Marine Pollution Bulletin Vol. 42, No. 12, pp. 1221±1235, 2001 Ó 2001 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. Printed in Great Britain PII: S0025-326X/01)00239-9 0025-326X/01 $ - see front matter Honduras: Caribbean Coast

ALASTAIR R. HARBORNE*, DANIEL C. AFZAL and MARK J. ANDREWS Coral Cay Conservation, 13th Floor, The Tower, 125 High Street, Colliers Wood, London SW19 2JG, UK

The coast of Honduras, Central America, represents the tional and international NGO projects. For example, a southern end of the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System, series of marine protected areas and legislative regulations although its marine resources are less extensive and have been established, but management capacity, en- studied than nearby Belize and Mexico. However, the forcement and monitoring are limited by funding, exper- coastal zone contains mainland reef formations, man- tise and training. Existing and future initiatives, supported groves, wetlands, seagrass beds and extensive fringing by increased political will and environmental awareness of reefs around its o€shore islands, and has a key role in the stakeholders, are vital for the long-term economic devel- economy of the country. Like most tropical areas, this opment of the country. Ó 2001 Published by Elsevier complex of benthic habitats experiences limited annual Science Ltd. variation in climatic and oceanographic conditions but seasonal and occasional conditions, particularly coral bleaching and hurricanes, are important in¯uences. The The De®ned Region e€ects of stochastic factors on the country's coral reefs 2 were clearly demonstrated during 1998 when Honduras Honduras covers approximately 112000 km of land on the widest part of the isthmus of Central America .Fig. experienced a major hurricane and bleaching event. Any 1). Although Honduras has a limited Paci®c coastline in natural or anthropogenic impacts on reef health will in- the Gulf of Fonseca, this review focuses on the Carib- evitably a€ect other countries in Latin America, and vice bean coastline because the marine resources on the versa, since the marine resources are linked via currents northern coast are more diverse and extensive and also and the functioning of the system transcends political biologically and economically more signi®cant as they boundaries. Much further work on, for example, move- form the southern end of the Mesoamerican Barrier ment of larvae and transfer of pollutants is required to delineate the full extent of these links. Reef System. The Caribbean coast of Honduras stret- ches from the border with Guatemala in the west to the Anthropogenic impacts, largely driven by the increasing border with Nicaragua in the east and also encompasses population and proportion of people living in coastal a number of o€shore islands systems including the Islas areas, are numerous and include key factors such as dela Bah õa .Bay Islands) archipelago. Hence this agricultural run-o€, over-®shing, urban and industrial coastline encompasses more than 91% .735 km) of the pollution /particularly sewage) and infrastructure devel- country's 820 km coastline .Merrill, 1995) and includes opment. Many of these threats act synergistically and, for coral reefs, mangrove forests, seagrass beds, estuaries, example, poor watershed management via shifting culti- vation, increases sedimentation and pesticide run-o€ onto coastal lagoons, wetlands and tropical coastal ®sheries. Honduras lies within the wider Caribbean region coral reefs, which increases stress to corals already af- which stretches from the Gulf of Mexico to the French fected by decreasing water quality and coral bleaching. Guiana ± Brazil border. This region has well known Threats from agriculture and ®shing are particularly sig- interactions throughout its area, and the marine re- ni®cant because of the size of both industries. The desire sources of Honduras are inextricably linked to a much to generate urgently required revenue within Honduras larger area via water exchange. Such links lead to, for has also led to increased tourism which provides an over- example, Sullivan Sealey and Bustamante .1999) de®n- arching stress to marine resources since most tourists spend time in the coastal zone. Hence the last decade has ing the Tropical Northwestern Atlantic as the largest biogeographical province in the western hemisphere and seen a dramatic increase in coastal development, a greater places Honduras within the large, complex Central Ca- requirement for sewage treatment and more demand for ribbean `ecoregion'. The close links between the coastal freshwater, particularly in the Bay Islands. zones of Mesoamerican countries is exempli®ed in the Although coastal zone management is relatively recent Gulf of Honduras which is in¯uenced by the watersheds in Honduras, it is gaining momentum from both large- of Honduras, Belize and Guatemala. Honduras plays a scale initiatives, such as the Ministry of Tourism's `Bay key role within this in¯ux since, for example, the Rio Islands Environmental Management Project', and na- Ulua has a watershed of over 22000 km2 which is an order of magnitude greater than any river in southern *Corresponding author. Belize and hence has a signi®cant impact on the Belize

1221 MarinePollution Bulletin

Fig. 1 Map of Honduras.

Barrier Reef .Heyman and Kjerfve, 1999). The ocean- spawning times and must have a key role in both local ographic links within the wider Caribbean were high- larval retention and supplying downstream areas. lighted by the spread of the waterborne pathogen which While knowledge of larval interchange is a function of decimated populations of Diadema sea urchins limited direct research, Guzman .1998) also highlights throughout the region in the early 1980s .reviewed by the lack of systematic studies of the population Lessios, 1988). The arti®ciality of dividing the Meso- structure of coral species, the geographical range of american Barrier Reef System via national borders has these species and the distribution and diversity of been recognised by recent management initiatives and habitats throughout Central America. Such data would indeed Heyman and Kjerfve .2001) highlight that the provideinsights into thephysical and biological factors reserves in Honduras, Belize and Guatemala can be governing regional larval dispersal. viewed as a system which contributes to the health of the entire ecosystem. Seasonality, Currents and Natural Environmen- Although there are obvious oceanographic connec- tal Variables tions between Honduras and neighbouring reefs in Central America, and also the wider Caribbean, little Currents is known about migration of adult populations or Similarly to the rest of the Caribbean Sea, the surface larval interchange. One exception is the current re- waters of Honduras originate in the Equatorial Atlantic search on the movement of whale sharks .Rhincodon and enter the region via the Lesser Antilles as the Ca- typus) .see Box 1). However, there are many other ribbean Current .Stalcup and Metcalf, 1972). O€ the species with large home ranges or migration patterns coast of Nicaragua a counter-clockwise gyre develops that remain e€ectively unstudied. Similarly, even a from the Caribbean Current which ¯ows to the south- basic understanding of larval sources and sinks within western Caribbean .Gordon, 1967). D'Croz et al. .1998) Honduras is currently lacking, although Ehrhardt highlight a second, smaller, cyclonic counter clockwise .2000) provides a brief discussion on how counter- current that a€ects the Bay Islands, particularly from clockwise currents correspond with peak lobster January to March. These counter-clockwise currents

1222 Volume 42/Number 12/December 2001

Box 1. The whale sharks of Honduras

Rachel T. Graham University of York, York, YO1 5DD, UK

Whalesharks . Rhincodon typus) arethelargestof thethreeplanktivorous sharks and rangebroadly across tropical geopolitical boundaries, including the territorial waters of Honduras. The global population and struc- ture is yet unknown but thought to be low because of the rarity of sightings worldwide. Researchers are also unsure of whether whale sharks belong to a single global population or several subpopulations but DNA studies currently underway may soon elucidate this issue. An opportunistic feeder, the whale shark is known to gulp water and ®lter a variety of tiny animals but appears to target high-density food sources such as thick `soups' of plankton, often migrating large distances to locate them. Ordinarily solitary, the whale shark will congregate seasonally while targeting dense patches of food. Whale sharks have been documented feeding on copepods close to Baja, Mexico and the freshly released spawn of snappers in Belize. In Honduras, whale sharks are found o€ the Bay Islands in variable numbers throughout the year where they are known to follow schools of tuna and feed on pelagic bait®sh. Recent research on whale shark migration patterns undertaken in the Paci®c proved that whale sharks undertake large-scale transoceanic migrations possibly in search of, or targeting, patches of food. Several tools such as con- ventional marker tags, geolocating archival pop-o€ satellite tags and acoustic tags are currently being used to elu- cidate site ®delity and movement patterns in the Caribbean. Sharks tagged in Belize are now known to move north and south along the Belize Barrier Reef and also into Honduran waters. Furthermore, sharks tagged in Honduras have been sighted in Belize, con®rming the movement of the Mesoamerican population between the two countries and beyond and the need for regional accords for the management of this transboundary migratory species. early in the year cause a decrease in sea surface tem- season .Merrill, 1995) but during December and Janu- peratures which are associated with coastal upwelling ary an occasional strong cold front from thenorth .Brenes et al., 1998) and high productivity along the brings cooler northwest winds. Rainfall is particularly southern Belize Barrier Reef and Gulf of Honduras copious in the Mosquitia region of eastern Honduras .Heyman and Kjerfve, 1999). Density-driven easterly where average rainfall is 2400 mm .Merrill, 1995). Such surface currents also exit the inner Gulf of Honduras high levels of rainfall means that reefs are periodically because of the ¯ux of freshwater from the extensive subjected to siltation and Ogden and Ogden .1998) state ¯uvial inputs .Heyman and Kjerfve, 2001). Productivity that the Cayos Cochinos archipelago is a€ected by is further increased by the occasional deep, clear, nu- plumes of sediment originating from coastal rivers. Al- trient rich oceanic waters that enter the Gulf of Hon- though the e€ects of this sediment on the reefs of both duras, in the opposite direction to surface currents, from Cayos Cochinos and theBay Islands arepoorly under- the Caribbean Sea .Heyman and Kjerfve, 1999). stood it seems likely that it is a signi®cant stressor and Tidal range in Honduras is small with, for example, will be increased by further agricultural development of changes of only 30±35 cm around Roatan .MacKenzie the coastal plain. Similarly, although seasonal changes and Stehlik, 1996). However, although astronomical are known to, for example, cause variations in macro- tides are weak and are dominated by meteorological algal and seagrass productivity, there has been little re- tides, tidal currents are important for dispersion of search on more speci®c e€ects of annual climate varia- sediments and larvae in reef passages and near river tion on other components of the marine ¯ora and fauna mouths .Heyman and Kjerfve, 2001). Surface tempera- of Honduras. However, sporadic large storms may cause tures in deeper water typically range from 27°Cto31°C localised mortalities of the echinoid Lytechinus varie- and salinities are approximately 37½ but decrease sig- gates .Lessios, 1998). ni®cantly at the end of the wet season and within en- closed coastal bays .Heyman and Kjerfve, 2001). Hurricanes and coral bleaching Hurricanes and major coral bleaching events are a Seasonality moresigni®cant factor on marinecommunitiesthan Theclimatealong theCaribbeancoast of Honduras is seasonal variations. Although Honduras lies within the dictated by seasonal easterly tradewinds which cause a hurricane belt, hurricanes are relatively infrequent but rainy season for approximately eight months and a dry damage has been reported from, for example, Hurricane season from November to February. Rainfall is greater Fi® in 1974 which killed 8000 people .Merrill, 1995; than 2000 mm per year and air temperatures range from Ogden and Ogden, 1998). Hurricane Mitch in 1998 25°Cto29°C .D'Croz et al., 1998). Temperatures in .category 5 with occasional wind speeds greater than 250 Honduras vary primarily with elevation rather than kmÀ1 is regarded as the most deadly hurricane to strike

1223 MarinePollution Bulletin the western hemisphere for the last two centuries and Ridge which is orientated east-west, south of the deep killed 10 000 people, mainly in Honduras and Nicara- ocean Cayman Trench. gua, and caused an estimated $5 billion of damage in Honduras .Fielding, 2000b). Hurricane Mitch also had Mainland coast signi®cant e€ects on the marine resources of Honduras, The marine resources of the mainland are very poorly particularly as it occurred shortly after a mass coral studied and there is virtually no published literature on bleaching event. Kramer et al. .2000) report losses in the presence or absence of coral reefs .UNEP/IUCN, coral cover of 15±20% across the Central American 1988). Kramer et al. .2000) and Cortes .1997) statethat region and damage to 50±70% of corals in parts of because of high levels of runo€ there are only scattered, Honduras, although recent mortality was only moder- poorly developed coral communities around Puerto ately high .<25%). Physical damage .broken, knocked Cortes, La Ceiba and Trujillo. It seems reasonable to over and abraded colonies) from the hurricane's direct assume that reefs along the coastline are similar to those action was approximately 11% of corals on shallow found in better studied, neighbouring countries such as reefs and 2% on deep reefs in Honduras .Kramer and Belize. In Belize, the mainland reefs are restricted to Kramer, 2000). Damage was particularly severe in the areas where sediment is removed most eciently and the Bay Islands as the hurricane slowed and stalled close to fauna is species poor with only resistant genera such as Guanaja for two days. Secondary e€ects, such as the Siderastrea and Porites .Perkins, 1983). extensive run-o€ of low salinity, sediment-laden water There are extensive continental mangrove forest and into theGulf of Honduras aremoredicult to quantify wetland systems along the central section of coastline in the short term .Kramer and Kramer, 2000). and bordering the Gulf of Honduras but severe degra- Coral bleaching events occur during occasional peri- dation from over®shing, mangrove clearance and pol- ods when climate conditions raise seawater temperatures lution has been reported .Sullivan Sealey and and solar irradiance .summarised in Westmacott et al., Bustamante, 1999). The extensive mangrove system 2000). Coral bleaching, the paling of coral tissue from contains a number of lagoons, riverine estuaries as well the loss of symbiotic zooxanthellae, has presumably as o€shore mangrove cays .MacKenzie and Stehlik, occurred previously in Honduras but evidence of severe 1996). The eastern Mosquitia region of mainland Hon- events prior to the mid-1990s is sparse. However, a mass duras also has a complex environment of reefs, lagoons, bleaching event was recorded in 1995 by Guzman and wetlands and barrier beaches in an expansive savanna Guevara .1998) which a€ected 73% of scleractinians which plays a key role in ®sheries health .Sullivan Sealey along with over 90% of all hydrocorals, zoanthids and and Bustamante, 1999) and is an important breeding octocorals. Moredetailedinformation is availablefor ground for waterbirds. The inaccessibility of the Mos- the more severe mass bleaching event in 1998 when high quitia region has limited deforestation and agriculture sea-surface temperatures a€ected Honduras in Septem- and part of it is further protected by the Rio Platano ber and October. Interestingly there is some evidence Biosphere Reserve .Richards, 1996). that the water movements caused by Hurricane Mitch may have reduced sea-surface temperatures and allowed Reefal islands some corals to recover. However, the e€ects of bleaching The Caribbean coastline of Honduras includes a were severe, leading to an average regional coral mor- highly developed small island reef system which can be tality of 18% on shallow reefs and 14% on forereefs divided into three groups, the Bay Islands and Cayos along with subsequent increases in the prevalence of Cochinos archipelago, the Mosquitia cays and banks diseases and will have long-term ecological and socio- and thesmall Swan Islands with a coastlinelength of economic consequences .Kramer et al., 2000; Kramer only 6 km .Cortes, 1997; Sullivan Sealey and Busta- and Kramer, 2000). mante, 1999). The Bay Islands group, on the edge of the 75 km wide continental shelf, has a number of smaller The Major Shallow Water Marine and Coastal cays but is dominated by three major islands; Utila, Habitats Roatan and Guanaja .Fig. 2). These islands are the centre of both reef related tourism and the ®shing in- Geological setting dustry in Honduras and in addition to the coral reefs The geology underlying the marine resources of they also contain signi®cant mangrove wetlands. Honduras is relatively well studied and reviews are There is only limited published information describ- provided by Ivey et al. .1980); Donnelly .1992); Ber- ing the reefs of Honduras .UNEP/IUCN, 1988), al- mingham et al. .1998). TheBay Islands and mainland though theCayos Cochinos archipelagohas been coast lieto thesouth of theeast-westTransform Fault relatively well studied by scientists working at the Cayos which separate the northern Maya Terrane from the Cochinos Research Station. However, wind generated southern Chortis Terrane. The Bay Islands and Cayos wave energies are generally higher on more exposed Cochinos are relative recent .less than few thousand northern coasts and subsequently, for example, the years) and represent topographic high points of the north coasts of thelargerislands of theCayos Cochinos ancient basement. They are situated on the Bonacca are dominated by massive colonies such as Montastraea

1224 Volume 42/Number 12/December 2001

growth may be less abundant than on the reefs of Panama .UNEP/IUCN, 1988) and there is some evi- dence that the biota of some taxa are less diverse than the Bay Islands because they have a lower habitat di- versity and less protection from severe storms .Keith, 1992). More recent anecdotal reports indicate that, be- causeof theirisolation and usefor only small-scalear- tisanal ®shing, thecoral healthand ®sh populations of theSwan Islands may behigherthan thoseof theBay Islands and Cayos Cochinos. However, the reefs are likely to have su€ered signi®cantly from wave damage in 1998 because of the proximity of the Swan Islands to the path of HurricaneMitch. Fig. 2 TheBay Islands support a signi®cant proportion of thecoral reef habitats in Honduras and are a popular tourist destina- tion. Continental shelf There is limited information on the shallow conti- nental shelf north of the Honduran mainland but Ogden annularis .Ogden and Ogden, 1998). In contrast, lee and Ogden .1998) indicate that shallow areas support areas support a more diverse coral assemblage. Cur- scattered patch reefs dominated by Agaricia tenuifolia, rently unpublished reef mapping work in the Bay Is- sand lenses and seagrass beds. These authors also de- lands by theMinistry of Tourism's `Bay Islands scribe extensive beds of seagrasses, dominated by Thal- Environmental Management Project' and Coral Cay assia testudinum and Syringodium ®liforme to thesouth Conservation has extended knowledge of the extent and of themajor islands of theCayos Cochinos archipelago. complexity of the reef systems in this area signi®cantly. Furthermore, aerial observations by the authors indicate The Bay Islands are generally surrounded by fringing that there are numerous shallow, hard substratum banks reefs, but the north coast of Roatan, the largest and best between Cayos Cochinos and the Bay Islands, but the known island, is dominated by a nearly continuous benthic communities which they support are poorly barrier and fringing reef .UNEP/IUCN, 1988). In con- known. trast, thesouth coast of Roat an supports a discontinu- ous fringing reef broken up by channels and bights that were formed by erosion during glacial events. Reefs on Biodiversity both coasts havea relativelynarrow landward lagoon The marine biodiversity of Honduras is relatively dominated by seagrass and additional information on poorly known and most of the taxonomic research has zonation is provided in UNEP/IUCN .1988), Fenner been focused at Cayos Cochinos. For example, Guzman .1993) and Kramer et al. .2000). Similarly, on the reefs .1998) documents a diverse fauna of 66 species and of Utila, zonation is much morepronouncedto the forms of hermatypic corals .including Millepora) and north of the island and the reefs of the leeward side Clifton and Clifton .1998) report `diverse and abundant typically comprise of a narrow shelf characterised by a populations' of reef ®sh including 226 species. Guzman poorly developed reef crest and with little reef devel- .1998) also lists 44 species of octocorals and ®ve species opment beyond a depth of 25 m. Since Hurricane Mitch of antipatharians and this study extends earlier coral and the bleaching events of 1995 and 1998, coral cover is inventories by Fenner .1993) and Keith .1992) on generally low, for example rarely being higher than 30% Roatan and Tortora and Keith .1980a,b) in the Swan on Utila .Coral Cay Conservation, unpub. data) and Islands. Additional taxonomic studies for Cayos Co- only reaching 50% at the west end of Roatan .Kramer chinos include marine benthic algae .Ogden, 1998), et al., 2000). In addition to the fringing reefs, through- decapods .Jacome, 1998) and echinoids .Lessios, 1998). out theBay Islands and Cayos Cochinos therearenu- Honduras also supports low to moderate numbers of merous seamounts which are poorly studied but some nesting turtles .Dermochelys coriacea, Chelonia mydas, are known to have relatively high coral cover and ®sh Caretta caretta and Eretmochelys imbricata; Groom- populations. These seamounts are also important loca- bridge, 1982). Overall, diversity appears to be similar to tions for local ®sherfolk and at least some are important other reefs in Central America but further research as ®sh spawning areas .Fine, 1992). will certainly extend the species lists for Honduras The reefs of the Swan Islands and the Mosquitia cays signi®cantly. and banks are poorly known because of their inacces- sibility and the results of research visits are mainly re- O€shore Systems stricted to unpublished grey literature. Cortes .1997) reports that theMosquitia cays aresurroundedby Beyond fringing reef development, the deep slopes of fringing reefs and patch reefs in lagoonal areas. An ex- Honduras are very poorly studied but evidence from pedition in 1960 to the Swan Islands indicated that coral Belize .e.g. Colin, 1974) indicates that there is likely to

1225 MarinePollution Bulletin be a true deep-reef ®sh fauna. Caribbean o€shore ®sh- better standard of living may lead to civil unrest .Merrill, eries are limited despite 80% of the water being deeper 1995). Currently, most of the population consists of than 1800 m .UNEP/ECLAC, 1984) and in Honduras subsistence farmers and agricultural labourers, although most of the ®shing activity is restricted to relatively there is an emerging middle class. shallow water habitats. Hence, there is only limited Even though there has traditionally been a depen- commercial and recreational ®shing for commercially dence on farming, the marine resources of Honduras important species such as blue marlin .Makaira nigri- have a long history of exploitation and, for example, cans), tuna .Thunnus spp) and mackerel .Scomboro- mollusc shells of several species have been found in merous spp) which areknown to inhabit thepelagic many Mayan ruins .MacKenzie and Stehlik, 1996). zone, particularly in the deep water of the Cayman Most indigenous groups hunt and ®sh extensively and, Trench .Heyman and Kjerfve, 2001). for example, in the Mosquitia area the Garifuna, Pech, Ladinos and Miskitos all utilisethecoastal zonefor Populations A€ecting the Area food, often with traditional checks on overexploitation .Richards, 1996). However, increasing coastal popula- Thepopulation of Honduras currently totals ap- tions require more marine protein, drinking water and proximately 6 250 000 and is compromised of a variety infrastructure for sewage treatment and, combined with of ethnic groups, although mestizo .mixed Amerindian coastal development for revenue from tourism, threaten and European)areby far themost numerous.Thedi- the integrity of the systems on which they depend .Fig. versity of people in Honduras has been further increased 3). Such demands seem likely to keep increasing and by European in¯uences, especially in the Bay Islands sustainable management of the coastal zone is urgently which havea particularly colourful history. Columbus required. Honduras currently faces a suite of threats to discovered the Bay Islands in 1502 and the islands were its marine resources but Cortes .1997) lists themain used by the Spanish to supply their ¯eets but the Dutch, human impacts to coral reefs as being over-®shing .in- English and French pirated the islands between 1536 cluding habitat damage), sedimentation, development of and 1700. TheBay Islands wereoriginally populatedby the tourist industry, agrochemicals, sewage, coral ex- a tribe of Amerindians but these were removed in the traction and solid wastes. The recent e€ects of the 1995 mid-seventeenth century so that the islands could not be and 1998 coral bleaching events and Hurricane Mitch used by British pirates .Fielding, 2000b), the descen- have exacerbated all these factors. dants of whom still live on the islands. Subsequently the Assessment of the changes to the marine environment islands were populated by Black Carib slaves .now in Honduras is limited by the lack of comparative data represented by the Garifuna) and then black freedmen and information from studies more than 15 years ago and white farmers from the Cayman Islands. Sover- are sparse even by the standards of Caribbean marine eignty was returned by the British to Honduras in 1859 science. There is no national monitoring programme after holding them as a crown colony but Bay Islanders and theonly data availablearefrom individual research still have a better standard of living than their coun- e€orts, although a Caribbean Coastal Marine Produc- trymen on the mainland .Fielding, 2000b). tivity .CARICOMP) site is being established in the During the second half of the twentieth century, Cayos Cochinos .UNESCO, 1998) and this protocol has Honduras has experienced a population explosion and also been used as part of the assessment work by the signi®cant immigration and thepopulation doublesap- Ministry of Tourism's `Bay Islands Environmental proximately every 25 years. Most of the population is Management Project'. Additional monitoring data of based in the interior highlands .Merrill, 1995) but despite the relatively low population density there is overpopu- lation in certain areas. Traditionally, the population has been approximately 50% rural but internal migration, particularly from the southwest, is increasing urban populations in thecoastal lowlands .Merrill, 1995). Honduras is now unusual in Central America by having two large urban centres .Tegucigalpa and San Pedro Sula). Internal migration was started in the early part of the century by employment opportunities in the new banana plantations. Furthermore, the economic hard- ships caused by Hurricane Mitch in 1998 has increased the number of poor, uneducated mainlanders moving to the Bay Islands, largely in order to seek employment within thetourist industry .Fielding, 2000b). The movement to the Bay Islands encapsulates the signi®cant Fig. 3 The development of Utila Town to support an increasing social concerns throughout Honduras where wealth coastal population demonstrates the pressures being placed on distribution is uneven and frustrated expectations for a the marine resources of the Bay Islands.

1226 Volume 42/Number 12/December 2001 both benthic communities and ®sheries are urgently cultivated land, as opposed to using improved tech- needed to assist coastal zone management planning and niques, has led to continual deforestation and hence raise awareness of decreasing ecosystem health by local erosion. stakeholders. Such programmes may be facilitated by Since chemical pesticides have been shown to increase the growing number of national, international and NGO crop yields, their use has accelerated and imports of initiatives in Honduras. However, new and existing insecticides, fungicides and herbicides are all increasing programmes can only document very recent changes to annually with only limited training of farmers and en- the health of marine resources and, as Jackson .1997) forcement of regulations .reviewed by Castillo et al., highlights, baseline data for a truly natural Caribbean 1997). However, information is lacking on the residue of reef are not available. these chemicals within the environment and their e€ect on marine resources, along with public health. Some Rural Factors research on pesticide residues has been conducted in a Gulf of Fonseca watershed by Kammerbauer and Agriculture Moncada .1998), who also looked at variations between Honduras has three distinct topographical regions; an farming practices .e.g. traditional and intensive). This extensive interior highland area .80% of the country's study showed that the situation in 1998 did not appear area) and two narrow coastal lowlands .Merrill, 1995). to show great cause for concern and that the food and Historically, Kammerbauer and Ardon .1999) describe feed supply was not seriously contaminated, but a two periods of land use development in Honduras. The monitoring programme was recommended, especially of ®rst .1955±1975) was agricultural expansion via occu- drinking water in intensively farmed areas. Kam- pation of steep peripheral areas, driven by an increasing merbauer and Moncada .1998) found evidence of bio- population, migratory movement and a lack of regula- logical accumulation in ®sh tissue but subsequent e€ects tion. The second phase, from 1975 to 1995, was a period on themarinefood webarenot clear. Equivalentdata of agricultural intensi®cation and diversi®cation caused on pesticide residue and e€ects on the marine resources by a suite of factors including technology transfer, im- of theCaribbeancoast of Honduras appearto bealmost proved access to local markets and subsidised agricul- completely lacking and inferences must be drawn from tural input prices. This second phase of land use research in the temperate zones of the northern hemi- decreased the complexity of the landscape and increased sphere and limited work elsewhere in Central America erosion and landslide rates. As in many other countries, .Castillo et al., 1997). such erosion threatens the health of marine resources by increasing sediment loads but such links are poorly Artisanal ®shing understood in Honduras. Since Honduras is a water-rich Artisanal ®shermen are de®ned by the Honduran country with numerous rivers draining the highlands, government as those who concentrate solely on ®shing, this threat is signi®cant. For example, the large river are independent and land less that three metric tons per Ulua drains into the Caribbean west of the Bay Islands year .MacKenzie and Stehlik, 1996). Nearly 6000 artis- after ¯owing 400 km through the economically impor- anal ®shermen were registered in 1995 .MacKenzie and tant ValledeSula .Merrill, 1995). Stehlik, 1996) and in the Gulf of Honduras alone there Although Honduras has a land area of 11.2 million are approximately 650 ®sherfolk, compared to approx- hectares, the extensive highlands mean that only 15% is imately 200 in Belize .Heyman and Graham, 2000). well suited for agriculture .Merrill, 1995). Hillsides are Much of the®shing activity for molluscs and crusta- generally used by small-scale farmers for basic grains ceans occurs on the continental shelf along the north and co€ee via shifting cultivation which is a non-sus- coast since the fringing reefs of the Bay Islands have tainable agricultural management practice because of been virtually extirpated. However, organized industrial slow soil rehabilitation .Paniagua et al., 1999). Despite ®shing and the increase in artisanal ®shermen has dra- these limitations, Honduras relies heavily on agriculture matically decreased stocks in all shallow water areas and in 1992 it was the largest sector of the economy .MacKenzie and Stehlik, 1996). Following extensive .28% of theGDP; Merrill,1995). By theearly1990s, interviews, Heyman and Graham .2000) provide an ex- 60% of Honduras' cultivableland was ownedby the cellent case study on the attitudes of artisanal ®sherfolk government and two banana companies but much of it on thenortherncoast of mainland Honduras towards is unused, or used for pastures, because only 14% is decreasing catches. irrigated. Most of the land under cultivation is planted with bananas, co€ee and specialised export crops such Fin®sh. Fin®sh, particularly groupers .Serranidae), as melons. In 1992, banana sales were US$287 million snappers .Lutjanidae), grunts .Haemulidae) and jacks and co€ee US$148 million .approximately 50% of ex- .Carangidae), constitute an important ®shery through- ports) .Merrill, 1995). In the late 1980s approximately out the Caribbean and are targeted by artisanal ®sher- 7 50 000 hectares had been eroded following poor prac- folk in Honduras. A variety of traditional techniques are tices used by cattle ranchers and slash-and-burn squat- used, all of which are generally of limited impact to the ters. The approach of expanding the hectarage of benthic communities, but the use of spear-guns by

1227 MarinePollution Bulletin

®shermen and tourists has now been banned in the Bay lations signi®cantly. Such over-®shing is exacerbated by Islands .Fielding, 2000b). Although quantitative data the use of SCUBA and `hookah' gear as opposed to are sparse, intensive ®shing e€ort has clearly impacted more traditional conch hooks and free-diving tech- populations and now, for example, ®shermen in the Bay niques. However, few data are available on the ecology Islands favour more remote o€shore banks compared to of conch in Honduras. An exception is the study by the heavily exploited fringing reefs. Detailed documen- Tew®k et al. .1998b) which assessed the densities of S. tation of ®shing patterns in the Bay Islands has been gigas around Cayos Cochinos. This study indicated a provided by the Ministry of Tourism's `Bay Islands density of 14.6 conch per hectare, which is similar to Environmental Management Project' but ®nal published many other countries in the region, and a total popu- reports are currently unavailable. Signi®cant damage to lation of approximately 2 23 000 in the area. Tew®k et al. the integrity of the grouper ®shery has also been caused .1998b) conclude that harvesting should be limited to by uncontrolled near-extirpation of spawning aggrega- free-diving, the minimum shell length restriction should tions .Fine, 1992). Fisheries may have been further be increased and important nursery and breeding areas compromised by mass bleaching events .Guzman and should be closed either permanently or seasonally. Guevara, 1998) and in addition all three ®sh packing Similarly to ®sherfolk in the Bay Islands, artisanal plants on Guanaja were damaged by Hurricane Mitch ®shermen on the northern coast of Honduras catch a and few ®shermen are currently solvent .Fielding, range of molluscs, particularly queen conch .Strombus 2000b). gigas) but also coquina clams .Donax denticulata)and Some documentation on the e€ects of ®shing pressure marsh clams .Polymesoda placans) using wooden dugout has been conducted in Cayos Cochinos. Although little canoes .MacKenzie and Stehlik, 1996). quantitative data were presented, Ogden and Ogden .1998) and Clifton and Clifton .1998) reported that Coastal Erosion and Land®ll there were no large predatory or herbivorus ®sh at sites closeto human populations in theCayos Cochinos. A Numerous development projects are known to have more detailed assessment of ®shing at Cayos Cochinos a€ected the coastal resources of Honduras but the lack .where only artisanal ®shing with hook-and-line is al- of monitoring data limits their quanti®cation. For ex- lowed within a marine reserve) was carried out by ample, the building of an international airport on GuzmanandJacome.1998). This study showedthat Roatan, which included in®lling, is known to have 80% of the ®shery was comprised of eight species caused chronic turbidity and reduced both coral density .mainly Lutjanidae, Serranidae and Haemulidae). via sediment smothering and ®sh populations .UNEP/ CPUE was equivalent to over-®shed areas elsewhere and IUCN, 1988). Indeed, anecdotal reports by local re- Guzman and Jacome .1998) concluded that exploitation searchers indicate that sedimentation caused by erosion was jeopardising the integrity of the ®sheries. from road building and hotel construction is one of the most important impacts to reefs of the Bay Islands Lobsters and other crustaceans. The western central .Fielding, 2000a). More recent construction of an in- Atlantic region is a major producer of lobster and, like ternational airport on Utila has also had the added most other Central American countries, it is a signi®cant impact of in®lling a signi®cant area of critical swamp ®shery resource on reef formations bordering the islands habitat. and mainland .Tew®k et al., 1998a). Theprimary target Many of these coastal developments are dicult to species are Panulirus argus and P. guttatus and most are regulate because of the selling of small plots of land, caught by commercial vessels with wooden traps and particularly in theBay Islands and Cayos Cochinos, divers. Hence less than 4% of lobster are caught by which leads to development without environmental im- artisanal ®shermen .Ehrhardt, 2000). However, on the pact reports. Private ownership also leads to problems north coast of Honduras, artisanal ®shermen land a with implementing over-arching coastal zone manage- range of crustaceans including Caribbean spiny lobsters ment initiatives. Furthermore, when there are local .Panulirus argus), whiteshrimp . Penaeus schmitt) and community concerns, including environmental consid- bluecrabs . Callinectes spp), often using wooden dugout erations, their inclusion in coastal development projects canoes .MacKenzie and Stehlik, 1996). Lobster are has been limited because the municipal governments caught via free diving and, particularly close to the received instructions from national government in Teg- mainland coast, using traps which are often baited with ucigalpa. Rijsberman .2000) gives examples of such ac- cowhide .MacKenzie and Stehlik, 1996). Crabs and tions, including extraction of construction material for shrimp are caught via baited traps and cast nets re- airport maintenance, without permission, from private spectively. Although detailed data are lacking, the lob- property and construction of a wharf on Roatan with- ster ®shery is generally considered to be over-exploited. out permission of the local authority. The Bay Islands Environmental Management Project, since it is managed Conch and other molluscs. Conch .mainly Strombus via the Ministry of Tourism, has recently provided a gigas) is an important ®shery in Honduras and it is conduit for public consultation on such projects but generally accepted that over-®shing has reduced popu- awareness of this work is limited.

1228 Volume 42/Number 12/December 2001

E€ects from Urban and Industrial Activities ronment of corporate methods, particularly through the destruction of breeding areas in mangrove swamps. This Forestry and watershed management has led to corporate shrimp farmers moving inland and Honduras lost 1.8 million hectares of forest from 1964 local shrimpers are now su€ering from decreased natu- to 1988 and forest has continued to decline, partly from ral supplies .Merrill, 1995). In addition, the chemical agriculturebut also from thefocus on logging rather budgetsof theshrimp ponds arepoorly known but ni- than management .Merrill, 1995). This policy, and its trogen and phosphorous are both added as feed and subsequent e€ects on marine resources, was encouraged promote a net discharge, via e‚uent, to estuaries .Te- by the Honduran Corporation for Forestry Develop- ichert-Coddington et al., 2000). Although this study ment .COHDEFOR) who granted numerous licenses to concluded that shrimp farms should minimize the use of private lumber companies with few conservation con- fertilizers, the e€ects of shrimp ponds, which often act siderations. Recent decentralization of COHDEFOR synergistically with other factors that decrease water has improved the situation, with responsibility trans- quality, on the marine resources of Honduras are not ferred to local municipalities and legislation has en- clearly understood. couraged reforestation. Additional changes to major watersheds of the country will also be caused by hy- Industrial ®shing dropower, which is an increasingly important solution Industrial ®shermen in Honduras concentrate on pink to meeting the country's power demands, but the im- and whiteshrimp . Penaeus notialis and P. schmitti), pacts of dam schemes are poorly studied .Vargas and lobster and conch .MacKenzie and Stehlik, 1996). The Vaux, 1988). shrimp ®shery is large, particularly along the mainland coast, where shrimp and a ®n®sh bycatch are caught Shrimp farming using trawl nets at night .MacKenzie and Stehlik, 1996). Theshrimp industry in Honduras, particularly in the There is also a long history of industrial ®shing for south of the country, developed signi®cantly in the ®n®sh. Although total recorded catches for Honduras 1980s and quickly became a major Latin American ex- are presented in Fig. 4, there is very limited enforcement porter .the industry was worth US$72 million from of ®shery regulations and data on catches are partial and 11 500 ha in 1995; Teichert-Coddington et al., 2000). segmented so that regulations are dicult to formulate Natural shrimp stocks, raised by both large corpora- .Rijsberman, 2000). Furthermore, there is some illegal tions and independent businesses, are supplemented by ®shing by Honduran ®sherfolk in Belize because the imported and laboratory larvae. However, there has latter has a lower population density and resources are been signi®cant debate over the impacts to the envi- less exploited .Heyman and Kjerfve, 2001).

Fig. 4 Nominal catches from all ®sheries in Honduras. Dashed line represents mean catch. Data source: FAO 1998. Fishery sta- tistics captureproduction. FAO YearbookVolume86/1.

1229 MarinePollution Bulletin

Commercial ®shing for conch and lobster, largely for human waste treatment facilities were not regarded as a export to the USA, has been conducted industrially in problem in the 1980s but sewage was considered a threat Honduras since at least 1970. Indeed, the majority of as the population and tourist industry increased lobster catches in Honduras are by commercial vessels .UNEP/IUCN, 1988). Increased nutrient levels, espe- and it maintains the largest ¯eet of all Central American cially close to large towns and cities, is now regarded as countries with 190 vessels by the early 1990s .Ehrhardt, a signi®cant reef stressor throughout the Mesoamenican 2000). Originally boats carried between ®ve and ten free Barrier Reef System. divers but increasing demand and decreasing catches Nutri®cation via sewage input acts concomitantly have led to the use of SCUBA by 12±24 divers per boat, with additional factors that have led to decreases in with each boat making approximately 12 trips of 12 coral cover and increases in macro-algae on Caribbean days per year .MacKenzie and Stehlik, 1996). Although reefs over the last two decades. The most important of most harvesting occurs at depths equivalent to those these is the mortality of key herbivorous species via both attained by sport diving, repeated dives for extended the waterborne pathogen that killed Diadema urchins in periods and limited training has led to a large number of the1980s and also ®shing. Such an ecological shift, decompression illness incidents amongst the ®shermen however, is the result of a complex set of synergistic but recent formal organisations of divers are attempting factors and spatial variations can becausedby the to improve practices. In addition to the boats of divers, physico-chemical environment via, for example, in- Honduras has a large ¯eet of boats deploying lobster creased ¯ushing in certain localities and reef zones. traps on an industrial scale. The need for better public access to water supplies Almost all of the divers are employed from villages in and sewerage has been a major element of development the Mosquitia region and the economy of this region is programmes in Honduras and throughout Central heavily dependent on income from lobster diving. Fol- America. Oakley et al. .2000) highlight 12 wastestabi- lowing fears of overexploitation the government placed lization pond systems that have been built in the last 15 a ban on lobster diving for a three and six month period years because of their ecacy in pathogen removal in 1993 and 1994, respectively. These bans forced .equivalent to tropical ponds systems elsewhere in the Miskito families to ®nd alternative sources of income, world) and their low operation and maintenance costs. resulting in the clearance of large areas of riverine forest These ponds have been designed for municipalities of up for rice cultivation. This signi®cantly increased pressure to 80 000 persons but larger facilities are being con- on upriver natural resources and had implications for structed for large cities such as San Pedro Sula, although the management of the Rio Platano Biosphere Reserve such plans and existing facilities were a€ected by dam- .Richards, 1996). age from Hurricane Mitch. However, in order for these While it is accepted that lobster and conch popula- ponds to maintain their sustainability and acceptance, tions are over-®shed throughout Honduras, few quan- Honduras, along with the rest of Central America, needs titative data are available. An exception for lobster is the to develop better design guidelines, realistic levels of study by Tew®k et al. .1998a) in Cayos Cochinos. This e‚uent release, monitoring programmes, long-term ®- research reported densities of 19.9 lobster per hectare nancing for operation and maintenance and training .Panulirus argus) and 9.4 per hectare .P. guttatus) but programmes for sta€ .Oakley et al., 2000). For example, found evidence of over-®shing from the ratio of P. argus funding sources for new and improved sewage and to P. guttatus and their low mean size. Based on these sanitation facilitieson theBay Islands arenot clearand data, Tew®k et al. .1998a) make a series of recommen- there is resistance to levying charges and user fees to dations including a ban on catching berried or sperma- local communities. tophore carrying females, a distinction between P. argus and P. guttatus for minimum sizeregulations and the Mining elimination of hooks to allow lobsters to be released if In thelate1800s, mining was a vital part of the they are undersized or berried. Honduran economy but its importance has subsequently declined. However, Honduras still mines lead and zinc Urban and industrial pollution with associated copper, gold, silver and cadmium, along Increasing coastal populations, development for the with cement, gypsum, limestone, marble and salt with tourist industry and diversi®cation of the economy is approximately 40% exported .Doan, 1997). The El placing escalating threats on the marine resources of Mochito Mine near Lake Yojoa is the largest lead-zinc Honduras via pollution. Likemost of theCaribbean, mine in Central America and is known to have impacted Honduras has limited industrialization and pollution of thelakevia runo€ but theimpacts of themining in- the coastal zone has not reached levels seen in other dustry on thecoastal zonevia riverinetransport are regions. However, localised coastal areas of relatively unclear. heavy industry, such as around French Harbour on the south coast of Roatan, arenow almost certainlyhaving Tourism a detrimental e€ect on marine resources but published Foreign tourists are attracted to Honduras by, for water quality studies are scarce. Similarly, the limited example, the opportunities for SCUBA diving in the

1230 Volume 42/Number 12/December 2001

Bay Islands and impressive Mayan ruins. The impor- tance of the income from this industry is well recognised and the Bay Islands were designated as an important tourism zone by the Honduran congress as early as 1982 and laws to promote this industry were passed in the 1990s .Rijsberman, 2000). Between 1987 and 1991, tourist arrivals in Honduras grew at average annual rates of approximately 15%, which exceeded global trends .Fielding, 2000a). By 1993, the annual number of international tourists to the Bay Islands .approximately 30 000, with a high season from September to Decem- ber) exceeded the local population .Fielding, 2000b). However, current tourist numbers are still short of the country's full potential because of expensive airline prices, limited promotion and relatively unfriendly laws for foreign investment .Fielding, 2000a). Even with these limitations, tourism in the Bay Islands, particu- larly from SCUBA divers, generates an estimated US$11 million annually in gross operating revenues .Forest, 1998). All three Bay Islands now have SCUBA diving establishments, restaurants, hotels and resorts but the main focuses are the west end of Roatan and Utila Town. This has led to some con¯ict between the tourism industry and local communities because, for example, they have been displaced by large resorts and there is limited distribution and explanation of economic bene- Fig. 5 Anchor damage to the reefs of Utila has been dramatically reduced following the establishment of over 50 mooring buoys ®ts .Rijsberman, 2000). by theBay Islands ConservationAssociation. Thegrowth of tourism to theBay Islands placesad- ditional stresses on marine resources, particularly coral reefs, beyond damage caused by coastal development, pro®t from thegrowing popularity of theCaribbeanas a increased sewage and the need for higher ®sh catches. destination. Hence Honduras has promoted cruising to For example, tourism development has not taken into theBay Islands and ®veships visitedRoat an during a account the limited beach area and potable water is six month period in 2000 and the ®rst cruise ship arrived scarce, with wells susceptible to salt intrusion .Rijsber- in Utila during this time .Fielding, 2000a). However, man, 2000). There are no formal laws regarding proper this represents a signi®cant environmental threat and reef use and damage has been caused by anchoring dive case studies from elsewhere in the region show negative boats and impacts from divers. However, mechanical e€ects from dredging, coastal development, mechanical damage to the reefs of Utila by boat anchors has been damage to marine resources and sewage, along with reduced signi®cantly since the introduction of mooring socio-economic issues of labour migration and aliena- buoys, particularly the impressive programme estab- tion of local communities .Fielding, 2000a). Cruise ship lished by the Bay Islands Conservation Association in capacity is currently limited by the available docking but Utila .Fig. 5). There is now a need for data on the economic pressures may lead to additional facilities. numbers of divers visiting each dive site to assist man- agement of popular reefs and provide carrying capaci- Shipping and o€shore e€ects ties. Heyman and Kjerfve .2001) state that industrial Tourism is also expanding elsewhere in Honduras and shipping is one of the largest and potentially most en- there are some e€orts to ensure it is sustainable. For vironmentally damaging industries in the Gulf of Hon- example, there is a World Bank project planned to in- duras. Puerto Cortes, on the western coast of mainland crease existing tourism to the north coast of the main- Honduras, is oneof thelargestports in theregionand a land since this area has excellent natural resources and spill from one of the many petroleum or chemical vessels the additional income would greatly bene®t the many could becatastrophic. impoverished local communities. Background docu- mentation, including interviews with local stakeholders Protective Measures have already been completed by the Institute of Tourism of Honduras and the World Bank Resident Mission in The need for coastal zone management and sustain- Honduras. able development in Honduras is well documented and Finally, cruise shipping is currently an expanding recognised both nationally and internationally. For ex- sector of the Honduran tourism market in order to ample, Sullivan Sealey and Bustamante .1999) list the

1231 MarinePollution Bulletin

Bay Islands as a high priority for conservation action project and further funding is required to continue the within their review of Latin America and the Caribbean. work. However, as Guzman .1998) states `Honduras, in par- Conservation in the Bay Islands will be further ticular, serves to illustrate the paradigm of hasty devel- strengthened by the World Bank/Global Environment opment associated with casual protection'. Facility project `Conservation and sustainable use of the Marine protection in Honduras dates back to the `Ley Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System'. This project's ob- de Pescar' decree of May 1959 which declared coral reefs jective is to assist the countries of Belize, Guatemala, as `protected areas'. More recently, a particularly sig- Honduras and Mexico manage the Mesoamerican Bar- ni®cant step for marine conservation in Central America rier Reef System as a shared, regional ecosystem, safe- was thesigning of theTulum Declaration in 1997, when guard its biodiversity values and functional integrity and Mexico, Belize, Guatemala and Mexico agreed to work create a framework for its sustainable use .Kramer et al., towards regional conservation of the Mesoamerican 2000). Final approval for thefunding of this projectwas Barrier Reef System. Instigating such initiatives inevi- given in early 2001 to facilitate implementation of the tably relies on the support of local stakeholders and project components. despite the continued problems, Honduran ecologists In addition to international programmes, there is an are encouraged by the increasing environmental con- NGO movement in Honduras but it is relatively nascent. sciousness among many sectors of the community However, there are, for example, three groups present in .Merrill, 1995). For example, following interviews with the Bay Islands .the Association for the Development of ®shermen, Heyman and Graham .2000) provide a series theBay Islands, theBay Islands Conservation Associ- of conclusions and recommendations relating to the ation and the Foundation for the Integrated Develop- artisanal ®sheries of Honduras. They highlight the ment of the Bay Islands) and their activities are reviewed awareness of ®shing communities of the causes of de- by Forest .1998). Further assistance for coastal zone clining catches and list a series of suggestions from the conservation initiatives in Honduras is increasingly be- ®sherfolk, including better enforcement of existing reg- ing provided by international NGOs and for example, ulations, gear restrictions and use of marine protected the Wildlife Conservation Society has assisted manage- areas. Furthermore, although environmental education ment planning in the Bay Island's existing reserves and is currently limited in Honduras, there is some evidence theMunicipalitiesof Utila and Roat an, along with that local communities appreciate the bene®t of marine PMAIB, have been assisted with data collection, tech- protected areas. A study by Barahona and Guzman nical advice, training and environmental education .1998) showed that 77% of survey respondents believed programmes by Coral Cay Conservation .Harborne it was important to protect the marine and terrestrial et al., in press). habitats of Cayos Cochinos and 66% thought that commercially important species were more abundant Current regulations since ®sheries restrictions were enforced. Environmental legislation in Honduras is relatively extensive and laws and regulations relating to marine Existing coastal zone management initiatives resources include the Biodiversity Convention, Central The national government recognises the ecological American Component for the Protection of the Envi- and economic needs to conserve marine resources but is ronment Convention and Climate Change Convention severely limited by capacity, funding and expertise. .Kramer et al., 2000). Forest .1998) reviews a series of However, in order to co-ordinate and expand local and coastal regulations relating to the Bay Islands which national initiatives, the Ministry of Tourism has estab- have attempted to encourage sustainable development. lished the `Bay Islands Environmental Management The Honduran government has also set several regula- Project' .Programa Manejo Ambiental de las Islas de la tions on its ®sheries and there is a license requirement Bahõa; PMAIB). This multi-faceted project is funded by for both artisanal and industrial ®sherfolk, a minimum a US$19.1 million loan from the Inter-American De- tail size for lobster and closed seasons for lobster, velopment Bank, along with further funding from na- shrimp and conch .MacKenzie and Stehlik, 1996). tional government to a total of US$27 million, and has Further restrictions are proposed by Heyman and four sub-programmes covering natural resources, sani- Graham .2000) following a synthesis of ®shermens' tation, real estate census and institutional strengthening. recommendations from all three countries bordering the For example, one aim of the natural resources sub- Gulf of Honduras .Honduras plus Belize and Guate- programme is to fully establish the marine parks either mala). The authors suggest, for example, closure of designated or proposed for the Bay Islands but which certain ®sheries .e.g. manatee), protection of spawning are currently `paper parks'. PMAIB is due to ®nish at sites, harmonisation of ®shing laws, improved moni- theendof 2001 and at thetimeof writing this paperis toring of all ®sheries and greater involvement of ®sher- disseminating information from the sub-programmes men in ®sheries management and planning. and entering an implementation phase. However, time Despite the range of regulations, enforcement capac- limitations will a€ect the ecacy of implementing many ity is extremely limited and many stakeholders are able of the coastal management initiatives developed by the to ignore germane legislation with impunity .Fielding,

1232 Volume 42/Number 12/December 2001

2000b). For example, since 1991 more emphasis has of enforcement of reserve regulations are unknown. been placed on environmental assessments prior to ob- Examples of marine protected areas include relatively taining a permit for coastal development but the process innovative solutions to environmental issues, such as the is still being implemented inconsistently and without co- Punta Raton WildlifeReserveintheGulf of Fonseca ordination .Forest, 1998). Subsequently, public percep- which is a 4 km beach and is protected to conserve turtle tion of the implementing agencies is poor and there is nesting areas .Hodges, 1997). A further example is the selective pursuit of violators, largely arising from limited Rio Platano Biosphere Reserve which is Honduras' funds. Forest .1998) provides a series of recommenda- largest protected area and encompasses some marine tions to both international assistance organisations and resources, including feeding grounds for the manatee local authorities to improve the permitting process and .Trichechus manatus) .Richards, 1996). environmental assessment for development of the Bay Enforcement of reserve regulations is dicult with Islands. Furthermore, even high levels of compliance limited funds, capacity and expertise in many of the can mask signi®cant threats to marine resources. Anal- reserves .see Box 2 for a case study). However, it is ysis by Forest .1998) of the e€ect of `Acuerdo Dos', a known to bemoree€ectiveintheCayos Cochinos Bi- key piece of legislation establishing a series of land use ological Reserve which was established in 1993 and regulations and conservation activities, showed that banned all commercial harvests .non-artisanal) of ma- compliance had reached 74% in 1994. However, this did rinelifewithin a 460 km2 area .Clifton and Clifton, not necessarily lead to improved environmental out- 1998). In contrast to many `paper parks' in Central comes because, for example, projects were changed after America, this reserve is enforced via patrols by the the permit had been issued or developers denied permits Honduran Navy. However, the reserve does allow ar- simply proceeded with construction. tisanal ®shing and there is some evidence that its impact has been underestimated and that regulations need to be Marine protected areas altered to avoid the collapse of populations of certain Despite apparent threats to the marine resources, the species .GuzmanandJacome, 1998). establishment of a marine park in Roatan was not The apotheosis of the policy to establish protected considered essential in the 1980s .UNEP/IUCN, 1988). areas was arguably in 1997 when legislation was passed However, the recent recognition of the importance of declaring most of the Bay Islands as a marine park with reserves for conservation means that a total of 15% of varying levels of restrictions on resource use. Among Honduras .1.7 million hectares) is now protected via 106 other objectives, this park aimed to strengthen the mu- `natural areas' including national parks, wildlife refuges, nicipal reserves of Turtle Harbour in Utila and Sandy biological reserves, national forests, anthropological Bay in Roatan which were designated in 1982. However, reserves, protected watersheds, natural monuments, although the whole perimeter of Roatan and Guanaja cultural monuments and multiple-use areas .Hodges, and parts of Utila were included, enforcement is limited 1997). Within this system, there are 25 marine protected and the forestry department .Coorporacion Hondu- areas covering 4300 km2 .Kramer et al., 2000) but levels resimna de Desarrollo Forestal; COHDEFOR), which is

Box 2. The Sandy Bay ± West End Marine Reserve: a case study of the problems associated with establishing marine protected areas in Honduras

A series of marine reserves have been planned in the Bay Islands, but perhaps the most successful has been the Sandy Bay ± West End Marine Reserve on Roatan. The reserve, the current extent of which was designated in 1993 following environmental concern in the local community, has been the subject of two management plans in 1997 and 1999 and is managed by the Bay Islands Conservation Association .BICA). However, although the reserve has been relatively successful compared to many other examples in the region, it has encountered many problems, particularly those associated with the socio-economic concerns of Bay Islanders .Forest, 2000). For example, there is suspicion of the motives of the hoteliers who ®nance the park and that regulations are either enforced ine€ectually or inconsistently between poor ®sherfolk and wealthy land owners .Forest, 2000). Much of this suspicion is caused by the reserve's reliance on private funding rather than governmental support and per- ceived inequalities of membership fees for local businesses .Luttinger, 1997) and lack of integration of various community groups and stakeholders .Forest, 1998). Forest .2000) lists a series of solutions for improving the reputation of the reserve, including a transparent decision-making process, equitable representation of all resource users on the Board of Directors and provision for independent management decisions. In addition to changes to decision-making structure, more data are re- quired to improve management of the reserve. Hence the authors are planning to work with the Wildlife Con- servation Society to resurvey monitoring transects from 1997 to assess changes caused by mass bleaching events, Hurricane Mitch, coastal development and diver damage.

1233 MarinePollution Bulletin responsible for protected areas, has virtually no capacity Brenes, C. L., Gallegos, A. and Coen, E. .1998) Variacion anual dela on the islands. Furthermore, many stakeholders are temperatura super®cial en el Golfo de Honduras. Revista de Biologia Tropical 46.Suppl. 4), 187±197. unaware of the reserve's status or its consequences. Castillo, L. E., De La Cruz, E. and Ruepert, C. .1997) Ecotoxicology Unilateral decisions by central government with little and pesticides in tropical aquatic ecosystems of Central America. local consultation has also a€ected support for the Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 16.1), 41±51. Clifton, K. E. and Clifton, L. M. .1998) A survey of ®shes from PMAIB project which included amongst its aims a de- various coral reef habitats within the Cayos Cochinos Marine sire to strengthen the e€ectiveness of existing legislation Reserve, Honduras. Revista de Biologia Tropical 46.Suppl. 4), .Rijsberman, 2000). Rijsberman .2000) provides an ex- 109±124. Colin, P. L. .1974) Observation and collection of deep-reef ®shes o€ tensive discussion of possible techniques for resolving the coasts of Jamaica and British Honduras .Belize). Marine con¯icts relating to integrated coastal zone management Biology 24, 29±38. via stakeholder participation. Cortes, J. .1997) Status of the Caribbean coral reefs of Central America. In Proceedings of the Eighth International Coral Reef Symposium. Vol. 1, pp. 335±340. The future of marine resource management Doan, D. B. .1997) The Mineral Industry of Honduras. Vol. III ± Area Like almost all countries with a signi®cant coastline, Reports: International. United States Geological Service. D'Croz, L. D., Jackson, J. B. C. and Best, M. M. R. .1998) Honduras is struggling with theparadox of exploiting Siliciclastic-carbonate transitions along the shelf transects through marine resources with the simultaneous conservation of theCayos Cochinos Archipelago, Honduras. Revista de Biologia their ecological and economic values. Hence there are Tropical 46.Suppl. 4), 57±66. Donnelly, T. W. .1992) Geological setting and tectonic history of signi®cant and complex socio-economic issues to resolve Mesoamerica. In Insects of Panama and Mesoamerica, eds. D. including loss of ®shing grounds with increasing marine Quintero and A. Aiello, pp. 1±13. Oxford University Press, protected areas, expanding coastal populations and ex- Oxford. Ehrhardt, N. M. .2000) The Atlantic spiny lobster resources of Central clusion of local communities from pro®ts generated by America. In Spiny Lobsters: Fisheries and Culture, 2nd edn, ed. B. foreign developers. However, while Honduras lags be- F. Phillips and J. Kittaka, pp. 153±168. Fishing News Books, hind nearby Belize, there are encouraging signs that Oxford. Fenner, D. P. .1993) Some reefs and corals of Roatan .Honduras), integrated coastal zone management is gaining mo- Cayman Brac, and LittleCayman. Atoll Research Bulletin 388, mentum. A key catalyst has been the willingness of 1±30. government to establish PMAIB in the Bay Islands and Fielding, S. .2000a) The Caribbean cruise ship industry: environmental impacts to the Honduran Bay Islands. Unpublished report to the future work will be signi®cantly in¯uenced by lessons Wildlife Conservation Society and Summit Foundation. learnt during this project and imminent World Bank Fielding, S. .2000b) Recent demographic and migration changes: initiatives. Such high-pro®le interventions, however, impacts on natural resources of the Honduran Bay Islands. Unpublished report to the Wildlife Conservation Society and must be in conjunction with increased environmental Summit Foundation. awareness of stakeholders, school programmes of con- Fine, J. C. .1992) Greedy for groupers. Wildlife Conservation 95 servation education and strengthening of national ca- .November/December), 68±71. Forest, N. B. .1998) Assessment of coastal regulations and implemen- pacity for marine protected area management and tation: casestudy of Roat an, Bay Islands, Honduras. Coastal enforcement of existing legislation. The marine re- Management 26, 125±155. sources of the Caribbean are being detrimentally af- Forest, N. B. .2000) Roatan, Honduras: protected area under management of business community. In Marine and Coastal fected by a complex suite of interrelated local, regional Protected Areas: A Guide for Planners and Managers, 3rd edn, and global factors and Honduras represents a micro- eds. R. V. Salm, J. R. Clark and E. Siirila. IUCN, Gland. cosm of these threats. Whether it can resolve the current Gordon, A. L. .1967) Circulation of the Caribbean Sea. Journal of Geophysical Research 72, 6207±6223. problems will directly in¯uence the long-term develop- Groombridge, B. .1982) IUCN Amphibia-Reptilia red data book Part 1. ment and prosperity of the country. Testudines, Crocodylia, Rhynocephalia. IUCN, Gland and Cam- bridge. Guzman, H. M. .1998) Diversity of stony, soft and black corals The authors would like to thank Peter Raines for a review of this paper .Anthozoa: Scleractinia, Gorgonacea, Antipatharia; Hyydrozoa: and Jonathon Ridley for providing additional references. Coral Cay Milleporina) at Cayos Cochinos, Bay Islands, Honduras. Revista de Conservation's work in Honduras would not have been possible Biologia Tropical 46.Suppl. 4), 75±80. without thesupport of many individuals and organisations, particu- Guzman, H. M. and Guevara, C. .1998) Mortalidad masiva de larly Mayor Monty Carden~as, Shelby McNab, Irma Brady and all the organismos arrecifales zooxantelados durante el blanqueamiento de BICA sta€, Jose Rodas and the sta€ of PMAIB, Professor Becky 1995 en Cayos Cochinos, Honduras. Revista de Biologia Tropical Myton and the sta€ and students at UNAH, Chantal Rodriguez, Jim 46.Suppl. 4), 165±173. Barborak and the Wildlife Conservation Society, the dive shops in Guzman, H. M. and Jacome, G. .1998) Pesca artesanal en la Reserva Utila, James Guest, Pete Todd, Reef Conservation UK and the com- Biologica Cayos Cochinos, Honduras. Revista de Biologia Tropical munities of Utila Town, Calabash Bight and Oak Ridge. Finally, Coral 46.Suppl. 4), 151±163. Cay Conservation is very grateful to the ®eld sta€ and volunteers who Harborne, A. R., Afzal, D. C., Andrews, M. J. and Ridley, J. M. .in haveworkedin Honduras. press) Beyond data: the expanded role of a volunteer programme assisting resource assessment and management in the Bay Islands, Honduras. In Proceedings of the Ninth International Coral Reef Barahona, G. M. and Guzman, H. M. .1998) Encuesta socio-ecologica Symposium. de las poblaciones residentes de la Reserva Biologica Cayos Heyman, W. and Graham, R. eds. .2000) La voz de los pescadores de la Cochinos, Honduras. Revista de Biologia Tropical 46.Suppl. 4), Costa Atlantica de Honduras. PROLANSATE y TIDE, Tela, 39±55. Honduras. Bermingham, E., Coates, A., Cruz, D. G., Emmons, L., Foster, R. B., Heyman, W. D. and Kjerfve, B. .1999) Hydrological and Leschen, R., Seutin, G., Thorn, S., Wcislo, W. and Werfel, B. .1998) oceanographic considerations for Integrated Coastal Zone Man- Geology and terrestrial ¯ora and fauna of Cayos Cochinos, agement in Southern Belize. Environmental Management 24.2), Honduras. Revista de Biologia Tropical 46.Suppl. 4), 15±37. 229±245.

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