- International Encyclopedia of ~ Communications , ,c' • ) • "·Y' ' •.. ' •. -'-.,.- .. THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA The International Encyclopedia of Communications was conceived, developed, and edited at ]­ The Annenberg School of Communications, University of Pennsylvania. 1-'-/ · .'. I·· International·-· Encyclopedia of Communications ERIK BARNOUW GEORGE GERBNER Editor in Chief Chair. Editorial Board WILBUR SCHRAMM TOBIA L. WORTH LARRY GROSS Consulting Editor Editorial Director Associate Editor • Volume 1 --_._.-. __ ._._. __ .. ~----------- Published jointly with r' THE ANNENBERG SCHOOL OF COMMUNICATIONS, University of Pennsylvania OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS New York Oxford r- ~ I-'ll Oxford University Press Oxford New York Toronm Delhi Bombay Calcutta Madras Karachi Petaling Jaya Singapore Hong Kong Tokyo Nairobi Dar es Salaam Cape Town Melbourne Auckland and associated companies in Berlin Ibadan _ Copyright © 198~ the Trustees of th~1Lniv_ersitr of Pennsylvania Published jointly by --, The Annenberg School of Communicatio~ University of Pennsylvania, and Oxford University Press, Inc., 200 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016 Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced. ~ stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,l electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, ~ without the prior permission of Oxford University Press. Library of Congress Cataloging~in~Publication Data International encyclopedia of communications / Erik Barnouw, editor~in·ehief ... let al.l. p. em. "Published joindy with the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia." Bibliography: p. Includes index. 1. Communication-Dictionaries. I. Barnouw, Erik, 1908- P87.5.15 1989 00!.51'0321 ....,!c19 88·18132 CIP G!~.... 17 ISBN 0·19·504994·2 (set) ,-,.-----------1 I" ISBN O·19·505802·X (vol.)DJ Acknowledgments of sources of illustrative materials appear in captions throughout this work. Conscientious efforts have been made to locate owners of copyrights on illustrative materials and to seeure their permission to use them therein. If any illustration has been inadvertently used without proper acknowledgment of its source, the publishers invite notification by copyright owners so that a correction can be made in future printings. 246897531 l Printed in the United States ofAmerica on aeid~free paper . ~ - \ aq-fA ,- 4· . ,~'-, --- .. ,. -- I!J r Y'l Editori 1 Board ------, GEORGE GE BNER, Chair Professor of Communications and Dean, e Annenberg School of Communications, University of ennsylvania DAVID A OOLL Editorial Director, Refer nee and Ge'neral13ooks, Oxford Uni ersity Press Professor Emeritus of Drama 'c Arts, Columbia University PETER Professor of Communications and Dean, e Anncnberg School of Communications, University of Sou hem California LARRY ROSS Professor of Communications, The ~nenberg School of Communications, University of ennsylvania SHELDO MEYER Senior Vice~President, Editor'aI, Oxford University Press MAURICE B. MITCHELL Former President an Editorial Director, Encyclopaedia Brita nica, Inc., Chicago WILBUR S HRAMM Director Emeritus, Institute for Commun'cations Research, Stanford University, and Distinguished Center Researcher E eritus, East-West Center, Honolulu TOBIA L. ORTH Former Editor, Encyclopedia Section, Pro essional and Reference Book Division, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York / \.JAc I-Lj .. ,'., ..... r I! 'I' v Ij" Editorial and Production Staff AT THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA Editorial Director Tobia L. Worth Assistant Editors Harold Branam Lee Ann Draud Pedro F. Hernandez-Ramos Catherine E. Kirkland Deborah Rohr John Ziff Editing Coordinator Project Manager Lee Ann Draud Robinette M. Dasher-Alston Art Editor Executive Assistant Gillian M. L. Speeth Carol Welty Faris Bibliographic Researcher Assistant to the Project Manager Michele A. Belluomini Debra D. Williams Indexers Administrative Staff and Cheryl Cutrona, Director Computer Operations -s: Michele A. Belluomini Pedro F. Heman- Lessie V. Boyd Sharon Cothran Y' ez- amos:2- Rebekah A. Hendricks V \ I Catherine E. Kirkland Deborah Rohr l AT OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS, NEW YORK Executive Editor William Mitchell Senior Project Editor Production Coordinator Marion E. Britt Sarah Flanagan Managing Editor Book Designer Ellen B. Fuchs Victoria Wong Copyeditor Graphic Artist Wendy Warren Keebler Jeanyee Wong Permissions Assistants Layout Artists Allan E. Bulley Sydney G. Recht Woods End Studio, Yonkers, N.Y. ~ ~:J1'j y- _.. ,-: ---!-,"'-'.",--., --. ,'_.,'- "V~{ I CillO' · .; '." :' r Contents VOLUME i) (sECTION EDITORS XI [EDITORIAL ADVISERS xiii Gi'EFACE, by Erik Barnouw XIX FOREWORD, by George Gerbner xx0 I' INTRODUCTION, by Tobia L. Worth xxiii) I ,- lJnternational Encyclopedia of Communications / ~- VOLUME 4\ LDIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS 343 r TOPICAL GUIDE 363 L (INDEX 371 ~- .. ~' :" Section Editors TINO BALlO JERROLD S. COOPER GAVRIEL SALOMON Professor of Communication Arts, Professor of Near Eastern Studies, Professor of Education and University of Wisconsin-Madison Johns Hopkins University Communication, Tel-Aviv University and the University of Arizona ERIK BARNOUW SUSAN EVANS Professor Emeritus of Dramatic Arts, Director of Academic Development, DAN SCHILLER Columbia Universicy The Annenberg School of Associate Professor of Library and Communications, University of Information Science, University of Southern California California, Los Angeles RICHARD BAUMAN Professor of Folklore and Anthropology arid Chair, Folklore Institute, Indiana STEVEN FELD WILBUR SCHRAMM University Associate Professor of Anthropology Director Emeritus, Institute for and Music and Director, Center for Communications Research, Stanford Intercultural Studies in Folklore and University; Distinguished Center LEO BOGART Ethnomusicology, University of Texas Researcher Emerirus, East-West Center, Executive Vice-President and General at Austin Honolulu Manager, Newspaper Advertising Bureau, New York GEORGE GERBNER MICHAEL SILVERSTEIN Professor of Communications and Samuel N. Harper Professor, NOLAN A. BOWIE Dean, The Annenberg School of Departments of Anthropology, Assistant Professor of Communication, Communications, University of Linguistics, and Behavioral Sciences Temple University Pennsylvania (Cognition and Communication) and Comlnittee on Ideas and Methods, University of Chicago DEIRDRE BOYLE LARRY GROSS Senior Faculty Member in Media Professor of Communications, Studies, New School for Social The Annenberg School of ELEANOR SINGER Research, New York; Adjunct Lecrurer, Communications, University of Senior Research Scholar, Center for the Fordham University, College at Lincoln Pennsylvania Social Sciences, Columbia University Center ADAM KENDON W. JOHN SMITH ASA BRIGGS Anthropologist Professor of Biology and Psychology, Provost, Worcester College. University University of Pennsylvania of Oxford MARK L. KNAPP Professor of Speech Communication, JOEL SNYDER PETER CLARKE University of Texas at Austin Professor of Humanities, University of Professor of Communications and Chicago Dean, The Annenberg School of Communications, University of WILLIAM J. MCGUIRE Southern California Professor of Psychology, Yale JOHN STURROCK University Editor, Times Literary Suppiemellt, London GEORGE COMSTOCK S. 1. Newhouse Professor of Public Commu!1icarions, Syracuse University ------., ... (J-/ . ... V'C." . ~'--~ _/ . "", 'tt -- .... ".. .- '.-,' ',' '--, . "--:<"~<'\~2-"' -fJ--} Editorial Advisers J<!- I iELIE ABEL GIOVANNI BECHELLONI JAY G. BLUMLER Harry and Norman Chandler Professor Professor of Sociology of Cultural Director, Centre for Television of Communication, Stanford University Processes, Universita degli Studi, Research, University of Leeds; Associate Florence Director, Center for Research in Public Communication, YEHIA ABOUBAKR University of Maryland at College Park President, International Information HOWARD S. BECKER and Communications Consultants, MacArthur Professor of Arts and Cairo, Egypt, and West Windsor, N.]. Sciences, Northwestern University S. T. KWAME BOAFO Lecturer, School of Communication Studies, University of Ghana BINOD C. AGRAWAL JORG BECKER Scientist, Development and Educational Professor of Political Sciences, Communication Unit, Space Technische Hochschule Darmstadt; MIHAl C. BOTEZ Application Centre, Indian Space Director, KomTech. Center for r Senior Researcher, Mathematics and Research Organisation, Ahmedabad Communication and Technology Policy Analysis, Universitatea Bucure~ti Research, Frankfurt RUDOLF ARNHEIM ANNE W. BRANSCOMB Professor Emeritus of the Psychology of DANIEL BELL Adjunct Professor of International Law, Art, Harvard University . Henry Ford II Professor of Social Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy, Sciences, Harvard University Tufts University ~ .'--" WALTER S. BAER Director of Advanced Technology, LEONARD BERKOWITZ ROGER W. BROWN Times ~jrcor Company, Los Angeles Vilas Research Professor in Psychology, John Lindsley Professor of Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Madison Harvard University BEN H. BAGDIKIAN Dean, Graduate School of Journalism, BASIL BERNSTEIN WILLIAM F. BUCKLEY, JR. University of California, Berkeley Karl Mannheim Professor in the Editor, National Review, New York Sociology of Education, Institute of Education, University of London BISHARA A. BAHBAH ROBERT W. BURCHFIELD Adjunct Professor of Political Science, Former Chief Editor, Oxford English Brigham Young University; former JOHN BLACKING Dictionaries, Oxford University