LY6E Impairs Coronavirus Fusion and Confers Immune Control of Viral Disease
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bioRxiv preprint doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.03.05.979260; this version posted March 7, 2020. The copyright holder for this preprint (which was not certified by peer review) is the author/funder. All rights reserved. No reuse allowed without permission. LY6E impairs coronavirus fusion and confers immune control of viral disease Stephanie Pfaender1,2,3#, Katrina B. Mar4#, Eleftherios Michailidis5, Annika Kratzel1,2, Dagny Hirt1,2, Philip V`kovski1,2, Wenchun Fan4, Nadine Ebert1,2, Hanspeter Stalder1,2, Hannah Kleine-Weber6,7, Markus Hoffmann6, H. Heinrich Hoffmann5, Mohsan Saeed5,8, Ronald Dijkman1,2, Eike Steinmann3, Mary Wight-Carter9, Natasha W. Hanners10, Stefan Pöhlmann6,7, Tom Gallagher11, Daniel Todt3,12, Gert Zimmer1,2, Charles M. Rice5*, John W. Schoggins4*, and Volker Thiel1,2* 1Institute of Virology and Immunology, Bern and Mittelhäusern, Switzerland. 2Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland. 3Department for Molecular & Medical Virology, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Germany. 4Department of Microbiology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA. 5Laboratory of Virology and Infectious Disease, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA. 6Deutsches Primatenzentrum GmbH, Leibniz-Institut für Primatenforschung, Göttingen, Germany. 7Faculty of Biology and Psychology, University Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany. 8Department of Biochemistry, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA; National Emerging Infectious Diseases Laboratories, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA. 9Animal Resource Center, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA. 10Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA 11Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, USA. 12European Virus Bioinformatics Center (EVBC), Jena, Germany #equally contributing authors, *equal senior authorship *e-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] 1 bioRxiv preprint doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.03.05.979260; this version posted March 7, 2020. The copyright holder for this preprint (which was not certified by peer review) is the author/funder. All rights reserved. No reuse allowed without permission. ABSTRACT Zoonotic coronaviruses (CoVs) are significant threats to global health, as exemplified by the recent emergence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)1. Host immune responses to CoV are complex and regulated in part through antiviral interferons. However, the interferon-stimulated gene products that inhibit CoV are not well characterized2. Here, we show that interferon-inducible lymphocyte antigen 6 complex, locus E (LY6E) potently restricts cellular infection by multiple CoVs, including SARS-CoV, SARS-CoV-2, and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV). Mechanistic studies revealed that LY6E inhibits CoV entry into cells by interfering with spike protein-mediated membrane fusion. Importantly, mice lacking Ly6e in hematopoietic cells were highly susceptible to murine CoV infection. Exacerbated viral pathogenesis in Ly6e knockout mice was accompanied by loss of hepatic and splenic immune cells and reduction in global antiviral gene pathways. Accordingly, we found that Ly6e directly protects primary B cells and dendritic cells from murine CoV infection. Our results demonstrate that LY6E is a critical antiviral immune effector that controls CoV infection and pathogenesis. These findings advance our understanding of immune-mediated control of CoV in vitro and in vivo, knowledge that could help inform strategies to combat infection by emerging CoV. 2 bioRxiv preprint doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.03.05.979260; this version posted March 7, 2020. The copyright holder for this preprint (which was not certified by peer review) is the author/funder. All rights reserved. No reuse allowed without permission. Coronaviruses (CoVs) are enveloped RNA viruses with broad host tropism and documented capability to cross the species barrier to infect humans3. The mammalian innate immune response controls CoV infection partly through the action of interferons (IFNs)2,4,5. IFNs inhibit viral infection by inducing hundreds of genes, many of which encode antiviral effectors6. The interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs) that inhibit CoV infection are not well defined2. To address this knowledge gap, we screened our published library of >350 human ISG cDNAs7,8 in human hepatoma cells for antiviral activity against the endemic human CoV 229E (HCoV-229E) (Extended Data Table 1, Extended Data Table 2). The ISG lymphocyte antigen 6 complex, locus E (LY6E) strikingly inhibited HCoV-229E infection (Fig. 1a-b, Extended Data Fig. 1a). This was unexpected since we and others previously reported that LY6E enhances cellular infection by influenza A virus, flaviviruses, and HIV-19-11, with HIV-1 being an exception as opposing roles of LY6E have been described12. To verify this result, we generated stable cell lines ectopically expressing LY6E and infected cells with diverse CoVs. In addition to HCoV-229E (Fig. 1c), LY6E significantly inhibited infection by HCoV-OC43, MERS-CoV, SARS- CoV, and the recently emerged SARS-CoV-2 (Fig. 1d-g). The antiviral effect of LY6E extended beyond human CoVs and blocked infection by the murine CoV murine hepatitis virus (MHV) (Fig. 1h). Given the zoonotic origin of SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV, both suspected to originate from bats, we next tested the antiviral potential of select LY6E orthologues. An alignment of LY6E orthologues of human, rhesus macaque, mouse, bat, and camel origin revealed strong conservation across species (Extended Data Fig. 1b-c). All LY6E orthologues inhibited HCoV-229E (Extended Data Fig. 1d). Recent surveillance of Kenyan camels, the main viral reservoir for MERS-CoV, indicates active circulation of the zoonotic CoV13. Human and camel LY6E restricted MERS-CoV infection (Extended Data Fig. 1e). To test the role of endogenous LY6E in controlling CoV infections, we used CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing to ablate LY6E expression in human lung adenocarcinoma cells (Fig. 1i). This cell line was selected as human hepatoma cells do not express LY6E irrespective of IFN treatment9. LY6E knockout (KO) cells were more susceptible to HCoV-229E (Fig. 1j). Reconstitution with a CRISPR-resistant LY6E variant (CR LY6E) restored antiviral activity in KO cells (Fig. 1k-l). Strikingly, the LY6E-mediated restriction in 3 bioRxiv preprint doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.03.05.979260; this version posted March 7, 2020. The copyright holder for this preprint (which was not certified by peer review) is the author/funder. All rights reserved. No reuse allowed without permission. hepatoma cells was largely specific to CoV. Among 10 genetically divergent viruses tested, only hepatitis C virus was also restricted (Extended Data Fig. 1f). LY6E is a member of the LY6/uPAR family of GPI-anchored proteins, and is implicated in diverse cellular processes14. To evaluate the specificity of LY6E for inhibiting CoV, we ectopically expressed select LY6/uPAR proteins9 and infected with HCoV-229E. Only LY6E inhibited CoV infection (Extended Data Fig. 1g). We previously showed that a conserved residue (L36) is required for LY6E- mediated enhancement of influenza A virus9. L36 was also required to restrict HCoV-229E infection (Extended Data Fig. 1h). These data suggest a conserved functional domain that is responsible for both the virus-enhancing and -restricting phenotypes. Next, we investigated the effect of LY6E on specific steps of the virus replication cycle. First, we tested whether LY6E restricts HCoV-229E attachment to the cell surface and observed no effect (Extended Data Fig. 2a). In accordance, LY6E had no effect on surface expression of CD13, the specific receptor for HCoV-229E (Extended Data Fig. 2b). To test whether LY6E restricts viral entry, we used a vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) pseudoparticle (pp) system bearing CoV spike (S) proteins. Strikingly, LY6E significantly inhibited VSVpp entry mediated by S proteins from HCoV-229E (Fig. 2a), MERS-CoV (Fig. 2b), SARS-CoV (Fig. 2c), and SARS-CoV-2 (Fig. 2d). Entry mediated by VSV glycoprotein G was only marginally impacted by LY6E (Extended Data Fig. 2c, d). To test whether LY6E interferes with the fusion of viral and cellular membranes, we performed a syncytia formation assay using propagation competent VSV pseudoviruses co-expressing CoV S protein and a GFP reporter (VSV*ΔG(CoV S)) (Extended Data Fig. 3a). LY6E potently inhibited CoV S protein-mediated syncytia formation (Fig. 2e-f). To determine whether LY6E impairs S protein expression or maturation, we also performed a heterologous syncytia formation assay. CoV-resistant hamster cells infected with trans-complemented GFP reporter VSV*ΔG(CoV) were co-cultured with susceptible target cells that ectopically expressed LY6E. LY6E again significantly blocked syncytia formation, demonstrating that LY6E inhibits S protein-mediated fusion and not S protein expression or maturation (Extended Data Fig. 3b-c). As membrane fusion can occur without syncytia formation, we also performed a quantitative fusion assay in which mixing of cell contents results in complementation of split luciferase (Fig. 2g). 4 bioRxiv preprint doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.03.05.979260; this version posted March 7, 2020. The copyright holder for this preprint (which was not certified by peer review) is the author/funder.