- International Encyclopedia of ~ Communications

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• "·Y' ' •.. ' •. -'-.,.- .. THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA

The International Encyclopedia of Communications was conceived, developed, and edited at ]­ The Annenberg School of Communications, University of Pennsylvania.

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· .'. I·· International·-· Encyclopedia of Communications

ERIK BARNOUW GEORGE GERBNER Editor in Chief Chair. Editorial Board

WILBUR SCHRAMM TOBIA L. WORTH LARRY GROSS Consulting Editor Editorial Director Associate Editor •

Volume 1

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Published jointly with r' THE ANNENBERG SCHOOL OF COMMUNICATIONS, University of Pennsylvania

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS New York Oxford

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~ I-'ll Oxford University Press Oxford New York Toronm Delhi Bombay Calcutta Madras Karachi Petaling Jaya Singapore Hong Kong Tokyo Nairobi Dar es Salaam Cape Town Melbourne Auckland and associated companies in Berlin Ibadan

_ Copyright © 198~ the Trustees of th~1Lniv_ersitr of Pennsylvania

Published jointly by --, The Annenberg School of Communicatio~ University of Pennsylvania, and Oxford University Press, Inc., 200 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016 Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press

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Library of Congress Cataloging~in~Publication Data

International encyclopedia of communications / Erik Barnouw, editor~in·ehief ... let al.l. p. em. "Published joindy with the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia." Bibliography: p. Includes index. 1. Communication-Dictionaries. I. Barnouw, Erik, 1908- P87.5.15 1989 00!.51'0321 ....,!c19 88·18132 CIP G!~.... 17 ISBN 0·19·504994·2 (set) ,-,.------1 I" ISBN O·19·505802·X (vol.)DJ

Acknowledgments of sources of illustrative materials appear in captions throughout this work. Conscientious efforts have been made to locate owners of copyrights on illustrative materials and to seeure their permission to use them therein. If any illustration has been inadvertently used without proper acknowledgment of its source, the publishers invite notification by copyright owners so that a correction can be made in future printings.

246897531 l Printed in the United States ofAmerica on aeid~free paper

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Editori 1 Board

------, GEORGE GE BNER, Chair Professor of Communications and Dean, e Annenberg School of Communications, University of ennsylvania

DAVID A OOLL Editorial Director, Refer nee and Ge'neral13ooks, Oxford Uni ersity Press

Professor Emeritus of Drama 'c Arts, Columbia University

PETER Professor of Communications and Dean, e Anncnberg School of Communications, University of Sou hem California

LARRY ROSS Professor of Communications, The ~nenberg School of Communications, University of ennsylvania

SHELDO MEYER Senior Vice~President, Editor'aI, Oxford University Press

MAURICE B. MITCHELL Former President an Editorial Director, Encyclopaedia Brita nica, Inc., Chicago

WILBUR S HRAMM Director Emeritus, Institute for Commun'cations Research, Stanford University, and Distinguished Center Researcher E eritus, East-West Center, Honolulu

TOBIA L. ORTH Former Editor, Encyclopedia Section, Pro essional and Reference Book Division, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York

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Editorial and Production Staff

AT THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA

Editorial Director Tobia L. Worth

Assistant Editors Harold Branam Lee Ann Draud Pedro F. Hernandez-Ramos Catherine E. Kirkland Deborah Rohr John Ziff

Editing Coordinator Project Manager Lee Ann Draud Robinette M. Dasher-Alston

Art Editor Executive Assistant Gillian M. L. Speeth Carol Welty Faris

Bibliographic Researcher Assistant to the Project Manager Michele A. Belluomini Debra D. Williams

Indexers Administrative Staff and Cheryl Cutrona, Director Computer Operations -s: Michele A. Belluomini Pedro F. Heman- Lessie V. Boyd Sharon Cothran Y' ez- amos:2- Rebekah A. Hendricks V \ I Catherine E. Kirkland Deborah Rohr l

AT OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS, NEW YORK

Executive Editor William Mitchell Senior Project Editor Production Coordinator Marion E. Britt Sarah Flanagan

Managing Editor Book Designer Ellen B. Fuchs Victoria Wong

Copyeditor Graphic Artist Wendy Warren Keebler Jeanyee Wong

Permissions Assistants Layout Artists Allan E. Bulley Sydney G. Recht Woods End Studio, Yonkers, N.Y. ~ ~:J1'j y- _.. ,-: ---!-,"'-'.",--., --. ,'_.,'- "V~{ I CillO' · .; '." :' r

Contents

VOLUME i) (sECTION EDITORS XI

[EDITORIAL ADVISERS xiii

Gi'EFACE, by Erik Barnouw XIX

FOREWORD, by George Gerbner xx0 I'

INTRODUCTION, by Tobia L. Worth xxiii) I

,- lJnternational Encyclopedia of Communications / ~- VOLUME 4\ LDIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS 343

r TOPICAL GUIDE 363 L

(INDEX 371 ~- .. ~' :" Section Editors

TINO BALlO JERROLD S. COOPER GAVRIEL SALOMON Professor of Communication Arts, Professor of Near Eastern Studies, Professor of Education and University of Wisconsin-Madison Johns Hopkins University Communication, Tel-Aviv University and the University of Arizona

ERIK BARNOUW SUSAN EVANS Professor Emeritus of Dramatic Arts, Director of Academic Development, DAN SCHILLER Columbia Universicy The Annenberg School of Associate Professor of Library and Communications, University of Information Science, University of Southern California California, Los Angeles RICHARD BAUMAN Professor of Folklore and Anthropology arid Chair, Folklore Institute, Indiana STEVEN FELD WILBUR SCHRAMM University Associate Professor of Anthropology Director Emeritus, Institute for and Music and Director, Center for Communications Research, Stanford Intercultural Studies in Folklore and University; Distinguished Center LEO BOGART Ethnomusicology, University of Texas Researcher Emerirus, East-West Center, Executive Vice-President and General at Austin Honolulu Manager, Newspaper Advertising Bureau, New York GEORGE GERBNER MICHAEL SILVERSTEIN Professor of Communications and Samuel N. Harper Professor, NOLAN A. BOWIE Dean, The Annenberg School of Departments of Anthropology, Assistant Professor of Communication, Communications, University of Linguistics, and Behavioral Sciences Temple University Pennsylvania (Cognition and Communication) and Comlnittee on Ideas and Methods, University of Chicago DEIRDRE BOYLE LARRY GROSS Senior Faculty Member in Media Professor of Communications, Studies, New School for Social The Annenberg School of ELEANOR SINGER Research, New York; Adjunct Lecrurer, Communications, University of Senior Research Scholar, Center for the Fordham University, College at Lincoln Pennsylvania Social Sciences, Columbia University Center

ADAM KENDON W. JOHN SMITH ASA BRIGGS Anthropologist Professor of Biology and Psychology, Provost, Worcester College. University University of Pennsylvania of Oxford MARK L. KNAPP Professor of Speech Communication, JOEL SNYDER PETER CLARKE University of Texas at Austin Professor of Humanities, University of Professor of Communications and Chicago Dean, The Annenberg School of Communications, University of WILLIAM J. MCGUIRE Southern California Professor of Psychology, Yale JOHN STURROCK University Editor, Times Literary Suppiemellt, London GEORGE COMSTOCK S. 1. Newhouse Professor of Public Commu!1icarions, Syracuse University

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Editorial Advisers J

I iELIE ABEL GIOVANNI BECHELLONI JAY G. BLUMLER Harry and Norman Chandler Professor Professor of Sociology of Cultural Director, Centre for Television of Communication, Stanford University Processes, Universita degli Studi, Research, University of Leeds; Associate Florence Director, Center for Research in Public Communication, YEHIA ABOUBAKR University of Maryland at College Park President, International Information HOWARD S. BECKER and Communications Consultants, MacArthur Professor of Arts and Cairo, Egypt, and West Windsor, N.]. Sciences, Northwestern University S. T. KWAME BOAFO Lecturer, School of Communication Studies, University of Ghana BINOD C. AGRAWAL JORG BECKER Scientist, Development and Educational Professor of Political Sciences, Communication Unit, Space Technische Hochschule Darmstadt; MIHAl C. BOTEZ Application Centre, Indian Space Director, KomTech. Center for r Senior Researcher, Mathematics and Research Organisation, Ahmedabad Communication and Technology Policy Analysis, Universitatea Bucure~ti Research, Frankfurt RUDOLF ARNHEIM ANNE W. BRANSCOMB Professor Emeritus of the Psychology of DANIEL BELL Adjunct Professor of International Law, Art, Harvard University . Henry Ford II Professor of Social Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy, Sciences, Harvard University Tufts University ~ .'--" WALTER S. BAER Director of Advanced Technology, LEONARD BERKOWITZ ROGER W. BROWN Times ~jrcor Company, Los Angeles Vilas Research Professor in Psychology, John Lindsley Professor of Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Madison Harvard University BEN H. BAGDIKIAN Dean, Graduate School of Journalism, BASIL BERNSTEIN WILLIAM F. BUCKLEY, JR. University of California, Berkeley Karl Mannheim Professor in the Editor, National Review, New York Sociology of Education, Institute of Education, University of London BISHARA A. BAHBAH ROBERT W. BURCHFIELD Adjunct Professor of Political Science, Former Chief Editor, Oxford English Brigham Young University; former JOHN BLACKING Dictionaries, Oxford University Press, Editor in Chief, AI·Pa;r, Jerusalem Professor of Social Anthropology, Oxford Queen's University of Belfast FRANCIS BALLE PETER BURKE Professor of Political Science, Universite CLIFFORD H. BLOCK Reader in Cultural History and Fellow de Paris II (Universite de Droit, Chief, Division of Educational of Emmanuel College, University of d'Economie et des Sciences Sociales); Technology and Development Cambridge Vice~Chancellor, Universites de Paris Communications, United States Agency for International Development, Washington, D.C. NELLY DE CAMARGO ALBERT BANDURA Professor of Communications Theory David Starr Jordan Professor of Social and Communication Policies for Science in Psychology, Stanford Development, Universidade de Sao University Paulo

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... (g~l [xiV / EDITORIAL ADVISERS

MURIEL G. CANTOR DAVID CRYSTAL UMBERTOECO Professor of Sociology, American Honorary Professor of Linguistics, Professor of Semiotics, Universita degli University, Washington, D.C. University College of North Wales Stud!, Bologna

JAMES W. CAREY JONATHAN CULLER ELIZABETH L. EISENSTEIN Dean, College of Communications, Professo,r of English and Comparative Alice Freeman Palmer Professor of University of Illinois at Urbana­ Literature, Cornell University History, University of Michigan, Ann Champaign Arbor

NABIL H. DAJANI THOMAS F. CARNEY Assistant Dean, Faculty of Arts and PHOEBE C. ELLSWORTH Professor of Communication Studies, Sciences, American University of Beirut Professor of Psychology and Professor University of Windsor of Law, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor CHIDANANDA DAS GUPTA STEVEN H. CHAFFEE Arts Editor, The Telegraph, Calcutta ] aoet M. Peck Professor of .-/ HAROLD EVANS International Communication and Editor in Chief, Conde-Nast's Traveler, Chair, Department of Communication, HAROLD DE BOCK New York Stanford University Director, Burke InterNiew B.V., lnsrituut voor Marktinformatie, Amsterdam ITAMAR EVEN-ZOHAR JACK CHEN (CHEN I-WAN) Professor of Poetics and Comparative President, The Pear Garden in the West, Literature, Po.rter Institute for Poetics San Francisco; former Consultant BRENDA L. DERVIN and Semiotics, Tel-Aviv University Editor, Peking Review: Beijing Professor and Chair, Department of Communication, Ohio State University CECILIA VON FEILITZEN NOAM CHOMSKY Senior Researcher, Centrum fOr Institute Professor, Department of JUAN E. DIAZ BORDENAVE Masskommunikationsforskning, Linguistics and Philosophy, / International consultant in Stockholms Universitet; Publik- oeb Massachusetts Institute of Technology communication and education, Rio de programforskningsavdelningen, Sveriges Janeiro Radio

ARTHUR C. CLARKE Chancellor, University of Moratuwa, HENRI GEORGES DIEUZEIDE GLORIA D. FELICIANO Sri Lanka Director, Division of Structures, Professor of Communication, University Content, Methods, and Techniques of of the Philippines; President and Education, UNESCO, Paris Chairman of the Board, International THOMAS C. COCHRAN Social Research and Development Benjamin Franklin Professor Emeritus Foundation, Inc'., Quezon City of History, University of Pennsylvania WIMAL DISSANA YAKE Research Associate 'and Assistant Director, Institute of Culture and WILLIAM F. FORE HERMAN COHEN JEHORAM Communication, East-West Center, Assistant General Secretary for Professor of Intellectual Property, Honolulu Communication, National Council of Media, and Information Law, Churches in the U.S.A., New York Universiteir van Amsterdam WILSON P. DIZARD Senior Fellow, Center for Strategic and JAN FREESE MICHAEL COLE International Studies, Washington, D.C. President and Director-General, Professor of Communications and Datainspektionen, Stockholm Psychology and Director, Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition, ARIEL DORFMAN Univetsity of California, San Diego Chilean essayist and novelist; Visiting OSCAR H. GANDY, JR. Professor of Literature and Latin Associate Professor of Communications, American Studies, Duke University The Annenberg School of PETER COWIE Communications, University of Film historian, London and Helsinki Pennsylvania SERGEI V. DROBASCHENKO Professor of Film Studies and Deputy RITA CRUISE O'BRIEN Director, Cinema Art Institute, Moscow HERBERT J. GANS Fellow, London School of Economics Robert S. Lynd Professor of Sociology, and Political Science, University of Columbia University London

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HOWARD E. GARDNER JAMES D. HALLORAN NEVILLE JAY AWEERA Director of Studies and Planning. Professor of Education and Co­ Professor and Director, Centre for Mass World Association for Christian Director, Project Zero, Harvard Communication Research, University of Communication,London University; Research Psychologist,..-­ Leicester Veterans Administration Medical Center, Boston CEES J. HAMELINK GARTH S. JOWETT Professor of International Professor of Communication, University NICHOLAS GARNHAM Communication, Universiteit van of Houston Professor of Media Studies Amsterdam and Director, Centre for ALEXANDRE V. KARAGANOV Communication and Information Film critic and President, Association of Studies, Polytechnic of Central London SUSUMU HANI Film director, Hani-Production, Tokyo Film Makers of the USSR. Moscow

HENRY GELLER HIDETOSHI KATO Director, Washington Center for Public BENJAMIN HARSHA V Director, National Institute of Policy Research, Duke University (HRUSHOVSKI) Multimedia Education, Chiba Blaustein Professor of Hebrew and Comparative Literature, Yale University HELMUT GERNSHEIM ELIHU KATZ Photo-historian and author; founder of Professor of Sociology and the Gernsheim Collection, University of ERIC A. HAVELOCK Communications. Hebrew University of Texas at Austin; Honorary Adjunct Sterling' Professor Emeritus of Classics, Jerusalem; Distinguished Visiting Professor, History of Art, Arizona State Yale University Professor, The Annenberg School of University Communications, University of Southern California HILDE T. HIMMELWEIT ENRIQUE GONZALEZ MANET Professor Emeritus of Social Professor of Communications, Psychology, London School of F. GERALD KLINE International Institute of Journalism, Economics and Political Science, Professor of Journalism and Mass Havana University of London Communication, University of Minnesota, Twin Ciries NELSON GOODMAN RICHARD HOGGART Professor Emeritus of Philosophy, Professor of English and Director, JULIA KRISTEV A Harvard University Centre for Contemporary Cultural Professor of Linguistics, Universite de Srudies, University of Birmingham Paris VII ROBERTO GRANDI Professor of Mass Communications, NATHAN 1. HUGGINS ALEKSANDER KUMOR Universicl degli Studi, Bologna W. E. B. DuBois Professor of History Professor of Television and Mass and Afro-American Studies and Culture Studies, Instytut Sztuki, Polska Director, W. E. B. DuBois Institute for Akademia Nauk, Warsaw SHELTON A. GUNARATNE Afro-American Research, Harvard Associate Professor of Mass University Communications, Moorhead State GLADYS ENGEL LANG University Ptofessor of Communications and DELL H. HYMES Political Science, University of Prof~ssor of Anthropology and English, Washington BERT HAANSTRA University of Virginia Film producer and director, Laren, The Netherlands KURT LANG SUMIKO IWAO Professor of Communications, Professor of Social Psychology, Keio University of Washington EDWARD T. HALL University Writer; Professor Emeritus of Anthropology, Northwestern University OTTO N. LARSEN SUE CURRY JANSEN Professor Emeritus of Sociology, Assistant Professor of Communications University of Washington STUART HALL Studies, Cedar Crest College and Professor of Sociology, Open Muhlenberg College University, Milton Keynes, England OLGA LINNE Senior Lecturer, Centre for Mass Communication Research, University of Leicester

...... "...... G~ J ! xvi / EDITORIAL ADVISERS [, I VINCENT LOWE ARMAND MATTELART ELISABETH NOELLE-NEUMANN , Associate Professor of Communications, Professor of Infonnation and Professor of Communications Research, Universiri Sains Malaysia Communication Sciences, Universite de Johannes Gutenberg-Universitiit Mainz; Rennes II (Universite de Haute Director, Insritut fUr Demoskopie Bretagne) Allenshach; George Lurey Visiting LEO LOWENTHAL Professor, University of Chicago Professor Emeritus of Sociology, University of California, Berkeley HENRY MAYER Visiting Profe~or of Mass KAARLE NORDENSTRENG Communications, Macquarie Professor of Journalism and Mass EMILE G. MCANANY University; Editor, Media Information Communication, T ampereen Yliopisto Amon G. Carter Centennial Professor Australia, Sydney in Communication, University of Texas at Austin DAVID R. OLSON ANNIE MEAR Co-Director, McLuhan Program in Professor of Communication, Universite Culture and Technology, University of NATHAN MACCOBY de Montreal ' Toronto Professor Emeritus of Communication, Stanford University GABRIELE MELISCHEK ALFRED E. OPUBOR Researcher,' Institut fUr Professor of Mass Communication, MAXWELL E. MCCOMBS Publikumsforschung, Osterreichische University of Lagos Jesse H. Jones Centennial Professor in Akademie der Wissenschaften, Vienna . -----. Communication, University of Texas at Austin LEENA PALDAN WILLIAM H. MELODY Research Fellow, Department of Director, Communication and Journalism and Mass Communication, DENIS MCQUAIL Information Technologies Programme, Tampereen Yliopisto Professor.of Mass Communications, Economic and Social Research Council Universiteit of Great Britain, London van Amsterdam ANTONIO PASQUALI Regional Coordinator for Latin ABRAHAM A. MOLES America and the Caribbean, UNESCO, MAKAMINAN MAKAGIANSAR Director, Institut de Psychologie Sociale Caracas Assistant Director-General for Co­ de la Communication, Universite de Ordination of UNESCO Activities in Strasbourg I (Universite Louis Pasteur) Asia and the Pacific and Direccor, THEODORE B. PETERSON UNESCO Principal Regional Office for Professor Emeritus of Journalism and Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok VINCENT MOSCO Research Professor Emeritus of Professor of Sociology, Queen's Communications: University of Illinois University at Kingston at Urbana-Champaign MIHAILO MARKOVIC Professor of Philosophy, Univerzirer u Beogradu; Adjunct Professor of SERGE MOTARD G. RUSSELL PIPE Philosophy and Political Science, Project Head, Centre International de 1a Publisher, Transnational Data and University of Pennsylvania Communication, Paris Communication Report, Amsterdam and Washington, D.C.

TOMO MARTELANC ES'KIA MPHAHLELE WALER Y PISAREK Professor of Communication, Univetsa Professor of Literature, University of Professor and Director, Osrodek Badan Edvarda Kardelja v Ljubljani; Director, the Witwatersrand Narodna in Univerzitetna Knjiinica, Prasoznawczych (Press Research Ljubljana Center), Cracow HORACE M. NEWCOMB Professor of Radio~Television~Film, EDWARD W. PLOMAN i MUSTAPHA MASMOUDI University of Texas at Austin \ Chairman, Arab Commission for the Program Director, United Nations University, Paris ~~~: ::nication Pwblems. YESHA YAHU NIR Director, Communications Institute, RANDOLPH QUIRK Hebrew University of Jerusalem Vice-~hancellor, University of London ~:ofessor of English, University of Chicago 0 ALEXANDER REID Chair, Octagon Investment Management, Ltd., London

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, .... , ... ~ .- -'., ,.-... -, ... '.--.".' ",." ... - .•...•... ~.~~ EDITORIAL ADVISERS 'f 'x;;0 GIUSEPPE RICHERI DOROTHY G. SINGER YASUMASA TANAKA Director, MaknoMedia, Institute for Professor of Psychology, University of Professor of Social Psychology and Communications Research, Milan Bridgeport; Co-Director, Family Communications, Gakushuin Television Research and Consultation University; Director, Gakushuin Center, Yale University University Computer Center DONALD RICHIE Film historian, T okra JEROME L. SINGER MAJID TEHRANIAN Professor of Psyc.hology and Co­ Professor and Chair, Department of THOMAS S. ROBERTSON Director, Family Television Research Communication, University of Hawaii John and Laura Pomerantz Professor of and Consultation Center, Yale at Manoa Marketing, Wharton School, University University of Pennsylvania .--" . ROMESH THAPAR NATHAN SIVIN Editor and publisher, Seminar, the EVERETT M. ROGERS Professor of Chinese Culture and of the Monthly Symposium, New Delhi Walter H. Annenberg Professor of History of Science, University of Communications, The Annenberg Pennsylvania School of Communications, University OYA TOKGOZ of Southern California Associate Professor of Journalism, TATIANA SLAMA-CAZACU Ankara Universitesi Professor of Psycholinguistics and KARL ERIK ROSENGREN Applied Linguistics, Universitatea Professor of Sociology 1 Lunds Bucure§ti; Editor in Chief, International TRAN VAN DINH Universitet Journal of Psycholinguistics, The Hague Professor of .International Politics and Communications, Temple University RALPH L. ROSNOW ANTHONY SMITH Thaddeus L. Bolton Professor of President, Magdalen College, University GA YE TUCHMAN Psychology, Temple University of Oxford" Professor of Sociology, Queens College and Graduate Center, City University of New York HALUK ~AHIN BARBARA HERRNSTEIN SMITH Associate Professor, University of Braxt.on Craven,Professor of Maryland at College Park; Editor in Comparative Literature and English, JEREMY TUNSTALL Duke University Chief, Nokta, Istanbul Professor,of Sociology, City University, London EDWARD W. SAID JUAN SOMAVIA Parr Professor of English and President, Instituto Latinoamericano de FRANK OKWUADIGBO Estudios Transnacionales, Santiago Comparative Literature, Columbia UGBOAJAH University Senior Lecturer and Research Fellow, JAMES G. STAPPERS Department of Mass Communication, University of Lagos TOMOKAZU SAKAMOTO Professor of. Mass Communication, Adviser, Japan Broadcasting Katholieke Universiteit Nijrnegen Corporation, T okra TEUN A. VAN DIJK--- HENRI STORCK Professor of Discourse Studies, Universitei[ van Amsterdam YOSHlKAZU SAKAMOTO Film director"'and Chair, Center of Professor of Peace Studies, Meiji Films on Art, Brussels Gakuin University JOHN A. VAN ZYL JOHN STURROCK Associate Professor of Film and Television Studies, University of the HERBERT I. SCHILLER Editor, Times Literary Supplement, Wicwatersrand Professor of Communication, University London of California, San Diego HARSONO SUWARDI JOSE VIDAL·BENEYTO General Director of Educacion and BENNO H. SIGNITZER Director, Mass Communication Culture, Council of Europe, Strasbourg Professor of Communications, Research and Development Institute, Universitat Salzburg University of Indonesia ~ IAN P. WATT TAMAs SZECSKO Jackson Eli Reynolds Professor of Director, Tomegkommunikaci6s Humanities, Stanford University Kutat6kozpont, Budapest i 4f CXV~i / EDITORIAL ADVISERS

ANITA WERNER CHARLES R. WRIGHT ZHANG QINGNIAN Professor of Mass Communication, Professor of Communications and Director, English Department, Radio Universitete]fslo Sociology. The Annenberg School of Beijing Communications, University of Pennsylvania ROBERT A. WHITE Research Director. Centre for the Study of Communication and Culture, XU XIONGXIONG London Head, Education Department, China Central Television, Beijing

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Preface J

The ways in which members of the human species perceive and influence one another and envision their own roles in the scheme of things have been changed by a series of momentous innovations, which we now call a communications revolution. The revolution is clearly far from over. But when did it begin? The revolution may be said to have begun when our ancestors started adding word-language to age-old repertoires of gesture, glance, body sigual, touch, grunt, growl, moan, rhythm, intonati9n, melody. With the growth of word-language, humaniry diverged increasingly from fellow species and acquired an oral tradition, tribal memory, and the beginnings of a history. The revolution may be said to have moved through further phases as humans began to record on cave wall, stone tablet, bone, wood, bark, pottery, skin, and plant fibers messages that others might note. As such messages began to use symbol systems for conveying word-language, links with past and future were strengthened. The sense of communiry widened and deepened. Segments of humaniry acquired their special recorded histories bolstered by artifacts, rituals, and sacred records. All this favored the complex evolution of societies and their hierarchies. A further phase came with the devising of mechanisms for the mass production and disrtibution of words, images, and symbols through. printing and paper and all their associated· technologies. The reverberating effects have only gradually been perceived. The wider diffusion of information and ideas, sometimes circumventing those in power, could upset old orthodoxies and bring schisms and shifts in the social order. But it could also be used to consolidate power and extend hegemony. A growing deluge of messages embedded in multiplying languages, literary media, and works of art created larger social linkages as well as divisions. . Each of these phases brought great changes to the human exPerience. Most were spread over eons or centuries, so that few people felt they were living through anything that might be called a revolution. With the phases that followed, the situation has been different. The technologies of the past century, catapulting us from photography, film, telegraphy, telephone, and the broadcast media via video, cable, computer, satellite, and the laser beam into a telecommunications era, have set in motion such startling changes in our institutions and lives that the term communications revolution has become an ever-present realiry to people everywhere. The resulting ferment has also generated a new and rapidly spreading field of academic study under the name communications, which takes as its domain the entire revolution, its social effects, and its meaning for the future. The developments constituting the revolution, shaped largely by the human species itself, have at the same time reshaped it. Modern sociery is to an astonishing extent the constantly evolving product of this revolution. The centraliry of communication in human history has become clear, explaining why such varied disciplines as anthropology, arts, education, ethology, history,. journalism, law, linguistics, philosophy, political science, psychology, and sociology have all gravitated toward the study of communication processes and have collaborated in the creation of the new discipline.

xix ~. rJ xx I PREFACE

The present work, a first effort to define the field in a comprehensive way, got its start in 1982 with a feasibility study under the leadership of George Gerbner of The Annenberg School of Communications, University of Pennsylvania. Within months Oxford University Press had joined the University of Pennsylvania as co­ publisher. By the fall of 1983 a full-time staff was in place; supported by an international structure of editorial advisers and consultants, it began working its way toward an International Encyclopedia of Communications. ' We include in communications all ways in which information, ideas, and attitudes pass among individuals, groups, nations, and generations. We offer entries on the histoties and social roles of media from cuneiform tablets to communication satellites, from the genres of Nineveh to the genres of Hollywood. Other entries examine communication processes from psychological, sociological, anthropological, and other perspectives. Individuals who have enriched our understanding of these processes or who have made pioneering contributions to the evolution of media are discussed throughout the work, in some cases in separate "name entries." The role and infuence of the arts, education, religion, commerce, journalism, politics, and other social activities in the diffusion of ideas are examined, as are the institutions that have grown up around them: libraries, museums, universities, broadcasting systems, advertising agencies, data banks, and telecommunications networks. Roadblocks to communiCation, psychological and societal, are analyzed. The historic communications impact of such develol?ments as exploration, colonization, migration, revolution, and war are considered. A number of entries focus on forms of nonverbal communication-em.phasizing that although each stage in communications history has added new ways of. communicating, all have remained with us, in patterns of ever-growing complexity. Numerous types of animal communication, and the light they throw on human communication, are also examined. Special communications phenomena and problems in various parts of the world are analyzed, and the challenging tasks of intercultural communication form a pervasive theme in the work. A communication system, like the human nervous system, sorts and distributes data and provides for their storage and retrieval. Its signals can evoke memories, rouse emotion, and trigger action. As in a nervous system, aberrations can cause deep disturbances in the organism. Communications scholars concern themselves with everything that may block, disrupt, poison, or distort communication. They strive to understand such aberrations and to further the quest for remedies. In almost all our articles you will find cross-references to others, throwing light on related topics that may in tum lead you to still other topics, a process that should reflect and illuminate the fascinating ramifications of all communication. Following the trails of cross-references, we hope and trust that you will find what you are looking for, and more besides.

ERIK BARNOUW Editor in Chief r

Foreword

Creating the International Encyclopedia of Communications has been a six-year journey of discovery, of worldwide recruittnent and mobilization of talent, of many serendipitous finds and some misses-and, in general, a great in5ellectual adventure. It began on a day in 1982 in my office as Dean of Th~Annenberg School of Communications, University of Pennsylvania, as I sat talking with Tobia Worth of our staff. She had long publishing experience, specializing in encyclopedias, and now wondered whether our field might be ready for 11n important new initiative. She did not have to say it twice. ' Soon afterward I had an opportunity to mention the idea to Walter H. Annenberg, the founder of the Annenberg Schools of Communications. I did not have to say it twice either. Ambassador Annenberg replied instantly. I remember his words: "This is a big-league idea." A feasibility study was launched. Its task was to probeevety aspect of the proposed venture to make certain that, if undertaken, it would be on a sound intellectual foundation. A steering committee, consulting a diversity of scholars, began drafting a conceptual framework that might serve to generate ideas for topics and titles. This framework recognized three ways of approaching the study of communication. Although the reader would not guess it from reading the articles in these volumes, the feasibility study began with this three-phased survey of the field:

1. Communication systems and organizations. The history of communications; its institutions from library and school to data base and television network; public policy and techuology related to communications and culture; the structure, regulation, and social functions of the mass media; theories of social commu­ nication systems. 2. Communication modes, media, and codes. Theories of communication content, information, semiotics, signs, symbols, and the strategies we use in the articula­ tion and interpretation of meaning across modes, media, and codes. Modes comprises such systems as the visual-pictorial, the verbal-lexical, the musical, and the socio-gestural. Media refers to specific means of articulating within modes-such as film and video, painting and drawing, speaking and writing, piano and violin. Codes has to do with specific conventions by which messages are framed in specific media or their genres. These modes, media, and codes can be studied within and across aesthetic, social, cultural, political, and ideo- logical contexts. . 3. Communication behavior and effects. Study of the ways in which people learn and develop the ability to articulate and interpret symbolic behavior; how be­ liefs, attitudes, and public opinions are formed and maintained or changed by a variety of symbolic means ranging from interpersonal interaction to encultur­ ation and socialization through the mass media. Research methods used in such studies.

xxi xxii / FOREWORD

During the fall and winter of 1982-1983 three gatherings of noted communica­ tion scholars were convened, each focusing on one of the above approaches. Now could an encyclopedia of communications fulfill its demands? Each gathering also debated the general feasibility of the proposed encyclopedia, how it might serve the field, what form it should take (alphabetical or thematic), what its scope should be, what users it might seek to serve. In each of these gatherings, the intense discussion was dominated by the following concerns: (1) to build a work of enduring value, (2) to make this work international in scope by virtue of both its contributors and its coverage, (3) to draw on the work of leading scholars and practitioners in their special areas of knowledge, (4) to draw from the arts and social sciences those interests that could best be seen, or reinterpeted, in the context of communications, and (5) to use the dimension of history, through both direct narrative and biography, to convey the solidity of the field at a time when technology is soaring and reintegration of knowledge seems vital. Early in each of the meetings, words of caution were heard. Was this the time? In view of the momentous growth of the field, was the project practical-or quixotic? Was it premature? But during the hours and days of discussion, skepticism vanished and a broad consensus developed. Crearion of an encyclopedia of com­ munications was considered both feasible and timely. By great good fortune, the leadership of our chbice became enthusiastically committed to the project. Media historian Erik Barnouw JOIned as Editor in Chief; a founder of the field of communications study, the late Wilbur Schramm, as Consulting Editor; Larry Gross, whose ttuly encyclopedic scholarship infused many aspects of this work, as Associate Editor; and Tobia L. Worth, originator of the idea and manager of the project, as Editorial Director. It was decided that concentrating on basic long-range trends and processes would be the best way to avoid early obsolescence in a rapidly changing, technology­ driven field. It was also determined that the work should be addressed to college students, scholars, professionals, and educated laypersons. Physically it would be a four-volume set, printed in two colors, of about 1.2 million words, with approxi­ mately 1,200 illustrations. A tentative schedule envisioned a five-year timetable culminating in a 1988-1989 publication date. The work is being published on schedule. The International Encyclopedia of Communications is an attempt to define, reflect, summarize, and explain the field in an accessible, comprehensive, and authoritative way. It signals a new stage in the development of the field of communications as an area of knowledge, study, practice, technique, and research, and as an academic discipline. On behalf of the Editorial Board, I want to thank for their contributions and support Ambassadors Walter Annenberg and Lee Annenberg, the other Trustees and officers of The Annenberg School and the University of Pennsylvania, a very able editorial staff, our publishing partners at Oxford University Press, and the dedicated members of the feasibility study groups, almost all of whom subsequently participated as contributors, editors, or advisers, appearing in lists elsewhere in these volumes.

GEORGE GERBNER Chair, Editorial Board I

r

Directory of Contributors

r-;~I,'\'~BOUBAKR MAHADEV L. APTE BARBARA A. BABCOCK i President, International Information and Professor of Anthropology, Duke Professor of English, University of . Communications Consultants~ Cairo, University Arizqna Egypt, and West Windsor, N.J. HUMOR ARTIFACT ISLAMIC WORLD, TWENTIETH CENTURY

MICHAEL ARGYLE EUGEN BAE~ ROGER D. ABRAHAMS Reader in Social Psychology and Fellow Professor of Philosophy, Hobart and Professor of Folklore and Folklife, of Wolfson College, University of William Smith Colleges University of Pennsylvania Oxford COMMUNICATION, PHILOSOPHIES OF INSULT SOCIAL SKILLS

BEN H. BAGDIKIAN JAMES S. ACKERMAN RUDOLF ARNHEIM Dean, Graduate School of Journalism,. Arthur Kingsley Porter Professor of Fine Professor Emeritus of the Psychology of University of California, Berkeley Arts, Harvard University Art, Harvard University MONOPOLY RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE ,.-- RICHARD P. BAGOZZI HAZARD ADAMS CARROLL C. ARNOLD Dwight F. Benton Professor of Professor of English and Comparative Professor Emeritus of Speech Marketing and Professor of Literature, University of Washington Communication, Pennsylvania State Behavioral Science in Management, uttRARY CRITICISM University University of Michigan, Ann Arbor RHETORIC ATTITUDES

JEANNE THOMAS ALLEN Associate Professor of Communications. PETER D. ARNOTI BISHARA A. BAHBAH Temple University Professor of Drama, Tufts University Adjunct Professor of Political Science, ~RNOFF, DAVID; ZWORYK::f"LADIMIR PUPpETRY Brigham Young University; former Editor in Chief, At-Fair, Jerusalem NEWSPAPER: TRENDS-TRENDS IN mE PERRY J. ASHLEY MIDDLE EAST DUDLEY ANDREW Professor of Journalism, University of Professor of Comparative Literarure and South Carolina Director, Institute for Cinema and BENNETT, JAMES GORDON; GREELEY, ROBERT BALAY Culture, University of Iowa HORACE Reference Editor, Choice Magazine. FILM THEORY New York BABBAGE, CHARLES; KELLER, HELEN; DEREK ATIRIDGE LAND, EDWIN; MORSE, SAMUEL F. S.; PAUL A. V. ANSAH Professor of English, Rutgers University, OCHS, ADOLPH S.; WEBSTER, NOAH; Associate Professor and Director, New Brunswick ZENGER, JOHN PETER School of Communication Studies, POETRY University of Ghana AFRICA, TWENTIETH CENTURY TINO BALlO RALPH A. AUSTEN Professor of Communication Arts, Professor of African History, University University of Wisconsin-Madison VALENTINE APPEL of Chicago HOLLYWOOD; ZUKOR, ADOLPH Senior Vice-President, Backer Spielvogel AFRICA, PRECOLONIAL Bates Inc., New York -- MOTIVATION RESEARCH

343 rl 344 / DIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS

0LBERT BANDURA . KARIN E. BECKER JOHN BLACKING i David Starr Jordan Professor of SOClal Associate Professor of Journalism and Professor of Social Anthropology, ! Science in Psychology, Stanford Mass Communication, University of Queen's University of Belfast University Iowa ETHNOMUSICOLOGY SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY PHOTOJOURNALISM

STEPHEN BLUM ALAN W. BARNEIT COLIN G. BEER Professor of Ethnomusicology, Graduate Professor of Humanities, San Jose State Professor of Psychology, Institute of Center, City University of New York University Animal. Behavior, Rutgers University, MUSIC HISTORY MURAL Newark DARWIN,CHARLESj ETHOLOGY JAY G. BLUMLER JOHN BARNICOAT Director, Centre for Television Pro~Rector, London Institute, and GERARD HENRI BEHAGUE Research, University of Leeds; Head, Chelsea School of Art, London Professor of Ethnomusicology and Associate Director, Center for POSTER Chair, Department of Music, Research in Public Communication, University of Texas at Austin University of Maryland at College MUSIC PERFORMANCE Park ERIK BARNOUW PRESSURE GROUP Professor Emeritus of Dramatic Arts, Columbia University LUIS RAMIRO BELTRAN S. DOCUMENTARY; ENTERTAINMENT; Bolivian communication specialist and S. T. KWAME BOAFO LASKER, ALBERT; LUMIERE, LOUIS AND scholar, Quito Lecturer, School of Communication AUGUSTE; MUSICAL, fILM-BOMBAY DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION­ Studies, University of Ghana GENRE; SOAP OPERA; SPONSOR; ALTERNATIVE SYSTEMS KENYATIA, JOMO; NKRUMAH, KWAME SYNDICATION; TELEVISION HISTORY­ EARLY PERIOD; WELLES, ORSON DAN BEN-AMOS ARTHUR P. BOCHNER Professor of Folklore and Folklife, Professor of Communication, University DENNIS BARON University of Pennsylvania of South Florida Professor of English and Un~istics. FOLKTALE INTERPERSONAL, COMMUNICATION University of Illinois at Urbana­ Champaign LANCUAGE REFERENCE BOOK ARTHUR ASA BERGER LEO BOGART Professor of Broadcast Communication Executive Vice-President and General Arts, San Francisco State University Manager, Newspaper Advertising RICHARD BAUMAN COMMERCIALS Bureau, New York Professor of Folklore and Anthropology ADVERTISING-QVERVIEW and Chair, Folklore Institute, Indiana University NORMAND BERLIN FOLKLORE; PERFOR~CE Professor of English, University of PETER BONDANELLA Massachusetts at Amherst Professor of Italian Studies, Indiana TRAGEDY University JOHN BAYLEY NEOREALISM Thomas Warton Professor of English Literature, Saint Catherine's College, JERRY J. BERMAN University of Oxford Chief Legislative Counsel, ~erican GERALD BORDMAN I: ' FICTION, PORTRAYAL OF CHARACfER IN Civil Liberties Unio~-Washington, Writer, Nottingham, Pa. D.C. MUSIC THEATER-WESTERN TRADITIONS PRIVACY ALAN M.BECK Director, Center for the Interaction of DAVID BORDWELL Animals and Society, School of JACQUES BERTIN Professor of Communication Arts, Veterinary Medicine, University of Director, Laboratoire de Graphique, University of Wisconsin-Madison Pennsylvania Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences CINEMATOGRAPHY HUMAN-ANIMAL COMMUNICATION Sociales GRAPHICS TOM BOITOMORE HOWARD S. BECKER Professor Emeritus of Sociology, MacArthur Professor of Arts and RAYMOND F. BEITS Universiry.,of Sussex Sciences, Northwestern University Professor of. History, University of ADORNO, THEODOR; GRAMSCI, ARTIST AND SOCIETY Kentucky . ANTONIO; MARX, KARL; MARXIST COLONIZATION THEORIES OF COMMUNICATION­ <' ORIGINS AND DEVELOPMENT

(J~( c..-. tJ DIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS / 345

FAUBION BOWERS GLEN DA VlD BRIN JOHN CAREY Writer, New York Associate, California Space Institute and Director, Greystone Communications, MUSIC THEATER-ASIAN TRADITIONS Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Dobbs Ferry, N.Y. University of California, San Diego INTERACTIVE MEDIA em DEIRDRE BOYLE Senior Faculty Member in Media MARVIN A. CARLSON Studies, New School for Social VIRGINIA L. BROOKS Sidney E. Cohen Professor of Theatre Research, New York; Adjunct Associate Professor of Film, Brooklyn Studies and Distinguished Professor Lecturer, Fordham University, College College, City University of New York of Theatre and Comparative at Lincoln Center PERCEPTION-STILL AND MOVING Literature, Graduate Center, City VIDEO PIcnJRES University of New York THEA1;ER

JOHN G. BRAINERD MARILYN A. BROWN University Professor Emeritus and Group Leader, Evaluation and ROBERT OSKAR CARLSON former Director, Moore School of Technology Transfer, Oak Ridge Associate Professor of Management and Electrical Engineering. University of National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Business Policy, Adelphi University Pennsylvania Tenn. PUBLIC RELATIONS FARADAY, MICHAEL; FARNSWORm, DIFFUSION PHILO; MAXWELL, JAMES NOEL CARROLL J DONALD R. BROWNE Associate Professor of Philosophy, LEO BRAUDY Professor of Speech Communication, Cornell University Leo S. Bing Professor of English, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities FILM EDmNG University of Southern California RADIO, INTERNATIONAL SERIAL JOHN G. CAWELTI EDWARD M. BRUNER Professor of English, University of ERNEST BRAUN Professor of Anthropology, University Kentucky Professor Emeritus, Aston University of Illinois at Urbana~Champaign WESTERN, THE MICROElECTRONICS TOURISM

COURTNEY BORDEN CAZDEN MARTA BRAUN DAYNA E. BUCK Professor of Education, Harvard Professor of Film and Photography, Assistant to the Director, Library University Ryerson Poly technical Insrirute Programs, Office of Educational CLASSROOM MOTION PHOTOGRAPHY Research and Improvement, U.S. Department of Education, Washington, D.C. JANET SALTZMAN CHAFETZ JACK W. BREHM LIBRARY-TRENDS Professor of Sociology, University of Professor of Psychology, University of Houston £:-.---~-'-.,_ Kansas SEXISM-,-()VERVIEW; EXISM IN \ "IA.'£., ... COGNITIVE CONSISTENCY THEORIES PETER BURKE INTERPERSONAL CO • UNICATION ; Reader in Cultural History and Fellow of Emmanuel College, Univ.ersity of \...~ ,:::/-";,>;:~~. C.~;·)'-- ERNST BREISACH Cambridge C. DA VlD CHAFFEE Professor of History, Western Michigan PORTRAITURE Executive Editor, Superconductor Week, University Atlantic Information Services, Inc., HISTORIOGRAPHY Washington, D.C. JOSEPH CADY FIBER OPTICS Member of the Faculty, New School for DONALD BRENNEIS Social Research, New York Professor of Anthropology, ·Pitzer GALLAUDET, THOMAS; JAMES, WlLLLAM; STEVEN H. CHAFFEE College LUTHER, MARTIN; RICHARDS, I. A. Janet M. Peck Professor of International GOSSIP Communication and Chair, Department of Communication, JAMES W. CAREY Stanford University ASA BRIGGS Dean, College of Communications, ELECTION Provost, Worcester College, University University of II1ir.ois at Urbana· of Oxford Champaign CULTURE; PUBLISHING--HISTORY OF INNIS, HAROLD RICHARD M. CHALFEN PUBLISHING Associate Professor of Anthropology, Temple University PHOTOGRAPHY,AMATEUR nIY 346 I DIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS

JEANNE S. CHALL ! TED COHEN JOHN H. D'ARMS Professor of Education and Director, Professor of Philosophy, University of G. F. Else Professor of Classical Studies, Reading Laboratory, Harvard Chicago Professor of History, and Dean, Ji. University REPRESENTATION, PICTORIAL AND H. Rackham School of Graduate READING PHOTOGRAPHIC Studies, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor ROMAN EMPIRE DAVID CHANEY GEORGE COMSTOCK Senior Lecrurer in Sociology, University S. L Newhouse Professor of Public of Durham Communication, Syracuse University REGNA DARNELL MASS OBSERVATION VIOLENCE Professor of Anthropology. University of Alberta SAPIR, EDWARD; WHORF, BENJAMIN LEE MAURICE CHARNEY JOHN CONDON Distinguished Professor of English, Professor of Communication, University Rutgers University, New Brunswick of New Mexico CHlDANANDA DAS GUPTA COMEDY SEMANTICS, GENERAL Arts Editor, The Telegraph, Calcutta ASOKA; GANDHI, MOHANDAS; PHALKE, DHUNDIRAJ GOVIND JACK CHEN (CHEN I·WAN) DAVID A. COOK President, The Pear Garden in the West, Professor of Theater and Film Studies, 'San Francisco; former ConsultanV Emory University DENNIS K. DAVIS Editor, Peking Review, Beijing MOTION PICTURES-SOUND FILM Professor of Speech Communication, CONl'UCIUS; SHIHUANG DI Southern Illinois University at Carbondale JERROLD S. COOPER , OPINION 'LEADER MILTON CHEN Professor of Near Eastern Studies, Johns DirectOr of Instructional T eievision, Hopkins University KQED·San Francisco CUNEIFORM; NINEVEH; WRITING LENNARD ]. DAVIS COMPUTER: IMPACT-IMPACT ON Associate Professor of English, Brandeis EDUCATION University IRVING CRESPI FICTION Consultant, Irving Crespi and CLIFFORD G. CHRISTIANS Associates, Princeton, N.]. Research Professor of Communications, POLL W. PHILLIPS DAVISON University of Illinois at Urbana­ Professor Emeritus of Journalism and Champaign Sociology, Columbia University ETHICS, MEDIA JAMES STEVENS CURL CANTRIL, HADLEY; LIPPMANN, WALTER; Architectural historian, School of PUBLIC OPINION Architecture, Leicester Polytechnic GODWIN C. CHU ART, FUNERARY Assistant Director, Institute of Culture ROBERT DE BEAUGRANDE and Communication, East-West Professor of Linguistics and English, Center, Honolulu ALEXANDER CUTHBERT Institute for the Psychological Study SCHRAMM, WILBUR Assistant Professor of Education, of the Arts, University of Florida Virginia Polytechnic Institute TRANSLATION, LITERARY EDUCATION T. MATTHEW CIOLEK Programmer, Computing Services Unit, JACK DENNIS Research School of Social Sciences, R. P. CUZZORT Hawkins Professor of Political Science, Australian National University Professor of Sociology, University of University of Wisconsin-Madison PROXEMICS; SPATIAL ORGANIZATION Colorado at Boulder POLITICAL SOCIALIZATION DURKHEIM, EMILE; SCHUTZ, ALFRED;

TARDE, JEAN~GABRIEL pEj WEBER, MAX JAY J. COAKLEY DIANA DEUTSCH Professor of Sociology, University of Research Psychologist, University of Colorado at Colorado Springs DANIEL J. CZITROM California, San Diego SPORTS-SPORTS AND THE MEDIA Associate Professor of History, Mount PERCEPTION-MUSIC Holyoke College DEWEY, JOHN JEREMY COHEN WILSON P. DIZARD Assistant Professor of Communication, Senior Fellow, Center f~!"5trategj..sbnd Stanford University International Studie~Washington, LIBEL D.C. TELEVISION HISTORY--GLOBAL DEVELOPMENT

- .--. -.-:--".,~ -."- ".,- a..- n /~ DIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS / 347 / / LUBOMIR DOLEZE,L WILLIAM H. DUTTON WERNER ENNINGER Professor of Slavic and Comparative Associate Professor of Communications Professor of English (Linguistics), Literature, University, of T oconto and Public Administration, University Universitat Essen POETICS of Southern California CLOTHING COMPUTER: IMPACT-IMPACT ON GOVERNMENT; POLITICAL ZOLTAN DOMOTOR COMMUNICATION-IMPACT OF NEW MARTIN L. ERNST Professor of Philosophy, University of MEDIA Vice· President, Arthur D. Little, Inc., Pennsylvania Cambridge, Mass. SYMBQUC LOGIC COMPUTER: IMj?ACT-IMPACT ON RICHARD DYER COMMERCE Senior Lecturer in Film Studies, LEONARD W. DOOB University of Warwick Sterling Professor Emeritus of STARS-THE STAR PHENOMENON DEBORAH L. ESTRIN Psychology, Yale University Assistant Professor of Computer PROPAGANDA Science, University of Southern TERRY EAGLETON California Fellow and Tutor in English, Wadham STANDARDS MARGARET ANNE DOODY College, University of Oxford Professor of English, Princeton BARTHES, ROLAND; BENJAMIN, WALTER; University FOUCAULT, MICHEL; READING THEORY; FRANK B. EVANS REAUSM STRUCTURALISM Deputy Assistant Archivist for Records Administration, National Archives and Records Administration, R. G. DOTY VICTORIA EBIN Washington, D.C. Curator, NauonaI Numismatic Equipe de Recherche en Anthropologie ARCHIVES Collection, National Museum of Urbaine et Industrielle, Ecole des American History, 'Smithsonian Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales Institution, Washington, D.C. BODY DECORATION STUART B. EWEN COINS Professor.... of Media Studies and Chair, Communications Department, Hunter HEYWARD EHRLICH College; Professor of-Sociology, RICHARD B. DU BbFF Associate Professor of English, Rutgers Graduate Center, City University of Professor of Economics, Bryn Mawr University, Newark New York College ROPER, ELMO ADVERTISING-HISTORY OF TELEGRAPHY ADVERTISING

ELIZABETH L. EISENSTEIN STARKEY DUNCAN, JR. Alice Freeman Palmer Professor of BRENDA FARNELL Professor of Behavioral SCiences, History, University of Michigan, Ann Research Assistant, American Indian University of Chicago Arbor Studies Research Institute, Indiana INTERAcrION, FACE-TO-FACE PRINTING--CULTURAL IMPACT OF University PRINTING BODY MOVEMENT NOTATION /' DONALD A. DUNN Professor of Engineering-Economic PAUL EKMAN STEVEN-FELD Systems, Stanford University Professor of Psychology, University of Associate Professor of Anthropology COMPUTER: HISTORY California, San Francisco and Music and Director, Center for FACIAL F,XPRESSION Intercultural Studies in Folklore and Ethnomusicology, University of Texas ALESSANDRO DURANT! at Austin Assistant Professor of Anthropology, JAVIER A. ELGUEA S, MUSIC THEORIES-TUNING SYSTEMS; University of California, Los Angeles Associate Professor of Sociology, SOUND ORATORY Colegio de Mexico WITfGENSTEIN, LUDWIG JOHN L. FELL RAYMOND DURGNAT Professor Emeritus of Film, San Tutor in Cultural History, Royal PHOEBE C. ELLSWORTH Francisco State University College of Art, london Professor of Psychology and Professor MOTIOl"l PICTURES-PREHISTORY SPY FICTION-HISTORY of Law, University of Michigan, Ann Ar~br EYES GARY D, FENSTERMACHER Dean, College of Education, T,lniversity of Arizona EDUCATION )'"'v (V n 348 / DIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS / ~., ! JANE FEUER CORNELIA BUTLER FLORA HANS G. FURTH I Associate Professor of English, Professor of Sociology, Kansas State Professor of Psychology, Catholic 1 University of Pittsburgh University University of America I MUSICAL, FILM-HOLLYWOOD GENRE FOTONOVELA PIAGET, JEAN

I'J RAYMOND FIELDING WILLIAM F. FORE ITZHAK GALNOOR Professor of Communication, University Assistant General Secretary for Professor of Political Science, Hebrew of Houston CommunicatiQn, National Council of University of Jerusalem NEWSREEL; SPECIAL EFFEcrS Churches in the U.S.A., New York SECRECY RELIGIOUS BROADCASTING HOWARD E. GARDNER GARY ALAN FINE Professor of Education and Co-Director, Professor of Sociology, University of ADRIAN FORTY Project Zero, Harvard University; Minnesota, Twin Cities Lecturer, Bartlett School of Architecture Research Psychologist, Veterans FORGERY, ART and Planning, University College Administration Medical Center, London Boston DESIGN MOSES I. FINLEY CHILDREN-DEVELOPMENT OF Professor Emeritus of Ancient History SYMBOLIZATION and Honorary Fellow of Darwin ROBERT A. FOTHERGILL College, University of Cambridge Associate Professor of English, Atkinson NICHOLAS GARNHAM HELLENIC WORLD College, York University Professor of Media Studies and DIARY Director, Centre for Communication and Information Studies, Polytechnic RUTH FINNEGAN of Central London Reader in Comparative Social JOHN G. FOUGHT TELECOMMUNICATIONS POLICY Institutions, Open University, Milton Associate Professor of Linguistics and Keynes, England Director, Language Analysis Project, ORAL POETRY University of Pennsylvania HENRY GEDDES ~ LANGUAGE Associate Researcher, Centro de Estudios sobre Cultura CHARLES M. FIRESTONE Transnacional, Lima Adjunct Professor of Law, University of MARIOS FOURAKIS LATIN AMERICA, TWENTIETH CENTURY California, Los Angeles; attorney, Research Scientist, Central Institute for Mitchell, Silberberg &; Knupp, Los the Deaf, Saint Louis, Mo. Angeles PERCEPTION-SPEECH GEORGE GERBNER MILTON, JOHN Professor of Communications and Dean, The Annenberg School of ALASTAIR FOWLER / Communications, University of B. AUBREY FISHER Regius Professor Emeritus of Rhetoric Pennsylvania Professor of Co~munication, University and English Language, University of COMMUNICATIONS, STUDY OF of Utah Edinburgh; Visiting Professor, GROUP COMMUNICATION University of Virginia GENRE TOMASZ GOBAN-KLAS Associate Professor of Communications, PHILIP FISHER Uniwersytet Jagiellonski Professor of English and American ROBERT A. FRADKIN MINORITY MEDIA Literature, Brandeis University Assistant Profes~or of Hebrew, Brown MUSEUM University JAKOBSON, ROMAN JEFFREY H. GOLDSTEIN Professor of Psychology, Temple JdHN FISKE University Professor of Communication Arts, ALAN J. FRIDLUND SPORTS-PSYCHOLOGY OF SPORTS University of Wisconsin-Madison Assistant Professor of Psychology, CODE University of California, Santa Barbara BARBARA GOMBACH FACIAL EXPRESSION Former Preceptor, Department of JOHN M. FLETCHER Religion, Columbia University Reader in rhe History of European SOUTH ASIA, ANCIENT Universities, Aston University MICHAEL G, FRY UNIVERSITI' , Director, School of International Relations, University of Southern JUDITH GOODE California Professor of Anthropology, Temple DIPLOMACY University FOOD DIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS / 349 ,;- i MARK GOODSON PEKKA GRONOW PAUL HAMILTON , President, Goodson-Todman Director, Suomen Aanitearkisto (Finnish Lecturer in English and Fellow of Productions, New York Institute of Recorded Sound), Exeter College, University of Oxford QUIZ SHOW Hdsinki SYMBOLISM SOUND RECORDING---HISTORY; SOUND RECORDING-INDUSTRY JACK GOODY JOHN G. HANHARDT Fellow of Saint John's College, Curator of Film and Video, Whitney University of Cambridge LARRY GROSS Museum of American Art, New York ORAL CULTURE Professor of Communications, The BUN-UEL, LUIS ~ Annenberg School of Communications, University of ROBERT GORALSKI Pennsylvania PHIL HARRIS Writer, McLean, Va. ART; LEVI-STRAUSS, CLAUDE; MODE CommuJ]ication Consultant, ESPIONAGE International Association for Mass Communication Research, Rome THOMAS GUBACK NEWS AGENCIES MARTIN GORIN Research Professor of Communication, Associate Member, Laboratoire de University of Illinois at Urbana­ Psychologie Sociale, Ecole des Hautes Champaign GALIT HASAN-ROKEM Etudes en Sciences Sociales TELEVISION .HISTORY-WORLD MARKET Senior Lecturer in Hebrew Literature, CROWD BEHAVIOR ' STRUGGLES Hebrew University of Jerusalem PROVERB

JAMESL GOULD MICHAEL A. GUILLEN Professor of Biology, Princeton Instructor in Mathematics and Physics TERENCE HAWKES University in the Core Curriculum Program, Professor of English, University of INSECTS, SOCIAL Harvard University Wales, College of Cardiff MATHEMATICS AUTHORSHIP HENRY F. GRAFF Professor of History, Columbia WILLIAM A. HACHTEN ROBERT P. HAWKINS \ University Professor of Journalism and Mass Professor of Journalism and Mass NAKAHA.J.\fA MANJIRO Communication, University of Communication, University of Wisconsin-Madison Wisconsin-Madison NEWSPAPER: TRENDS-TRENDS IN SELECTIVE RECEPTION JOSEPH F. GRAHAM AFRICA Assisranr Professor of French, Tulane \ University SHIRLEY BRICE HEATH TRANSLATION, THEORIES OF PATRICIA HAGOOD Professor of English and Linguistics, President and Publisher, Oxbridge Stanfort;:l University \ Communications, Inc., New York LANGUAGE IDEOLOGY CHANDLER B. GRANNIS NEWSLETI'ER Contributing Editor, Publishers Weekly, New York PERTTI HEMANDS BAEDEKER, KARL; GUTENBERG, JACK P. HAlLMAN Professor of Journalism and Mass JOHANNES; LUeE, HENRY; Professor of Zoology, University of Communication, T ampereen Yliopisto MERGENTHALER, OTIMAR Wisconsin-Madison NEWSPAPER: TRENDS-TRENDS IN ANIMAL SIGNALS-VISIBLE SIGNALS EUROPE THOMAS A. GREEN Associate Professor of Anthropology STUART HALL STUART HENRY and English, Texas A&M University Professor of Sociology, Open University, Associate Professor of Sociology, RIDDLE Milton Keynes, England Eastern Michigan University IDEOLOGY DECEPTION DONALD GREENE --.- Professor Emeritus of English, JAMES D. HALLORAN EDWARD S. HERMAN University of Southern California Professor and Director, Centre for Mass Professor: of Finance, Wharton School, BIOGRAPHY Communi,earion Research, University University of Pennsylvania of Leicester DISINFORMATION DEMONSTRATION ty"1 e/ 1'1 350 / DIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS

;;;;:DRO F. HERNANDEZ-RAMOS MICHAEL HOLQUIST DIANE JACOBS / ...... Lecrurer, The Annenberg School of Professor of Comparative and Russian Writer, New York Communications, University of Literature, Yale University HITCHCOCK, ALFRED Pennsylvania BAKHTIN, MIKHAIL I DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION- HISTORY AND THEORIES SUE CURRY JANSEN MANTLE HOOD Assistant Professor of Communications Senior Distinguished Professor of Studies, Cedar Crest College and MARCIA HERNDON Ethnomusicology. University of Muhlenberg College Executive Director, Music Research Maryland, Baltimore County CENSORSHIP-NONGOVERNMENT Institute, Hercules. Calif. MUSIC COMPOSITION AND CENSORSHIP SONG IMPROVISATION IAN JARVIE ROBERT D. HESS MAURICE HORN Professor of Philosophy, York Lee L. Jacks Professor Emeritus of Writer and editor, New York University Child Education, Stanford University COMICS MARTIAL ARTS FILM FAMILY ",Ji/ • (i) /ROBERT C. HORNIK ROBERT E. JOHNSTON GORDON W. HEWES <_~/ Professor of Communications, The Professor of Psychology, Cornell Professor of Anthrppoiogy, University Annenberg School of University of Colorado at Boulder Communications, University of ANIMAL SIGNAL5-CHEMICAL SIGNALS BODY MOVEMENT Pennsylvania DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION­ PROJECTS D. B.JONES DELBERT R. HILLERS Professor of Communication, Drexel Professor of Semitic Languages, Johns University Hopkins University • JANE HULTING GRIERSON, JOHN BYBLOS Artistic Director and Conductor, Anna Crusis Choir, Philadelphia MUZAK JANE JORGENSON HILDE T. HIMMELWEIT Assistant Professor of Communications, Professor Emeritus of Social Psychology, Norfolk State University London School of Economics and LINDA HUTCHEON CHERRY, COLIN; VON NEUMANN, JOHN; Political Science, University of Professor of English and Comparative WEAVER, WARREN London Literature, University of Toronto POLITICAl: COMMUNICATION­ INTERTEXTUALITY .---"'-'- BROADCAST DEBATES ESTELLE JUSSIM Professor for Visual Communication, HERBERT H. HYMAN Graduate School of Library and JERRY R. HOBBS Crowell University Professor Emeritus Informacion Science, Simmons Senior Computer Scientist, SRI of the Social Sciences, Wesleyan College International, Menlo Park, Calif. University GRAPHIC REPRODUCTION ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE OPINION MEASUREMENT JOHN S. JUSTESON i JULIAN HOCHBERG JONATHAN B. IMBER Lecturer, Department of Anthropology, i Professor of Psychology, Columbia Associate Professor of Sociology, Stanford University , I University Wellesley College AMERICAS, PRE-COLUMBIAN-:WRiTINGA ! PERCEPTION-STILL AND MOVING PSYCHOANALYSIS; SULLIVAN, HARRY PICTURES STACK ..- ...... ' " ADRIENNE L. KAEPPLER Curator of Oceanic Ethnology, National --- DONALD HOKE STEVEN IZENOUR Museum of Natural History, Executive Director, Outagamie County Senior Associate, Venturi Rauch &; Smithsonian Institutior:fWashington, Historical Society, Inc., Appleton, Scott Brown, Philadelphia; Lecturer, D.C. ( i· Wise. School of Architecture, University of DANCE CLOCK Pennsylvania SIGNAGE FRANK A. KAFKER THOMAS B. HOLMES Professor of History, University of Director, Music Systems Research, PETER P. JACOBI Cincinnati Cherry Hill, N.J. Professor of Journalism, Indiana ENCYCLOPEDIA ELECTRONIC MUSIC; MUSIC MACHINES University NEWSMAGAZINE

~,,.....,'"'.-,--~-:,,.-.. . . '-' . e..­ n DIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS I 351

CHARLES H. KAHN JEFFREY KITTAY DONALD E. KROODSMA Professor of Philosophy, University of Visiting Scholar in Ftench, New York Professor of Zoology, University of Pennsylvania University Massachusetts at Amhersr ARISTOTLE; PLATO PROSE ANIMAL SONG r

DAVID KAHN MICHAEL J. KLEIN JOHN B. KUIPER Great Neck, N.Y. Ptoject Manager, SETI Project, Jet Chair, Division of Radioffelevisionl CRYPTOLOGY Propulsion Laboratory, California Film, University of North Texas Institute of Technology ARCHIVES, FILM em AARON H. KATCHER Associate Professor of Psychiatry, WILLIAM A. LAD USA W University of Pennsylvania HANNAH KLIGER Assistant Professor of Linguistics, HUMAN·ANIMAL COMMUNICATION Assistant Professor of Judaic and Near Cowell College, University of Eastern Studies and Assistant California, Santa Cruz Professor of Communication, SEMANTICS ELIHU KATZ University of Massachusetts at Professor of Sociology and Amherst Communications, Hebrew University JUDAISM PNINALAHAV of Jerusalem; Distinguished Visiting Professor of Law, Boston University Professor, The Annenberg School of CENSORSHIP--GOVERNMENT Communications, University of PETER H. KLOPFER CENSORSHIP Southern California Professor of Zoology, Duke University MASS MEDIA EFFECTS BATESON, GREGORY; MEAD, MARGARET ~ ",,/'- ZVILAMM Professor of Education, Hebrew ADAMKENDON MARK L. KNAPP University of Jerusalem Anthropologist Professor of Speech Communication, SCHOOL GESTURE;" KINESICS; NONVERBAL University of Texas at Austin COMMUNICATION; SIGN LANGUAGE­ SPEECH OVERVIEW; SIGN LANGUAGE­ DAN LANDIS ALTERNATE SIGN LANGUAGES Professor of Psychology, University of PAUL J. KORSHIN Mississippi t .,' Professor of English, University of INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION¥ j MAX R. KENWORTHY Pennsylvania Philatelic Research Assistant, American JOHNSON, SAMUEL Philatelic Research Library, State GLADYS ENGEL LANG ·College, Pa. Professor of Communi~ations and POSTAL SERVICE; STAMPS CHERIS KRAMARAE Political Science, University of Professor of Speech Communication, Washington University of Illinois at Urbana· PLEBISCITE; POLmCAL SYMBOLS EDITH W. KING Champaign Professor of Education, University of FEMINIST THEORIES OF Denver COMMUNICATION KURT LANG DURKHEIM, EMILE; SCHUTZ, ALFRED; Professo; of Communications, TARDE, JEAN·GABRIEL DE; WEBER, MAX University of Washington KLAUS KRIPPENDORFF COMMUNICATIONS RESEARCH: ORIGINS CATHERINE E. KIRKLAND Professor of Communications, The AND DEVELOPMENT; POLITICAL Annenberg School of Philadelphia, Pa. SYMBOLS Communications, University of ENTERTAINMENT Pennsylvania CONTENT ANALYSIS; CYBERNETICS; RALPH W. LARKIN BARBARA KIRSHENBLATT­ INFORMATION THEORY; SHANNON, Research consultant, Academic GIMBLETT CLAUDE Research Consulting Service, New Professor of Performance Studies, Tisch York School of the Arts, New York REVOLUTION University S. KRlSHNASWAMY TOURISM Film and television producer·director, Madras MAGALI SARFATTI LARSON MUSICAL, FILM-BOMBAY GENRE; Professor of Sociology , Temple EVA FEDER KITTAY MYTHOLOGICAL FILM, ASIAN University Associate Professor of Philosophy, State PROFESSION University of New York at Stony Brook METAPHOR v n 352 / DIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS ~

D. L. LEMAHIEU ALAN LOMAX DENIS MCQUAIL Professor of History. Lake Forest Director, Cantometrics and Professor of Mass Communications, College Choreometrics Project, Department of Universiteit van Amsterdam PALEY, WltUAM Anthropology, and Director, Center MASS COMMUNICATIONS RESEARCH". for the Social Sciences, Columbia MODELS OF COMMUNICATION University JOHN A. LENT CANTOMETRICS; CHOREOMETRICS Professor of Communications, Temple FRANK E. MANNING University Professor of Anthropology, University NEWSPAPER: TRENDS-TRENDS IN ASIA TREVOR LUMMIS of Western Ontario Historian and writer, London SPECTACLE ORAL HISTORY JANET LEVER Pew Memorial Trust Fellow, RAND/ JOSEPH MARGOLIS UCLA Center for Health Policy SEAN MACBRIDE Professor of Philosophy, Temple Study, Santa Monica, Calif. President Emeritus, International Peace University SPORTS-SPORTS AND SOCIElY Bureau, Geneva; former Chair, AESTHETICS UNESCO International Commission for the Study of Communication STEPHEN C. LEVINSON Problems CAROLYN MARVIN Lecturer in Linguistics. King's College, NEW INTERNATIONAL INFORMATION Associate Professor of Communications, University of Cambridge ORDER The Annenberg School of CONVERSATION Communications, University of Pennsylvania MAXWELL E. MCCOMBS CITIZENS BAND RADIO; LITERACY GEORGE H. LEWIS Jesse H. Jones Centennial Professor in Professor of Sociology, University of the Communication, University of Texas Pacific at Austin ANNEJ. MATHEWS TASTE CULTURES AGENDA·SEITING Director, Ubrary Programs, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, U.S. Department of JAY LEYDA THELMA MCCORMACK Education, Washington, D.C. Pinewood Professor of Cinema Studies, Professor of Sociology, York University LIBRARY-TRENDS Tisch School of the Arts. New York PORNOGRAPHY University EISENSTEIN, SERGEI MYRON MATLAW JAMES c. MCCROSKEY Professor Emeritus of English, Queens Professor of Communication Studies, College, City University of New York LAWRENCE LICHTY West Virginia University DRAMA-HISTORY Professor of Radio, Television, and SPEECH ANXIETY Film, Northwestern University RADIO ARMAND MATTELART TERESA M. MCDEVITT ProfesSor of Information and Assistant Professor of Educational Communication Sciences, Universite JOHN LIGGETT Psychology, University of Northern de R~nnes II (Universite de Haute Senior Lecturer in Psychology, Colorado Bretagne) University of Wales, College of FAMILY MARXIST THEORIES OF Cardiff COMMUNlCATION-TIiIRD WORLD FACE APPROACHES -' JOHN HO(MES MCDOWELL Associate Professor of Folklore, Indiana KENNETH J. LIPARTITO University PHILIP B. MEGGS Assistant Professor of History, SPEECH PLAY Professor of Communication Arts and University of Houston Design, Virginia Commonwealth TELEPHONE University /~ J. N. MCGOVERN TOPOGRAPHY Professor Eme'ritus of Forestry, ELIZABETH F. LOFTUS University of Wisconsin-Madison Professor of Psychology, University of WRITING MATERIALS WILLIAM H. MELODY Washington Director, Communication and TESTIMONYi Information Technologies WILLIAM J. MCGUIRE Programme, Economic and Social Professor of Psychology, Yale University Research Council of Great Britain, PERSUASION London TELECOMMUNICATIONS NETWORKS a...­ n DIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS / 353

HELDON MEYER MICHAEL T. MOTLEY ABRAHAM NOSNIK " Senior Vice~President, Editorial, Oxford Professor of Rhetoric and Lecturer, Institute TecnoI6gico University Press, New York Communication, University of Aut6nomo de Mexico, Mexico City ~ California, Davis COOLEY, CHARLES HORTON; MEAD, I RENOIR, JEAN i SLIPS OF THE TONGUE GEORGE HERBERT; MORRIS, CHARLES; ! PEIRCE, CHARLES S. LOUIS T. MILIC Professor of English, Cleveland State HAMID MOWLANA University Professor and Director, International ELINOR OCHS STILE, LITERARY Communication Program, School of Professor of Linguistics, University of I Southern California International Service, American University, Washington, D.C. LANGUAGE ACQUISITION ABRAHAM H. MILLER INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS Professor of Political Science, University of Cincinnati JOHN J. OHALA TERRORISM WILLIAM ARTHUR MUNFORD Professor of Linguistics, University of Librarian Emeritus, National Library California, Berkeley for the Blind, Stockport, England PHONOLOGY JAMES MILLER LIBRARY-HISTORY Associate Professor of Com'munications, Hampshire College, Amherst, Mass. WILLIAM M. O'NEIL CABLE TELEVISION WILLIAM T. MURPHY Professor Emeritus of Psychology, / J 'fi i- Chief, Motion Picture, Sound; and University of Sydney Video Branch, National Ar~hive!fand CALENDAR JAMES D. MILLER Records AdministrationJ'Washington, Director of Research, Central Institute D.C. for the Deaf, Saint Louis, Mo. FLAHERTY,ROBERT HARRIET OSTER PERCEPTION-SPEECH Associate Professor of Psychology, Derner Institute, Adelphi University KAY MUSSELL FACIAL EXPRESSION ANDREW W. MIRACLE Professor of Literature and American Professor of Anthropology, Texas Studies, American University, Christian University Washington, D.C. DAN O'SULLIVAN PLAY ROMANCE, THE Head, History Department, Prior ,/ Pursglove College, Guisborough, England MICHAEL MORGAN / JOSEPH NAVEH EXPLORATION Associate Professor of Communication, Professor of West Semitic Epigraphy University of Massachusetts at and Palaeography, Hebrew University Amhersr of Jerusalem DAVID 1. PALETZ CULTIVATION ANALYSIS ALPHABET Professor of Political Science, Duke University POLITICIZATIQN TESSA MORRIS·SUZUKI RICHARD ALAN NELSON Senior Lecturer in Economic History, Associate Professor of Communication, University of New England, University of Houston EDWARD 1. PALMER Armidale, N.S.W., Australia PATHE, CHARLES Senior Research Fellow, Children's COMPUTER: IMPACT-IMPACT ON THE Television 'Workshop, New York WORK FORCE EDUCATIONAL TELEVISION OTTFRIED NEUBECKER President, Wappen-HEROLD, Deutsche VINCENT MOSCO Heraldische Gesellschaft, Stuttgart JERRY PALMER Professor of Sociology, Queen's HERALDRY Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Art, City of University at Kingston London Polytechnic COMPUTER: IMPACT-IMPACT ON MYSTERY AND DETECTIVE fiCTION; Spy MILITARY AFFAIRS; VIDEOTEX DAND.NIMMO fICTION-THEMES Professor of Communication, University of Oklahoma SERGE MOSCOVICI LOBBYING DAVID A. PARISER Professor of Social Psychology, Ecole Associate Professor of Art Education, des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Concordia University Sociales CHRISTIAN NORBERG-SCHULZ CHILD ART CROWD BEHAVIOR Professor of Architecture, Arkitekthdgskolen Oslo ARCHITEcruRE 6/ r\ 354 I DIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS

(BARBARA PARKER THEODORE B. PETERSON ERIC RABKIN / Adjunct Lecturer and Assistant Professor Emeritus of Journalism and Professor of Engltsh Language and f Research Scientist in Anthropology, Research Professor Emeritus of Literature, University of Michigan, ( University of Michigan, Ann Arbor Communications, University of Ann Arbor. GENDER Illinois at Urbana-Champaign SCIENCE FICTION MAGAZINE

ASKO PARPOLA • ROY A. RAPP~Rt Professor of South Asian Studies, RICHARD PILCHER Leslie A. White Collegiate Professor of Helsingen YlioPisto Instructor in Theater, Baltimore School Anthropology, University of INDUS SCRIPT for the Arts Michigan, Ann Arbor BARNUM, PHINEAS T.; BERGMAN, RITUAL INGMARj CHAPLIN, CHARLES; DISNEY, RAPHAEL PATAI WALT; WELLES, ORSON Professor Emeritus of Anthropology, JAMES A. RAWLEY Fairleigh Dickinson University Professor of History. University of DIASPQRA EDWARD W. PLOMAN Nebraska, Lincoln Program Director, United Nations SLAVE TRADE, AFRICAN University, Paris MILES L. PATTERSON SATELLITE Professor of Psychology, University of MICHAEL L. RAY Missouri-Saint Louis Professor of Marketing and INTERPERSONAL DISTANCE DAVID F. POLTRACK Communication, Stanford University Vice-President of Marketing, CBS CONSUMER RESEARCH Television Network, New York JOHN ALLEN PAULOS RATING SYSTEMS: RADIO AND Professor of Mathematics, Temple TELEVISION W. CHARLES REDDING University Professor Emeritus of Communication, NUMBER Purdue University JEREMY D. POPKIN ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION / Professor of History, University of MORSE PECKHAM Kentucky Professor Emeritus of English and PAMPHLET FERNANDO REYES MAITA Comparative Literature, University of Director of Communication Research, South Carolina Instituto Latinoameri~no de Estudios ROMANTICISM MARK POSTER Transnacionaies, Santiago Professor of History, University of NEWSPAPER: TRENDS-TRENDS IN LATIN California, Irvine AMERICA JERZY PELC UTOPIAS Professor of Logical Semiotics, Uniwersytet Warszawski TIMOTHY RICE SIGNj SIGN SYSTEM SIEGBERT S. PRAWER Associate Professor of Music, University Taylor Professor Emeritus of the of Toronto German Language and Literature, MUSIC TIlEORIES--QVERVIEW W. KEITH PERCNAL Queen's College, University of Professor of Linguistics, University of Oxford Kansas HORROR FILM DONALD RICHIE SAUSSURE, FERDINAND DE Film historian, T okro BENSHI; KUROSAWA, AKIRA; OZU, DAVID PREMAC)< YASUJIRO WILLIAM H. PERKINS Professor of Psychology, University of Professor of Communication Arts and Pennsylvania Sciences, Otolaryngology, and Speech COGNITION, ANIMAL BERTHOLD RIESE Science and Technology, University of Professor of American Anchropology, Southern California Freie Universitat Berlin SPEECH AND LANGUAGE DISORDERS GERALD PRINCE AMERICAS, PRE-COLUMBIAN­ Professor of Romance Languages, COMMUNICATIONS University of Pennsylvania I STEPHEN PERLOFF NARRATIVE Editor. Photo Review,langhorne. Pa. BARBARA RINGER \ NIEPCE. JOSEPH-NlcEPHORE Former Register of Copyrights and LINDA L. PUTNAM Assistant Librarian of Congress for Professor of Communication, Purdue Copyright Services. Washington, D.C. University COPYRIGHy, BARGAINING

'. J ,~_ {. :.->

,-'! { , ,.\ " "L(T,".\ ! Qcf e.....- n DIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS / 355

i~EENROACH CATHY ROOT BERTRAND SAUZIER Assistant Professor of Communications, Researcher, American Film Institute, Filmmaker, Calcutta (\.....A...I Fordham University Los Angeles VERTOV, DZIGA .-J J NEW IN'I'ERNATIONAL INFORMATION STAR~STAR SYSTEM ( ORDER MARIANNE SAWICKI . KARL ERIK ROSENGREN Alexander Campbell Hopkins Chair of JOSEPH R. ROACH Professor of Socioldgy, Lunds Religious Education, Lexington Associate Professor of Drama and Universitet Theological Seminary, Lexington, K~. English, Washington University CULTURAL INDICATORS HOMILETICS AcnNG

ALAN ROSENTHAL RICHARD SCHECHNER Professor of Performance Studies, Tisch DONALD F. ROBERTS Filmmaker; Communications Institute, Professor of Communication and Hebrew University of Jerusalem School of the Arts, New York University Director, Institute for Communication CINEMA VERITE Research, Stanford University DRAMA-PERFORMANCE CHILDREN-MEDIA EFFECTS FRANZ ROSENTHAL Sterling Professor Emeritus of Near DAN SCHILLER Associate Professor of Library and ARTHUR H. ROBINSON Eastern Languages, Yale University Lawrence Martin Professor Emeritus of Information Science, University of ISLAM, CLASSICAL AND MEDIEVAL ERAS Cartography, University of California, Los Angdes Wisconsin-Madison COMPUTER: IMPACT-oVERVIEW; CARTOGRAPHY; MAP PRO]ECfION MARK W. ROSKILL NEWSPAPER: TRENDS-TRENDS IN Professor of the History of Modem Art, NORTH AMERICA University of Massachusetts at i JOHN P. ROBINSON Amherst ! Professor of Sociology, University of ICONOGRAPHY HERBERT l. SCHILLER Maryland at College Park Professor of Communication, University I LEISURE; OPINION LEADER of California, San Diego ! BILLY I. ROSS COMPUTER: IMPACT-IMPACT ON THE Professor of Mass Communications, WORLD ECONOMY ! MICHAEL J. ROBINSON Texas Tech University Associate Professor of Government, CLASSIFIED ADVERTISING I Georgetown Univers~ty DENISE SCHMANDT-BESSERAT GOVERNMENT·MEDIA RELATIONS Professor of Middle Eastern Studies, ANYA PETERSON ROYCE University of Texas at Austin Professor of Anthropology and Music, CLAY TOKENS EVERETT M. ROGERS Indiana University Walter H. Annenberg Professor of MIME Communications, The Annenberg ! WILBUR SCHRAMM ! Director Emeritus, Institute for I School of Communications, University of Southern California Communications Research, Stanford BERNARD RUBIN University; Distinguished Center NETWORK ANALYSIS Professor of Governmental Affairs and Researcher Emeritus. East-West Communication. Boston University Center, Honolulu MINORITIES IN THE MEDIA AUDIOVISUAL EDUCATiON; PAT ROGERS / De Bartolo Professor in the Liberal COMMUNICATIONS, STUDY OF; Arts, University of South Florida JAY RUBY DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION­ HISTORY AND THEORIES; GALLUP, I - LETrER Associate Professor of Anthropology, GEORGE; HOVLAND, CARL; LASSWELL. Temple University 'I HAROLD D.; LEWIN. KURT; PALIMPSEST; , I ETHNOGRAPHIC FILM SUZANNE ROMAINE PARK, ROBERTj SILK ROAD; SLEEPER Merton Professor of the English EFFECT Language, Merton College, University WILLIAM H. RUECKERT of Oxford Professor of English, State University of LANGUAGE VARIETIES ROBERT J. SCHREIBER New York College at Geneseo Research consultant, Stamford, Conn. BURKE,KENNETH / PRINT-AUDIENCE MEASUREMENT RAFAEL-­ RONCAGLIOLO Director. Centro de Estudios sabre Cultura Transnacional, Lima; Vice­ GAVRIEL SALOMON MICHAEL SCHUDSON Professor of Education and President, International Association Professor of Sociology and Communication, Tel-Aviv University for Mass Communication Research. Communication, University of and the University of Arizona Lima California, San Diego CHILDREN-USE OF MEDIA LATIN AMERICA, TWENTIETH CENTURY POLITICAL COMMUNICATION-HISTORY /;; / '356 / DIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS

I .JOCHEN SCHULTE-SASSE ELEANOR SINGER JOEL SNYDER I Professor of Comparative Literature, Senior Research Scholar, Center for the Professor of Humanities, University o( II University of Minnesota, Twin Cities Social Scienl:;es, Columbia University Chicago AVANTwGARDE BANDWAGON EFFECTS; RUMOR PHOTOGRAPHY r

BARBARA W. SEARLE MARVIN A. SIRBU LOUIS L. SNYDER Education specialist, World Bank, Associate Professor of Engineering and .Professor Emeritus of History, City Washington, D.C. Public Policy and Industrial University of New York EVALUATION RESEARCH Administration, Carnegie·MeIlon GOEBBELS, JOSEPH University STANDARDS JOHN W. SEYBOLD CHARLES SOLOMON Publisher, Seybold Publications, Inc., Animation historian, Santa Monica, Media. Pa. NATHAN SIVIN Calif. ELECTRONIC PUBLISHING ___/" Professor of Chinese Culture and of the ANIMATION History of Science, University of Pennsylvania ROBERT LEWIS SHAYON EAST ASIA, ANCIENT PETER L. SPAIN Professor Emeritus of Communications, Operations Officer, Academy for The Annenberg School of Ed';lcational Development, Communications, University of STEPHEN M. SLA WEK Washington, D.C. Pennsylvania Assistant Professor of Music, University EVALUATION RESEARCH TELEVISION NEWS of Texas at Austin MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS HARTLEY S. SPATT JOHN SHEPHERD Associate Professor of English, Professor of Music and Sociology, R. C. SMAIL Maritime College, State University of Carleton University Fellow of Sidney Sussex College, New York MUSIC, POPULAR University of Cambridge ARMSTRONG, EDWIN H.; BELL, CRUSADES, THE ALEXANDER GRAHAM; DAGUERRE, LOUIS; DE FOREST, LEE; EASTMAN, JOEL SHERZER GEORGE; EDISON, THOMAS ALVA; Professor of Anthropology and NINIAN SMART FESSENDEN, REGINALD; LOCKE, JOHN; Linguistics, University of Texas at Professor of Religious Studies, MARCONI, GUGLIELMO; REITH, JOHN; Austin University of Lancaster and SIMMEL, GEORG SPEAKING, ETHNOGRAPHY OF University of California, Santa Barbara RELIGION JAMES R. SQUIRE MARSHA SIEFERT Former Senior Vice-President, Silver Editor, Journal of Communication, Burdett & Ginn, Lexington, Mass. University of Pennsylvania ANTHONY SMITH TEXTBOOK OPERA President, Magdalen Colftege, University of Oxford GOVERNMENT REGULATION STEVEN A. STAHL MALCOLM O. SILLARS Associate Professor of Elementary Professor of Communication, University Education and Reading, Western of Utah W. JOHN SMITH Illinois University PUBLIC SPEAKING Professor of Biology and Psychology, READING University of Pennsylvania ANIMAL COMMUNICATION; ANIMAL DAVID L. SILLS SIGNALS--OVERVIEW FREDERICK STEIER Executive Associate, Social Science Associate Professor of Engineering Research COWlcil, New York; Editor, Management and Associate Director; International Encyclopedia of the DALLAS W. SMYTHE Center for Cybernetics Studies in Social Sciences Professor Emeritus of Communications, Complex Systems, Old Dominion LAZARSFELD. PAUL F. Simon Fraser University University SPECTRUM WIENER, NORBERT SCOTT SIMMON Curator, Mary Pickford Theater, CATHERINE E. SNOW SUSAN J. STEINBERG Library of Congress, Washington, Professor of Human Development and American and Commonwealrh Studies D.C. Psychology, Harvard University Bibliographer, Sterling Memorial GRIFFITH, D. W. CHILDREN-DEVELOPMENT OF Library, Yale University COMMUNICATION DIDEROT, DENIS v t1 DIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS I 357

£TER STEINER PIERRE SWIGGERS ELIZABETH TONKIN Associate Professor of Slavic Languages Research Fellow, Fonds National de la Senior Lecturer in Social Anthropology, and Chair, Comparative Literature Recherche Scientifique, Brussels Centre of West African Srudies, and Literary Theory Program, LINGUISTICS University of Birmingham University of Pennsylvania MASK SEMIOTICS YASUMASA TANAKA Professor of Social Psychology and DAVID TRACY BRIAN STOCK Communications, Gakushuin Distinguished Service Professor and Senior Fellow, Pontifical Institute of University; Director, Gakushuin Greely Chair in Catholic Studies, Mediaeval Studies, T oconto University Computer Center Divinity School, University of MIDDLE AGES OSGOOD, CHARLES; SEMANTIC Chicago DIFFERENTIAL INTERPRETATION BEVERLY J. STOELTJE Associate Professor of Folklore, Indiana JOHNTEBBEl DANIEL H. TRAISTER I University Professor Emerirus of Journalism, New Assistant Director of Libtaries for FESTIVAL York University Special Collections, Van Pelt Library, BEAVERBROOK, 1ST BARON; DAY, University of Pennsylvania BENJAMIN H.j HEARST, WILLIAM BOOK WILLIAM C. STOKOE RANDOLPH; NEWSPAPER: HISTORY; Editor, Sign Language Studies, Silver NORTHCLIFFE, ALFRED; PULITZER, Spring. Md. / JOSEPH; SCRIPPS,C) TRAN VAN DINH SIGN LANGUAGE-PRIMARY SIGN Profe~sor of International Politics and LANGUAGES Communications, Temple University DENNIS TEDlOCK ASIA, TWENTIETH CENTURY McNulty Professor of English, State GEORGE C. STONEY University of New York at Buffalo Professor of Film and Television, Tisch ETHNOPOETICS ANDREW F. TUDOR School of the Ans, New York Senior Lecturer in Sociology, University University of York CITIZEN ACCESS STEPHEN THAYER EXPRESSIONISM Professor of Psychology, City College and Graduate Center, City University lAWRENCE H. STREICHER of New York DAVID G. TUERCK Director, Lawrence Streicher Associates, ,TOUCH Professor and Chair, Department of Chicago Economics, Suffolk University, Boston CARICATURE ADVERTISING-ADVERTISING KRISTIN THOMPSON ECONOMICS Honorary Fellow, Department of JOHN STURROCK Communication Arts, University of Editor, Times Literary Supplement, Wisconsin-Madison JOSEPH G. roROW London MOTION PICTURES-SILENT ERA Associate Professor of Communications, AUTOBIOGRAPHY The Annenberg School of Communications, University of JEFF TODD TITON Pennsylvania DAVID SUMMERS Professor of Music, Brown University PUBLISHING-INDUSTRY William R. Kenan, Jr., Professor of the MUSIC, FOLK AND TRADITIONAL History of Art, University of Virginia " VISUAL IMAGE MICHAEL TWYMAN YOSHIHIKO TOKUMARU Professor of Typography & Graphic Professor of Musicology. and Communication, University of FREDERICK SUPPE - Comparative Arts Studies, Reading Professor of Philosophy, University of Ochanomizu University PRINTING-HISTORY i\, Maryland at College Park MUSIC THEORIES-NOTATIONS AND CLASSIFICATION LITERACY ZENO VENDlER Professor of Philosophy, University of ,,/]0;:';" SUTHERLAND JANE TOMPKINS California. San Diego Professor of Literature, California Professor of English, Duke University MEANING Instirute of Technology LITERARY CANON LITERATURE, POPULAR / ---- PASCAL VERNUS Professor of Philology, Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPHS cI 11 358 / DIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS

RIAN VICKERS JAMES V. WERTSCH RAYMOND H. WILLIAMS Professor of English and Renaissance Professor of Communication, University Professor Emeritus of Drama and 0 Literature, Eidgenossische Technische of California, San Diego Fellow of Jesus College, University of ; Hochschule ZUrich COGNITION; LURIA, ALEKSANDR; Cambridge I CLASSICISM VYGOTSKY, LEV FACT AND FICTION I AMOS VOGEL DAVID MANNING WHITE MICHAEL WILLMORTH / Professor of Communications, The Professor Emeritus of Mass Lecturer, The Annenberg School of Annenberg School of Communication, Virginia Communications, University of 1' Communications, University of Commonwealth University Pennsylvania Pennsylvania LOWENTHAL, LEO SOUND EFFECTS AVANT·GARDE FILM ---'-- I PAUL WHITE SYEN WINDAHL ,I THOMAS WAS OW Senior Lecturer in Geography and Sub­ Associate Professor of Information i Professor of Linguistics and Philosophy, I Dean, Faculty of Social Sciences, Techniques. Lunds Universitet and Stanford University University of Sheffield Hogskolan i Vhjo i GRAMMAR MIGRATION MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

HIROSHI WATANABE PETER B. WHITE YVES WINKIN Professor of Law, University of Tokyo Senior Lecturer and Chair, Centre for Associate Professor of Communication, TOKUGAWA ERA: SECLUSION POLICY the Srudy of Educational Universite de I'Etat a Liege Communica:tion and Media, La Trobe GOFFMAN, ERVING University, Bundoora, Vic., Australia ALAN WATSON AUSTRALASIA, TWENTIETH CENTURY University Professor of Law, University BRIAN WINSTON of Pennsylvania Dean, School of Communications, LAW AND COMMUNICATION HARRY WIENER Pennsylvania State University Director of Professional Information, MCLUHAN, MARSHALL Pfizer Pharmaceuticals, New York THOMAS WAUGH SMELL Associate Professor of Film Studies, MERLIN C. WITTROCK Concordia University Professor of Education and Head, IVENS, lORIS RONNIE B. WILBUR Division of Educational Psychology, Professor of Linguistics, Department of University of California, Los Angeles Audiology and Speech Sciences, TEACHING WILLIAM M. WEILBACHER Purdue University President, Bismark Corporation, New SIGN LANGUAGE-MANUAL LANGUAGE York CODES ROBERT WOODS ADVERTISING-ADVERTISING AGENCY Senior Lecturer in Geography, University of Sheffield R. HAYEN WILEY MIGRATION GARY L. WELLS Professor of Biology, University of Professor of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Alberta ANIMAL SIGNALS-AUDIBLE SIGNALS ALAN N. WOOLFOLK TESTIMONY Assistant Professor of Sociology and Anthropology, University of Southern ALAN WILLIAMS Mississippi JAMES M. WELLS Associate Professor of French and FREUD, SIGMUND; lUNG, CARL Custodian Emeritus, John M. Wing Cinema Studies, Rutgers University, Foundation on the Hiscory of New Brunswick Printing, Newberry Library, Chicago NEW WAVE FILM CHARLESR. WRIGHT CAXTON, WILLIAM Professor of Communications and Sociology, The Annenberg School of MARTHA E. WILLIAMS Communications, University of R. ]. ZWI WERBLOWSKY Professor of Information Science, Pennsylvania Martin Buber Professor of Comparative University of Illinois at Urbana­ FUNCTIONAL,ANALYSIS; HYMAN, Religion, Hebrew University of Champaign HERBERT H.; MERTON, ROBERT K. Jerusalem DATA BASE SCRIPTURE v V 11 DIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS / 359 ~TER WUNDERMAN DAVID ZAREFSKY YASSEN NIKOLAEVICH \ Chairman. Wunderman Worldwide, Professor of Communication Studies ZASSOURSKY and Dean, School of Speech, Professor of American Literature and ~ DI~:~ ~~;:ONSE MARKETING __ Northwestern University Dean, Faculty of Journalism, Moscow FORENSICS M. V. Lomonosov State University NEWSPAPER: TRENDS-TRENDS IN THE ' SOVIET PRESS

(,/11 - Topical Guide

:s:::. \A-\- ~ \,-v-j: <~ ",a\ , ",' -1\,,,--,, C "'-L'-\,L' 0 ~8di;:r;69 anicles"are here grouped under the following headings, each of which represents a major field of interest in the evolving communications discipline:

Advenising and Public Relations Media Ancient World Middle Ages Animal Communication Motion Pictures Area Studies Music Arts No.qverbal Communication Communications Research Photography • Computer Era Political Communication Education Print Media~ Folklore Radio Government Regulation Religion Institutions Speech International Communication Television Journalism Theater Language and Linguistics Theories of Communication Literature

Articles relevant to more than one field may be listed under several headings. Titles of articles that offer a comprehensive view of a field or an important segment of it are shown in italics. (/

/ ADVERTISING AND PUBLIC Public Opinion Calendar ! RELATIONS Pit-blie Relations Cicero Advertising Radio Clay Tokens Bandwagon Effects Sponsor Confucius Barnum, Phineas T. Television History Cuneiform Classified Advertising Other relevant articles under COM­ East Asia, Ancient Commercials MUNICATIONS RESEARCH; POLITI­ Egyptian Hieroglyphs Consumer Research CAL COMMUNICATION Hellenic World I Day, Benjamin A Script Indus Direct Response Marketing Judaism ~! Lasker, Albert Nineveh ANCIENT WORLD McLuhan, Marshall Number Models of Communication Africa, Precolonial Palimpsest Motivation Resea~ch Alphabet Plato Newspaper: Hisrory Americas, Pre-Columbian Roman Empire Newspaper: Trends Aristotle Shihuang Di Persuasion Asoka South Asia, Ancient Pressure Group Byblos Writing L 361 M 362 / TOPICAL GUIDE

ANIMAL COMMUNICATION Classicism Crowd Behavior Code Cultivation Analysis Animal Communication Comics Cultural Indicators Animal Signals Dance Diffusion Animal Song Design Evaluation Research Cognition, Animal Expressionism Functional Analysis Darwin, Charles Forgery, Art Gender Ethology Genre Group Communication Human-Animal Communication Graphic Reproduction Human-Animal Communication Insects, Social Graphics Interaction, Face-to-Face Other relevant articles under COM­ Heraldry Interactive Media MUNICATIONS RESEARCH; NON­ Iconography Intercultural Communication VERBAL COMMUNICATION Mask Interpersonal Communication Mode Leisure Literacy AREA STUDIES Mural Museum Mass Communications Research Africa, Precolonial Narrative Mass Media Effects Africa, Twentieth Century Opera Mass Observation Americas, Pre-Columbian Oral Poetry Models of Communication Asia, Twentieth Century Perception Motivation Research Australasia, Twentieth Century Photography Network Analysis East Asia, Ancient Poetry Opinion Leader HeJlenic World Portraiture Opinion NJeasurement Islam, Classical and Medieval Eras Poster Oral Culture Islamic World, Twentieth Century Realism Organizational Communication Latin America, Twentieth Century Religion Perception Marxist Theories of ComrtlUnica- Renaissance Performance tion Representation, Pictorial and Pho- Persuasion 2. Third World Approaches tographic Play Middle Ages Ritual Poll Music Theater Romanticism Pornography 1. Western Traditions Sculpture Profession 2. Asian Traditions Signage Propaganda Mythological Film, Asian Spectacle Public Opinion Newspaper: Trends Symbolism Revolution 1. Trends in Africa Taste Cultures Rumor 2. Trends in Asia Typography Selective Reception 3 . Trends in Europe Video Sexism 4. Trends in Latin America Visual Image Sleeper Effect 5. Trends in the Middle East Other relevant articles under LITER­ Sound 6. Trends in North America ATURE; MEDIA; MOTION PIC­ Testimony 7. Trends in the Soviet Press TURES; MUSIC; PHOTOGRAPHY; Tourism Roman Empire TELEVISION; THEATER Violence South Asia, Ancient Other relevant articles under Television History ANIMAL COMMUNICATION; LAN­ 2. Global Development GUAGE AND LINGUISTICS; NONw COMMUNICATIONS RESEARCH VERBAL COMMUNICATION; Agenda-Setting POLITICAL COMMUNICATION; ARTS Attitudes THEORIES OF COMMUNICATION; THEORISTS Aesthetics Bandwagon Effects Architecture Cantometrics Art Choreometrics Classification Art, Funerary COMPUTER ERA Artifact Cognition Artist and Society Communications Research: Artificial Intelligence Avant-Garde Origins and Development CETI Consumer Research Computer: History Content Analysis Computer: Impact Conversation Copyright .;1 ~. n'" TOPICAL GUIDE / 363

- 3. Challenge of the Communica- Reading Government-Media Relations tions Revolution Reading Theory Government Regulation Cryptology School Law and Communication Cybernetics Social Skills Libel Data Base Teaching Lobbying Direct Response Marketing Textbook Monopoly Electronic Music University Political Communication Electronic Publishing Video Pornography Espionage Webster, Noah Privacy Fiber Optics Other relevant articles under LAN- Propaganda Graphics GUAGE AND LINGUISTICS; SPEECH Radio Interactive Media Radio, International Ubrary FOLKLORE Secrecy 2. Trends Spectrum Art Mathematics Standards Art, Funerary Microelectronics Telecommunications Policy Artifact Newspaper: Trends Telegraphy Calendar Political Communication Telephone Ethnopoetics 2. Impact of New Media Television History Festival Satellite Textbook Folklore Science Fiction Other relevant articles under IN- Folktale Special Effects TERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION; Food T e!ecommunications Networks PRINT MED,IA Gender Telecommunications Policy Gesture Video INSTITUTIONS Gossip Videotex Heraldry Advertising Other relevant articles under THEO- Humor 3. Advertising Agency RISTS Iconography Archives Insult Archives, Film EDUCATION Mask Cable Television Metaphor Data Base Aristotle Mime Family Audiovisual Education Music, Folk and Traditional Hollywood Book Narrative International Organizations Children Oral Culture Library Classroom Oral History Magazine Cognition Oral Poetry Museum Computer: Impact Performance Muzak 4. Impact on Education Play News Agencies Confucius Proverb Newsmagazine Dewey, John Riddle Newspaper: History Durkheim, Emile Ritual Newsreel Education Spectacle Postal Service Educational T eIevision Western, The Pressure Group Encyclopedia Other relevant articles under LAN- Publishing Ethnographic Film GUAGE AND LINGUISTICS; RELI- Rating Systems: Radio and Tele- Family GION vision Gallaudet, Thomas Religion Keller, Helen GOVERNMENT REGULATION School Language Acquisition Sponsor Language Reference Book Advertising Telecommunications Networks Library Calendar Theater Literacy Censorship University Mass Media Effects Citizen Access Mead, Margaret Computer: History INTERNATIONAL Museum Copyright COMMUNICATION Piaget, Jean Education Plato Election Baedeker, Karl Play Goebbels, Joseph Cartography

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364I'l:OPICAL GUIDE

Coins Mergenthaler, Ottmar Language Reference Book Colonization Minorities in the Media Language Varieties Computer: Impact Minoriry Media Levi-Strauss, Claude Crusades, The Monopoly Linguistics Cryptology News Agencies Luria, Aleksandr Deception Newsletter Meaning Development Communication Newsmagazine Metaphor Diaspora Newspaper: History Mode Diplomacy Newspaper: Trends Morris, Charles Disinformation Newsreel Oral Culture Espionage Nkrumah, Kwame Phonology Exploration N orrhcliffe, Alfred Piaget, Jean Gandhi, Mohandas Ochs, Adolph" Prose International Organizations Pathe, Charles Richards, l. A. Map Projection Photojournalism Sapir, Edward Marconi, Guglielmo Poll Saussure, Ferdinand de Migration Print-Audience Measurement Semantic Differential Nakahama Manjiro Printing Semantics New International Information Order Publishing Semantics, General News Agencies Pulitzer, Joseph Semiotics Polo, Marco Radio Sexism Radio, International Reith, John Sigu Language Reirh, John Roper, Elmo Structuralism Religion Scripps, E. W. Symbolism' Silk Road Sports Vygorsky, Lev Slave Trade, African 2. Sports and the Media Webster, Noah South Asia, Ancient Syndication Whorf, Benjamin Lee Spectrum Television News Wittgenstein, Ludwig Telegraphy Zenger, John Peter Other relevant articles under LITER-~) ) Television History Other relevant articles under AD­ ATURE; SPEECH ;f~j 2. Global Development VERTISING AND PUBLIC RELA­ 3. World Market Struggles ~IONS; GOVERNMENT .::1------­ Television News REGULATION; INTERNATIONAL LITERATURE Tokugawa Era: Seclusion Policy COMMUNICATION; POLITICAL Authorship ~~ Tourism COMMUNICATION Autobiography '; Translation, Literary Barthes, Roland Writing Biography Writing Materials Book LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS Other relevant articles under AN­ Caxton, William CIENT WORLD; AREA STUDIES; Alphabet Classicism JOURNALISM; LANGUAGE AND Barthes, Roland Copyright LINGUISTICS Bateson, Gregory Culture Burke, Kenneth Diary Diderot, Denis JOURNALISM Children 1. Development of Communica­ Encyclopedia Beaverbrook, 1st Baron tion Ethnopoetics . Bennett, James Gordon 2. Development of Symbolization Fact and Fiction Comics Classification Fiction Day, Benjamin "- Code Fiction, Portrayal of Character in Electronic Publishing Cognition Folktale Gallup, George Ethnopoetics Fotonovela Goebbels, loseph Feminist Theories of Communica- Genre Gov~rnment~Media Relations tion Gutenberg, Johannes Greeley, Horace Foucault, Michel Interpretation Hearst, William Randolph Grammar . Intertextuality Kenyatta, Jorna Johnson, Samuel Johnson, Samuel Lippmann, Walter Language Letter Luce, Henry Language Acquisition Library Magazine Language Ideology Literacy fI TOPICAL GUIDE / 365

Literary Canon Television History Edison, Thomas A Literary Criticism Television News Eisenstein, Sergei '1\ Literature, Popular Typography Ethnographic Film Lowenthal, Leo Video Film Editing I Mystery and Detective Fiction Videotex Film Theory Narrative Writing Flaherty, Robert Poetics Writing Materials Grierson, John Poetry Other relevant articles under ARTS; Griffith, D. W. Printing JOURNALISM; LITERATURE; MO­ Hitchcock, Alfred Prose TION PICTURES; PRINT MEDIA; Hollywood Publishing THEATER HotrorFilm Reading Ivens, Joris Reading Theory Kurosawa, Akira Realism MIDDLE AGES Lumiere, Louis and Auguste Romance, The Africa, Precolonial Martial Arts Film Romanticism Americas, Pre-Columbian Motion Pictures Science Fiction Book Musical, Film ! Scripture Clock Mythological Film, Asian Serial Crusades, The Neorealism Spy Fiction Diaspora New Wave Film I Style, Literary Exploration Newsreel Taste Cultures Festival Ozu, Yasujiro I Translation, Literary Gutenberg, Johannes Pathe, Charles Translation, Theories of Heraldry Phalke, Dhundiraj Govind Utopias Homiletics Pornography Other relevant

Radio Daguerre, Louis PRINT MEDIA Song Documentary Beaverbrook, 1st Baron Sound Eastman, George Bennett, James Gordon Sound Recording Ethnographic Film Book Fotonovela ,./\~ Caricature Graphic Reproduction Cartography NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION Land, Edwin Caxton, William Luce, Henry Classified Advertising Acting Lumiere, Louis and Auguste Comics Bateson, Gregory Mead, Margaret Boas, Franz Copyright Morse, Samuel F. B. Day, Benjamin H. Body Decoration Motion Photography Body Movement Electronic Publishing Morion Pictures Body Movement Notation Encyclopedia Niepce, Joseph-Nicephore Fotonovela Children Photography 1. Development of Communica- Graphic Reproduction Photography, Amateur tion Graphics Photojournalism 2. Development of Symbolization Greeley. Horace Pornography Choreometrics Gutenberg, Johannes Portraiture Clothing Hearst, William Randolph Representation, Pictorial and Code Lippmann, Walter Photographic Dance Luce, Henry Television News Darwin, Charles Magazine Video Deception Mergenthaler, Ottmar Visual Image Eyes Minorities in the Media Face Minority Media Facial Expression News Agencies Food POLmCAL COMMUNICATION Newsletter Freud, Sigmund Newsmagazine Gallaudet, Thomas Agenda-Setting Newspaper: History Gandhi, Mohandas Bandwagon Effects Newspaper: Trends Gesture Bargaining Northcliffe, Alfred Goffman, Erving Citizen Access Ochs, Adolph S. Heraldry Demonstration Pamphlet Interaction, Face-to-Face Diplomacy Park, Robert Interpersonal Distance Disinformation Photojournalism Keller, Helen Election Print-Audience Measurement Kinesics Forensics Printing Mask Goebbels, Joseph Publishing Mead, Margaret Government-Media Relations Pulitzer, Joseph Nonverbal Communication Government Regulation Scripps, E. W. Proxemics Ideology Textbook Sign Language Lobbying Typography Smell Pamphlet Spatial Organization Plebiscite Political Communication Touch RADIO Other relevant articles under ANI- Political Socialization MAL COMMUNICATION; ARTS; Political Symbols Advertising COMMUNICATIONS RESEARCH; Politicization Armstrong, Edwin H. MUSIC Poll Cantril, Hadley Poster CETI Pressure Group Citizen Access PHOTOGRAPHY Propaganda Citizens Band Radio Revolution Commercials Art , Spectacle De Forest, Lee Audiovisual Education Terrorism Development Communication Bateson, Gregory Other relevant articles under AD- 3. Projects Choreometrics VERTISING AND PUBLIC RELA- Faraday, Michael Cinema Verite TlONS; INTERNATIONAL Fessenden, Reginald Cinematography COMMUNICATION; SPEECH Grierson, John TOPICAL GUIDE / 367

Innis, Harold Forensics Video Lasker, Albert Grammar Zworykin, Vladimir K. Lazarsfeld, Paul F. Group Communication Other relevant articles under AD­ Marconi, Guglielmo Homiletics VERTISING AND PUBLIC RELA­ Maxwell, James Interpretation TIONS; COMMUNICATIONS Minority Media Oral CuI ture RESEARCH; GOVERNMENT REGU­ Paley, William Oral History LATION; MOTION PICTURES; PO­ Public Speaking Oral Poerry LITICAL COMMUNICATION Radio Oratory Radio, International Perception Reith, John 2. Speech THEATER Religious Broadcasting Performance Acting Sarnoff, David Persuasion Aristotle Soap Opera Phonology Choreometrics Sound Effects Public Speaking Comedy Sound Recording Rhetoric Dance 2. Industry Slips of the Tongue Drama Welles, Orson Sound Festival Other relevant articles under COM­ Sound Recording Mime MUNICATIONS RESEARCH; GOV~ Speaking, Ethnography of Music Theater ERNMENT REGULATION; Speech Opera POLITICAL COMMUNICATION Speech and Language Disorders Performance Speech Anxiety Puppetry Speech Play Sound Effects REUGION Telephone Spectacle Asoka Testimony Theater Calendar Other relevant articles under FOLK- i Tragedy Censorship LOREj LANGUAGE AND LINGUIS­ Welles, Orson Colonization TICS; THEATER Other relevant articles under MO­ Confucius TION PICTURES; TELEVISION Crusades, The Culture TELEVISION THEORIES OF Diaspora Cable Television COMMUNICATION Festival Children Homiletics 3. Use of Media Cognitive Consistency Theories Islam, Classical and Medieval Eras 4. Media Effects Communication, Philosophies of Islamic World, Twentieth Century Commercials Communications, Study of Judaism Documentary Computer: Impact Luther, Marrin Educational Television Cybernetics Middle Ages Entertainment Development Communication Music History Fact and Fiction 1. History and Theories Mythological Film, Asian Farnsworth, Philo Ethics, Media Phalke, Dhundiraj Govind Government-Media Relations Fact and Fiction Print~ng Hollywood Feminist Theories of Communica- 2. Cultural Impact of Printing Interactive Media tion Religion Quiz Show Gender Religious Broadcasting Rating Systems: Radio and Tele- Historiography Renaissance vision information Theory Ritual Religious Broadcasting 'Marxist Theories of Communica- Scripture Sarnoff, David tion Sculpture Satellite Meaning Spectacle Schramm, Wilbur Mode Other relevant articles under ARTSj Soap Opera Models of Communication FOLKLORE Sponsor Music Theories Sports Poetics SPEECH Stars Psychoanalysis Telecommunications Networks Reading Theory Bell, Alexander Graham Television History Sexism Conversation Television News Sign ,..,

368 / TOPICAL GUIDE

Sign System Dewey, John Merton, Robert K. Social Cognitive Theory Durkheim, Emile Milton, John Structuralism Foucault, Michel Morris,' Charles Symbolic Logic Freud, Sigmund Osgood, Charles Utopias Goffman, Erving Park, Robert Other relevant articles under COM­ Gramsci, Antonio Peirce, Charles S. MUNICATIONS RESEARCH; THEO­ Hovland, Carl Piaget, Jean RISTS Hyman, Herbert H. Plato Innis, Harold Richards, l. A. Sapir, Edward THEORISTS Jakobson, Roman James, William Saussure, Ferdinand de Adorno, Theodor Jung, Carl Schramm, Wilbur Aristotle Lasswell, Harold D. Schurz, Alfred Babbage, Charles Lazarsfeld, Paul F. Shannon, Claude Bakhtin, Mikhail Levi-Strauss, Claude Simmei, Georg Barthes. Roland Lewin, Kurt Sullivan, Harry Stack Bateson, Gregory Lippmann, Walter Tarde, Jean-Gabriel de Benjamin, Walter Locke, John Von Neumann, John Boas, Franz Lowenthal, Leo Vygotsky, Lev Burke, Kenneth Luria, Aleksandr Weaver, Warren Cantril, Hadley McLuhan, Marshall Weber, Max Cherry, Colin Marx, Karl Wharf, Benjamin Lee Cooley, Charles Horron Mead, George Herbert Wiener, Norbert Darwin, Charles Mead, Margaret Wittgenstein, Ludwig

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