nonaqueous- water-table configuration. A depression in the phase liquids (LNAPL's) in an urban and industrial potentiometric surface of the Silurian-Devonian area of northwestern Indiana and northeastern Illinois (fig. 1). Industry in this area includes several steel aquifer results from pumping. Light-nonaque- mills, petroleum refineries, petroleum-tank farms, ous-phase liquids were detected near petroleum forging and foundry plants, and chemical manufactur handling, industrial and waste-disposal facilities. ing facilities (fig. 2). In addition, 2 hazardous-waste Horizontal ground-water velocity at the incinerators, at least 11 sanitary landfills, numerous water table in the confining unit ranged from uncontrolled waste-disposal sites, and about 80 accidental-spill sites are located within this area. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region 5, Chicago, Contaminants from these and other sources have Illinois. leached to ground water and surface water
Introduction 87° 40'
Lake Michigan
i ~ j^^'v.. Uii -Lp^ 41* 35'
EXPLANATION SEWER LINES
POLITICAL BOUNDARY
Figure 1. Location of study area, political boundaries, large sewer lines, and surface-water bodies, northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois. (Sewers shown in Indiana are modified from Fenelon and Watson, 1993. Sewers shown in Illinois are modified from Keifer and Associates, 1976.)
Geohydrology in Northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet Area of Northeastern Illinois 20' 87° 05'
Lake Michigan
Grand Calumet Lagoons
0 1 5 MILES 01 2345 KILOMETERS
Figure 1. Continued.
Introduction 87* 40' 35' 30'
Lake Michigan
j Calumet Sewage Treatment Rant
41° 40'
^^r---^ : i ___: jf _-^ ^ :
I I --*---^-..-..,- +- ~ |-1 SI r f .
41* 35' Thomton Quarry X
EXPLANATION
STEEL INDUSTRY RESIDENTIAL OR OPEN WATER
INDUSTRY Other than steel or petrochemical I, I...-..J WASTE TREATMENT OR DISPOSAL
PETROCHEMICAL INDUSTRY NATURAL
Figure 2. Land use in northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois.
4 Geohydrology in Northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet Area of Northeastern Illinois 20' 15' 10' 87' 05'
Study Area
Lake Michigan
-»'> «*»>-». »\f * 8 x a «> * .
5 MILES J______I 01 2345 KILOMETERS Figure 2. Continued.
Introduction 5 (U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, ground-water quality within the study area. These 1965; HydroQual, Inc., 1985; Fenelon and Watson, investigations have focused on Lake Calumet in 1993). Illinois and the Grand Calumet River near the Indiana The study was designed to describe the geology Harbor Canal in Indiana (fig. 1). These areas have and hydrology in this area, determine surface-water- experienced the most severe environmental degrada flow directions, determine ground-water-flow direc tion. tions within and between the shallow hydraulic units, One of the first investigations to provide a characterize the interaction between surface water and framework under which the environmental effects ground water, and to obtain a preliminary estimate of of industrial and waste-disposal activities could be the location and extent of LNAPL's on the water table. assessed was a compilation of industrial waste- This information will be used to identify areas needing disposal activities in the Lake Calumet area from additional study. 1869 through 1970 (Colten, 1985). It is assumed The study was divided into two major compo that the history of industrial-waste disposal in Indiana nents: compilation and analysis of the existing is similar. Colten divided industrial activity and geologic, hydrologic, and water-quality data; and waste-disposal practices into three phases on the basis collection of LNAPL and static water-level measure of the legal and technological framework within which ments during a 2-day synoptic period. Geologic, disposal took place. hydrologic, and water-quality data were compiled The first phase of waste-disposal activities in and analyzed to assess hydraulic and water-quality the Lake Calumet area occurred from 1869 to 1921 conditions and to plan the synoptic water-level survey. and was characterized by the discharge of untreated Static water-level measurements were collected to liquid and particulate wastes to surface-water bodies, determine the directions of flow within and between the primarily the Calumet and Little Calumet Rivers hydraulic units and to provide a better understanding of (fig. 1). The liquid wastes contained hundreds of the factors that affect surface-water and ground-water tons of phenols, cyanide, lubricating oils, sulfuric acid, flow. Measurements of LNAPL's in observation and iron sulfate (Colten, 1985, p. 27, 45, 63). Solid wells were collected to obtain a preliminary estimate of wastes, especially slag and fly ash, typically were the location and extent of LNAPL's. dumped onto vacant land and into lakes and wetlands as fill. Purpose and Scope The second phase of waste-disposal activity identified by Colten occurred from 1922 to 1940 and This report describes the results of an investiga was characterized by the opening of the Calumet Sag tion designed to characterize the geohydrology and to determine the location and extent of LNAPL's in an Channel and construction of the Calumet Sewage industrialized area in northwestern Indiana and north Treatment Plant (fig. 2). Opening of the Calumet eastern Illinois. In addition to a description of the Sag Channel diverted flow in the Calumet River geology and hydrology of the study area, the results system from Lake Michigan to the Illinois River of an area-wide synoptic water-level survey are pre system under most hydraulic conditions. This diver sented. The report identifies the direction of surface- sion greatly reduced the amount of contamination in water flow, the direction and velocity of vertical and Lake Michigan, the principal source of water for horizontal ground-water flow within the hydraulic industrial and municipal supply in northeastern Illinois units of concern, and the nature of the surface-water and northwestern Indiana. Construction of the and ground-water interaction in the study area during Calumet Sewage Treatment Plant resulted in effluent the synoptic water-level survey. The location and from a few of the industrial facilities receiving some thickness of LNAPL's measured on the water table treatment before being discharged to surface water. during the synoptic water-level survey also are pre The third phase of waste-disposal activities sented. occurred from 1940 to 1970 and was characterized by a shift from disposal of industrial wastes in water to disposal on land. Municipal and construction refuse, Previous Work as well as industrial waste, was buried in municipal Concerns about environmental problems have landfills. In addition to slag and ash, which had resulted in several studies of the hydrology and always been disposed of in this manner, dredge spoil
Geohydrology in Northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet Area of Northeastern Illinois and sludges from wastewater-treatment facilities were flow is intrinsically connected to flow in the surface- dumped into nearby wetlands during this period. An water bodies but that delineation of the shallow increasing number of industrial facilities also began ground-water-flow system was difficult because of treating wastewater before releasing the effluent to the the sparse data then available. The report also noted rivers. that flow in the uppermost bedrock aquifer is generally The shift from water to land disposal of wastes, toward Lake Michigan, though it has been disrupted environmental regulations requiring wastewater treat by excavations in the bedrock for the Metropolitan ment, and a decline in industrial activity lessened the Water Reclamation District of Greater Chicago's effect of waste disposal on the Calumet River system Tunnel and Reservoir Plan (TARP) storm-drainage since 1970 (HydroQual, Inc., 1985, p. S-3). How tunnels. These tunnels are about 300 ft below the ever, significant environmental problems associated land surface and are used to transport combined- with surface-water and ground-water degradation still sewer-overflow water to treatment facilities. Anal remain. ysis of ground-water-quality data collected by the The disposal of large quantities of municipal and ISWS and a number of government agencies and industrial wastes in lakes, wetlands, and on the land private organizations led to the conclusion that, surface affects ground-water quality at several indus although organic compounds and metals were detected trial and waste-disposal sites, in addition to affecting in the shallow ground water near many of the indus the viability of the lakes and wetlands. The effect of trial and waste-disposal facilities, no evidence of land disposal is particularly severe at Lake Calumet, widespread contamination of the shallow ground where much of the lake area in 1869 had been filled water in the Lake Calumet area was found. Analysis with municipal and industrial waste by 1994 (fig. 3). of the ground-water-quality data also led to the con Crushed and hot-poured slag also has been used as fill clusion that the small amounts of contamination to create large areas of "made" land along the shores detected in the uppermost bedrock aquifer could be of Lake Michigan, Wolf Lake, and Lake George. attributed to leakage from the surface or shallow Colten (1985, appendix A) identified sites of ground water to the bedrock aquifer around improp waste disposal and industrial activities in the Lake erly sealed wells or borings, not to transport through Calumet area from 1869 to 1970 and evaluated each geologic material. site for the risk it posed to human health and the The ISWS is currently (1994) investigating the environment. It was concluded that a number of hydrogeology and ground-water quality in the shallow these sites had the potential to adversely affect human ground-water-flow system near Lake Calumet and health and the environment but that additional infor Wolf Lake. High concentrations of metals and vola mation was needed to accurately characterize that tile organic compounds were detected in ground-water effect. samples collected in several shallow wells during this The Illinois Environmental Protection Agency current study (Cravens and Roadcap, 1991, p. 13, 14; (IEPA) drilled several borings in the Lake Calumet Roadcap and Kelly, 1994, p. 39,40). Slag fill was area and analyzed the soils and ground water from the assumed to be the source of most of the metals. borings for a number of compounds (Illinois Environ A detailed study of the shallow ground-water- mental Protection Agency, 1986) to determine the flow system in the Indiana part of the study area was effect of industrial and waste-disposal activities on done by the USGS in 1985-86 (Watson and others, shallow ground-water quality in the Lake Calumet 1989). The report notes that the water-table configu area. Concentrations of several metals above back ration in this area mirrors surface topography except ground levels were detected in some of the soil near large sewers and pumping centers where local samples. Several volatile and semivolatile organic depressions are present. Analysis of surface-water compounds were detected in ground-water samples and ground-water levels during this study indicates collected at some industrial sites. that ground water typically discharges to the major Expanding on the work of the IEPA, the Illinois surface-water bodies and small ditches, though flow State Water Survey (ISWS) performed a preliminary reversals are common. assessment of the hydrology and ground-water quality A follow-up study of the hydrology and ground- in the Lake Calumet area (Cravens and Zahn, 1990). water quality in the shallow ground-water system in Cravens and Zahn noted that shallow ground-water northwestern Indiana was done by the USGS in
Previous Work 87° 40'
41° 40'
41* 35'
EXPLANATION
RECENT SAND AND GRAVEL Beach and shoreline ^ MADE AND MODIFIED LAND Artificial fill and deposits in bars, spits, and beaches. .£* land substantially modified by the removal of Some dune sand. Atherton Formation unconsolidated deposits. Many small areas in Indiana, Dolton Member in Illinois not mapped CLAY AND SILT Lacustrine deposits. Lacustrine facies of Atherton Formation WISCONSINAN AND RECENT in Indiana, Camni Member in Illinois MUCK OR SILT OVER SAND AND GRAVEL Outwash sand and gravel overlain in places WISCONSINAN by thin lacustrine, paludal or alluvial deposits TILL End moraine deposit. Lagro Formation of peat, muck, or clay. Martinsville Formation in Indiana, Wadsworth Till in Illinois over outwash facies of Atherton Formation in Indiana, glacial sluiceway in Illinois TILL Wave-scoured lake-bottom till. Lagro Formation in Indiana, Wadsworth Till in Illinois SAND AND SOME SILT Dune deposits. SILURIAN Dune facies of Atherton Formation in Indiana, Parkland Sand in Illinois DOLOMITE Marine deposit. Niagaran Series
Figure 3. Surficial geology, northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois. (From Schneider and Keller, 1970.)
8 Geohydrology in Northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet Area of Northeastern Illinois 20' 15' 10' 87° 05'
Study Area
Lake Michigan
5 MILES
01 2345 KILOMETERS
Figure 3. Continued.
Previous Work 9 1988-89 (Fenelon and Watson, 1993). Ground-water Calumet Lacustrine Plain subdivision of the Northern quality is described as being poorest at the steel and Moraine and Lake Region defined by the Indiana petrochemical facilities, moderate near light industrial Geological Survey (IGS) (Malott, 1922, p. 113; and commercial areas, and best in residential and park Schneider, 1966, p. 50). The Calumet Lacustrine areas. It was estimated that ground water may con Plain extends westward into Illinois where it is called tribute more than 10 percent of the total chemical load the Chicago Lake Plain subsection of the Great Lakes of ammonia, chromium, and cyanide to the Grand Section of the Central Lowland physiographic prov Calumet River. ince as defined by the Illinois State Geological Survey Numerous geotechnical and environmental (ISGS) (Leighton and others, 1948, p. 21). investigations at specific industrial and waste-disposal Glacial, lacustrine, paludal, and aeolian proc sites also have been done. Results indicate environ esses have produced the physiographic characteristics mental problems at several sites, many of which are of this area. Near the end of the last glacial period, adjacent. These site-specific investigations gener glacial ice moved southward along the basin currently ally provide a detailed understanding of the geohydrol- occupied by Lake Michigan. The ice stopped just ogy at a specific site, but not of the hydrogeologic south of the study area, forming the Valparaiso relation between adjacent sites and between a site and Morainic System (Bretz, 1939, p. 45-59, fig. 37). the area as a whole. The glacier receded and advanced north of the Valparaiso Morainic System several times, forming Acknowledgments several end moraines in Illinois and Indiana. As the glacier receded to the north, Lake Chicago formed The authors extend their thanks to the numerous between the glacier and the moraines (Wayne, 1966, Federal, State, and municipal agencies and corpora p. 36). Lake Chicago and its successors rose and fell tions that provided hydrogeologic information and (or) repeatedly, producing physiographic features whose access to the data-collection points. In addition, the locations are controlled, in part, by the location of the authors would like to thank those persons from the shoreline during the fluctuating lake stages. USEPA, Indiana Department of Environmental Man Erosional and depositional processes associated agement, and Metcalf and Eddy, Inc., who helped with the advance and retreat of the glaciers and the collect the water-level data for this study. Finally, fluctuations in lake stage resulted in a generally flat Doug Yeskis of the USEPA and Jeff Miller of Metcalf land surface that slopes gently toward Lake Michigan. and Eddy, Inc., are thanked for their assistance in the The flat surface of the lake plain is broken up by a planning and execution of this study. number of low beach ridges, morainal headlands and islands, and a large glacial drainway (fig. 4). Most of the area is swampy and poorly drained under natu DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA ral conditions, and the location of surface-water bod ies is primarily affected by the location of the beach The study area is located in the Calumet area ridges. The land-surface altitude on the flat part of of northwestern Indiana and northeastern Illinois and the lake plain ranges from about 590 ft above sea level includes parts of Porter and Lake Counties in Indiana west of Lake Calumet to about 581 ft above sea level and Cook County in Illinois (fig. 1). The study area along the shore of Lake Michigan. is bounded by the southern limit of the Little Calumet River and Interstates 80 and 94 to the south, Crawford The largest of the beach ridges is the Toleston Avenue to the west, Mineral Springs Road to the east, Beach Ridge, which separates the Grand Calumet and and 80th Street and Lake Michigan to the north. Little Calumet Rivers. Rising between 10 and 15 ft above the lake plain, the Toleston Beach Ridge is the most lakeward of the dune and beach complexes pro Physiography and Climate duced by shoreline deposition during a period of higher lake stage (Thompson, 1989, p. 711). Numer The study area is in the Eastern Lake Section of ous smaller sandy ridges, including dunes, spits, and the Central Lowland physiographic province defined bars, also are present. Many of the ridges that were by Fenneman (1938). The Indiana part is in the once present have been leveled or removed by quarry-
10 Geohydrology in Northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet Area of Northeastern Illinois ing in the past century. These ridges roughly parallel survey, the amount of precipitation measured at a Lake Michigan. NOAA station at the University of Chicago, about The most prominent dune deposits in the I mi north of the northern boundary of the study area, study area are located at the Indiana Dunes National was 13 in. below normal (National Oceanic and Lakeshore (IDNL) (fig. 4). Topographic relief at Atmospheric Administration, 1991, 1992b). The the IDNL varies from near lake level (581 ft above University of Chicago station was used because the sea level) to as high as 750 ft above sea level. The Gary airport and Ogden Dunes stations were not in dune crests are the highest natural features in the operation from June 1991 to June 1992. study area. An estimated 70 percent of the average annual Blue Island is a morainal island near the western precipitation on this area is returned to the atmosphere edge of the study area (fig. 4). Blue Island trends by evapotranspiration (Mades, 1987, p. 13). Based north-south with a maximum elevation of about 670 ft on this percentage, average annual precipitation avail above sea level. able for recharge to ground water is no greater than Stony Island is a bedrock outcrop north of Lake 10.7 in. More than three-quarters of all evapotrans Calumet (fig. 4). About 1 mi long and a quarter of piration occurs during the growing season (U.S. Geo a mile in width, Stony Island is about 20 ft above the logical Survey, 1970, p. 96). During the growing lake plain and trends east-west. season, evapotranspiration normally exceeds precipi tation by about 1 to 2 in. and depletes available soil The principal outlet for Lake Chicago was moisture. During the nongrowing season, precipita through a glacial sluiceway, or outwash channel, between the Toleston Beach Ridge and Blue Island tion generally exceeds evapotranspiration by about II in. and replenishes soil moisture and recharges (fig. 4) (Malott, 1922, p. 152; Bretz, 1939, p. 59; ground water. The mean annual lake evaporation Willman, 1971, p. 55), although the lake drained to is 29.5 in. or about 83 percent of the average annual the east during periods of low lake stage (Fullerton, 1980). Erosion along the sluiceway formed a topo precipitation. graphic depression which is the current location of the Calumet Sag Channel. Land Use The climate in this area is classified as temperate continental, with a mean annual temperature of about Land use in the study area is primarily residen 10°C and a mean annual precipitation of 35.7 in. tial and industrial (fig. 2). Large tracts of open water, (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, natural land, and land for the treatment and disposal of 1991,1992b). More than half of the average annual wastes also are present. Much of the land along Lake precipitation falls from April 1 through August 31. Michigan and the Calumet River is or was used for Although large variations in precipitation and temper steel production. Land used by the petrochemical ature may occur in any year, summers generally are industry for tank farms and petroleum refining is hot and humid, whereas winters are cold. Lake located south and west of the steel mills in Indiana Michigan has a moderating local effect on tempera and at scattered locations along the Grand Calumet ture. River, the Calumet Sag Channel, and Lake Calumet The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin in Illinois. A variety of other industrial activities, istration (NOAA) maintained two weather stations in including automobile assembly, scrap processing, the study area one at the Gary Regional Airport, and and chemical manufacturing take place in this area. the other at Ogden Dunes, Ind. (fig. 4). From 1951 to Several landfills, wastewater-treatment plants, and 1980, the mean monthly temperature at these stations unregulated waste-disposal facilities are present near varied from about -5°C in January to about 23°C in Lake Calumet. July, and the mean monthly precipitation varied from 1.5 in. in February to 4.0 in. in June. Precipitation at Ogden Dunes was slightly larger than at the Gary GEOHYDROLOGY airport (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis tration, 1982). The geology and hydrology of the study area From June 1991 to June 1992, the 12-month have been described by a number of investigators period before the start of the synoptic water-level (Bretz, 1939, 1955; Rosenshein and Hunn, 1968;
Geohydrology 11 87° 40'
Lake Michigan
41° 40'
41° 35'
EXPLANATION
0 S64 MONITORING WELL LOCATION AND NAME Site of well in which background water-level data were collected
+ WEATHER STATION
Figure 4. Location of important topographic features and selected monitoring wells, northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois.
12 Geohydrology in Northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet Area of Northeastern Illinois 20' 15' 10' 87° 05'
Lake Michigan
Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore
^fe Calumet jTqlestpn_Beac
5 MILES 01 2345 KILOMETERS
Figure 4. Continued.
Geohydrology 13 Willman, 1971; Hartke and others, 1975; Watson are generally more abundant near the bedrock surface, and others, 1989; Cravens and Zahn, 1990). Their where the bedrock is more weathered, and decrease descriptions, in combination with analysis of litho- in number with depth as the rock becomes more logic and hydrologic data compiled during this and competent (Suter and others, 1959, p. 9). The reef previous studies, form the basis for the discussion of deposits tend to have fewer fractures than the interreef the geology and hydrology. deposits. In addition to fractures, several vertical faults Geology have been identified in the bedrock in Illinois (fig. 5). Most of these faults are oriented northwest to south The geologic deposits of concern to this investi east and are 2-3 mi long. Faulting has offset the gation are bedrock deposits of Silurian and Devonian bedrock strata as much as 30 ft, but displacement does age and unconsolidated deposits of Quaternary age. not extend upward into the unconsolidated materials The stratigraphic nomenclature used in this report is (Keifer and Associates, 1976, p. 27-36). The extent that of the ISGS (Willman and Frye, 1970, p. 70-75; of faulting in Indiana is unknown. Willman and others, 1975, p. 100-104) and the IGS (Shaver and others, 1970, 1986). Their usage does Lower to middle Devonian deposits of the not necessarily follow the usage of the USGS. Detroit River and Traverse Formations unconformably overlie the Niagaran Series in parts of Indiana (fig. 5). Bedrock Deposits The Detroit River Formation varies from a light colored, fine-grained, sandy dolomite near the base The bedrock in this area is comprised primarily of the formation to a gray to dark brown dolomite and of dolomite, limestone, and shale. The bedrock strata limestone with thin to massive beds of gypsum and are essentially horizontal, except in the northeastern anhydrite in the upper part of the deposit (Shaver and part of the study area where the bedrock strata dip others, 1986, p. 35-37). The Traverse Formation slightly toward the northeast. unconformably overlies the Detroit River Formation. The oldest bedrock deposits of concern to this The Traverse Formation consists of brown to gray, investigation are Silurian dolomites and limestones of fine-to-coarse grained limestone to dolomitic lime the Niagaran Series. The Niagaran carbonates are up stone (Shaver and others, 1986, p. 156). Both to 300 ft thick in the study area and are present at the bedrock surface in Illinois and western Indiana (fig. 5). formations thicken toward the northeast. These deposits are known as the Wabash Formation The Upper Devonian Antrim Shale is the young in Indiana (Shaver and others, 1986, p. 162) and the est bedrock unit in the study area and unconformably Racine Dolomite in Illinois (Willman, 1971, p. 29- overlies the Traverse Formation in Porter County 30). (fig. 5). The Antrim Shale consists of brown to The Niagaran carbonates are characterized by black, noncalcareous shale with gray calcareous shale large reefs, two of which are present at the land sur or limestone in the lower part of the formation (Shaver face at Stony Island and Thornton Quarry (fig. 3). and others, 1986, p. 5). The reefs are composed of a vuggy dolomite with The bedrock surface, based on lithologic logs traces of argillaceous material or sand grains. A compiled from throughout the study area, has more solid petroleum residue called asphaltum is present in some of the vugs in the reefs (Willman, 1971, p. 30). than 175 ft of relief (fig. 6). Bedrock highs are Beds on the flanks of the reefs commonly dip radially present at Stony Island and Thornton Quarry. away from the massive to irregularly bedded reef core. Bedrock lows are present near Burns Harbor, Gary Away from the reefs, the Niagaran deposits consist Harbor, the Indiana Harbor Canal, and immediately of dense, cherty, argillaceous dolomite and limestone east of Lake Calumet. Bedrock highs at Stony Island with localized lenses of green shale. and Thornton Quarry are attributed to the greater The Niagaran carbonates contain an irregularly resistance of the reef deposits in these areas to erosion distributed network of vertical fractures with a major (Bretz, 1939, p. 66). The bedrock valleys may mark trend at N. 47° W. and a minor trend at about N. 57° E. the paths of preglacial drainage that flowed north and (Zeizel and others, 1962; Foote, 1982). Fractures east from a surface-water divide (Bretz, 1939, p. 92)
14 Geohydrology in Northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet Area of Northeastern Illinois Unconsolidated Deposits Willman, 1971, pi. 1). These units grade laterally into each other and are superimposed in some areas. Most of the unconsolidated sediments were The Carmi Member is comprised predominantly originally deposited by glaciers or were deposited as of silt and clay with localized peat beds. These are lake-bottom and near-shore deposits of Lake Chicago generally well bedded or laminated lake deposits and and its successors (Willman, 1971, p. 38-51; Hartke are at the land surface in much of the area around Lake and others, 1975, p. 7). Glacial and lacustrine proc Calumet and parts of the Little Calumet River (fig. 3). esses resulted in the deposition of three types of The Carmi Member underlies the Dolton Member near materials: glacial till, lacustrine silt and clay, and the confluence of the Calumet, Grand Calumet, and fluvial and aeolian sand. Small amounts of muck, Little Calumet Rivers (Woodward-Clyde Consultants, peat, and fine gravel were deposited in localized areas 1984, fig. E-3) and in most of the Indiana part of the (fig. 3). The total thickness of the unconsolidated study area (Watson and others, 1989, p. 18). sediments ranges from less than 1 ft in the vicinity of The Dolton Member is predominantly sand but Thornton Quarry to over 225 ft east of Burns Harbor contains thin, discontinuous beds of muck and peat as (figs. 7 and 8). well as pebbly sand and gravel. These sands consist In most of the area, the bedrock is overlain by of shore and shallow-water lake deposits, commonly dense, lenticular bodies of poorly sorted gravel, sand, found in ridges defining the former locations of spits and silt. These deposits are informally called the and beaches. The Dolton Member is at the land Lemont Drift in Illinois (Cravens and Zahn, 1990, surface in much of the area east of the Calumet River p. 15). The exact age of these deposits is unknown, and at sporadic locations west of Lake Calumet but they appear to have been eroded and weathered (fig. 3). The Dolton Member underlies the Carmi before being covered by sediments during subsequent Member in much of the area from the State line to the glacial advances. eastern shore of Lake Calumet and along parts of the The Lemont Drift and similar deposits in Little Calumet River (compare fig. 3 and fig. 8). Indiana are overlain by a gray clayey till. The till The Parkland Sand is a well sorted, medium- is very hard and tends to become denser and more grained sand that was blown from the glacial outwash consolidated with depth, probably because of com and beach deposits into dunes and sheet-like deposits pression by the ice sheets during the glacial advances. around the dunes (Willman, 1971, p. 50). The Park This till is known as the Wadsworth Till Member of land Sand is found along the Toleston Beach Ridge, the Wedron Formation in Illinois (Willman, 1971, the western flank of Blue Island, and at the Indiana p. 46) and composes part of the Lagro Formation in Dunes National Lakeshore (figs. 3,4). The Parkland Indiana (Shaver and others, 1970, p. 87-88). The Sand is equivalent to the dune facies of the Atherton Wadsworth Till Member is present at the land surface Formation in Indiana (Shaver and others, 1970, p. 7). at Blue Island (fig. 3). The glacial sluiceway eroded into, and in some The Wadsworth Till Member is overlain by areas through, the till along the path of the Calumet sand, silt, and clay deposits known as the Equality Sag Channel and was filled with fluvial sand and Formation in Illinois (Willman, 1971, p. 49) and the gravel deposits (fig. 3). These sands and gravels Atherton Formation in Indiana (Shaver and others, have a maximum thickness of about 25 ft (fig. 8). 1970, p. 7). These deposits are the surficial geologic Glacial outwash deposits of sand and gravel also are unit in most of the study area (fig. 3). The along the path of the Little Calumet River in parts Wadsworth-Equality boundary represents a transition of Indiana (fig. 3). Outwash and sluiceway deposits from deposition dominated by glacial processes to are part of the Martinsville Formation described by deposition dominated by lacustrine processes. Shaver and others (1970, p. 107). The Equality Formation is subdivided by the With the exception of the area mapped as ISGS into the Carmi and Dolton Members. The Wadsworth Till at Blue Island, which was never Carmi Member is equivalent to the lacustrine facies submerged, the top of the Wadsworth Till Member of the Atherton Formation (Schneider and Keller, was reworked by wave erosion throughout the study 1970; Willman, 1971, pi. 1). The Dolton Member is area (fig. 3) (Willman, 1971, pi. 1; Watson and equivalent to the beach and shoreline deposits of the others, 1989, p. 18). Though deposition from wave Atherton Formation (Schneider and Keller, 1970; erosion was minimal, the upper surface of the
Geology 15 87° 40'
Lake Michigan
41* 40'
41* 35'
EXPLANATION DEVONIAN ANTRIM SHALE Brown to black and gray shale with limestone in lower part
TRAVERSE AND DETROIT RIVER FORMATIONS Predominately limestone and dolomite SILURIAN
NIAGARAN SERIES Predominately dolomite
u FAULT Approximately located. U indicates upthrown side. D indicates D downthrown side. No fault data available for Indiana Figure 5. Bedrock geology, northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois. (Modified from Schneider and Keller, 1970.)
16 Geohydrology in Northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet Area of Northeastern Illinois 20' 15' 10' 87° 05'
Lake Michigan
1 5 MILES 01 2345 KILOMETERS
Figure 5. Continued.
Geology 17 87° 40' 35' 30'
Lake Michigan
41* 40'
41" 35'
EXPLANATION 450 BEDROCK-SURFACE CONTOUR Shows altitude of bedrock surface. Dashed where approximate. Contour interval 25 feet. Datum is sea level Figure 6. Bedrock surface, northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois.
18 Geohydrology in Northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet Area of Northeastern Illinois 20' 15' 10' 87' 05'
Study
Lake Michigan
Map compiled and drawn by T.K. Greeman and D.A. Stewart, U.S. Geological Survey
012345 MILES I i i i___i______i 01 2345 KILOMETERS Figure 6. Continued.
Geology 19 87° 40'
Lake Michigan
41'40'
41*35' Thomton.x "]""' Quarry /' \
EXPLANATION
IllilliHill SILT AND CLAY ABSENT
50 LINE OF EQUAL THICKNESS Shows thickness of silt and clay deposits. Dashed where approximate. Interval 25 feet
Figure 7. Thickness of fine-grained unconsolidated deposits, northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeast- em Illinois.
20 Geohydrology in Northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet Area of Northeastern Illinois 20' 15' 10' 87° 05'
Study ,rea
Lake Michigan
Grand Calumet Lagoons
5 MILES 01 2345 KILOMETERS
Figure 7. Continued.
Geology 21 87° 40' 35'
Late Michigan
41° 40'
41° 35' .
EXPLANATION
[;:£.' ] SAND ABSENT WITHIN 20 FEET OF LAND SURFACE
\'e ''\ SAND INTERSPERSED WITH FILL
\\_f wl |XXj SAND ORIGINALLY PRESENT BUT REMOVED BY QUARRYING
25 LINE OF EQUAL THICKNESS Shows thickness of sand deposits where the top is within 20 feet of the land surface. Dashed where approximate. Interval, in feet, is variable
Figure 8. Thickness of sand deposits, northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois.
22 Geohydrology in Northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet Area of Northeastern Illinois 20' 15' 10' 87° 05'
Study Area
Lake Michigan
Grand Calumet Lagoons
0 1 5 MILES i i i r 01 2345 KILOMETERS
Figure 8. Continued.
Geology 23 Wadsworth Till Member was modified. Those In those parts of the study area where the areas where the Wadsworth Till Member was sub fine-grained deposits are within a few feet of the merged and not covered by subsequent sediment land surface, the upper part of this unit typically is deposition are mapped as wave-scoured lake-bottom weathered. The weathered zone is characterized by till (fig. 3), hereafter referred to as the Lake-Plain an extensive network of open vertical fractures, deposits. Equality Formation deposits are common macropores, soil joints, and root channels (Ecology in the area of the Lake-Plain deposits. and Environment, Inc., 1990, p. 4-17). The size The Lemont Drift, Wadsworth Till Member, and number of the weathering features decrease Carrni Member (where not underlain by sand), and with depth. These features are virtually absent below Lake-Plain deposits constitute a continuous layer of about 30 ft (Ecology and Environment, Inc., 1990, fine-grained unconsolidated material overlying the p. 4-17). bedrock in almost all of the study area. These fine In most of the area east of Lake Calumet, grained deposits are absent near Stony Island, the fine-grained deposits are overlain by sands of Thornton Quarry, and the Calumet Sag Channel the Equality Formation, the Parkland Sand, or the and are over 200 ft thick near the eastern edge of glacial sluiceway. Fill deposits consisting of sand the study area (fig. 7). The Lemont Drift and the are present locally along the western shore of Lake Wadsworth Till Member constitute most of the fine Calumet but are too discontinuous to be mapped at the scale shown in figure 8. Continuous fill deposits grained material. The Carmi Member typically is consisting primarily of sand and slag are present along less than 15 ft thick (Land and Lakes Co., 1988, p. 14). the shore of Lake Michigan in much of the study area The thickness of the fine-grained unconsolidated (fig. 3). These continuous fill deposits are mapped deposits in Illinois was measured directly from drill in figure 8 as if they were composed entirely of sand. ers' logs. Because of the scarcity of data points in The thickness of the sand deposits generally increases Indiana, the elevations of the top of the bedrock and from west to east, ranging from 0 ft in most of Illinois the top of the fine-grained deposits, obtained from west of Lake Calumet to about 100 ft along Lake drillers' logs, were digitized into the ARC/INFO2 Michigan east of the Grand Calumet Lagoons (fig. 8). geographic information system. A set of adjacent In the extreme eastern part of the study area, two sand nonoverlapping triangles, referred to as a triangulated lenses are separated by a silty-clay layer. irregular network (TIN), was computed from the The map of sand thickness (fig. 8) was prepared digital contour data. This TIN structure formed a in the same way as the map of the thickness of fine digital surface interpolated from the contour lines. grained unconsolidated deposits. The thickness of The TIN was then converted into a lattice coverage the sand deposits in Illinois was measured directly representing 30 by 30 meter pixels. Applying map from drillers' logs. Because of the scarcity of data algebra, the bedrock-surface lattice was subtracted points and the large changes in surface topography at from the surface of the fine-grained deposit lattice to the dunes in Indiana, digital line graph hypsography determine the thickness of the fine-grained unconsoli data were used to create a TIN representing land dated deposits. A coverage containing the contour surface. The TIN surface was then converted into a lines was created directly from the resultant lattice lattice coverage. The procedure for determining coverage. This coverage was joined in ARCEDIT the sand thickness was the same as that used to deter (a module of ARC/INFO) to the digitized contour mine the thickness of the fine-grained unconsolidated coverage created for Illinois. Additional smoothing deposits. The lattice representing the surface of the of the contours was done interactively in ARCEDIT. fine-grained unconsolidated deposits was subtracted This method does not account for the thin sand depos from the land-surface lattice. The contour coverage its directly overlying the bedrock and within the fine was created directly from the resultant lattice coverage grained deposits, resulting in a slight overestimation of and joined to the digitized contour coverage of the the thickness of the fine-grained deposits in Indiana. sand thickness for Illinois. Additional smoothing of the contours was done interactively in ARCEDIT. Values of sand thickness presented in figure 8 do 2Use of the brand names ARC/INFO and ARCEDIT in this report is for identification purposes only and does not not account for the presence of fill interspersed constitute endorsement by the U.S. Geological Survey. with the sand along Lake Michigan, resulting in an
24 Geohydrology in Northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet Area of Northeastern Illinois overestimation of the actual thickness of the sand surface drainage is through Pullman Creek, a drainage in these areas. channel on the west side of the lake (fig. 9). A drain The surficial and bedrock deposits have been age channel at the northeastern corner of the lake and extensively altered by human activities in this area. two storm-sewer outfalls also have been identified by Substantial volumes of material have been removed Ross and others (1988). during quarrying, tunneling, and excavating for Wolf Lake and Lake George, approximately buildings and landfills (fig. 7). The surficial geology 770 and 130 acres in size, respectively, occupy also has been modified by the deposition of large shallow depressions between a series of sandy amounts of fill including sand, silt, slag, dredging ridges. Wolf Lake is currently divided by slag spoil, and municipal wastes (fig. 3). These activities deposits into an eastern, a central, and a western have combined to disrupt the spatial continuity and basin (fig. 9). Each of these basins has a different homogeneity of the deposits and to modify the surface water level and is divided by slag deposits into a topography. number of smaller, interconnected basins. Slag and other materials have been used to fill in parts of Wolf Lake, Lake George, and some of the Hydrology surrounding wetlands. Wolf Lake was once connected to Lake Michi The four hydrologic units of concern to this gan by a channel, now blocked, extending from the study are surface-water bodies, the unconsolidated northern part of Wolf Lake. Water is currently sand aquifer, the unconsolidated silt and clay confin delivered to Wolf Lake through manmade drainage ing unit, and the carbonate aquifer. These are the channels and industrial discharge. Most of the units most affected by industrial and waste-disposal discharge is from industries along the northern arm of activities. the lake. The discharged water is originally pumped from Lake Michigan. A shallow drainage ditch on the western shore of Wolf Lake connects the lake to Surface Water the Calumet River. Lake Michigan, the second largest of the Lake George does not receive surface-water Great Lakes, is the dominant influence on surface- flow under most conditions. During periods of water and ground-water hydrology in the study area. high water, however, Lake George may connect to From 1903 to 1991, the stage of Lake Michigan at the Indiana Harbor Canal through a series of ditches Calumet Harbor ranged from 576.9 to 582.3 ft above extending south from the lake. sea level (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin In addition to the large lakes, numerous small istration, written commun., 1992). Water in Lake lakes, ponds, and wetlands are present in this area. Michigan usually flows from east to west (Fitzpatrick The smaller lakes generally occupy depressions on and Bhowmik, 1990, p. 15). the lake plain or pits created by mining of sand and Lake Calumet, at approximately 780 acres, is clay. Many of the smaller lakes and wetlands also the second largest surface-water body in the study have been modified by dredging and disposal of fill area. The lake occupies a depression in the postglacial materials. topographic surface. Lake Calumet is currently The Grand Calumet, Little Calumet, and divided into a number of basins by slag deposits Calumet Rivers and the Calumet Sag Channel are (fig. 9). The northernmost basin is hydraulically iso the principal rivers in the study area (fig. 9). The lated from the southern basins. The southern basins natural gradient and direction of flow in these rivers are interconnected by openings in the causeways sepa has been substantially altered by human activities. rating the basins. Slag and other materials have been Prior to about 1810, the Little Calumet and Grand used to fill in wetlands surrounding Lake Calumet and Calumet Rivers were two reaches of the same river, to build several piers out into the lake. referred to as the Grand Konomick River (Moore, Water is delivered to Lake Calumet by man- 1959, p. 10). At that time, the Grand Konomick made drainage channels and storm sewers; no natural River, fed by a number of smaller streams that drained drainage is currently known to exist (Ross and others, from the moraines to the south, meandered along the 1988, p. 47). The major inflow to the lake from southern edge of the nearly flat lake plain between the
Hydrology 25 87° 40'
Lake Michigan
Pullman Creek Basin 3 Basin 2 Basin 1 41° 40'
41* 35'
EXPLANATION ...... SURFACE-WATER DIVIDE
+ DIRECTION OF SURFACE-WATER FLOW UNDER TYPICAL HYDROLOGIC CONDITIONS
Figure 9. Typical directions of surface-water flow, northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois. (Modified from U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1965, fig. V-1.)
26 Geohydrology in Northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet Area of Northeastern Illinois 20' 15' 10' 87* 05'
Lake Michigan
Grand Calumet Lagoons
Calumet Gary
0 1 5 MILES \ i i r 01 2345 KILOMETERS Figure 9. Continued.
Hydrology 27 dunes and beach ridges along the path of the Little in a diversion of flow in the Little Calumet River and Calumet River. Rowing westward from Indiana into the western part of the Grand Calumet River to the Illinois, the river reversed course in a topographic Calumet Sag Channel (fig. 9). depression between the Toleston Beach Ridge and the Burns Harbor was constructed from 1924 to moraine at Blue Island, which was presumably formed 1926 (Cook and Jackson, 1978, p. 63). This project by erosion along the path of the glacial sluiceway. included dredging a portion of the Little Calumet Flowing eastward into Indiana, the river followed the River to connect the eastern part of the river to Lake approximate path of the Grand Calumet River and Michigan. This construction created a surface-water discharged into Lake Michigan near what are now the divide on the Little Calumet River caused by high Grand Calumet Lagoons (Cook and Jackson, 1978, points in the riverbed west of Gary and east of Hart p. 24) (fig. 9). Sometime between about 1809 and Ditch (U.S. Department of Health, Education and 1820, a small channel opened between the elbow in Welfare, 1965, p. 57) (fig. 9). Under normal flow the Calumet River south of Lake Calumet and the conditions, flow in the Little Calumet River east of Grand Konomick River. This created two rivers: this divide is toward Burns Harbor and Lake Michi the Little Calumet River, which flowed west from gan, whereas flow west of this divide is toward the Indiana and discharged to Lake Michigan through the Calumet Sag Channel. Calumet River; and the Grand Calumet River, which The O'Brien Lock and Dam was constructed in continued to flow to the east and discharge to Lake 1968 to control flow between Lake Michigan and the Michigan near the Grand Calumet Lagoons (Moore, Calumet Sag Channel. The O'Brien Lock and Dam 1959, p. 10). The diversion of water from the Grand is kept closed except during floods or to transmit barge Calumet River reduced its current enough that at some traffic. Under typical conditions, the Calumet River time between 1840 and 1845, beach and dune deposits flows from Lake Michigan toward the Calumet Sag had blocked the mouth of this channel, preventing Channel when the lock is open (fig. 9). Row in the flow into Lake Michigan (Moore, 1959, p. 11). Under these conditions, the Grand Calumet and Little Calumet River north of the lock and dam is usually Calumet Rivers both originated in Indiana and flowed toward Lake Michigan when the lock is closed. westward into Illinois meeting the newly extended Flow in the Calumet River south of the lock and dam Calumet River and discharging into Lake Michigan. is usually toward the Calumet Sag Channel when the lock is closed. The Indiana Harbor Canal was constructed from 1901 to 1906 to connect the Grand Calumet The previous discussion describes drainage River to Lake Michigan at East Chicago. This patterns and flow directions during typical conditions. canal provided an additional outlet for flow to Lake The locations of the flow divides on the Calumet River Michigan and created a surface-water divide on the system can vary over several miles, and the directions Grand Calumet River at the Hamrnond Treatment of surface-water flow can be reversed depending on Plant near the East Chicago-Hammond boundary the stage of Lake Michigan whether the O'Brien (U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Lock and Dam is open or closed; the intensity, dura 1965, p. 57; G.S. Roadcap, Illinois State Water Survey, tion, and location of rainfall; and the location and oral commun., 1994) (fig. 9). Under typical flow volume of discharges to the streams (Fitzpatrick and conditions, water in the Grand Calumet River between Bhowmik, 1990, p. 13). the divide and the Indiana Harbor Canal flows east A decline in the stage of Lake Michigan by as to the canal. At the canal, this water mixes with little as 0.5 ft can produce a hydraulic gradient capable water from the eastern part of the study area and of shifting the location of the surface-water divides discharges into Lake Michigan. West of the divide, on the Little Calumet and Grand Calumet Rivers to flow is toward the Calumet River. the west and reversing flow in the Calumet River The Calumet Sag Channel was opened in 1922 (U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, to connect the Calumet River system with the Illinois 1965, p. 60). Conversely, a rise in lake level could River system (Moore, 1959, p. 13). This diverted increase the amount of flow from Lake Michigan into flow in the Calumet River from Lake Michigan to the the Calumet River and shift the surface-water divides Calumet Sag Channel under most flow conditions. on the Grand Calumet and Little Calumet Rivers to the The reversal of flow of the Calumet River also resulted east. Local variations in the level of Lake Michigan
28 Geohydrology in Northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet Area of Northeastern Illinois of 0.5 to 1.0 ft can be caused by wind or barometric- The Calumet aquifer is recharged by direct pressure effects. infiltration from precipitation and is the primary Because the Calumet Sag Channel is unable pathway for lateral ground-water flow in the to transmit high volumes of flow, relatively large unconsolidated deposits (Watson and others, 1989, hydraulic heads can form in that part of the Calumet p. 30-31; Cravens and Zahn, 1990, p. 29-30). River system flowing toward the Illinois River during Ground water in the Calumet aquifer generally heavy rains. This may result in a westward shift flows from topographic highs toward topographic in the surface-water divides on the Little Calumet lows. Localized changes in this pattern are a result and Grand Calumet Rivers. In extreme cases, the of vertical barriers to ground-water flow; ground- O'Brien Lock and Dam will be opened and water west water recharge from landfill leachate and ponded of the divides will flow toward the Calumet River and water; and ground-water discharge to sewer lines, Lake Michigan. Flow reversals on the Calumet small ditches, and pumping centers at quarries, under River caused by opening of the O'Brien Lock and passes, and sites of ground-water remediation. Dam are infrequent events that take place for short Discharge from the Calumet aquifer is primarily periods of time (U.S. Department of Health, Education to area rivers, lakes, and wetlands. Evapotranspira- and Welfare, 1965, p. 60-63; Fitzpatrick and tion also constitutes a major portion of the total Bhowmik, 1990, p. 14). discharge during spring and summer months (Rosenshein and Hunn, 1968, p. 30). Some water flows from the Calumet aquifer into the underlying Ground Water confining unit. The aquifers of interest in this study are the The position of the water table in the Calumet surficial sand aquifer, hereafter referred to as the aquifer ranges from near land surface along the Lake Calumet aquifer, and the carbonate aquifer, hereafter Michigan shoreline to more than 100 ft beneath the referred to as the Silurian-Devonian aquifer. The highest dunes. The depth to water in most of the aquifers are separated by a confining unit composed study area is less than 15 ft (appendix 1). Lowering primarily of till. of the water table in parts of the Calumet aquifer as a result of ditching and draining the wetlands may have decreased the rate of recharge by dewatering Calumet Aquifer the upper part of the aquifer (Rosenshein and Hunn, 1968, p. 30). Urbanization also alters recharge by The surficial sands of the Dolton Member of covering large areas with buildings and pavement, and the Equality Formation, the Parkland Sand, and the by construction of storm sewers to drain excess water. glacial sluiceway, as well as the permeable fill The Calumet aquifer is in good hydraulic deposits constitute the Calumet aquifer (Hartke and connection with the surface-water bodies, except others, 1975, p. 25). Thin layers of peat, muck, in the areas where sheet piles have been installed for and organic-rich clay may be present in the Calumet bank stability. Water levels in most of the Calumet aquifer, functioning as localized semiconfining units. aquifer near the surface-water bodies rise and fall These semiconfining units have minimal effect on within moments of changes in river or lake stage overall flow in the aquifer. (Lee Watson, U.S. Geological Survey, oral commun., The Calumet aquifer is under unconfined 1992). conditions and is continuous through most of the Slug tests were performed in 26 wells open to area east of Lake Calumet but is present only in the Calumet aquifer during this study to determine scattered locations west of Lake Calumet (fig. 8). the horizontal hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer, The saturated thickness of the Calumet aquifer which is necessary to estimate ground-water velocity ranges from 0 to about 70 ft and generally thickens (table 1). Slug testing also was used to determine to the east. Though not extensively pumped, records the spatial trends in horizontal hydraulic conductivity. indicate that several wells drilled for commercial, Slug tests consisted of inserting a solid cylinder below industrial, irrigation, and drinking-water uses are the water surface in the well, then measuring the open to the Calumet aquifer. It is unknown how water-level decline over time using a pressure trans many of these wells are currently in use. ducer (falling-head test), followed by removing the
Hydrology 29 Table 1 . Horizontal hydraulic conductivities 1. The water-level change in the vicinity of calculated from slug-test data, northwestern Indiana the well is negligible. and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois [WTCA, water table in the Calumet aquifer; BCA, base of the Calumet 2. Flow above the water table can be ignored; flow aquifer; WTCU, water table in the confining unit; MCU, middle of the is only through the saturated zones. confining unit; SD, Silurian-Devonian aquifer. Well locations noted in appendix 1 ] 3. Head losses as the water enters the well are Horizontal negligible. hydraulic Well conductivity Hydrologic 4. The hydraulic unit is homogeneous and number (feet per day) unit isotropic. S52 8.3xlo! WTCA These conditions are met or approximated in each of S54 4H.ZA1U 2x10 WTCA S57 3 4x10 WTCA the hydraulic units tested. 0 S60 WTCA When analyzing the slug-test data, it was S61 2'lxlO° WTCA S63 1.3x10^ WTCA assumed that S66 3.6xl02 WTCA S69 1.0x10 WTCA 1. the radius of the casing is equal to the radius of S70 2.8x10 WTCA the inner casing if the water-level altitude meas S71 1.1x10 WTCA S72 1.2x10 WTCA ured before the start of the test was above the top S73 9.8x10 WTCA of the screened interval of the well. If this was S74 4.5x10!. WTCA not the case, the radius of the casing was com S75 5.9x10° WTCA S76 8.9x10° WTCA puted applying the technique described by Bou S77 8.6x10° WTCA wer and Rice (1976, p. 424); S260 3.0x10 WTCA S264 1.2x10 WTCA 2. the value of the length of the well through which S272 2.4x10 WTCA water enters the aquifer is equal to the length of S273 2.1x10 WTCA S284 2.0x10 WTCA the screened interval of the well if the water-level S290 2.2x10 WTCA altitude measured before the start of the test was S293 UxlO1 WTCA above the top of the well screen. If this was not S259 6.2x10° BCA the case, the value is equal to the distance from S285 2.2x10!. BCA the bottom of the well screen to the water level S292 4.8x10° BCA measured before the start of the test; and S49 5.4x10-2 WTCU 1.5xlQ-2 3. the borehole radius is equal to the nominal outside S64 WTCU diameter of the auger or drill bit used to drill the S50 1.4X1Q-3 MCU well. S55 4.2xlO~l MCU S58 5.6x10-3 MCU These assumptions greatly simplify the analysis of S67 8.7x10^ MCU the slug-test data and should not result in a significant S53 2.0x10-] SD error in the calculated horizontal hydraulic conduc S59 1.5x10-1 SD tivities. S62 3.3X1Q-2 SD S65 4.4x10-,! SD Although most of the slug tests resulted in S68 6.2xlO~2 SD clearly defined trends in water level with time that were easily analyzed (fig. 10), slug-test data from some of the wells did not show a linear decline in water level with time, complicating the data analysis. Where possible, these anomalous data were analyzed cylinder from the well and measuring the water-level in accordance with the recommendations of Bouwer rise over time (rising-head test). Results of the (1989) to obtain the value most representative of the rising-head tests and the falling-head tests were horizontal hydraulic conductivity of the hydraulic unit similar. tested. Slug-test data were analyzed using the tech The horizontal hydraulic conductivity calculated nique of Bouwer and Rice (1976). This technique from slug tests in the Calumet aquifer for this study was developed for use in aquifers under unconfined (table 1) and studies done by other investigators conditions with wells that fully or partially penetrate ranged from 6.5XKT1 to 3.6xl02 ft/d. Most values the aquifer and assumes the following conditions: were between 2.1x10° and 3-OxlO1 ft/d (Baker/TSA,
30 Geohydrology in Northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet Area of Northeastern Illinois EXPLANATION 1U = 0.083 ft r w = 0.17 ft 2 | ""6 ) - - Kc \x rw '/ 1 /^, (f ^0w \I - W.HH0 44 ft/dii/u L == 10.0 ft 2L t V yt / ,-4 t = 6.94 x 10"" days H- ' ^^^ Field data - UJ Vo = 2.10 ft ^ It! <^ . . / B/n(D - H)\ - Vt = Z 1 I ^*~~»»»>j i /o \ / 1 1 \ / A+ r \ - - . /Re\ / 1 - 1 \ . / r w 1 /^^~* /n 1 r 1 - + H = - - \w' \ / ^ H \ / \ L / s ^*~^«»^^ . . / ^ L\ VwJ/ \ r w / J D = UJ i o . Straight-line . A - 5 fit to field data n - - oX B =_ EXPLANATION OF SYMBOLS £ 0.1 K = Horizontal hydraulic conductivity, in feet per day (ft/d) 9 . . QC - - rc = Effective radius of the well casing, in feet (ft)
< . . rw = Effective radius of the borehole, in feet (ft)
- - L = Length of the portion of the well through which water t = Time since beginning of test, in days (d)
/\ /\H y 0 = Water level at start of test, in feet (ft) 2345 TIME (t), IN MINUTES y t = Water level some time during the test, in feet (ft) R e = Effective radius of the aquifer, in feet (ft) H = Height of the water table above the bottom of the well, in feet (ft) D = Saturated thickness of the aquifer, in feet (ft)
A = Aquifer coefficient related to L/rw (dimensionless) B = Aquifer coefficient related to L/rw (dimensionless)
Q. Figure 10. Water-level change as a function of time during slug testing, well S65, rising-head phase. ! 1984; Geosciences Research Associates, Inc., 1987 S66 indicate that the median horizontal hydraulic and 1988; Warzyn Engineering, Inc., 1987; Cravens conductivity of the fill deposits can be substantially and Roadcap, 1991, p. 10; Kenneth Gelting, Waste less than the typical value of the sand deposits, but the Management of Illinois, written commun., 1993; largest conductivity values in the fill deposits exceed G.S. Roadcap, Illinois State Water Survey, oral the largest values in the sand deposits. commun; 1993: Richard Leonard, U.S. Army Corps The horizontal hydraulic conductivity of the of Engineers, written commun., 1993). Calumet aquifer generally decreases to the west Horizontal-hydraulic-conductivity values (fig. 11). Near Lake Michigan in Illinois, conduc obtained during this and other studies from slug-test tivity values calculated at three wells open to the analysis are in only fair agreement with the values Calumet aquifer exceeded S.OxlO1 ft/d. Horizontal- obtained by Rosenshein and Hunn (1968, p. 29) hydraulic-conductivity values in much of the area from specific-capacity tests throughout Lake County. east of Lake George are greater than or equal to Rosenshein and Hunn reported a range of horizontal 2.0x101 ft/d, whereas values north and south of this hydraulic conductivity of about 8.0x10° to area are usually from 1 .Ox 10° to 1.4x 101 ft/d. Except 1.3xl02 ft/d, and an average value of 6.0X101 ft/d. for the highly conductive area along Lake Michigan This value is about double the most common values and small areas along the southwestern part of Wolf calculated from the slug-test data collected in this Lake and the northeastern corner of Lake Calumet, and other studies. Differences in the values can the horizontal hydraulic conductivity of the Calumet be attributed to differences in the method of analysis, aquifer west of Lake George is less than 2.0x101 ft/d the volume of aquifer tested, and the locations where and is typically less than l.OxlO1 ft/d. Hydraulic- testing was done. conductivity values near the eastern shore, and south The slug-test data indicate that the horizontal of, Lake Calumet are usually less than 1.0x10° ft/d. This decrease in hydraulic conductivity coincides with hydraulic conductivity of the Calumet aquifer, where a decrease in the thickness of the Calumet aquifer it is composed of fill deposits, is highly variable. (fig. 8). It also coincides with a decrease in the Horizontal-hydraulic-conductivity values calculated size of the sand grains composing the aquifer and from slug tests in 30 wells open to typical fill deposits an increase in the percentage of silt and clay in the (including clay, sand, silt, slag, and construction aquifer, which was observed during drilling operations debris) at one of the piers in Lake Calumet varied (Jeff Miller, Metcalf and Eddy, Inc., oral commun., from 3.7xlO~4 to 8.2X101 ft/d with a median value of 1992). 5.3xlO-1 ft/d (Lisa Grassel, Waste Management of North America, Inc., written commun., 1992). These The horizontal hydraulic conductivity of the values vary over five orders of magnitude, indicating Calumet aquifer decreases with depth at a site in that the fill deposits are highly heterogeneous. This northwest Gary, Ind. (Geosciences Research indicates that ground-water flow through the fill will Associates, Inc., 1988, p. 4-25), and shows no not be uniform. Flow will be primarily through the significant change with depth at a second site in southwest Gary (Geosciences Research Associates, permeable parts of the fill, which are typically coarse Inc., 1987, p. 4-26). Where the horizontal hydraulic grained, fractured, and (or) poorly consolidated. conductivity decreased with depth, the percentage In addition to variations in the hydraulic proper of silt and clay in the aquifer increased with depth ties of the fill, variations in the hydraulic properties of (Geosciences Research Associates, Inc., 1988, the entire Calumet aquifer also exist. These variations p. 4-25), suggesting that they are related. can be related to differences between the hydraulic properties of the sand and the fill and differences in the thickness and composition of the sand deposits. The Confining Unit largest horizontal-hydraulic-conductivity value calcu lated from the slug tests in the Calumet aquifer was The confining unit is composed of the Antrim 3.6xl02 ft/d (table 1). This value was calculated at a Shale, the silt and clay tills of the Lemont Drift well (S66) open to the fill deposits and is about an and the Wadsworth Till, the silt and clay lacustrine order of magnitude greater than the typical value for deposits of the Carmi Member of the Equality the Calumet aquifer where flow is through the sand. Formation, and the fine-grained fill deposits. The Results from the pier in Lake Calumet and station confining unit separates the Calumet and the Silurian-
32 Geohydrology in Northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet Area of Northeastern Illinois Devonian aquifers in most of the study area. In the of the confining unit is typically about 15 percent. eastern part of the study area, a sand aquifer is present The soil-moisture content of a saturated deposit is within the confining unit (Shedlock and others, 1994, equivalent to its porosity (Freeze and Cherry, 1979, p. 16). p. 39). The water table is located in the confining unit Horizontal-hydraulic-conductivity values in most of the area west of Lake Calumet, where the were calculated from slug tests done in 42 wells surficial deposits are predominately fine grained. open to the confining unit during this and previous The confining unit is more than 200 ft thick in Porter investigations. These values ranged from 1.7xlO~5 County and is thin or absent near Stony Island, Thorn- to 5.5X10"1 ft/d (Geosciences Research Associates, ton Quarry, and in isolated areas south of Blue Island Inc., 1987 and 1988; Ecology and Environment, Inc., (fig. 7). Except for small areas northeast of Stony 1990, p. 4-37; Eldridge Engineering Assoc., 1990; Island and south of Blue Island, the confining unit Cravens and Roadcap, 1991, p. 10; G.S. Roadcap, underlies the Calumet aquifer restricting flow between Illinois State Water Survey, oral commun., 1993; the Calumet aquifer and the underlying Silurian- Richard Leonard, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Devonian aquifer. written commun., 1993; Lisa Grassel, Waste The confining unit is recharged by the Calumet Management of North America, Inc., written aquifer and by infiltration from precipitation where commun., 1993; Luci Alteiri, Land and Lakes Co., the Calumet aquifer is absent. Discharge from the written commun., 1993). Slug tests were done in confining unit is primarily to the Silurian-Devonian 24 wells open to the weathered zone and 18 wells aquifer and to rivers, lakes, and wetlands. Where open to the unweathered zone. The median the Calumet aquifer is absent, evapotranspiration horizontal hydraulic conductivity of the weathered constitutes a major part of the discharge during spring part of the confining unit was calculated to be and summer months (Rosenshein and Hunn, 1968, 5.8xlO~2 ft/d, whereas the median value for the p. 30). The depth of the water table in the confining unweathered part of the confining unit was calcu unit ranges from near land surface around Lake lated to be 2.8xlO~3 ft/d. Calumet to about 27 ft below land surface near some The horizontal hydraulic conductivity within of the landfills (appendix 1). 30 ft of the water table is substantially less where Vertical and horizontal flow in the confining the water table is in the confining unit than where unit is increased by a network of fractures, root the water table is in the Calumet aquifer (fig. 11). channels, macropores, and soil joints in the weathered East of Lake Calumet, where the water table is part of the unit. This weathered zone is typically primarily in the Calumet aquifer, horizontal- about 30 ft thick (Ecology and Environment, Inc., hydraulic-conductivity values almost always 1990, p. 4-15) and appears to be restricted to areas where the Calumet aquifer is less than about 5 ft exceed 1.0x10° ft/d. West of Lake Calumet, thick (Woodward-Clyde Consultants, 1984, p. V-13). where the water table is primarily in the confining Though fractures are present in the deeper, unweath- unit, values are usually between l.OxlO"2 and ered parts of the confining unit, their size and number 7.5X10"1 ft/d. are greatly reduced and other forms of secondary Rosenshein (1963, p. 22) estimated an average permeability are absent. Vertical flow through both vertical hydraulic conductivity of 4.0x10~4 ft/d for the the weathered and unweathered parts of the confining confining unit in Lake County. Permeameter tests at unit is considerably greater than lateral flow (Cravens three sites near Lake Calumet and two sites in Gary andZahn, 1990, p. 37-38). indicate a range of vertical hydraulic conductivity Laboratory tests of soil-moisture content of the from 3.7X10"6 to 1.6xlO"3 ft/d (Geosciences Research confining unit were performed on saturated samples Associates, Inc., 1987 and 1988; Roy R Weston collected from more than 50 boreholes at 10 facilities Consultants, 1989, p. 5-15; Kenneth Gelting, Waste in Illinois. The reported soil-moisture content Management of Illinois, written commun., 1993). ranged from 8 to 37 percent and decreased with depth The confining unit does not appear to be weathered at almost every borehole. The moisture content of at these sites. Permeameter tests from these sites do the upper part of the confining unit is typically about not indicate a correlation between vertical hydraulic 20 percent. The moisture content of the lower part conductivity and depth or stratigraphy within the
Hydrology 33 87° 40' 35'
Confining Lake Michigan Unit
Calumet Aquifer
41' 40'
Calumet Aquifer Approximate boundary etween Calumet Aquifer and Confining Unit
41* 35'
EXPLANATION
RANGE OF HORIZONTAL-HYDRAUUC- CONDUCTIVITY VALUES, IN FEET PER DAY
Greater than 100.0 1.0 to 9.9 50.0 to 99.9 0.1 to 0.9 0.01 to 0.09
20.0 to 29.9 No values 10.0 to 19.9
Figure 11. Distribution of horizontal-hydraulic-conductivity values at wells within 30 feet of the water table, northwestern Indi ana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois.
34 Geohydrology in Northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet Area of Northeastern Illinois 20' 15' 10' 87° 05'
Lake Michigan
5 MILES 01 2345 KILOMETERS
Figure 11. Continued.
Hydrology 35 confining unit. It is probable, however, that the and others, 1989, p. 18). Rosenshein (1963) showed vertical hydraulic conductivity is greatest where the that local recharge to the Silurian-Devonian aquifer confining unit is weathered. through the confining unit would increase as water levels in the aquifer were lowered by pumping. Silurian-Devonian Aquifer Horizontal-hydraulic-conductivity values calculated from 25 slug tests in wells open to the upper few feet of Silurian-Devonian aquifer ranged The dolomite and limestone of the Racine, from 2.0xlO~2 to 1.1x10° ft/d (Woodward-Clyde Detroit River, and Traverse Formations compose Consultants, 1984, p. V-18; Geosciences Research the Silurian-Devonian aquifer. This aquifer is Associates, Inc., 1987; Ecology and Environment, unconfined at Stony Island and Thornton Quarry. Inc., 1990, p. 4-37; Eldridge Engineering Assoc., Northeast of Stony Island and south of Blue Island 1990; Luci Alteiri, Land and Lakes Co., written the confining unit is absent and the Silurian-Devonian commun., 1993). The median value was calculated aquifer is in direct hydraulic connection with the to be 1.6X10"1 ft/d. No trends were identified in the Calumet aquifer (fig. 7). In the rest of the study area, areal distribution of horizontal hydraulic conductivity the aquifer is semiconfined. The Silurian-Devonian in the Silurian-Devonian aquifer. aquifer is pumped for commercial and industrial Median horizontal-hydraulic-conductivity supply and serves as a source of drinking water in the values calculated from the slug tests are somewhat study area. The aquifer is pumped more extensively larger than the median value of 6.2x10~2 ft/d calcu in Illinois than in Indiana. lated from water-pressure tests in deep boreholes The Silurian-Devonian aquifer in the study drilled for the TARP (Harza Engineering Co., 1972). area is recharged primarily by vertical flow through This is consistent with the analysis of Hartke and the confining unit. However, recharge to the others (1975, p. 30), who noted that horizontal- Silurian-Devonian aquifer through the till in any hydraulic-conductivity values are generally larger in area is less than 1 percent of the total flow through the upper 200 ft of the aquifer because of weathering, the aquifer beneath that area (Land and Lakes Co., fracturing, and development of limited karst solution 1988, p. 27). Where the confining unit is absent, features. Differences in the method of testing and the recharge is from the Calumet aquifer or direct volume of aquifer tested by each method also may infiltration from precipitation. account for the differences in the values. Lateral ground-water flow in the Silurian- Devonian aquifer is generally toward Lake Michigan, though there is localized flow toward excavations in WATER LEVELS AND DIRECTIONS OF the bedrock and pumping centers (Cravens and Zahn, FLOW 1990, p. 30, 34). Movement of ground water within the Silurian-Devonian aquifer is primarily through an Water levels were measured in 523 wells and at interconnected network of joints, fissures, faults, 34 surface-water stations during a synoptic water-level bedding plane openings, and solution cavities in the survey on June 23-25, 1992 (appendix 1). Water bedrock. Very little ground water flows through the levels were not measured during this period in seven rock matrix. With the exception of the extensive of the wells listed in the appendix because of equip network of vertical faults in Illinois, most of the ment problems or lack of accessibility during the openings in the bedrock are irregularly distributed survey. All but two water levels were measured both vertically and horizontally but tend to be more between 0700 hours on June 23 and 1530 hours on abundant near the top of the bedrock (Suter and others, June 24. Ground-water levels were measured at 1959, p. 9). wells open to the Calumet aquifer, the confining unit, Discharge from the Silurian-Devonian aquifer and the Silurian-Devonian aquifer. Surface-water is primarily to pumping, including dewatering centers levels were measured from established reference for the Tunnel and Reservoir Plan (TARP) (Cravens marks on bridges and culverts and at six USGS and Zahn, 1990, p. 30-35). Some ground water may streamflow-gaging stations. discharge from the Silurian-Devonian aquifer to Lake Most water levels were measured with steel Michigan through the confining unit and the Calumet tapes. Successive measurements were made until aquifer in the eastern quarter of the study area (Watson at least two measurements agreed within 0.01 ft.
36 Geohydrology in Northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet Area of Northeastern Illinois Measurements were made with electric tapes if In addition to ground-water levels, the stage obstructions in the well prevented a steel-tape of Lake Michigan at Calumet Harbor (fig. 15) was measurement or if LNAPL's were detected in the monitored by NOAA, who provided daily mean well. Measurements of LNAPL thickness were water-level altitudes. The total change in the stage of made with an oil-water interface tape. Corrections Lake Michigan at Calumet Harbor during the synoptic were made to account for the effects of LNAPL's on survey was 0.19 ft. This change in stage is probably ground-water levels (Fair and others, 1990, p. 50). too small to produce significant changes in surface- All steel tapes and electric tapes were calibrated water elevation or ground-water altitudes, and no at one well open to the water table and a second well corrections for changes in lake stage were made. open to the Silurian-Devonian aquifer. All measure The results of the synoptic water-level survey ments agreed to within 0.03 ft. These differences are depict hydrologic conditions during June 23-25, minor compared to the differences in the water-level 1992. Seasonal variations in water levels cannot altitudes in the wells at different sites and no correc be accounted for and the conditions during this tions for tape measurements were necessary. survey may not be completely representative of Inspection of ground-water levels in well S297 conditions during periods of heavy precipitation, (USGS observation well 413559087270301) from July large fluctuations in the stage of Lake Michigan, or 1986 to September 1992 shows that the water-level changes in the amount and location of pumping from altitude in well S297 ranged from 586.8 to 591.9 ft the aquifers. above sea level (Stewart and others, 1993, p. 316) and averaged 589.6 ft above sea level. Well S297 is open to the Calumet aquifer in Indiana (fig. 4). Water Surface Water levels in well S297 averaged 588.4 ft above sea level during the synoptic survey, indicating that water levels Surface-water-flow directions during the synop in the Calumet aquifer at this time may be slightly tic survey were consistent with the typical hydrologic lower than normal (fig. 12). The lower ground-water conditions described during previous investigations levels probably resulted from below normal amounts (compare fig. 9 and fig. 15). The O'Brien Lock and of recharge from precipitation in the months prior to Dam was closed during the synoptic period except to the synoptic survey. transmit barge traffic. Though 2.02 in. of rainfall Water levels in well S297 from June 15-29, was measured at the University of Chicago on June 1992, indicate that the synoptic survey began on the 18, 1992 (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin fifth day of a period of slowly declining ground-water istration, 1992b, p. 8), the effects of the rainfall on levels in the Calumet aquifer. The water level in well water levels appear to have dissipated by the start of S297 declined 0.30 ft during the synoptic period. the survey. The stage of Lake Michigan did not change significantly during the survey. Water levels were monitored continuously dur ing the synoptic survey at two other wells in Indiana The surface-water elevation of Lake Michigan (wells S299 and S277) (figs. 4, 13) and three wells was measured at Gary Harbor (SW-21) and at Calumet in Illinois (wells S64, S57, and S59) (figs. 4, 14) to Harbor (SW-1). The surface-water elevation at both determine the timing and magnitude of background stations was 580.1 ft above sea level (fig. 15). The water-level changes. Wells S299, S277, and S57 data are inadequate to identify the flow direction in are open to the Calumet aquifer. Wells S59 and S64 Lake Michigan. are open to the Silurian-Devonian aquifer and the con Water levels were measured at two sites in the fining unit, respectively. Total changes in water eastern and western basins of Wolf Lake (fig. 15). levels in these wells ranged from 0.04 to 0.30 ft. The water-level altitude at the western shore of Wolf These changes are minor compared to the differences Lake was 582.1 ft above sea level; the water-level in water levels in the wells at different sites, and it is altitude at the eastern shore was 583.0 ft above sea assumed that no corrections for background fluctua level. This suggests the potential for flow from east tions in water level were necessary. to west between the basins of Wolf Lake.
Surface Water 37 592.0
591.5 £ UJ 591.0
< 590.5 V)
> 590.0 O
589.5 UJ Hi Z 589.0
m 588.5
DC 588.0
587.5
587.0 OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT
1991 1992 Figure 12. Water-level trends in well S297, northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois, Oct. 1,1991-Sept. 30, 1992. 602.5 S299
602.4
LU 602.3 UJ
602.2 UJ
UJ > 602.1 o 00
" 602.0 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 UJ UJ U. 580.58 S277 * 580.56
J 580.54 UJ 580.52 UJ
580.50
580.48
580.46
580.44
580.42
580.40 22 23 24 25 JUNE
Figure 13. Water-level trends in wells S299 and S277, northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois, June 18-25, 1992.
Surface Water 39 581.50 S57
581.25
UJ > 111
111 581.00 V) 560.50 111 > S59 O CO
H III 560.25 111 LL
111 560.00 > 111 588.6 S64 cc UJ
588.5
588.4 22 23 24 JUNE
Figure 14. Water-level trends in wells S57, S59, and S64, northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois, June 22-24,1992.
40 Geohydrology in Northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet Area of Northeastern Illinois The surface-water elevation (591.8 ft above Discharge readings were made at stations sea level) measured on the Little Calumet River near SW-24 and SW-31 on the Little Calumet River and Hart Ditch at station SW-30 is substantially higher at station SW-12 on the Grand Calumet River. than at any of the nearby stations, indicating a flow During June 23-25,1992, daily mean discharge divide near this site (fig. 15). East of the divide, the of the Little Calumet River was 37 ft3/s at station Little Calumet River flows toward Burns Harbor and SW-24 and 10 ft3/s at station SW-31 (Stewart and Lake Michigan. West of the divide, the Little Calu others, 1993, p. 203 and 243). Daily mean discharge met River flows toward the Calumet Sag Channel. of the Grand Calumet River averaged 18 ft3/s at sta tion SW-12 (Stewart and others, 1993, p. 244). The Grand Calumet River flows westward from its source near the Grand Calumet Lagoons into the Indiana Harbor Canal and Lake Michigan (fig. 15). Ground Water Though it is likely that there is some eastward flow between station SW-14 and the inlet to the Indiana The configuration of the water table and the Harbor Canal, the water levels indicate that westward potentiometric surface of the top of the Silurian- flow of the Grand Calumet River continues to its Devonian aquifer were plotted to define the horizontal confluence with the Little Calumet River. Flow in direction of ground-water flow in these units and to the Little Calumet River south of the O'Brien Lock identify the factors that control ground-water levels. and Dam and west of the confluence with the Grand Calumet River is westward to the Calumet Sag Water Table Channel. The water-table configuration generally Surface-water levels at the Calumet River follows surface topography where topographic relief indicate a high in the vicinity of station SW-3 (fig. 15). is significant (compare fig. 4 and pi. 1). In those This high water level appears to be caused by surface- parts of the study area where the surface topography is water discharge from Wolf Lake to the Calumet River relatively flat (particularly between the Calumet River, at the drainage ditch near station SW-3. North of the Grand Calumet River, Lake Michigan, and the station SW-3, flow of the Calumet River is toward Indiana Harbor Canal), the water-table configuration Lake Michigan. South of station SW-3, flow is is more complex. This is consistent with the results toward Lake Calumet. of the water-table mapping done in Indiana during Several surface-water-level measurements previous studies (Watson and others, 1989, p. 32-33). (stations SW-7 and SW-8 on the Little Calumet River, Plotting the water-table configuration is compli station SW-6 on the Calumet Sag Channel) indicate cated by the lack of ground-water-level data in some different flow directions than those shown by the parts of the study area. The well coverage between arrows in figure 15. The apparent discrepancies are the western shore of Lake Calumet and the eastern probably the result of measurement errors caused by edge of the study area is sufficient to provide a wind blowing the steel tape during measurement or by detailed depiction of the water-table configuration at water-level changes associated with wind effects, the scale presented on plate 1. Data points are scarce stream turbulence, or obstructions in the channel or absent, however, in most of the area south of the (Sauer and Meyer, 1992, p. 14 and 16). Little Calumet River and west of Lake Calumet. It Surface-water gradients were determined by is possible that the water-table configuration in these dividing the change in water level between two sta areas is more complex than is shown on plate 1. tions by the measured distance along the stream A long (approximately 5 mi) north-south between the stations. Gradients for the Grand trending ground-water divide, defined as a ridge in Calumet and Calumet Rivers averaged 0.4 ft/mi. the water table from which ground water moves away Gradients for the Little Calumet River were generally in both directions normal to the ridge line, is present the largest and averaged 0.7 ft/mi. Gradients for the along the topographic ridge at Blue Island (pi. 1). Indiana Harbor Canal were small, with an average Ground-water flow west of the divide is directed south value of about 0.2 ft/mi. No gradient could be calcu and west toward the Calumet Sag Channel. Flow lated for the Calumet Sag Channel because only one east of the divide is directed south and east toward data point was available. the Little Calumet River and Lake Calumet.
Ground Water 41 87° 40'
Lake Michigan
41° 40'
41° 35'
SJW-30 i__ Hart Ditch 391
EXPLANATION
DIRECTION OF SURFACE-WATER FLOW
SW-15 SURFACE-WATER-LEVEL MEASUREMENT SITE 81.2 AND DESIGNATION Number is water-level elevation, in feet above sea level
SW-31 CONTINUOUS MONITORING SITE AND DESIGNATION ^585.5 Number is water-level altitude, in feet above sea level
Figure 15. Direction of surface-water flow, northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois, June 23-25, 1992.
42 Geohydrology in Northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet Area of Northeastern Illinois 20' 15' 10' 87° 05'
Study Area
Lake Michigan
Grand Calumet Lagoons \
1 5 MILES 01 2345 KILOMETERS
Figure 15. Continued.
Ground Water 43 An east-west trending ground-water divide is A second north-south trending ground-water present beneath the topographic high associated with mound is present between Lake Calumet and the the Toleston Beach Ridge (pi. 1). The western extent Calumet River. This mound appears to be the result of the divide is at the bend in the Little Calumet River of additional recharge to ground water from one or near the Calumet Sag Channel. The divide extends more of the landfills in this area. Flow in the vicinity eastward beyond Gary Harbor and the Grand Calumet of this mound is toward Lake Calumet or the Calumet Lagoons to the vicinity of Burns Harbor. North of River. the divide, ground water flows northward to the Little Several small ground-water mounds are associ Calumet River, the Grand Calumet River, or Lake ated with the piers in Lake Calumet. The height and Michigan. South of the divide, ground water flows location of the mounds at these piers is controlled by toward the Little Calumet River. enhanced recharge of ponded water to ground water. Several depressions in the water-table surface A small east-west trending ground-water divide were identified throughout the study area. Most is present between the Grand Calumet River and Lake of these are between the Calumet River, the Grand Michigan east of the Indiana Harbor Canal. North Calumet River, Lake Michigan, and the Indiana of the divide, ground water flows northward to Lake Harbor Canal. Most of the depressions in this and Michigan. South of the divide, ground water flows other areas appear to result from ground-water drain southward toward the Grand Calumet River. age into sewer lines (Watson and others, 1989, p. 30) An elongated, east-west trending ground-water (compare pi. 1 and fig. 1). divide was identified between Gary Harbor and the Three areas display depressions in the water Grand Calumet Lagoons. Ground water flows table that cannot be attributed to ground-water drain radially away from this high toward Lake Michigan, age to sewer lines. Two of these are in the bend the Grand Calumet River, Gary Harbor, and the of the Little Calumet River immediately west of the western lagoon. Near the eastern lagoon, ground confluence with the Grand Calumet River (pi. 1). water flows northward toward Lake Michigan. The eastern depression is caused by drainage to, and A fourth east-west trending ground-water divide pumping from, an excavation at the southern edge of is present in the northern edge of the study area. the landfill at this site. The western depression may This divide is associated with the topographic high be caused by water-level measurements in monitoring at Stony Island. Flow from Stony Island is toward wells where water levels had not returned to equilib Lake Calumet and Lake Michigan. rium after dedicated sampling pumps were removed. In addition to the ground-water divides, several Water levels in these wells are not entirely representa ground-water mounds, defined as a raised area in the tive of actual conditions. The actual water-table water table resulting from ground-water recharge, altitude at this depression is likely to be higher than have been identified in the study area. The largest shown on plate 1. The third area where the water water-table mound is the north-south trending mound table is depressed is northwest of the Indiana Harbor Canal and east of Lake George. The water-table along the western shore of Lake Calumet. Ground- configuration in this area is affected primarily by water flow east of the mound is toward Lake Calumet. pumping associated with ground-water remediation Along the northwestern part of the mound, flow is efforts and dewatering at highway underpasses. toward the west, changing toward the east away from Drainage to sewer lines also has some affect on the the mound. Southwest of the mound, ground water water-table configuration. In this area, ground water flows toward the Little Calumet River. The mound is flows toward Lake Michigan, the Indiana Harbor a local feature partially caused by enhanced recharge Canal, pumping centers, and sewers. to ground water from ponded water at some of the industrial facilities in this area. The current well network is inadequate to fully define the extent of Silurian-Devonian Aquifer water-table mounding in this area, but results from Identifying the direction of ground-water flow a previous investigation do not indicate enhanced in the Silurian-Devonian aquifer is complicated by the recharge to ground water from ponds at the Calumet lack of ground-water-level data. Most of the wells Sewage Treatment Plant (Ecology and Environment, open to this aquifer for environmental investigations Inc., 1990, p. 4-29). are in the Lake Calumet area. Only four wells open
44 Geohydrology in Northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet Area of Northeastern Illinois to the Silurian-Devonian aquifer, none of which were Interpretation of the interaction between located in the eastern third of the study area, could be surface water and ground water is further complicated measured in Indiana. The wells drilled for environ by sheet piles driven through the Calumet aquifer. mental investigations are open only to the top few feet Gary Harbor is lined with sheet piles that extend of the aquifer. The wells drilled for the TARP are east from the mouth of the harbor approximately located over a large area of Illinois but are open to the 1.5 mi into Lake Michigan and then south to the aquifer over tens or hundreds of feet (SI35 to SI52 in shoreline. Sheet piles also are present along long appendix 1). Because of the long open intervals, reaches of the Calumet River, Lake Calumet, the water levels from the TARP wells are considerably Indiana Harbor Canal, and Lake Michigan. The lower than water levels in the shallower monitoring sheet piles form a barrier to the flow of surface water wells in the same area, indicating downward flow and ground water, forcing water to move under the wall or through cracks, holes, and joints in the sheet within the aquifer. Only the water levels from the piles. As a consequence of the lack of area through wells open to the top 20 ft of the Silurian-Devonian which discharge can occur, large gradients can be built aquifer are discussed because water-level altitudes up between ground water and surface water. Such from the shallow and deep wells represent different gradients are evident around Gary Harbor (pi. 1). parts of the flow system and should not be compared. Although the large hydraulic gradient indicates the The potentiometric surface of the top of the potential for substantial flow from ground water to Silurian-Devonian aquifer is highest at the bedrock surface water, the lack of a flow pathway may (or high near Stony Island (fig. 16). A second water- may not) prevent this flow. level high associated with the bedrock high north- The surface-water elevation of Lake Michigan northeast of Thornton Quarry is inferred. These measured at station SW-1 in Calumet Harbor and areas are separated by a depression near the confluence station SW-21 in Gary Harbor was 580.1 ft above sea of the Little Calumet and Grand Calumet Rivers. level. It is assumed, therefore, that the lake level This depression appears to be centered at a drop shaft throughout the study area is about 580.1 ft above sea open to the aquifer that was being dewatered by level. Ground-water levels in wells nearest Lake pumping. Pumping at the drop shaft ceased shortly Michigan exceeded the lake levels except in one well after the synoptic survey. It is unclear if the potentio near the State line in Indiana. This indicates the metric surface shown in figure 16 is representative of potential for ground-water discharge to Lake Michi current conditions. Ground-water pumping from the gan in virtually all of the study area. Sheet pilings Silurian-Devonian and underlying aquifers at indus along Lake Michigan at several of the steel-manufac trial facilities along the Calumet River and Lake turing facilities restrict ground-water flow to the lake. Calumet also may have some effect on the potentio The surface-water elevation measured at station metric surface. The depression in the potentiometric S W-4 is assumed to approximate the level of Lake surface around Thornton Quarry is attributed to Calumet (fig. 15). This is lower than the ground- excavation and pumping at the quarry. water altitude in the wells around the lake, indicating the potential for ground-water discharge to Lake Calumet. Sheet piling along the southwestern Surface-Water and Ground-Water Interactions corner of Lake Calumet near station S W-5 indicates that the higher ground-water levels in this area are Comparison of surface-water and ground-water caused by a restriction of flow behind the sheet piles. levels indicates complex interactions between surface It is unclear how much ground water is discharging water and ground water. Ground-water contours to the lake in this area. indicate that the general direction of ground-water Surface-water/ground-water interaction at flow, which is perpendicular to the potentiometric Wolf Lake is affected by lake level, which is affected contours, is toward the major surface-water bodies by industrial discharge to the lake, and ground-water (pi. 1). However, ground-water levels in wells levels, which are affected by drainage to sewer lines. nearest surface-water stations indicate the potential The surface-water elevation at station SW-10 is from for surface-water recharge to ground water in parts 0.2 to 0.8 ft higher than the ground-water altitude in of the study area. nearby wells (fig. 15). This indicates the potential
Surface-Water and Ground-Water Interactions 45 87° 40' 35'
41° 40'
41° 35'
EXPLANATION 550- POTENTIOMETRIC CONTOUR Shows altitude at which water level would have stood in tightly cased wells. Dashed where approximate. Contour interval 10 feet. Datum is sea level WELL LOCATION
Figure 16. Potentiometric surface of the Silurian-Devonian aquifer, northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois, June 23-25, 1992.
46 Geohydrology in Northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet Area of Northeastern Illinois 20' 15' 10' 87° 05'
Study
Lake Michigan
5 MILES 01 2345 KILOMETERS
Figure 16. Continued.
Surface-Water and Ground-Water Interactions 47 for surface-water discharge to ground water in most exceeds ground-water altitudes in the area of the of the eastern basin. The eastern basin is the site of depression in the water table near the confluence industrial discharge, and several large sewers are near of the Little Calumet and the Grand Calumet Rivers this area (fig. 1). The surface-water elevation in the (pi. 1). Water from the Little Calumet River has western basin at station SW-9 is about 0.9 ft lower the potential to discharge to ground water in this than the ground-water altitude in a well about 300 ft area. No wells are located near stations SW-24 west of the station, about 0.5 ft higher than the ground- through SW-34 on the Little Calumet River. The water altitude in a well next to the lake about 1,400 ft available data indicate that ground water will south of the station, and about 0.3 ft lower than the discharge to the Little Calumet River along this ground-water altitude in a well next to the lake along reach. the southern tip of the western basin. This indicates the potential for ground-water discharge to surface water in the west-central and southeastern parts of Horizontal Hydraulic Gradients and Ground- Wolf Lake and surface-water recharge to ground water Water Velocities along the southwestern part of the lake. Ground- water levels exceed surface-water levels in the north western part of the basin (G.S. Roadcap, Illinois Horizontal hydraulic gradients at the water State Water Survey, written commun., 1994). No table and at the top of the Silurian-Devonian aquifer industrial discharge or large sewers are present near were calculated with water levels measured during the western basin, but small sewers are present in the the synoptic survey. Horizontal hydraulic gradients residential areas southwest of the lake (fig. 2). were calculated by dividing the change in the altitude The measured surface-water elevations on of the water table or the potentiometric surface of the the Calumet River at station SW-4 were from 0.11 to Silurian-Devonian aquifer along two points parallel 1.0 ft higher than ground-water levels in nearby to the direction of ground-water flow by the horizontal wells. This indicates the potential for the river to distance between those points. recharge the Calumet aquifer in this area. The The calculated horizontal hydraulic gradient surface-water elevation of the Calumet River at of the water table along nine transects along lines of station SW-2 was about 0.50 ft lower than ground- flow in Illinois ranged from 1.2xlO~3 to 4.4xlO~3 ft/ft water levels in nearby wells. This indicates the (fig. 17, table 2). These values do not vary substan potential for discharge from ground water to surface tially with location or changes in lithology. water in this area. Sheet piling is present near station SW-2, indicating that the higher ground-water levels The calculated horizontal hydraulic gradient are caused by a restriction of flow behind the sheet along five lines of flow at the water table in Indiana piles. It is unclear how much ground water is dis ranged from 7.8X10"4 to 5.1xlO~3 ft/ft (fig. 17, charging to the river near station SW-2. table 2). The transects cross the ground-water divides so two values were calculated for each Wells are present near stations SW-12, SW-13, SW-19, and SW-20 on the Grand Calumet River transect. (fig. 15). Ground-water levels exceeded surface- The calculated horizontal hydraulic gradient of water levels at each of these stations, indicating the the potentiometric surface of the Silurian-Devonian potential for ground-water discharge to the Grand aquifer along five transects in Illinois and Indiana Calumet River over its entire reach. ranged from 8.8xlO~4 to 1.8xlO~3 ft/ft (fig. 18, Ground-water levels near the Calumet Sag table 3). Gradients increase toward the pumping Channel at station SW-6 are lower than surface- center in the dolomite aquifer north of the confluence water levels, indicating the potential of water from of the Grand Calumet and Little Calumet Rivers. the Calumet Sag Channel to discharge to ground Horizontal hydraulic gradients calculated from water in this area. The low ground-water levels water levels collected during the synoptic survey in this area appear to be caused by drainage to generally are less than those calculated during the sewer lines (compare pi. 1 and fig. 1). site-specific investigations. This is probably because The surface-water elevation of the Little of the unusually small amount of precipitation in the Calumet River east of station SW-8 (fig. 15) months prior to the synoptic survey and the larger
48 Geohydrology in Northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet Area of Northeastern Illinois Table 2. Calculated horizontal hydraulic gradient and ground-water velocity at the water table along transects, northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois Horizontal Horizontal Horizontal Transect hydraulic hydraulic ground-water (see gradient Porosity conductivity velocity fig. 17) (foot per foot) (percent) (feet per day) (feet per day) Flow line primarily through confining unit A-A1 3.1x10^ 20 5.8x10-^ 9.0x10-4 B-B' 3.1x10"^ 20 5.8x10-2 9.0x10-7 C-C 3.6x10^ 20 5.8x10";; l.OxlQ-3 H-H1 l.SxlQ-3 20 5.8xlO-2 4.4X1Q-4
Flow line primarily through Calumet aquifer X-D' 4.4x10-3 30 1.5x10° 2.2X10-J X-E' 2.0x10, 30 1.5x10" I.OXIQ-; X-F 2.6x10^ 30 1.5x10° 1.3x10";; G-G1 3.9x10-3 30 5.0x10° 6.5xlQ-2 G-G" 3.2xlQ-3 30 5.0x10° 5.3xlO~2 i-r 1.2x10-3 30 5.0x10° 2.0xlQ-2 J-J' 1.6x10-;? 30 2.0x10! 1.1x10- J-J" 1.8xlQ-f 30 2.0x10 1.2x10-,! K-K1 9.4xlO"7 30 LOxlO?. 3.1xlO"2 K-K" 1.6xlO"3 30 5.0x10° 2.7xlQ-2 L-L' 2.7x10-;? 30 2.0x!0j 1.8x10-! L-L" 1.6x10 , 30 2.0x10 1.1x10- M-M' 5.1x10-3 30 2.0x10 3.4x10- M-M" 3.0xlO-f. 30 2.0x10 2.0xlO~; N-N' 7.8x10-7 30 2.0x10 5.2x10, N-N" 3.6xlO-3 30 2.0X101 2.4X1Q-1
distances over which the horizontal hydraulic gradi of the velocity through a typical section of the ents were calculated. confining unit. Larger or smaller ground-water Average linear ground-water velocity (V) at the velocities are likely locally. water table along the lines of transect was calculated The effective porosity of the Calumet aquifer by solving the equation is assumed to be 30 percent (Freeze and Cherry, 1979, V = (Kxl)/n, (1) p. 37). The horizontal hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer is variable along the lines of transect where (figs. 11, 17) so approximate values were used K is the horizontal hydraulic conductivity, in feet (table 2). Where no data were available in Indiana, per day; the horizontal hydraulic conductivity was assumed / is the horizontal hydraulic gradient, in foot per to be 2.0X101 ft/d. Where no data were available foot; and in Illinois, a value of 5.0x10° ft/d was assumed. n is the effective porosity, in percent. Applying these values, the calculated ground-water Ground-water velocities near the water table velocity through the Calumet aquifer along the lines of in the confining unit were calculated using the transect ranges from about l.OxlO"2 to 3.4X10"1 ft/d. median horizontal-hydraulic-conductivity values The effective porosity of the confining unit at obtained from the slug tests, the horizontal hydraulic the water table is about 20 percent, whereas the gradient along a transect, and a representative value median horizontal hydraulic conductivity in the for effective porosity (table 2). Use of a mean confining unit at the water table was calculated to be horizontal hydraulic conductivity for the calculation 5.8xlO~2 ft/d. Applying these values, the ground- of ground-water velocity will result in an estimate water velocity at the water table in the confining unit
Horizontal Hydraulic Gradients and Ground-Water Velocities 49 87° 40' 25'
Lake Michigan
41° 40'
41' 35'
EXPLANATION
j- j' TRANSECTS j" Ground-water flow is toward the prime letter j- designation. For example, flow is from x- p J to J', from J to J", and from X to F
Figure 17. Location of transects where horizontal hydraulic gradients along the water table were calculated, northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois, June 23-25,1992.
50 Geohydrology in Northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet Area of Northeastern Illinois 20' 15' 10' 87° 05'
Lake Michigan
5 MILES 01 2345 KILOMETERS Figure 17. Continued.
Horizontal Hydraulic Gradients and Ground-Water Velocities 51 87° 40'
Lake Michigan
41* 40'
41* 35'
EXPLANATION
550- POTENTIOMETRIC CONTOUR Shows altitude at which water level would have stood in tightly cased wells. Dashed where approximate. Contour interval 10 feet. Datum is sea level A A' TRANSECTS Ground-water flow is toward the prime letter designation A- X and toward "X". For example, flow is from A to A and from A to X Figure 18. Location of transects where horizontal hydraulic gradients in the Silurian-Devonian aquifer were calculated, north western Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois, June 23-25,1992.
52 Geohydrology in Northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet Area of Northeastern Illinois 20' 15' 10' 87° 05'
Study rea
Lake Michigan
1 5 MILES h \ i r 01 2345 KILOMETERS
Figure 18. Continued.
Horizontal Hydraulic Gradients and Ground-Water Velocities 53 Table 3. Calculated horizontal hydraulic gradient and ground-water velocity in the Silurian-Devonian aquifer along transects, northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois Horizontal Horizontal Horizontal hydraulic hydraulic ground-water Transect gradient Porosity conductivity velocity (see fig. 18) (foot per foot) (percent) (feet per day) (feet per day) A-A' 1.5x10-3 1 1.6x10' 2.4x10-;? A-X 1.8xl(H 1 1.6x10" 2.9x10";; B-X 1.3x10^ 1 1.6x10- 2.1x10-5 C-X 1.3xl(p; 1 1.6x10- 2.1x10 ~t D-X S.SxlQ-4 1 1.6x10- 1.4xlO~2
along the lines of transect ranged from 4.4x10 4 to calculated to determine the vertical direction of 1.0xl(T3 ft/d(table2). ground-water flow (table 4). Because the water The effective porosity of the Silurian-Devonian level in well S67 had not recovered from well devel aquifer is estimated to be about 1 percent based on opment during the synoptic survey, the vertical typical porosity values of dolomite deposits (Freeze hydraulic gradient at the S66/S67/S68 well cluster was and Cherry, 1979, p. 375). The median horizontal calculated using water-level measurements collected hydraulic conductivity, as determined from the 24 slug on October 27,1992. It is assumed that measured tests performed by the USGS and other investigators, water levels in all well clusters at which vertical is 1.6xlO~! ft/d. Using these values, the average hydraulic gradients were calculated are representative linear ground-water velocity through the upper part of hydrostatic conditions. of the Silurian-Devonian aquifer along the lines of Forty-three sites have wells open to different transect is calculated to range from 1.4xlO~2 to depths in the Calumet aquifer. Differences between 2.9xl(T2 ft/d (table 3). water levels within well clusters ranged from 0 to 3.9 ft (appendix 1). Vertical hydraulic gradients were calculated for the 30 well clusters with differences Vertical Hydraulic Gradients and Ground- in water-level altitude greater than 0.02 ft. Assuming Water Velocities an uncertainty of 0.01 ft for each measurement, water- level differences of 0.02 ft or less are considered indic The vertical hydraulic gradient is the difference ative of horizontal flow. in the altitude of the water levels in wells in the same Of the 30 well clusters in the Calumet aquifer location but open to different depths divided by the where vertical flow was identified, downward gradi vertical distance separating the midpoints of the satu ents were measured at 14 well clusters and upward rated open interval of the wells. If the water-level gradients were measured at 16 well clusters (table 4). altitude in the shallow well is higher than that in an Downward gradients range from -9.7xlO~4 to adjacent deeper well, the vertical hydraulic gradient -1.3X10'1 ft/ft and average -2. lxlO~2 ft/ft. Upward is downward and water has the potential for downward gradients range from 1.2xlO~3 to 3.3X10"1 ft/ft and flow. If the water-level altitude in the shallow well average 3.6xlO~2 ft/ft. is lower than in the deep well, the vertical hydraulic No clear pattern to the direction of vertical gradient is upward and water has the potential for hydraulic gradients in the Calumet aquifer is evident. upward flow. As a convention, upward gradients are Downward gradients are present along ground-water positive and downward gradients are negative. divides south of Burns Harbor, on the peninsula east Vertical hydraulic gradients between four of Indiana Harbor, and between the Grand Calumet hydraulic horizons the water table and the base River, the Indiana Harbor Canal, Gary Harbor, and of the Calumet aquifer, the water table and the Lake Michigan (compare pi. 1 and fig. 19). Upward confining unit, the confining unit and the top of the gradients are present at several well clusters along the Silurian-Devonian aquifer, and the water table and ground-water divide at the Toleston Beach Ridge. the top of the Silurian-Devonian aquifer were Vertical gradients are absent, indicating horizontal
54 Geohydrology in Northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet Area of Northeastern Illinois Table 4. Calculated vertical hydraulic gradient at selected points, northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois [ , Denotes that the altitude of the water level in the deep well in the well cluster is lower than in the shallow well, indicating the potential for downward movement; Well locations noted in appendix 1] Calculated vertical Calculated vertical Well hydraulic gradient Well hydraulic gradient number______(foot per foot) number (foot per foot) Water Table in Calumet Aquifer/Base of Calumet Aquifer Middle of Confining Unit/Top of Silurian Aquifer S259/S260 3.3x10"! S10/S11 -2.6X10" 1 S269/S270 4.0xlO~2 S28/S29 -1.4x10° S275/S276SZn/SZ/t) -3.0xlO~3 S33/S34 -5.9x10' S338/S339 -2.3xlO~2 S36/S37 -9.0x10" S343/S344 -4.2xlO~3 S58/S59 ^.0x10"
S347/S348 1.9x10-3 1 S67/S68 -5.6x10- S350/S351 1.2xlO~3 S199/S200 1.3x10- S353/S354 -2.6X10'3 S202/S204 -2.0x10'! S356/S357 4.7xlO'2 S203/S204 -2.8X10'1 S358/S359 S.lxlO'3 Water Table/Silurian Aquifer 4.8x10-3 S361/S362 ^.7xlO'3 S01/S02 -1.7x10'! S363/S364 S03/S04 -5.0x10' 5.0xlO'3 -5.7x10' S367/S368 -3.2xlO'2 S06/S07 S372/S373 S09/S11 -2.2X10'1 S374/S375 5.2xlQ-3 S12/S13 -3.9X10'1 3.7xlO~3 S376/S377 2.3x10-3 S21/S22 -6.1x10'! S401/S402 S23/S24 -6.6x10'! S431/S432 1.0x10'! S25/S26 -6.1x10' S435/S436 -6.4xlO'3 S27/S29 -6.2xlO-J S439/S440 -9.7X10"4 S30/S31 -S.SxlO'1 1.8x10-3 2.2X10'2 S447/S448 " S52/S53 S451/S452 2.4x10 S57/S59 -3.7x10'! S454/S455 -1.9x10' S61/S62 -1.7x10' -3.3x10" S456/S457 ,-3 S64/S65 -3.6x10'! S458/S459 -6.7x10 S66/S68 -2.9X1Q-1 ,-2 S460/S461 -1.3x10 S96/S97 ^JxlO'1 S463/S464 S98/S99 -2^5x10'! S466/S467 -1.3x10 S100/S101 -3.6x10'! S472/S473 3.3xlO S103/S104 -2.6x10' S490/S491 3.8xlO S106/S107 -2.8X10'1 Water Table/Middle of Confining Unit S108/S109 -2.0x10'! S09/S10 -1.8x10 S116/S117 -3.0x10'! S27/S28 -6.0x10 S118/S119 -3.5x10' -S.OxlO'2 S49/S50 ,-1 S121/S122 -3.5x10'! S54/S55 -1.0x10 S184/S185 -2.0X10"1 S57/S58 -1.4x10" S186/S187 ^.3x10-1 1S66/S67 S188/S189 -2.0x10'! S198/S199 -34X10'1 S190/S191 -3.7x10' S201/S202 -1.2x10"! S192/S193 -3.3x10" S201/S203 5.0x10, S198/S200 -7.7xlO~2 S205/S206 4.9X10'1 S201/S204 -2.2x10'! S207/S208 -1.1x10',! S239/S240 -3.2x10' S209/S210 -9.0xlO'2 S380/S381 -1.1x10' S211/S212 -1.9X10'1 S383/S385 -1.8x10'^ S213/S214 -2.4X10'1 S447/S449 -2.6xlO'2 S451/S453 -1.5X10'1 Base of Calumet Aquifer/Middle of Confining Unit S339/S340 -2.0x10 Measurement made 10/27/92. S351/S352 -1.3x10 S432/S433 -3.9x10 S436/S437 -1.5x10 S440/S441 1.8x10
Vertical Hydraulic Gradients and Ground-Water Velocities 55 87° 40' 35'
Lake Michigan
41° 40'
41' 35'
EXPLANATION U VERTICAL HYDRAULIC GRADIENTS IN CALUMET AQUIFER U, denotes upward gradient; D, denotes downward gradient; H, denotes vertical gradient absent
Figure 19. Direction of vertical hydraulic gradient within the Calumet aquifer, northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois, June 23-25,1992.
56 Geohydrology in Northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet Area of Northeastern Illinois 20' 15' 10' 87° 05'
Study Area
Lake Michigan
Sums Harbor Gary Harbor
Toleston Beach R » U Little
1 5 MILES i I r 01 2345 KILOMETERS
Figure 19. Continued.
Vertical Hydraulic Gradients and Ground-Water Velocities 57 flow, at several well clusters near the Grand Calumet than the average gradient between the water table River, Burns Harbor, Wolf Lake, and parts of Lake and the Silurian-Devonian aquifer (-3.3X10"1 ft/ft). Michigan. Flow in the area between Lake George, Both of these gradients are less than the average Lake Michigan, and the Indiana Harbor Canal is gradient between the middle of the confining unit primarily upward or horizontal. Vertical flow in the and the top of the Silurian-Devonian aquifer Calumet aquifer appears to be affected primarily by (-5.7X10"1 ft/ft). These trends are independent pumping and drainage to sewers. of the presence or absence of the Calumet aquifer. Vertical hydraulic gradients were directed These trends indicate that the vertical hydraulic con downward at 16 of the 19 well clusters where one ductivity of the Calumet aquifer and the weathered well is open to either the water table or the base of part of the confining unit are both greater than that the Calumet aquifer and a second well is open to the of the unweathered part of the confining unit. middle of the confining unit (table 4). This indicates The vertical ground-water velocity can be the potential for flow from the water table or the base calculated by solving equation 1 if vertical hydraulic of the Calumet aquifer down into the confining unit in conductivity is substituted for horizontal hydraulic most of the study area. Differences in water levels conductivity and vertical hydraulic gradient is substi within wells open to the water table or the base of the tuted for horizontal hydraulic gradient. The vertical Calumet aquifer and the middle of the confining unit and horizontal hydraulic conductivity of the unweath at a cluster range from 0.23 to 11.86 ft (appendix 1). ered part of the confining unit are approximately equal Downward vertical hydraulic gradients average (Keros Cartwright, Illinois State Geological Survey, -l.SxlO"1 ft/ft, whereas upward gradients average oral commun., 1994). Where vertical fractures are 1.9XKT1 ft/ft. present, as in the weathered part of the confining unit, vertical hydraulic conductivity typically exceeds hori Vertical hydraulic gradients between the zontal hydraulic conductivity. It is assumed that confining unit and the Silurian-Devonian aquifer the median vertical hydraulic conductivity of the were directed downward at eight of the nine well weathered part of the confining unit is equal to the clusters measured (table 4). This indicates the median horizontal-hydraulic-conductivity value of potential for ground water to flow from the confining 5.8xlO~2 ft/d. The actual value is likely to be larger. unit down to the Silurian-Devonian aquifer in most Laboratory tests of soil-moisture content show that of the area where data are present. Differences in the porosity of the weathered part of the confining water levels within well clusters open to the confining unit typically is about 20 percent. Applying the unit and the Silurian-Devonian aquifer ranged from average of the vertical hydraulic gradients between 5.98 to 29.39 ft. Downward gradients average the water table and the middle of the confining unit -5.7X10"1 ft/ft. The value of the one upward (-1.3X10"1 ft/ft), the vertical ground-water velocity gradient was 1.3XKT1 ft/ft. through the weathered part of the confining unit is Vertical hydraulic gradients between the water conservatively estimated to be 3.8xlO~2 ft/d. This is table and the top of the Silurian-Devonian aquifer more than 30 times greater than the horizontal ground- were directed downward at 35 of the 36 well clusters water velocity in the weathered part of the confining measured (table 4). This indicates the potential unit, indicating that vertical flow will greatly exceed for ground-water flow from the water table down to horizontal flow. the Silurian-Devonian aquifer except in the area east In the unweathered parts of the confining unit, of Stony Island where flow is from the Silurian- the mean vertical hydraulic conductivity is assumed Devonian aquifer to the water table. Differences to be 4.0xlO~4 ft/d (Rosenshein, 1963, p. 22). The in water levels within well clusters open to these porosity of the confining unit at depth is about units ranged from 1.52 to 37.44 ft (appendix 1). 15 percent. If the average of the downward vertical The average of the downward gradients was hydraulic gradients between the middle of the confin -3.3XKT1 ft/ft. The value of the one upward ing unit and the top of the Silurian-Devonian aquifer gradient was 2.2x1 (T2 ft/ft. (-5.7X10"1 ft/ft) is used, the vertical ground-water The average downward vertical hydraulic velocity through the unweathered part of the confining gradient between the water table or the base of the unit is calculated to be 1.5xlO~3 ft/d. Vertical flow Calumet aquifer and the middle of the confining unit through the unweathered part of the confining unit is is -1.3x10"' ft/ft. This value is substantially lower likely to exceed horizontal flow.
58 Geohydrology in Northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet Area of Northeastern Illinois OCCURRENCE OF LIGHT-NONAQUEOUS- The measured thickness of LNAPL's in a well is PHASE LIQUIDS ON GROUND WATER affected by the location of the oil-water interface in relation to the well screen. The LNAPL's may have LNAPL's were detected in several wells near the been present at some shallow wells but were not petrochemical facilities in Indiana, particularly north detected because the water level in the well was above and east of Lake George (table 5; figs. 2 and 20). the screened interval. This could result in an under The measured thickness of LNAPL's in the vicinity estimation of the location and thickness of LNAPL's of the petrochemical facilities ranged from a thin film in the study area. If the oil-water interface at a well to more than 10 ft. Measurements indicate that, is located within the well screen and a capillary fringe although not ubiquitous, LNAPL's are present in a is present above the water table, LNAPL's may move large part of the petrochemical land-use area. laterally into the monitoring well. The weight of the LNAPL's will depress the surface of the water in the LNAPL's were detected in wells at several gas well below that of the actual water table (Fetter, 1993, stations and at a few industrial or waste-disposal facil p. 225). This results in an increase in the LNAPL ities in Illinois and Indiana (table 5). The measured thickness and a decrease in the water-level altitude in thickness of LNAPL's in these wells ranged from a the well that is not representative of conditions outside thin film to greater than 10.0 ft. No LNAPL's were of the well bore. It is possible that the measured detected in any well that was not near a refinery, gas thickness of LNAPL's in some of the wells is greater station, industrial facility, or waste-disposal facility, than is actually present in the aquifer. It is also possi which indicates that LNAPL's are not likely to be ble that the actual water-table altitude near some of present on ground water beneath residential areas that these wells is higher than was determined from the are not near such facilities. water-level measurement.
Table 5. Light-nonaqueous-phase-liquid (LNAPL) thickness, northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois, June 23-24, 1992 [--, measurement not taken; >, greater than; well locations noted in appendix 1] Measured depth Measured depth LNAPL Well Latitude/ to LNAPL to water thickness number Longitude (feet) (feet) (feet) S162 414138/873326 10.02 10.52 0.50 S233 413602/873330 5.71 film S234 413601/873330 4.00 film S235 413721/873452 9.42 film S236 413720/873451 - 9.40 film S237 414016/873640 4.39 5.36 .97 S269 414044/872908 7.48 7.75 .27 S270 414043/872908 8.97 9.06 .09 S338 414017/872918 9.65 >20.34 > 10.69 S343 414015/872858 9.14 9.19 .05 S349 413953/872919 15.44 17.69 2.25 S350 413940/872818 13.07 14.75 1.68 S416 413606/872338 7.95 film S428 413816/872822 film S478 413831/872938 7.54 film S481 413832/872937 7.57 7.58 .01 S482 413832/872936 7.18 film S486 413832/872935 7.47 7.48 .01
Occurrence of Light-Nonaqueous-Phase Liquids on Ground Water 59 87° 40'
Lake Michigan
Lake Calumet I i
41* 40'
41* 35'
EXPLANATION
WELL LOCATION
Figure 20. Location of wells where light-nonaqueous-phase liquids were detected, northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet area of northeastern Illinois, June 23-25,1992.
60 Geohydrology in Northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet Area of Northeastern Illinois 20' 15' 10' 87° 05'
Study Area
Lake Michigan
5 MILES 01 2345 KILOMETERS
Figure 20. Continued.
Occurrence of Light-Nonaqueous-Phase Liquids on Ground Water 61 The extent of the LNAPL's at the refineries Calumet River, and the Calumet Sag Channel. The and industrial and waste-disposal facilities has not Calumet aquifer is composed primarily of sand been completely defined in this study, in part because deposits. The confining unit is composed primarily permission to measure LNAPL's could not be obtained of silt and clay tills and lacustrine deposits. The at a number of facilities and in a number of wells Silurian-Devonian aquifer is composed of Silurian where LNAPL's were known or suspected to be and Devonian carbonate deposits. present. Furthermore, no monitoring wells were The Calumet aquifer is unconfined and continu available at a number of industrial facilities where ous through most of the area east of Lake Calumet LNAPL's may be present. The extent of LNAPL's but is only present in scattered locations west of Lake in the study area determined during this survey should Calumet. The horizontal hydraulic conductivity of be considered as a minimum. the Calumet aquifer ranges from 6.5x10"1 to 3.6xl02 ft/d and generally decreases to the west. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The water table is located in the confining unit in much of the area west of Lake Calumet where the In June 1992, the U.S. Geological Survey, in Calumet aquifer is absent. The upper part of the cooperation with the U.S. Environmental Protection confining unit is typically weathered where the Agency, began a study of the hydrogeology and distri Calumet aquifer is thin or absent. The confining unit bution of light-nonaqueous-phase liquids (LNAPL's) underlies the Calumet aquifer in most of the remainder in a heavily industrialized area of northwestern of the study area. The horizontal hydraulic conduc Indiana and northeastern Illinois. The study was tivity of the confining unit ranges from 1.7xlO~5 to designed to describe the geology and hydrology in 5.5XKT1 ft/d. The horizontal hydraulic conductivity the area, determine the direction of surface-water of the weathered part of the confining unit is larger and ground-water flow, characterize the interaction than that of the unweathered part of the confining unit. between surface water and ground water, and to obtain The Silurian-Devonian aquifer is confined a preliminary estimate of the location and extent of except at Stony Island and Thornton Quarry, where the LNAPL's on the water table. water table is in the dolomite, and northeast of Stony The bedrock geologic deposits of concern are Island and south of Blue Island, where the confining Silurian dolomites of the Niagaran Series, lower to unit is absent and the aquifer is in direct hydraulic middle Devonian limestones and dolomites of the connection with the Calumet aquifer. The horizontal Detroit River and Traverse Formations, and the upper hydraulic conductivity of the Silurian-Devonian Devonian Antrim Shale. The Silurian deposits are aquifer ranges from 2.0xlO~2 to 1.1x10° ft/d. at the bedrock surface in the western half of the study Water levels were measured in 523 wells and at area. The Detroit River and Traverse Formations are 34 surface-water stations during a synoptic water-level at the bedrock surface in the central part of the study survey on June 23-25, 1992. The water-table config area. The Antrim Shale is at the bedrock surface in the eastern edge of the study area. uration on June 23-25, 1992, generally followed topography. Ground-water divides were along The bedrock deposits are overlain by unconsoli- dated silt and clay tills. The tills are at the land topographic highs at Blue Island, Stony Island, and the surface in most of the area west of Lake Calumet. Toleston Beach Ridge. Ground-water mounds were Sand deposits overlie the tills and are at the land present southwest of Lake Calumet, between Lake surface in most of the area east of the Calumet River. Calumet and the Calumet River, and between the Thin silt and clay lacustrine deposits overlie the tills Indiana Harbor Canal, the Grand Calumet River, or the sands and are at the land surface around Lake Lake Michigan, and Gary Harbor. Recharge to Calumet and parts of the Little Calumet River. ground water from landfill leachate and ponded water The four hydrologic units of concern are affected the location of the ground-water mounds. surface-water bodies, the Calumet aquifer, the Several depressions in the water-table surface confining unit, and the Silurian-Devonian aquifer. were also identified. The depressions in most of The most important surface-water bodies are Lake these areas appear to be caused by ground-water Michigan, Lake Calumet, Wolf Lake, Lake George, drainage into sewer lines and excavations and pump the Calumet River, the Grand Calumet River, the Little ing from shallow wells.
62 Geohydrology in Northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet Area of Northeastern Illinois The potentiometric surface of the top of the or waste-disposal facilities in Illinois and Indiana. Silurian-Devonian aquifer shows two highs separated No LNAPL's were detected in any well that was not by a depression. The northern high point is associ near a refinery, gas station, industrial facility, or ated with the bedrock high at Stony Island. The waste-disposal facility. southern high point is associated with the bedrock high at Thornton Quarry. The deepest part of the depression in the potentiometric surface of the REFERENCES CITED Silurian-Devonian aquifer coincides with the location of a drop shaft open to the aquifer, which was being Baker/TSA, 1984, Interim status ground water monitoring dewatered by pumping. program information, Gary works part B permit application: Prepared for the U.S. Environmental Comparison of surface-water and ground-water Protection Agency, Chicago, 111., v. 5, 5 p. levels indicates a complex interaction between surface Bouwer, Herman, 1989, The Bouwer and Rice slug test An water and ground water. The general direction of update: Ground Water, v. 27, no. 3, p. 304-309. ground-water flow inferred from plots of ground-water Bouwer, Herman, and Rice, R.C., 1976, A slug test for contours is toward the major surface-water bodies, but determining hydraulic conductivity of unconfined surface water may be discharging to ground water in aquifers with completely or partially penetrating several areas. wells: Water Resources Research, v. 12, no. 3, The horizontal hydraulic gradient at the water p. 423^28. table along several transects range from V.SxlO"4 to Bretz, J.H., 1939, Geology of the Chicago region, 5.1x10~3 ft/ft. These values do not vary substantially General: Illinois State Geological Survey with changes in location or lithology. Bulletin 65, Part 1,118 p. The horizontal hydraulic gradient of the potenti 1955, Geology of the Chicago region, The ometric surface of the Silurian-Devonian aquifer along Pleistocene: Illinois State Geological Survey several transects range from 8.8xlO~4 to 1.8xlO~3 ft/ft. Bulletin 65, Part II, 132 p. These values show no significant variation with Colten, C.E., 1985, Industrial wastes in the Calumet area, changes in lithology but tend to increase near the 1869-1970: An historical geography: Illinois pumping center located near the confluence of the Hazardous Waste Research and Information Center Grand Calumet and Little Calumet Rivers. Report RR 001, 124 p. The average linear horizontal ground-water Cook, S.G., and Jackson, R.S., 1978, The Bailly area of velocity in the Calumet aquifer ranged from l.OxlO"2 Porter County, Indiana: Robert Jackson and Assoc., to 3.4XKT1 ft/d. The horizontal linear ground-water Evanston, 111., 110 p. velocity through the silt and clay deposits at the water Cravens, S.J., and Roadcap, G.S., 1991, Shallow ground- table ranged from 4.4xlO~4 to l.OxlO"3 ft/d. The water quality investigation bordering Lake Calumet: ground-water velocity through the upper part of Interim Report prepared for the Illinois Department of the Silurian-Devonian aquifer ranged from 1.4xlO~2 Energy and Natural Resources, Springfield, 111., 17 p. to 2.9xlO~2 ft/d. Cravens, S.J., and Zahn, A.L., 1990, Ground-water quality investigation and monitoring program design for the Vertical hydraulic gradients within the Calumet Lake Calumet area of southeast Chicago: Illinois aquifer indicate complex vertical flow. Vertical Hazardous Waste Research and Information Center hydraulic gradients indicate the potential for down SWS Contract Report 496, 112 p. ward flow from the Calumet aquifer to the confining Ecology and Environment, Inc., 1990, Special study report unit and from the confining unit to the Silurian- of U.S. Scrap: Prepared for the U.S. Environmental Devonian aquifer over most of the study area. Protection Agency, Chicago, 111., 253 p. The vertical ground-water velocity through the Eldridge Engineering Assoc., 1990, Site closure documents, weathered part of the confining unit is calculated to Sexton-Lansing landfill: Prepared for the Illinois be 3.8xlO~2 ft/d. The vertical ground-water velocity Environmental Protection Agency, Springfield, 111., through the unweathered part of the confining unit is 53 p. calculated to be 1.5xlO~3 ft/d. Farr, A.M., Houghtalen, R.J., and McWorther, D.B., 1990, Light-nonaqueous-phase liquids were detected Volume estimation of light non-aqueous phase liquid in several wells near the petrochemical facilities in in porous media: Ground Water, v. 28, no. 1, Indiana and at several gas stations and a few industrial p. 48-51.
References Cited 63 Fenelon, J.M., and Watson, L.R., 1993, Geohydrology and Keifer and Associates, 1976, Preliminary design report water quality of the Calumet aquifer in the vicinity for the Calumet system of the tunnel and reservoir of the Grand Calumet River/Indiana Harbor Canal, plan: Prepared for the Metropolitan Sanitary District northwestern Indiana: U.S. Geological Survey of Greater Chicago, 76 p. Water-Resources Investigations Report 92-4115, Land and Lakes Co., 1988, Hydrogeologic assessment 151 p. and proposed monitoring program, Dolton facility: Prepared for the Illinois Environmental Protection Fenneman, N.M., 1938, Physiography of the eastern United Agency, 54 p. States: New York, McGraw-Hill, 691 p. Leighton, M.M., Ekblaw, G.E., and Horberg, C.L., 1948, Fetter, C.W., 1993, Contaminant hydrology: New York, Physiographic divisions of Illinois: Journal of MacMillan Publishing, 458 p. Geology, v. 56, no. 1, p. 16-33. Fitzpatrick, W.P., and Bhowmik, N.G., 1990, Pollutant Mades, D.M., 1987, Surface-water-quality assessment of the transport to Lake Calumet and adjacent wetlands upper Illinois River Basin in Illinois, Indiana, and and an overview of regional hydrology: Hazardous Wisconsin project description: U.S. Geological Waste Research and Information Center Report Survey Open-File Report 87-473, 35 p. HWRIC-050, 74 p. Malott, C.A., 1922, The physiography of Indiana, in Foote, G.F., 1982, Fracture analysis in northeastern Illinois Logan, N.W., and others, Handbook of Indiana geology: Indiana Department of Conservation and northern Indiana: Unpublished Master's Thesis, Division of Geology Publication 21, p. 112-124. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 193 p. Moore, P.A., 1959, The Calumet Region Indiana's last Freeze, R.A., and Cherry, J.A., 1979, Groundwater: frontier: Indiana Historical Collections v. 39, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice-Hall, 604 p. Indiana Historical Bureau, 685 p. Fullerton, D.S., 1980, Preliminary correlation of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 1982, post-Erie interstadial events (16,000-10,000 Monthly normals of temperature, precipitation, and radiocarbon years before present), central and heating and cooling degree days 1951-1980, eastern Great Lakes regions, and Hudson, Champlain, Indiana: Ashville, N.C., National Climatic Data and St. Lawrence lowlands, United States and Center, Climatography of the United States 81,14 p. Canada: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1991, Climatological data annual summary 1089, 179 p. Illinois: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Geosciences Research Associates, Inc., 1987, Remedial Administration, v. 96, no. 13, 38 p. 1992a, Climatological data monthly summary for investigation of Midwest Solvent Recovery, Inc., June Illinois: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Midco I: Public comment draft prepared for Administration, v. 97, no. 6, 27 p. MIDCO Trustees, 231 p. -1992b, Climatological data annual summary 1988, Remedial investigation of Midwest Solvent Illinois: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Recovery, Inc., Midco II: Public comment draft Administration, v. 97, no. 13, 27 p. prepared for MIDCO Trustees, 220 p. Roadcap, G.S., and Kelly, W.R., 1994, Shallow ground- Hartke, E.J., Hill, J.R., and Reshkin, M., 1975, Environ water quality and hydrogeology of the Lake Calumet mental geology of Lake and Porter Counties, area, Chicago, Illinois: Interim report prepared for Indiana an aid to planning: Indiana Department the Illinois Department of Energy and Natural of Natural Resources Geological Survey Special Resources, Springfield, HI., 61 p. Report 11, Bloomington, Ind., 57 p. Rosenshein, J.S., 1963, Recharge rates of principal aquifers Harza Engineering Co., 1972, Development of a flood and in Lake County, Indiana: Ground Water, v. 1, no. 1, pollution control plan for the Chicagoland area: p. 16-32. geology and water supply: Technical Report for the Rosenshein, J.S., and Hunn, J.D., 1968, Geohydrology and Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater Chicago, ground-water potential of Lake County, Indiana: 44 p. Indiana Department of Natural Resources Bulletin 31, HydroQual, Inc., 1985, Grand Calumet River wasteload Division of Water, 36 p. allocation study: Report to the Indiana State Board Ross, P.E., Henebry, M.S., Risatti, J.B., Murphy, T.J., and of Health, Indianapolis, Ind., 198 p. Demissie, M., 1988, A preliminary environmental Illinois Environmental Protection Agency, 1986, The assessment of the contamination associated with Lake Southeast Chicago area environmental pollution Calumet, Cook County, Illinois: Illinois Department and public health impacts: Illinois Environmental of Energy and Natural Resources. Hazardous Waste Protection Agency Environmental Programs Research and Information Center Report RR 019, Report ffiPA/ENV/86-008, 144 p. 142 p.
64 Geohydrology in Northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet Area of Northeastern Illinois Sauer, V.B., and Meyer, R.W., 1992, Determination U.S. Geological Survey, 1970, The national atlas of the of error in individual discharge measurements: United States of America: 417 p. U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 92-144, Warzyn Engineering, Inc., 1987, Remedial investigation 21 p. report, Ninth Avenue dump: Prepared for the Schneider, A.F., 1966, Physiography, in Natural Features of U.S. Army District Omaha Corps of Engineers, Indiana: Alton F. Lindsey ed., Indiana Academy of Omaha, Nebr., 287 p. Science Symposium, April 22-23, 1966, Watson, L.R., Shedlock, R.J., Banaszak, K.J., Crawfordsville, Ind., p. 40-56. Arihood, L.D., and Doss, P.K., 1989, Preliminary Schneider, A.F., and Keller, S.J., 1970, Geologic map of analysis of the shallow ground-water system in the the 1 X 2 Chicago quadrangle, Indiana, Illinois, and vicinity of the Grand Calumet River/Indiana Harbor Michigan showing bedrock and unconsolidated Canal, northwestern Indiana: U.S. Geological deposits: Indiana Department of Natural Resources, Survey Open-File Report 88^92, 45 p. Ip. Wayne, W.J., 1966, Ice and land a review of the Tertiary Shaver, R.H., Burger, A.M., Gates, G.R., Gray, H.H., and Pleistocene history of Indiana, in Linsay, A.A., Hutchison, H.C., Keller, S.J., Patton, J.P., ed., Natural features of Indiana: Indiana Academy of Rexford, C.B., Smith, N.M., Wayne, W.J., and Science, Indianapolis, Ind., p. 21-39. Wier, C.E., 1970, Compendium of rock-unit stratigraphy in Indiana: Indiana Department of Weston, Roy F., Consultants, 1989, Draft report on Paxton H Natural Resources Geological Survey Bulletin 43, landfill facility investigation: Prepared for Paxton Bloomington, Ind., 229 p. Landfill Corp., Chicago, 111., 124 p. Shaver, R.H., and others, 1986, Compendium of Paleozoic Willman, H.B., 1971, Summary of the geology of the rock-unit stratigraphy in Indiana a revision: Chicago area: Illinois State Geological Survey Indiana Department of Natural Resources Geological Circular 460, 77 p. Survey Bulletin 59, Bloomington, Ind., 203 p. Willman, H.B., and Frye, J.C., 1970, Pleistocene Shedlock, R.J., Cohen, D.A., Imbrigiotta, T.E., and stratigraphy of Illinois: Illinois State Geological Thompson, T.A., 1994, Hydrogeology and hydro- Survey Bulletin 94, 204 p. chemistry of dunes and wetlands along the southern Willman, H.B., Atherton, El wood, Buschbach, T.C., shore of Lake Michigan, Indiana: U.S. Geological Collinson, Charles, Frye, J.C., Hopkins, M.E., Survey Open-File Report 92-139, 85 p. Lineback, J.A., and Simon, J.A., 1975, Handbook of Stewart, J.A., Keeton, C.R., Benedict, B.L., and Illinois stratigraphy: Illinois State Geological Hammill, L.E., 1993, Water resources data for Survey Bulletin 95, 261 p. Indiana, water year 1992: U.S. Geological Survey Woodward-Clyde Consultants, 1984, RCRA part B permit Water Data Report DSf-92-1, 346 p. application for Calumet Industrial Disposal I Suter, Max, Bergstrom, R.E., Smith, H.F., Emrich, G.H., area 4: Prepared for the Illinois Environmental Walton, W.C., and Larson, T.E., 1959, Summary of Protection Agency, Springfield, 111., 28 p. the preliminary report on ground-water resources of Zeizel, A.J., Walton, W.C., Sasman, R.T., and Prickett, T. A., the Chicago region, Illinois: Illinois State Water 1962, Ground-water resources of Du Page County, Survey Cooperative Ground-Water Report 1-S, 18 p. Illinois: Illinois State Geological Survey and Illinois Thompson, T.A., 1989, Anatomy of a transgression along State Water Survey Cooperative Ground-Water the southeastern shore of Lake Michigan: Journal of Report 2, 103 p. Coastal Research, v. 5, no. 4, p. 711-724. U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 1965, Conference Proceedings, In the matter of pollution of the interstate waters of the Grand Calumet River, Little Calumet River, Calumet River, Wolf Lake, Lake Michigan and their tributaries: March 2-9, 1965, 205 p.
References Cited 65 66 Geohydrology in Northwestern Indiana and the Lake Calumet Area of Northeastern Illinois APPENDIX s APPENDIX 1. SUMMARY OF INFORMATION AND DATA COLLECTED DURING THE SYNOPTIC SURVEY OF WELLS AND SURFACE-WATER STATIONS IN NORTHWESTERN INDIANA AND THE LAKE CALUMET AREA OF NORTHEASTERN ILLINOIS, JUNE 23-25,1992
Q. 3 [USGS, U.S. Geological Survey; ID, identification; e, estimated; *, denotes water-level altitude corrected for light-nonaqueous-phase liquid displacement; >, greater than; <, less than] <§ < Geologic unit: D, Dolomite; M, Manmade land; UC, Unconsolidated deposit, coarse grained; UF, Unconsolidated deposit, fine grained Hydrologic unit: BCA, Base of Calumet aquifer; ECU, Bottom of confining unit; CA, Calumet aquifer; CSA, Confined sand aquifer; CU, Confining unit; MCA, Middle of Calumet aquifer; MCU, Middle of confining unit; SD, Silurian-Devonian aquifer; TCU, Top of confining unit; WTCA, Water table, Calumet aquifer; WRCU, Water table, confining unit; WTSD, Water table, Silurian-Devonian aquifer
uigami; vajjor reading: D , uacKgrounu vaiue, IN i , measurement noi IUKC;n 5'Q. 3 aandtheLa Land- Measuring Water- Organic surface point Screen level vapor altitude altitude interval altitude reading (feet (feet (feet (feet (parts ff above above below above per Well Well Latitude/ USGS Site sea sea land Geologic Hydrologic sea million too c number name Longitude ID number level) level) surface) unit unit level) in air) JD SOI G14S 413727/873424 413927087342401 588 590.20 18- 19 UC WTCA 580.44 NT 2? 802 A14D 413927/873424 413927087342402 588 591.09 94-104 D SD 566.61 NT to S03 G204 413832/873430 413832087343001 593 594.08 13- 17 UC WTCA 583.63 NT a 804 A03D 413832/873429 413832087342901 592 596.51 80- 90 D SD 549.33 NT S05 G10S 413451/872934 413451087293401 587 589.94 3- 8 UC WTCA NT NT a.o 806 G12S 413928/873511 413928087351101 585 586.03 9- 10 UC WTCA 583.00 NT w S07 G12DR 413928/873510 413928087351001 586 586.13 42- 52 D SD 561.48 NT 0 808 G13SR 413928/873434 413928087343401 588 591.53 3- 8 UC WTCA NT NT 3 S09 G15S 413918/873418 413918087341801 586 587.77 18- 19 UC WTCA 579.80 NT 5's 810 G233 413918/873418 413918087341803 586 589.27 50- 60 UF MCU 573.47 NT o5' Sll G15DR 413918/873418 413918087341802 586 588.55 93- 98 D SD 563.27 NT 812 G16D 413907/873409 413907087340902 585 588.44 72- 82 D SD 558.40 NT S13 G16S 413907/873409 413907087340901 586 588.06 15- 16 UC WTCA 582.49 NT 814 G32D 413845/873439 413845087343901 591 593.49 65- 75 D SD 542.32 NT S15 G39D 413856/873444 413856087344401 590 592.56 73- 83 D SD 554.77 NT 816 G44D 413825/873357 413824087335702 586 589.32 70- 80 D SD 542.07 NT S17 G44T 413825/873357 413824087335701 586 589.57 40- 45 UF MCU 569.48 NT 818 G104 413838/873345 413838087334501 589 590.14 37- 40 UF MCU 567.42 NT S19 G105 413838/873354 413838087335401 591 593.91 37- 40 UF MCU 567.42 NT 820 G106 413838/873438 413838087343801 593 596.00 62- 72 UF ECU 542.93 NT O o> 'E o .E ,. Ss en en q SL Q- "o HHHHH u> re
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SW-1 3 Grand Calumet River at Calumet Avenue 413714/873032 NA 584.69 579.7 SW-14 Grand Calumet River at Indianapolis Boulevard 413651/872850 NA 595.39 580.9 1A ST SW-1 5 Lake Mary at Hammond 413841/872937 NA 582.46 581.2 ff SW-1 6 Indiana Harbor Canal at East Chicago 413904/872757 NA 581.22 580.5 a? SW-1 7 Unnamed Lake near Buffington Harbor 413809/872532 NA 586.30 585.2 E SW-1 8 Grand Calumet River at Gary Regional Airport 413640/872513 NA 585.04 582.1 SW-1 9 Grand Calumet River at US 12 413629/872339 04092677 580.00 583.4 & SW-20 Grand Calumet River at Bridge Street 413632/872219 NA 600.02 583.7 n>1 SW-21 Gary Harbor 413632/871925 NA 589.23 580.1 S, SW-22 Grand Calumet River near Broadway Street 413627/871920 NA 589.99 586.2 o SW-23 Calumet Lagoons at Gary 413645/871733 NA 588.15 587.7 3. SW-24 Little Calumet River at Porter 413718/870513 04094000 603.48 606.4 SW-25 Little Calumet River at State Road 249 413644/871025 NA 604.45 579.8 SCO 5? SW-26 Little Calumet River at State Road 51 413513/871425 NA 603.09 580.0 5 SW-27 Little Calumet River at Gary 413419/871613 04093200 580.00 587.8 5' SW-28 Little Calumet River at Broadway Street 413339/872012 NA 603.27 587.7 0.35' SW-29 Little Calumet River at Colfax Street 413350/872447 NA 601.91 589.3 SW-30 Hart Ditch near Munster 413340/872850 05536190 591.27 591.8 SW-31 Little Calumet River at Munster 413407/873118 05536195 580.72 585.5 SW-32 Little Calumet River at Torrence Avenue 413538/873318 NA 605.64 583.9 SW-33 Little Calumet River at Cottage Grove Avenue 413625/873552 05536290 575.00 580.0 SW-34 Little Calumet River at Halsted Avenue, Harvey 413745/873825 NA 601.18 579.2 1 Latitude/longitude determined by TRC Environmental Corporation by use of global positioning. 2Viscous oil found in well, did not allow measurement of water level. i i in ON OO ^ i i OO > i i i i in o O O O O O ON 00 oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo o oo oo oo oo oo ~H o O O T}- >:} in in in ii * Tf- ^fr ^fr TJ- en en en en en en en en en en en ^* en en en en en en en en en enO t- op ON O OOO OOOO 1^ ^H-H^^^-I^-I ^^^H^H^-ICN CN(NCS(NCN ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON _ t/5 t/5 t/5 t/5 t/5 C/5 t/5 t/5 C/5 C/5 t/5 t/5 C/5 t/5 t/5 t/5 t/5 t/5 t/5 t/5 t/5 t/5 t/5 t/5 t/5 t/5 t/5 t/5 t/5 t/5 t/5 t/5 t/5 t/5 t/5o NO in in in in in in in in in in NO NO NO pa > pa 666M UUUUU ^«^ S
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