Cemetery Horizons and Material Culture Phases
Total Page：16
File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb
CHAPTER 4 Cemetery Horizons and Material Culture Phases The analysis of the stratigraphic relations indicates the large cemeteries without churches (such as Halimba and existence of three burial horizons on cemetery sites in Majs) were abandoned at about the same time. If one takes Croatia that are dated between the late 8th century and into consideration Bled-Pristava II, then it appears that the just after 1450. The absolute dates given to each horizon same process took place simultaneously within the terri- are based on arguments presented later in the chapter, in tory of modern-day Slovenia. This type of development in the section entitled “Cemetery horizons.” the spatial organization of cemeteries established a specific chronological framework that can be classified into three I HORIZON (or early/ ±795–850/855 (up until clearly defined strata or horizons. pagan/): (cemeteries of around 870, when The three temporally distinct burial phases cover the the Nin–Ždrijac, Zagreb– Christianized parts are whole of the Middle Ages. There are more cemeteries with- Velika Gorica type) abandoned) out than with churches. However, by the early 12th century, most earlier cemeteries were abandoned and new ones II HORIZON (or middle/ ±850/855–1090/1110 opened next to churches. Pre-Romanesque churches built classical/) (cemetery of (abandoned after 1090) by Croatian noblemen turned into local churches in which the Kašić-Grede, Žminj the local elites buried their family members. Initially, there type) were only a few such burials, but their number increased dramatically in the Late Middle Ages for a variety of rea- III HORIZON (or late) ±1090/1110–1450 (around sons. Over a relatively short period of at the end of the (cemetery of the St 1450 a significant number of Late Middle Ages, a great number of cemeteries appeared, Martin in Ivinj, St Peter cemeteries are abandoned due which had no churches, but in which stone monuments in Seline type) to the Ottoman invasions) and standing tombstones were used. They were a relatively unique phenomenon, and, as such, they are discussed here The main reason for establishing a division into periods within the framework of the third phase. Those cemeteries is that numerous cemeteries cover all three phases. Only were abandoned in the 15th century after the first Ottoman 16 different cemeteries are mentioned here from among raids, which led to drastic changes in the lifestyle and the about 100 significant sites that have been excavated, and burial practices in the region. the material culture at these sites is primarily defined on The changes in fashion reflected by dress accessories the basis of earring types and grave architecture. Their such as earrings—the commonest of all such finds in distribution is not limited to a single region, but rather medieval cemeteries in Croatia—allow the distinction of extends over the entire area of the Croatian state during four phases: the Late Middle Ages: from Istria to Lika, Ravni Kotari, the Neretva valley, Trebišnjica, the valley of the Sava river, [I HORIZON] I PHASE: early or ±?795–850/855 and the region between the Sava and the Drava, and as pagan layer far as what would later become the archdeaconry of Bexin (a subdivision of the archdiocese of Zagreb). There were no [II HORIZON] {II PHASE: ±850/855–1000 irregularities in the course of development, and the peri- classical Old odical alternation of burial practices was influenced by Croatian layer frequent and significant social and political changes, such as the conversion to Christianity in the mid-9th century, ” ” ” {III PHASE: ±1000–1090/1110 as well as the reform movement of the second half of the interim SMK1 11th century, which reached Croatia after the Council of period/layer 1075. As a result of the latter, burials were discontinued at cemeteries without church buildings and continued to be [III HORIZON] IV PHASE: late ±1110–1450 performed at those with church buildings. Quite possibly, SMK layer this was prompted from outside Croatia, either from Rome or from Hungary, as a similar process may be seen on cem- 1 SMK = Old Croatian material culture (Cr. starohrvatska materijalna etery sites on the territory of modern-day Hungary, where kultura). © koninklijke brill nv, leiden, ���6 | doi ��.��63/9789004306745_006 Cemetery Horizons and Material Culture Phases 89 The first phase coincides in time with the first burial the elliptical cist with lid appears especially in the area horizon. The predominant artifact for that horizon is the between the river Zrmanja, on one hand, and the river ceramic vessel, the deposition of which is associated with Trebišnjica and Konavle, on the other hand. True, during the provision of food for the journey of the deceased into the first burial horizon, plain inhumation pits were com- afterlife. Ceramic vessels are so closely associated with the mon throughout the entire region from Pannonia to the first horizon that one could safely assume that that hori- Adriatic. In later horizons and phases, however, regional zon existed for as long as the deposition of pots in graves. types (Littoral Croatia and Istria) developed, but bound- Subsequent phases and horizons do not completely aries between such types are largely dependent upon the overlap. However, changes in the development of grave current state of research in different parts of Croatia. architecture, as well as the appearance of various types of larger earrings, make it possible to divide phases into the following groups: Cemetery Horizons II PHASE: I GROUP (third quarter of the 9th century) First or Early (Pagan) Horizon (±795–850/855) [II HORIZON /without III PHASE /] II GROUP (fourth quarter of the 9th century/ early 10th The existence of this horizon (also termed pagan in century) view of its basic characteristics; see Plans 1–3) is no „ III GROUP (mostly 10th century) longer disputable,1 although scholars disagree on its interpretations.2 J. Belošević has dated the horizon The study of grave architecture can further lead to a between the late 7th and the mid-9th century.3 The lat- refined classification, as follows: ter date is confirmed by coins struck for Lothar (840–855) and other coins from the same period,4 as it has been -A1.—INHUMATION PIT established that “in principle, obole coins HAD TO BE dated -A2.—INHUMATION PIT WITH (±?795–850/855) currency,” that is currency that was in use at the time.5 STONES AROUND THE BODY However, Belošević was not able to establish a firm date for the beginning of the horizon. His simplistic typology -B1.—TIMBER COFFIN {RECTANGULAR IN SHAPE has led him to believe that certain simple forms of jew- -B2.—DRYSTONE, STONE- { RECTANGULAR IN SHAPE elry from the Nin–Ždrijac cemetery could be dated to the SLAB CIST first half of the 8th century. What he called earrings with -B3.—DRYSTONE, MULTI- { RECTANGULAR IN SHAPE grape-shaped pendant, such as found in grave 227 of that LAYERED STONE CIST (±795–850–900/925) cemeteery, is in fact a pair of earrings with triangular clus- ters, which are only remotely similar to specimens from -C1.—ELLIPTICAL, OVAL CIST Visočane, Golubić and Gardun.6 Furthermore, if his draw- MADE OF DRYSTONE ing is to be trusted at all, the so-called earrings with grape- -C2.—ELLIPTICAL, OVAL CIST (±900/925–1150) shaped pendant in grave 104 are in fact an early form of MADE OF, MULTI-LAYERED tetra-beaded filigree earrings dated to second half of the DRYSTONE 9th century. The grape-shaped earrings in grave 48 are an imitation of a finer type of grape-shaped filigree earrings, -D1, D2, E1, E2—TRAPEZE- (±1150–1450) such as those found in grave 367 at Ptuj.7 That cemetery SHAPED, RECTANGULAR CIST was first dated from the mid-10th to the early 11th century,8 MADE OF MULTI-LAYERED but more recent research9 has corrected the initial dating DRYSTONE OR SLABS SPECIAL SHAPES: —URN— 1 Belošević 1980. SARCOPHAGUS—WALLED 2 Jelovina 1976, 81; 1991; Burić 2001, 156–157, etc. TOMB 3 Belošević 1980, 133–140. 4 Marušić 1962, 462; Belošević 1980, 130–131; Burić 1996a, 141. 5 Potin 1971, 75, note 93, analysis of European region. Judging from this classification of graves, it may be noted 6 Belošević 1980, 87; Milošević 1991a, 314. that the specific forms do not match chronologically indi- 7 J. Korošec 1950, 210. vidual horizons, phases or groups. Moreover, individual 8 Šribar–Stare 1974, 13. types seem to be restricted to certain areas. For example, 9 P. Korošec 1979, 11/1, 191, 232–234; 11/1–56..