LANGUAGE IN ALGERIA : THE CONTINUING PROBLEM. by AHMED DJABRI. This Dissertation is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of M.Ed. of the University of Wales. August, 1981. LANGUAGE IN ALGERIA : THE CONTINUING PROBLEM. TO MY FATHER AND MY DEAR MOTHER. DECLARATION. I hereby declare that this Dissertation is the result of my independent investigation except where I have indicated indebtedness to other sources. I further declare that this work has not been submitted, in substance for any other degree or qualification and is not submitted concurrently for any other degree. SUPERVISOR. CANDIDATE. Dr. S. Delamont. Ahmed Djabri. LANGUAGE IN ALGERIA: THE CONTINUING PROBLEM. LIST OF CONTENTS. Page No. I. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 1. II. ABSTRACT 4. III. LIST OF TABLES 7. IV. LIST OF FIGURES 8. V. GLOSSARY 9. CHAPTER ONE: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF ALGERIAN SOCIETY. 14. 1.1 From Antiquity to the Seventh Century A.D. 15. 1.2 The Middle Ages from the Seventh to the Fifteenth Century. 16. 1.3_ Algeria under the Turks, from the Sixteenth to the Nineteenth Century. 17. 1.4 Social and Cultural Appraisal of Algeria before 1830. 19. 1.5 The Algerian Education System before the French Invasion of 1830. 24. CHAPTER TWO: FRENCH CULTURAL-LANGUAGE POLICIES AND THE ALGERIAN RESISTANCE. 30. 2.1 Challenges to the Islamic Culture and Arabic as a means to impose French Culture and Language.32. 2.2 The Destruction of the Algerian Education System and the Implementing of the French 38. System. 2. 2.3 The French Differentiating Language Policy towards Algerians. 50. 2.4 The Algerian Request for Education. 55. 2.5 The Algerian Cultural Resistance. 60. CHAPTER THREE: ALGERIAN CULTURAL-LANGUAGE POLICIES AFTER 1962. 73. 3.1 The Algerian Cultural and Linguistic Problems Inherited from the Colonial Period. 74. 3.2 Some Aspects of Cultural Conflicts. 83. 3.3 Language and Literacy Efforts in Algeria. 90. 3.4 Equality of Opportunities in Education. 101. 3.5 Arabisation. 109. CONCLUSIONS. 124. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 127. 3. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. I am deeply indebted to my supervisor Dr. Sara Delamont, who guided this study with patience and understanding, and offered valuable advice, criticism and encouragement throughout the writing of this Dissertation. I would also like to express my sincere gratitude to the Algerian Government whose encouragement and financial support have sustained me during my course here in Britain. • Finally, I wish to express my appreciation to Mrs. Lindsey Nicholas for her secretarial assistance in assembling and typing this work. 4. ABSTRACT. 5. ABSTRACT. It is customary to say that most nations are multilingual, and the nation which can say, truly, that its citizens are united in speaking only one language is unusual. The existence of more than one language in a nation does not by itself impose a problem, but the favouring of one language at the expense of another, especially if this language is that of the colonial power / or of a small social group is a major issue. On the other hand the official use of more than one language is perceived as a handicap to the country's economic and social progress. Obviously, government's decisions about language use is of great importance to the country's future development and stability. The language problems in developing nations differ largely in degree rather than in kind from those developed nations. _This is because the latter nations have,by and large,based their political modernization and national development on fairly homogeneous language communities. In the case of developing nations (Algeria is one), their development is at an earlier stage. The problems and processes of adopting one single language are more acute in such nations. [In Algeria after almost two decades of national rule, the repreplacement French by Arabic, in administration, economic activities and as 4 medium of instruction in all levels of education, still remains the central issue. of the Algerian Government. French still enjoys an extremely high position, and it is essential to anyone wishing to win the high social and economic occupations. 6. The purpose of this Dissertation is to analyse some colcoloniald post-colonial language policies which have guaranteed the potion of French and have made language in Algeria a continuing problem. Chapter One outlines briefly the general historical background of Algeria. It shows how the Algerians have adopted Arabic as a national language, and describes the socio-linguistic and cultural situation in 1830. Chapter Two consists of two parts, the first discusses the French efforts in making "French" the dominant language in the country. It includes the destruction of the Algerian educational system, the removal of "Arabic" from its legitimate position and its ultimate consideration as a foreign language. The second part is concerned with the analysis of the Algerian cultural and linguistic resistance and how the French reacted to it. The-last Chapter deals with the major cultural and linguistic problems inherited from the French period. It discusses some of the cultural conflicts among the Algerian elite during the French occupation and the first few years of independence. The Chapter also provides an examination for the three educational priorities (literacy, expansion of education and Arabisation) with regards to their limitations and deficiencies. Particular attention is paid to the Arabisation policy efforts and their outcomes. Finally, the findings of this study are stated in the conclusions. 7. LIST OF TABLES. 1. THE ASSIDUITY AND ABSENTEEISM OF ALGERIAN PUPILS IN THE ECOLE RUE PORTE NEUVE, ALGIERS, 1849-1850. 2. PROPORTION OF YEARLY APPROPRIATIONS ALLOCATED TO SCHOOLS' CONSTRUCTION (MILLION OF FRANCS). 3. THE PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF 'EUROPEANS' AND ALGERIANS IN EACH PROFESSIONAL CATEGORY IN 1954. 4. THE ESTIMATED LITERACY OBJECTIVES AND ACHIEVEMENTS FOR THE QUADRENNIAL PLAN (1970-73). 8. LIST OF FIGURES. Figure 1. THE PRINCIPLE BERBER SPEAKING ZONES. 9. GLOSSARY. 10. GLOSSARY. Algerian Arabic Dialect. This concept is used here, in this Dissertation, to refer to the spoken language used mostly by Algerian society (except, a small portion of the " Berberphones" mostly old persons who have little contact with Arab speakers.) The Algerian Arabic dialect is not written under normal circumstances, although French colonial policy sometimes Attempted this in order to avoid classical Arabic. Charles F. Gallagher ( 1968). Baccalaureat. Baccalaureate, a French and Algerian school leaving examination equivalent to "A" level certificate. Berber Dialect. It is the mother tongue of the original inhabitants of North Africa. (Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia). The term used here to refer to the spoken language by small Algerian minority occasionally but rarely as in 'Kabyle'. It is not used in school or in any official organisation except in Radio. Berber dialect has regional variant, for instance, Kabyle dialect is not entirely identical to Mozabit dialect. Certificat d'etudes primaire.A French examination equivalent to "0" level certificate. Ecoles Arabes Francaises. French schools specialised for Algerian children, established by the French during their occupation of Algeria.. Named Ecoles Arabes Francaises to distinguish it from the Schools of the colonists. Fundamental schools. Called also polytechnic school, is a new and experimental type of school, founded in Algeria in 1975. It is stated that Arabic is the main language of the school curriculum. This school is considered to be as binding together what is taught in school and all industrial and agricultural activities, training the pupils how to cope with the manual work. The pupils in these schools remain until the age of sixteen. F.L.N. Front de liberation Nationale. (National Liberation Front.) Algerian independence movement formed in 1954. Since 1962 the official and legal political party in independent Algeria's single party State. Language. The term has been used throughout this Dissertation to refer either to the French language or Arabic. They are the languages employed in schools economic, and social administration. L'enseignement Arabe Libre. (The Free Arab schooling) called also private education to distinguish it from the French education system. It is of three types: (1) primary Koranic schools where the young Muslim Algerian learns little other than to recite the Koran and to read and write Arabic and sometimes French, (2) primary schools and (3) some secondary modern schools run by the 'Society Reformist Ulema". 'Such schools were established by Muslim Ulema, given Free modern schools as an alternative to those operated for many years by the French in cities and villages throughout the country, to receive interest in Arabic language and culture". (Nelson, 1979, p. 41). Marabout. In North Africa, a holy man, often a sofi Mystic, and teacher venerated locally in rural areas and believed to be touched by divine grace, or baraka (quality of blessedness or grace found mainly in Marabout) which sometimes conferred the right to rule. Frequently called upon to arbitrate tribal disputes, the Marabout was not usually a member of the Ulema. 12. Medrasa (pl. Medaris) Medrasas Eng. An Islamic type of educational institution for elementary and post elementary school for learning the Koran, the traditions of the prophet Mohammed and the literature of Islam in addition to Fikh (knowledge of jurisprudence) and the three R's. Medrasa is for children between the ages of five to sixteen. .M'sids (sing. Msid). Or Mosque school run in almost all Algerian towns by religious scholars in the Islamic field of learning, such as Arabic grammar, theology. Reformist Ulama. Is a Muslin political movement established in 1930 by the leadership of Ben Badis. The Reformist Ulema organised the Algerian Muslim Alema (Association des Ulema Musulmans Algerien) emphasising both the Arab and Islamic character of Algeria. Ribat (pl. Ribatat) They are institutions established along the political boarders for teaching the Koran, Arabic and military training for adult Muslims. One of the major functions of the learners is to defend the country.