Yellowstone National Park Resources and Issues

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Special Section: The 1988 Fires

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Special Section: The 1988 Fires

Flaming trees and fireweed epitomize the dual faces of wildland fire — the year after a fire, the summer bloom of fireweed out- shines other wildflower shows in Yellowstone. The National Park Service and Yellowstone National Park wish to thank the Yellowstone Association for their support of this publication.

Contributors

The Yellowstone National Park staff experts Dr. James C. Halfpenny, A Naturalist's who contributed updates to this edition are World listed at the end of each chapter in "For Dr. Mike Tercek, Walking Shadow Ecology More Information." Dr. Cathy Whitlock, Montana State Olliff staff Tom & University Judy Knuth Folts & staff Editing, design, production: Bob Fuhrmann & staff Carolyn Duckworth, Publications Program Jim Peaco Manager, Division of Interpretation

Clare Cloghessy Managing Editor: Judy Jensen & staff Linda Young, Chief, Branch of Interpretative Planning and Media Tammy Wert & staff

Staff, Yellowstone Research Library

Produced by the Division of Interpretation, Yellowstone National Park, Mammoth Hot Springs, Wyoming.

Available online at www.nps.gov/yell or for purchase by the Yellowstone Association, www.YellowstoneAssociation.org.

All material is in the public domain unless noted below, in which case copyright is owned by person or organization listed.

Front cover— NPS/Jeff Henry

Photographs: Most are from Yellowstone National Park or by National Park Service photogra- phers. Individuals or organizations contributing photos: p. 1 (fireweed), 51, 69 (3), 70, 71, 74 (bottom), 76 (top, bottom), 79, 82, 169, 192— Carolyn Duckworth; p. 59—UWS/UWM Great Lakes Water Institute; p. 60— Dr. Russell Cuhel; p. 65—Robert Smith; p. 69 (bottom), 72 (bottom), 74 (left top & center) —Thermal Biology Institute, Montana State University; p. 77—NASA/JPL; p. 73 (2nd from bottom), 84—Jennifer Whipple; p. 118, 155—Tom Cawley; p. 120—Fred Paulsen; p. 122—Ton! K. Ruth, Hornocker Wildlife Institute & Wildlife Conservation Society; p. 146-149— Jeff Arnold; p. 158, top left— Eric Engbretson, USFWS; p. 158, middle left—David Riecks, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; p. 158, bottom left— Charles Ramcharan, Wisconsin Sea Grant; p. 158, right— Florida Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services; p. 163— Michael S. Sample; p. 166—Richard Wilson, UNebraska Medical Center (1975).

Maps and illustrations: Most are produced by the staff of Yellowstone National Park, including the Spatial Analysis Center, or are from other National Park Service sources. Exceptions: p. 27— Dan Chapman; wildlife illustrations in FAQ and Chapter 7—© Zachary Zdinak; p. 33—adapted from map first appearing in Yellowstone Science, Fall 2001; p. 53-56, p. 62—courtesy Robert Smith, from Windows Into the Earth (co-authored with Lee J. Siegel), 2000, Oxford Press; p. 59- 60, Dr. Lisa Morgan, U.S. Geological Survey; p. 68— Dr. Jack Farmer, first appearing in GSA Today, July 2000; p. 71 (virus) —Thermal Biology Institute, Montana State University; p. 145— Debra Patla; p. 174 (graph) —Scripps Institute of Oceanography; p. 175 (graph) — Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC); p. 178— Carolyn Duckworth; p. 184 — CTA Associates. Contents

Park Facts 7 Complex Times 40 Preserving the Park's History 41

Frequently Asked Questions 9 Historic Structures & Districts ... 42 General 9 The Legacy of Yellowstone 45 Geography 12 Geology 13 2 Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem 47 The Fires of 1988 16 Biological Diversity 49 Wildlife 17 Cycles & Processes 49 Major Areas 19 Community Complexity 50

Introduction 27 Intricate Layers 50 Trophic Cascades 50 The Beginning of an Idea 27 Balancing Nature? 50 Today's National Park System 28 Winter 51 NPS Mission Statement 29 Management Challenges 52 YNP Mission Statement 30 Significance of YNP 30 3 Geology 53 What Lies Beneath 53 1 History of the Park 31 Ancient Yellowstone 54 Earliest Humans in Yellowstone. . 31 Magma Hotspots 54 Increased Use 32 & Future Volcanic Activity 56 The Little Ice Age 33 Geyser Basin Systems 57 Historic Tribes 33 Hydrothermal Features 58 "Sheep Eaters" 33 Beneath Yellowstone Lake 59 European Americans Arrive 34 Earthquakes 61 Expeditions 34 Glaciers 62 Birth of a National Park 35 Sedimentation Erosion 63 The Formative Years 36 & Fossils 64 The Army Arrives 37 Research 65 The National Park Service Begins. 38 Boundary Adjustments 38 4 Life in Extreme Heat 67 The 1940s 39 About Microbes 68 Mission 66 39 Thermophiles in the Tree of Life 68 From Managed to "Natural" 40 Thermophilic Bacteria 69 Involving Native Americans 40 Thermophilic Archaea 70

contents continue Thermophilic Viruses 71 Moose 129 Thermophilic Eukarya 72 Pronghorn 131 Thermophilic Communities 74 Wolf 133

Thermophiles by Place & Color . . 76 B: Birds 135 C: Fish 141 Thermophiles in Time & Space. . . 77 D: Reptiles & Amphibians 145

5 Vegetation 79 8 Park Issues 155 Major Types 79 Aquatic Invaders 155 Effects of Disturbances 81 Bear Management 159 Trees 82 Bioprospecting 164 Endemics 84 Bison Management 167 Exotics 85 Climate Change 172 Northern Range 179 6 Fire 87 Sustainable & Greening Practices 182 The Fires of 1988 88 Wilderness 186 Fighting the Fires 89 Winter Use 188 Confusion in the Media 90 Wolf Restoration 195 Voices from 1988 91

Burned Areas in Yellowstone . 92 Post-Fire Consequences 93 Aftermath: Research 94

Fire Ecology 98

Managing Fire 99

7 Wildlife 103 A: Mammals List of Mammals in Yellowstone. 103 Small Mammals 106 Bear, Black 113

Bear, Grizzly 114 Bears, Comparison 115 Beaver 116 Bighorn Sheep 117 Bison 118

Cats: Bobcat & Lynx 120 Cougar 121 Coyote 123 Deer, Mule & White-tailed 124 Elk 125 Fox 127 Preface

In this book, you will find concise information about the park's history, natural and cultural resources, and issues. This material was provided and reviewed by park researchers, resource specialists, and staffs of Planning, Public Affairs, and Interpretation.

How the Book Is Organized

The book is organized to serve our staff and the public who need basic park information quickly. Thus, the book begins with "Park Facts," followed by "Frequently Asked Questions" and a brief introduction.

Readers can obtain more detailed information in the chapters that follow.

How the Chapters Are Organized

• Summary box containing key facts

• Main text providing overview of subject

• Resource list for more information

Some material is repeated in the book to accommodate users with varying needs.

Updating the Information Information about Yellowstone constantly changes; the information provided here is current as of January 2008. You can find updates and comprehensive information on the park website (www.nps.gov/yell), in park publications and exhibits, or by asking the park's interpretive rangers who staff the visitor centers. We welcome your feedback and comments.

new fhd/or changed information

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 5 Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 Park Facts

geology CULTURAL RESOURCES World's first national park An active volcano Approximately 1,500 archeological sites A designated World 1,000-3,000 earthquakes annually More than 300 ethnographic resources Heritage Site More than 10,000 hydrothermal features (animals, plants, sites) and Biosphere More than 300 active geysers 26 associated Native American tribes Reserve * 3,472 square miles One of the world's largest calderas at More than 24 sites, landmarks, and districts or 8,987 sq. km 45 x 30 miles on the National Register of Historic Places * 2,221,766 acres or Approximately 290 waterfalls, 1 National Historic Trail 899,139 hectares 15 ft. or higher, flowing year-round More than 900 historic buildings 63 air miles north to Tallest waterfall in the front country: More than 379,000 cultural objects and south (102 km) Falls of the River at natural science Lower Yellowstone specimens 54 air miles east to 308 ft. Thousands of books (many rare), west (87 km) YELLOWSTONE LAKE manuscripts, periodicals 96% in Wyoming, 90,000 historic photographs 3% in Montana, 131.7 square miles of surface area 1% in Idaho 141 miles of shoreline VISITORS Highest Point: 20 miles north to south 2007: 3,144,405 entries to the park—a record 11,358ft. (Eagle Peak) 14 miles east to west number & up 9.8% from 2006 Lowest Point: 5,282 Average depth: 140 feet 2006-2007 winter: 297,718 entries ft. (Reese Creek) Maximum depth: 410 feet FACILITIES Larger than Rhode Island 9 visitor centers, museums, and contact & WILDLIFE Delaware stations 67 species of mammals, including: combined 7 species of native ungulates 9 hotels/lodges (2,000+ hotel rooms/cabins) Approximately 5% 2 species of bears 7 NPS-operated campgrounds (450+ sites) ofpark covered by water; 15% by 322 species of birds (148 nesting species) 5 concession-operated campgrounds grassland; and sites) 16 species of fish (5 non-native) (1,700+ 80% byforests 6 species of reptiles More than 1,500 buildings (NPS and Precipitation ranges concessions) 4 species of amphibians from 10 inches 52 picnic areas (26 cm) at the 1 threatened species: Canada lynx north boundary 1 marina 1 endangered species: gray wolf (designated to 80 inches (205 cm) in the south- an experimental and non-essential popula- 13 self-guiding trails west corner tion in Yellowstone National Park; ROADS AND TRAILS Temperatures: proposed for delisting in 2008) 5 park entrances Average at FLORA 466 miles of roads (310 miles paved) Mammoth: January: 9°F 7 species of conifers More than 15 miles of boardwalk July: 80°F Approximately 80% of forest is comprised of Approximately miles of backcountry 1,000 Records: lodgepole pine trails High: 99°F, 2002 Approximately 1,100 species of native 92 trailheads (Mammoth) vascular plants Low: -66°F, 1933 301 backcountry campsites (West Entrance, More than 199 species of exotic (non-native) EMPLOYEES Riverside plants Station) 186 species of lichens Approximately 800 people work for the National Park Service at peak summer At least 406 species of thermophiles (only 1% levels; about 400 year-round of hydrothermal areas inventoried) Approximately 3,500 people work for concessioners at peak summer levels

Yellowstone Resources Issues ic About park square mileage and acreage: No area figures for the park have been scientifically & 2008 verified. The figures used here have been used for many years and in different references. They differ from the park's master deed, which also contains unverified figures. Efforts to confirm the total park area continue. Yellowstone Resources \ a Issues 2008 8 Frequently Asked Questions

How did Yellowstone get its name? Yellowstone National Park is named after the Yellowstone River, the major river running through the park. According to French-Canadian trappers in the 1800s, they asked the name of the river from the Minnetaree tribe. They responded "Mi tse a-da-zi," which literally translates as "Rock Yellow River." (Historians do not know why the Minnetaree gave this name to the river.) The trappers translated this into French as "Roche Jaune" or "Pierre Jaune." In 1797, explorer-geographer David Thomson used the English translation—"Yellow Stone." Lewis and Clark called the Yellowstone River by the French and English forms. Subsequent usage formalized the name as "Yellowstone."

Did other national parks exist before Yellowstone? The golden walls of the Grand Canyon of the Some sources list Hot Springs in Arkansas Yellowstone River, above. Yellowstone is some- as the first national park— it was set aside in times confused with Yosemite National Park forty years before Yellowstone was 1832, (below), which is in California and was not the established —but it was actually the nation's first national park. oldest national reservation, set aside to preserve and distribute a utilitarian resource (hot water), much like our present national forests. In 1921, an act of Congress established Hot Springs as a national park.

Other sources argue Yosemite was the first

national park, but it was actually a state park. In 1864, Congress set aside the area surrounding the Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Grove of Big Trees and gave them to the state of California to administer for public use and recreation. In 1890, Congress established Yosemite as a national park 18

years after it established Yellowstone National Park.

Is Yellowstone the largest national park? No. More than half of Alaska's national park units are larger, including Wrangell- St. Elias National Park and Preserve, which

is the largest unit in the National Park System (13 million acres). Until 1994, Yellowstone (at 2.2 million acres) was the

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 — .

FAQ: General Deatheath Valley Wrangell-St. Elias (California & (Alaska) Nevada)

Yellowstone

The scale of these comparisons is approximate, and based on a map produced by the National Park Service.

largest national park in the contiguous world's major ecosystem types is United States. That year Death Valley devoted to conservation of nature and National Monument was expanded and scientific research in the service of man.

became a national park— it has more than 3 It provides a standard against which the million acres. effect of man's impact on the environment can be measured. Does Yellowstone include a federally designated wilderness? The September 8, 1978, United Nations No. Most of the park was recommended for designation of Yellowstone as a World this designation in 1972, but Congress has Heritage Site, requested by U.S. President not acted on the recommendation. (See Richard Nixon and Congress, stated: Chapter 8, "Wilderness. ") Through the collective recognition of

the community of nations . . Why is Yellowstone called a Biosphere Reserve and a World Heritage Site? Yellowstone National Park has been The United Nations designated Yellowstone designated as a World Heritage Site and list of areas National Park as a Biosphere Reserve and a joins a select protected outstanding The Man and the World Heritage Site because of the world- around the world whose Biosphere Program natural and cultural resources form the wide significance of its natural and cultural designates resources. These designations have nothing common inheritance of all mankind. Yellowstone as a to do with how Yellowstone is managed Biosphere Reserve & What is the difference between a national World Heritage Site. the United Nations has no authority to dic- park and a national forest? find more: To out tate federal land management decisions in National parks are administered by the www.cr.nps.gov/ the United States —nor do they change the Department of the Interior and national worldheritage fact that Yellowstone is under the legal forests by the Department of Agriculture. whc.unesco.org/ authority of the United States of America. The National Park Service is mandated to www. unesco. org/ mab The October 26, 1976, United Nations preserve resources unimpaired, while the designation of Yellowstone as a Biosphere Forest Service is mandated to wisely man- Reserve stated: age resources for many sustainable uses. Six national forests surround Yellowstone Yellowstone National Park is recog- National Park, shown in the map on page nized as part of the international net- 48. work of biosphere reserves. This network of protected samples of the

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 10 What else can we Winter Access in Yellowstone do in winter? To Bozeman, MT can drive into FAQ: 90 mi/144 km You Northeast Entrance the park through the General North Entrance year-round. At Mammoth, you can take self-guiding tours of Fort Yellowstone and the Mammoth Terraces, join a guided walk or West Entrance tour, crosscountry

To Idaho Falls, ID 100 mi/160 km ski, snowshoe, ice skate (sometimes), rent a hot tub, soak in the Boiling River, watch wildlife, attend ranger programs, and visit the Albright Visitor Center. You can also arrange for tours to Norris Geyser Basin, Old Faithful, and the To Grand Teton National Park 8 mi/13 km To Jackson. WY 57 mt/91 km Grand Canyon of the

Open to wheeled vehicles Yellowstone River.

i Open to oversnow vehicles, following winter use regulations Closed to all vehicles From Mammoth, you can drive past Blacktail Plateau, How many rangers work in Yellowstone? through Lamar Valley, and on to Cooke Park rangers perform duties in interpreta- City, Montana. You may see coyotes, bison, tion, education, resource management, law elk, wolves, eagles, and other wildlife along enforcement, emergency medical services, the way. You can also stop to crosscountry and backcountry operations. In Yellow- ski or snowshoe a number of trails that stone, approximately 180 rangers work in begin along this road. the park during the peak summer season; less than 100 year-round. Other park The Old Faithful area is accessible by guided employees work in research, maintenance, snowmobile or snowcoach trips. Once there, management, administration, trail mainte- you can walk, snowshoe, or ski around the nance, fire management, and fee collection. geyser basin; take shuttles to crosscountry ski trails; or join a tour to other parts of the Is Yellowstone the most visited national park such as West Thumb, Hayden Valley, park? and the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone No. Great Smoky Mountains National Park River. has the most visitors —more than 9 million. Can we swim in Yellowstone? Can we snowmobile in the park? Swimming is not recommended because From late December to early March, guided most lakes and streams are extremely cold. snowmobile trips are allowed on some roads Firehole Canyon, near Madison Junction, in the park. See Chapter 8, "Winter Use" has a swimming area popular in summer. and www.nps.gov/yell/planyourvisit/ Boiling River, north of Mammoth Hot winteruse.htm. Springs, is one of the few legal thermal

soaking areas; soaking is allowed during daylight hours only and at your own risk. Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 11 What is the highest peak in the park? begins in the Centennial Mountains, west of Eagle Peak in the southeastern part of the park. The Madison River forms inside FAQ: Yellowstone is the highest at 11,358 ft. the park at Madison Junction, where the Gibbon and Firehole rivers join. The Geography What is the Continental Divide? Gallatin River also begins inside the park Think of the Continental Divide as the crest north of the Madison River. It flows north of the continent. Theoretically, when pre- through Gallatin Canyon and across the cipitation falls on the west side of the Gallatin Valley, joining the Madison and Divide, it eventually reaches the Pacific Jefferson rivers at Three Forks, Montana, to Ocean. When it falls on the east side of the form the Missouri River. Divide, it eventually reaches the Atlantic Ocean. In Yellowstone (as elsewhere), this Does the Snake River begin here? ridgeline is not straight. You cross the Yes, the Snake River— a major tributary of Continental Divide three times between the the Columbia River—has its headwaters just South Entrance and Old Faithful. Craig Pass inside Yellowstone on the Two Ocean is the highest crossing, at 8,262 feet. Plateau, at a point on the Continental Divide. The river flows through Idaho and joins the Columbia in Washington. The Snake River is 1,040 miles long; 42 miles of

it are in Yellowstone National Park.

How did Mt. Washburn form? At 10,243 feet, this peak can be seen from

many locations in the park. It is a remnant of an extinct volcano from the Absaroka Volcanics of about 50 million years ago. The volcano was literally cut in half by a volcanic eruption 640,000 years ago. (See next

page and Chapter 3.) Only the northern part

of the original volcano is still visible.

How did the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone River form? Scientists continue to evolve their theories

about its formation. Hydrothermal activity existed here at least before the Yellowstone Road Caldera eruption. After that eruption, lava River flows and volcanic tuffs buried the canyon Continental Divide Park Boundary area; but hydrothermal gases and hot water weakened the rock. The river eroded this rock, carving the canyon. Glaciation also How cold is Yellowstone in winter? contributed to forming the canyon: Melt Average winter highs are 20-30°F; average waters helped shape and deepen the lows are 0-9°F. The record low was -66°F canyon. (-54°C) at Riverside Ranger Station, near the West Entrance, on February 9, 1933. How did Yellowstone Lake form? The lake's main basin is part of the Where does the Yellowstone River flow? Yellowstone Caldera, which was formed The river begins outside the park on Younts 640,000 years ago; West Thumb was formed See chapters 2-4 Peak and flows into Yellowstone Lake. It by a later, smaller eruption. The arms of the for more information leaves the lake at Fishing Bridge, and con- about geography & lake were formed by uplift along fault lines tinues north-northwest until it leaves the geology in and sculpting by glaciers. Some geologists park near Gardiner, Montana. The Yellowstone. speculate that Yellowstone Lake once Yellowstone River continues north and east drained south to the Snake River. The lake through Montana and joins the Missouri now drains north at Fishing Bridge. Some River just over the North Dakota state line. scientists consider LeHardys Rapids to be Yellowstone Resources Does the Missouri River begin here? the geologic northern boundary of the lake & Issues 2008 No, but its three tributaries begin in the because the periodic rise and fall of that site 12 Greater Yellowstone area. The Jefferson appears to control lake outflow. Is Yellowstone a volcano? monitors would detect sudden or strong Yes. Within the past two million years, many movements or shifts in heat that would indi- volcanic eruptions have occurred in the cate increasing activity. No such evidence FAQ: Yellowstone area—three of them major. exists at this time. Volcanic In addition, scientists collaborate with What is the caldera line on the park map? YVO The caldera line (see at right) marks the rim scientists from all over the world to study Geology of a crater, or caldera, created by a massive the hazards of the Yellowstone volcano. To volcanic eruption in Yellowstone approxi- view current data about earthquakes, mately 640,000 years ago. Subsequent lava ground movement, and stream flow, visit the website at volcanoes.usgs.gov/yvo/. flows filled in much of the crater, and it is YVO now measured at 30 x 45 miles. Its rim can best be seen from the Washburn Hot Springs overlook, south of Dunraven Pass. Gibbon Falls, Lewis Falls, and Flat Mountain Arm of Yellowstone Lake are part of the rim.

Is Yellowstone's volcano still active? Yes. The park's numerous hydrothermal features attest to the heat still beneath this area. Earthquakes—1,000 to 3,000 per year— also reveal activity below ground. The Yellowstone Volcano Observatory (YVO) monitors an array of signals to track this activity.

Where can I see volcanic flows? Almost everywhere you look in Yellowstone! Prominent locations include Sheepeater Cliff (columnar basalt); Tuff Cliffs (ashfall); Virginia Cascades (ashfall, lava); Firehole Canyon (lava); Mt. Haynes and Mt. Jackson, along the road between Madison and West Entrance (columnar rhyolite, Lava Creek tuff); north of Tower Fall (several different basalt formations); Obsidian Cliff. Continental Divide What is a supervolcano? Some scientists consider Yellowstone to be a "supervolcano," which refers to an eruption of more than 240 cubic miles of magma. Two of Yellowstone's three major eruptions met What is Yellowstone National Park doing the criteria. (See Chapter 3.) to stop or prevent an eruption? Nothing can be done to prevent an eruption. Will the Yellowstone volcano erupt soon? The temperatures, pressures, physical char- Current geologic activity at Yellowstone has acteristics of partially molten rock, and remained relatively constant since scientists immensity of the magma chamber are first started monitoring some 30 years ago. beyond human ability to impact—much less Though another caldera-forming eruption is control. theoretically possible, it is very unlikely to occur in the next thousand or even 10,000 If Old Faithful Geyser quits erupting, years. Scientists have also found no indica- would that be a sign the volcano is about tion of an imminent smaller eruption of to erupt? lava. All geysers are highly dynamic, including Old Faithful. We expect Old Faithful to How do scientists know the Yellowstone change in response to the ongoing geologic volcano won't erupt? processes associated with mineral deposi- Yellowstone Resources Scientists from the Yellowstone Volcano tion and earthquakes. Thus, a change in Old & Issues 2008 Observatory (YVO) watch an array of moni- Faithful Geyser will not necessarily indicate tors in place throughout the region. These 13 a change in volcanic activity. Why are geysers in Yellowstone? The features in the basin change often, with Yellowstone's volcanic geology provides the frequent disturbances from seismic activity FAQ: three components for geysers and other and water fluctuations. Norris is so hot and

hydrothermal features: heat, water, and a dynamic primarily because it sits Hydro- on the natural "plumbing" system. Magma beneath intersection of three major faults, two of thermal the surface provides the heat. Ample rain which intersect with a ring fracture from and snowfall supply the water. The water the Yellowstone Caldera eruption 640,000 Geology seeps several thousand feet below the sur- years ago.

face where it is heat- Why can't I bring my dog on geyser basin ed. Underground trails? cracks and fissures Dogs do not seem to recognize the differ- form the plumbing. ence between hot and cold water. Dogs have Hot water rises died diving into hot springs. They also dis- through the plumb- turb wildlife and are prohibited from all ing to surface as park trails. In the few places pets are per- hydrothermal fea- mitted, they must be leashed at all times. tures in Yellowstone. Ask at a visitor center where you can safely Geysers occur when and legally walk a pet. that plumbing is

constricted. (See Is it really dangerous to walk off the Chapter 3.) boardwalks in geyser basins? YES! Geyser basins are constantly changing. What exactly is a Boiling water surges just under the thin geyser basin? crust of most geyser basins, and many A geyser basin is a people have been severely injured (second geographically dis- and third degree burns) when they have tinct area that con- broken through the fragile surface. Some tains a "cluster" or people have died from falling into hydro- array of hydrother- thermal features. mal features that

may include geysers, hot springs, mudpots, Why can't I smoke in the geyser basins? and fumaroles. These distinct areas often Litter of any kind can clog vents, thus alter- (but not always) occur in topographically ing or destroying hydrothermal activity. low places because hydrothermal features Cigarette butts quickly accumulate if smok-

tend to be concentrated around the margins ing is allowed. Also, sulfur deposits exist in of lava flows and in areas of faulting. these areas, and they easily catch fire, producing dangerous—sometimes lethal Where can I see mudpots? —fumes. Small areas of mudpots occur at West Thumb Geyser Basin, Fountain Paint Pot, Were Native Americans afraid of and Artist Paintpots. The largest group of geysers? mudpots can be found at Mud Volcano, at Native Americans in general were not afraid the southern end of Hayden Valley. Here, of geysers. Many of the associated tribes of you'll find some of the most acidic features Yellowstone say their people have used the in the park, including Sulphur Caldron with park as a place to live, to collect food and a pH of 1-2. other resources, and as a passage through to the bison hunting grounds of the Great What is the most active thermal area in Plains. Archeologists and historians have the park? also uncovered ample evidence that people Scientists consider Norris Geyser Basin to lived in and visited Yellowstone for thou- be the hottest, oldest, and most dynamic of sands of years before historic times. See Yellowstone's active hydrothermal areas. Chapter I for more about Native Americans The highest temperature yet recorded in any in Yellowstone. Yellowstone hydrothermal area was measured in a scientific drill hole at Norris: 459°F just 1,087 feet below the surface. Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 Norris shows evidence of having had hydrothermal features for at least 115,000 years. 14 Did glaciers ever cover Yellowstone? formed the small, narrow valleys where Yes, like most of North America, Yellow- Floating Island Lake and Phantom Lake are stone has experienced glaciers many times. found. In Gardner Canyon, the old bed of FAQ: Scientists estimate that 25,000 years ago, for the Gardner River is covered by glacial till. Glacial example, most of the park was under 4,000 Swan Lake Flat: South of Mammoth, this feet of ice. (See page 62.) During this glacial area was glaciated and is now meadows and Geology era, called the Pinedale, glaciers flowed wetlands where people often see elk, bison, down from the Beartooth Plateau and other sometimes grizzlies and wolves, and water high country, following river corridors such as the Lamar, Yellowstone, and Madison. The glaciers retreated and advanced several times at least, and finally retreated 13,000- 14,000 years ago.

Where can I see their evidence? Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone River: The current canyon dates back to the end of the last glaciation, 13,000-14,000 years ago. Melt waters associated with the last glaciation carved the current V-shaped valley.

Hayden Valley: The valley was filled by a lake at least once and, consequently, contains fine-grained lake sediments that are now covered with glacial till left from the most recent glacial retreat 13,000-14,000 years ago. Because glacial till contains many different grain sizes, including clay and a thin layer of lake sediments, water cannot percolate quickly into the ground. Thus,

Hayden Valley is marshy and has few trees.

Norris Geyser Basin: The Ragged Hills, which are northwest of Porcelain Basin, are thermally altered kames (hills of glacial debris) formed as glaciers receded. The underlying hydrothermal features melted remnants of ice and caused masses of debris to be dumped, which were then altered by steam and hot water.

Tower Fall area: North of Tower Fall, sediments between layers of basalts may show evidence of the oldest known glaciation in Yellowstone. Plus, glacial boulders from the last major glaciation of Yellowstone—the Pinedale— rest atop the youngest basalt.

Lamar Valley: The glacial ponds and huge boulders (erratics) between the Lamar and birds. Electric Peak, to the northwest Yellowstone rivers were left by the retreat- (and in photo above) was also carved by ing glaciers, as were several moraines (ridges glaciers. of debris). Upper Geyser Basin: Glacial deposits Madison Valley, west of Seven Mile Bridge: underlying this and other area geyser basins Glacial moraines, glacial outwash, and store the water necessary for geysers to recent Madison River deposits can be seen. occur and allow the water to percolate up Mammoth Hot Springs: Thermal kames, from depth. Yellowstone Resources including Capitol Hill and Dude Hill, are & Issues 2008 Fountain Flats: The Porcupine Hills are major features of the Mammoth area. East thermal kames. 15 of Mammoth, streams at the edge of glaciers How much of the park burned in 1988? finally contained the fires when snow fell in The 1988 fires affected 793,880 acres or September. FAQ: 36 percent of the park. Five fires burned Did Yellowstone's fire management policy into the park that year from adjacent public The Fires change after the fires of 1988? lands, including the largest, the North Fork After 1988, the fire policy underwent exten- fire. It started accidentally and burned more of 1988 sive review and a revised Fire Management than 410,000 acres. Plan was implemented in 1992. As before, fires that threaten life and property and fires that are human-caused will be suppressed immediately. Plus, even naturally ignited (lightning-caused) fires may be put out if they do not meet all the criteria to be allowed to burn. The National Fire Plan 2000 was implemented late in 2000 in response to the extensive fire season that

summer. (See Chapter 6.)

How does fire benefit Yellowstone? Fires are a natural part of the Northern Rockies ecosystem. Vegetation in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem has adapted to fire and in some cases may be dependent

on it. Fire promotes habitat diversity by removing the forest overstory, allowing different plant communities to become established, and preventing trees from becoming

Visitors came Could the fires have been predicted? How established in grassland. Fire increases the throughout the were weather conditions different than in rate that nutrients become available to summer of 1988. previous years? plants by rapidly releasing them from wood (For more about this Yellowstone usually experiences afternoon and forest litter and by hastening the weath- photo, see page 97.) showers three or four days each week dur- ering of soil minerals. This is especially ing the summer, but in 1988 no measurable important in a cold and dry climate like rain fell for almost three months. The most Yellowstone's, where decomposition rates severe drought in the park's recorded histo- are slower than in more hot and humid ry occurred that summer. Also, a large num- areas. ber of lightning strikes came with a series of In addition, the fires of 1988 provided a rare dry storm fronts. This lightning started natural laboratory for scientists to study the many of the fires and storm fronts stoked effects of fire on an ecosystem. them with particularly high and sustained winds. Why doesn't the park remove burned trees? Could the fires have been put out? Burned trees and those that have died for It is possible that the few fires that started other reasons still contribute to the ecosys- in early June might have been extinguished. tem. For example, dead standing trees pro- However, 1972 the aver- between and 1987, vide nesting cavities for many types of ani- fire had gone naturally after age out burn- mals; fallen trees provide food and shelter ing only one acre. So, while the early fires for animals and nutrients for the soil. were monitored closely and some were con- However, park managers will remove dead tained going out of the park, the histo- from or burned trees that pose safety hazards ry of fire behavior in Yellowstone, coupled along roads or in developed areas. with an abnormally wet spring, suggested these fires would go out as previous fires had. After July 15, all fires were fought aggressively from the moment they were detected. Despite the largest firefighting Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 effort in the history of the nation, weather 16 Where can I see wildlife? bison and elk live in the Old Faithful area It helps to know the habits and migration year-round. In the winter, they take advan- patterns of the animals you want to see and tage of the warm ground and thin snow FAQ: the habitats in which they live. For example, cover. Both black and grizzly bears visit Wildlife, bighorn sheep are adapted to live on steep these areas during the spring when winter- terrain; so you might see them on cliffs in killed animals are available. General the Tower area. Osprey eat fish, so you Rangers at the visitor centers can tell you would expect to see them along rivers. Bison more about where wildlife have been seen graze on grasses and sedges, and mate in recently. August, so you are likely to see them in big, noisy herds in the Hayden and Lamar valleys.

Hydrothermal basins provide important habitat for wildlife. For example, many

ortheast Entrance

Animal illustrations © Zachary Zdinak Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 17 Where are the bears? on other continents and are only distant People who visited Yellowstone prior to the relatives. However, "buffalo" is used for less FAQ: 1970s often remember seeing bears along formal, everyday use; "bison" is preferred roadsides and within developed areas of the for scientific use. In this book, we use Wildlife, park. Although observing these bears was "bison."

very popular with park visitors, it was not General Where are good birding locations? good for the people or the bears. (See That depends on what kind of birds you Chapter 8.) In 1970, the park initiated an want to see, what time of day you are look- intensive bear management program to ing, and where you are in the park. return the grizzly and black bears to Hayden Valley is one of the best places to feeding on natural view water birds and birds of prey. Shore food sources and to birds feed in the mud flats at Alum Creek. reduce bear-caused Sandhill cranes often nest in the valley. human injuries and Ducks, geese, and American white pelicans property damage. cruise the river. Bald eagles and osprey hunt Among the for fish along the river; northern harriers fly measures: garbage low looking for rodents in the grasses. Great cans were bear- gray owls are sometimes seen searching the proofed and garbage meadows for food (these birds are sensitive dumps within the to human disturbance). Drawing © Zachary park were closed. Zdinak Blacktail Lakes, between Mammoth and Bears are still sometimes seen near roads Tower Junction, and the Madison River and they may be viewed occasionally in the west of Madison Junction are also good wild. Grizzly bears are active primarily at places to look for birds. dawn, dusk, and night. In spring, they may Why is fishing lead-free in Yellowstone? be seen around Yellowstone Lake, Fishing Birds, such as loons, waterfowl, cranes, and Bridge, and the East Entrance due to the shorebirds, are vulnerable to lead poisoning. trout spawning creeks in these areas. In While we can do little about natural haz- mid-summer, they are most commonly seen ards, we can minimize the effects of lead on in the meadows between Tower-Roosevelt these species. Yellowstone National Park and Canyon, and in the Lamar Valley. Black bans most lead tackle. (Terminal tackle must bears are most active at dawn and dusk, and be lead-free; sinkers used to fish for deep- sometimes during the middle of the day. dwelling lake trout are permissible because Look for black bears in open spaces within they are too large to be ingested.) or near forested areas. Black bears are most commonly observed between Mammoth, Tower, and the Northeast Entrance.

Are grizzly bears considered threatened or endangered? The Yellowstone grizzly population was removed from the federal threatened species list in 2007. However, scientists will continue to monitor the long-term recovery See Chapter 7 for goals for grizzly bears. (See Chapter 8.) more information about wildlife in What is the difference between a bison Yellowstone, and and a buffalo? Chapter 8 for more None. In North America, both terms refer about issues to the American bison; the scientific name is involving wildlife. Bison bison. Early European explorers called this animal by many names. Historians believe that the term "buffalo" grew from the French word for beef, "boeuf." Some Yellowstone Resources people insist that the term "buffalo" is & Issues 2008 incorrect because the "true" buffalo exist 18 How big is the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone River?

This huge canyon is roughly 20 miles long, FAQ: more than 1,000 feet deep, and 1,500 to Canyon 4,000 feet wide. Village What causes the different colors in the canyon? Area You could say the canyon is "rusting." The colors are caused by oxidation of iron com- • pounds in the rhyolite rock, which has been hydrothermally altered ("cooked"). The Grand Canyon colors indicate the presence or absence of of the the individual iron compounds. water in Yellowstone Most of the yellows in the canyon result This area has a point and a trail named River from iron and sulfur in the rock. (See after "Uncle Tom"; who was he? Chapter 3.) "Uncle Tom" Richardson was an early concessioner in the canyon area. From Where can I see the canyon and falls? 1898-1905, he guided visitors to the canyon North Rim Drive: See the Lower Falls at Mount bottom down a steep trail using rope lad- Inspiration, Lookout & Red Rock Points, Washburn ders. (This is the present Uncle Tom's Trail, plus the brink overlook; see the Upper Falls which descends partway into the canyon via at the beginning of Brink of the Lower Falls steep steel steps.) Trail. Note: In 2008, North Rim Drive will be closedfor reconstruction. Hayden Valley What animals can I see in this area? South Rim Drive: See the Lower Falls at Inside the canyon, look for osprey soaring Artist Point, from Uncle Tom's Trail, and over the river or perched on their five-foot from a few places along the South Rim Trail; diameter nests. Generally, six to ten osprey see the Upper Falls from two viewpoints at nests are occupied in the canyon near Uncle Tom's Point. Canyon Village. They nest here from late April until late August or early September. You can also see the brink of the Upper Also look for ravens, bald eagles, and Falls from a viewing area south of Canyon swallows. Junction. Away from the canyon, look for mule deer,

Is there a place where I can see both falls moose, red foxes, grizzly and black bears, at once? coyotes, Steller's jays, and great gray owls. No. The canyon bends between the Upper During July, a variety of butterflies feast on and Lower falls, so there is no location the abundant flowers in the meadows. where they can be seen at the same time. Hayden Valley, which begins approximately tall are the falls? How 5 miles south of Canyon Junction, is one of Upper Falls: 109 ft.; Lower Falls: 308 ft. the best places in the park to view a wide variety of large mammals. Grizzly bears are How much water goes over the falls? often seen in the spring and early summer The volume varies from 63,500 gallons per when they may be eating winter-killed ani- second at peak runoff to 5,000 gallons per mals or preying upon elk calves. Large herds second in the late fall. of bison may be viewed in the spring, early What causes the green stripe in the Lower summer, and during the rut in August. Falls? Coyotes can almost always be seen in the A notch in the lip in the brink makes the valley; wolves are also sometimes seen. water deeper and keeps it from becoming Mt. Washburn is another excellent place for Pick up the Canyon Area turbulent as it goes over the edge. Trail Guide at visitor viewing wildlife. Bighorn sheep and mar- centers or at viewpoints

Can I get to the bottom of the canyon? mots can be seen on its slopes in the sum- in the Canyon area. 50

Village & human/bear conflicts occurred. It was Fishing closed in 1989. A recreational vehicle park, operated by a concessioner, still exists in the Bridge area. Only hard-sided camping units or RVs are allowed at this campground. Areas How cold is Yellowstone Lake? • During late summer, Yellowstone Lake becomes thermally stratified with several Mud Volcano water layers having different temperatures. The topmost layer rarely exceeds 66°F, and Where does the Yellowstone River begin? the lower layers are much colder. Because of Where does it end? the extremely cold water, survival time for It begins on the slopes of Younts Peak in the anyone in the lake is estimated to be only 20 Absaroka Mountains southeast of the park to 30 minutes. In winter, ice thickness on and completes its 671-mile run by joining Yellowstone Lake varies from a few inches the Missouri River near the Montana/ to more than two feet with many feet of North Dakota border. Its waters then travel snow on top of the ice. to the Mississippi River and into the Atlantic Ocean at the Gulf of Mexico. It is What's that smell at Mud Volcano? the longest undammed river in the United That "rotten egg" smell comes from hydro- States. Historic Areas & gen sulfide gas. Sulfur, in the form of iron Structures sulfide, gives the features their many shades How big is Yellowstone Lake? How deep? Fishing Bridge of gray. Is it natural? Trailside Museum The lake is natural and has 131.7 square What animals can I see in this area? Lake Fish miles of surface area and 141 miles of shore- Hatchery Historic The lake is home to the largest population of line; it is 20 miles long by 14 miles wide. Its District including Yellowstone cutthroat trout in North deepest spot is about 410 feet; its Lake Lodge average America. You can see these trout and depth is 140 feet. The lake's basin Lake Hotel has an longnose suckers from Fishing Bridge. See estimated capacity of 12,095,264 acre-feet of chapters 7 and 8 for more about aquatic life in See Chapter 1 for water. Because its annual outflow is about more information the lake. Also look for white pelicans, bald 1,100,000 acre-feet, the lake's water is com- on historic areas in eagles, osprey, and a variety of ducks and pletely replaced only about every eight to the park. other water birds. ten years. Since 1952, the annual water level In spring, you might be able to see trout fluctuation has been less than six feet. leaping upstream at LeHardys Rapids, three Is Yellowstone Lake the largest lake in the miles north of Fishing Bridge. world? The Fishing Bridge area, including Pelican No, but it is the largest lake at high elevation Valley to the north and east, is especially (above 7,000 feet) in North America. significant to bears and other wildlife Why can't we fish from Fishing Bridge? because lake, river, and terrestrial ecosys- Overfishing for cutthroat trout here con- tems merge here to create a diverse natural tributed to their decline in the lake. The complex. Bears visit numerous streams in trout also spawn here. For these reasons, the spring and early summer to eat spawn-

fishing is prohibited from the bridge. ing trout. A bison herd winters in Pelican Valley, and individuals can be seen throughout the area. Moose used to be seen in the Pick up the Mud Volcano Yellowstone Lake area much more than they Area Trail Guide at visitor are today; look along water edges and in centers or at the area. 50c for donation requested. marshes. At Bridge Bay Marina, look river otters. Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 20 How did Madison Junction get its name? FAQ: Here, the Gibbon River joins the Firehole West River to form the Madison River. (The Yellowstone Madison & Gibbon River flows from Grebe Lake through the Norris area to Madison West Junction. The Firehole River starts south of Yellowstone Old Faithful and flows through the park's major hydrothermal basins north to Areas Madison Junction.) The Madison joins the Jefferson and the Gallatin rivers at Three Forks, Montana, to form the Missouri River.

What forms the cliffs around Madison Junction? foraging area to another. In summer, they Part of what you see is the rim of the move to Hayden Valley, their traditional Yellowstone Caldera, plus later lava flows. summer habitat and breeding area. National Park Mountain is actually part of Bald eagles have nested in a tree one the lava flows. Some of these lava flows about mile west of Seven Mile Bridge in recent come down to the road through Firehole Canyon, approximately one mile south of years, but it blew down in November 2007. They nest nearby in the future. Several Madison Junction. Gibbon Falls, four miles may pairs of ospreys also nest along the north of the junction, drops 84 feet over a Madison. You might also see trumpeter remnant of the caldera rim. (See Chapter 3.) swans, Canada geese, mallards, Barrow's Why is the bridge between Madison and goldeneyes, and other water birds. the West Entrance called "Seven Mile Bridge"? Is the story about National Park Mountain true? Seven Mile Bridge is located midway between (and seven miles from both) the The legend, which you can read about on West Entrance and Madison Junction. This page 27 and at the Madison Information landmark serves as a convenient reference Station, tells of explorers camping here in point and separates the rugged lava-lined 1870 and deciding Yellowstone should be Madison Canyon east of the bridge from set aside as a national park. It is a wonderful gentle hills to the west. legend, but it isn't true. Explorers did camp at the junction in 1870, but they apparently What is happening to so many of the did not discuss the national park idea. young lodgepole pines in the dense stands west of Seven Mile Bridge? Why They camped in a location where people are the needles turning orange? have camped for thousands of years. Scientists have determined that no disease Archeologists have found campfire rem- or insect is causing the problem. They think nants, obsidian flakes, and bone fragments the trees are showing effects of cumulative dating back at least 10,000 years. drought stress and low winter snow pack. These conditions can cause "winter burn"— Historic Areas & trees can't absorb enough water, and parts Structures of the trees begin to die. New growth usual- Madison Trailside ly replaces the dead needles. Museum

What animals can I see in this area?

Along the Madison River, 150-200 elk live See Chapter 1 for year-round. The meadows adjacent to the more information on this and the Gibbon rivers are prime elk historic areas in the park. calving areas in the spring. During the fall rut, elk frequent the meadows from Seven Mile Bridge to Madison Junction. Yellowstone Resources During spring, fall, and winter, herds of & Issues 2008 bison favor the same meadows. Bison often use the entrance road to travel from one 21 Mammoth rHot Springs

FAQ: and is closed during times of high water. Mammoth What is the 45th parallel? Two miles north of Mammoth, a sign marks Hot the 45th parallel of latitude, an imaginary line circling the globe halfway between the Springs Equator and the North Pole. This same line Area passes through Minneapolis-St. Paul; Ottawa, Ontario; Bordeaux, France; Venice, Italy; Belgrade, Serbia; and the northern tip

of the Japanese islands. Here it also marks the Montana-Wyoming border.

What forms the canyon north of Mammoth? Historic Areas & Is Mammoth Hot Springs in the The canyon is the face of Mt. Everts, 7,841 Structures Yellowstone Caldera? feet high. It is made up of layered sandstones Mammoth Hot No, it lies north of the caldera. However, the and shales —sedimentary deposits from a Springs Historic heat for its hot springs may come from the shallow inland sea, 70-140 million years ago. District magma chamber that heats the rest of Fossils have been found here. Its steep Fort Yellowstone Yellowstone. cliffs glaciers, floods, land- Historic Landmark — eroded by and slides provide habitat for bighorn sheep. District Why are the dry springs so white? — Obsidian Cliff Limestone, a form of calcium carbonate, Mt. Everts was named for explorer Truman Historic National underlies this area. Thermal waters dissolve Everts, a member of the 1870 Washburn Landmark the mineral, which is redeposited at the sur- Expedition who became lost in the wilder- U.S. Post Office face to form travertine. This rock is natural- ness. He was found east of the mountain,

See Chapter 7 for ly white; colors in the hot springs come from near Blacktail Plateau, and was mistaken for more information on heat-loving microorganisms called a black bear and nearly shot. historic areas in the thermophiles. (See chapters 3 and 4.) park. Why is Obsidian Cliff a National Historic Landmark? Also here: Are the springs drying up? Administrative No, but these features change constantly. For centuries Native Americans came to this Headquarters The overall activity and volume of water cliff to make projectile points and other of Yellowstone discharge remain relatively constant, but tools from obsidian, which fractures into National Park you don't see it because most of the water round, sharp pieces. Obsidian from this site flows underground. has been found as far east as Ohio, providing evidence of its trade value. How was Bunsen Peak formed? Also, in the 1920s, a wayside exhibit struc- At 8,564 feet high, Bunsen Peak (south of ture was built here, one of the first of its Mammoth) is an intrusion of igneous mate- kind in Yellowstone. rial (magma) formed 50 million years ago. (See Chapter 3.) Bunsen Peak and the What animals can I see in this area? "Bunsen burner" were named for physicist Elk live here all year, and are wild and Robert Wilhelm Bunsen. He was involved in unpredictable. Each year visitors are chased, geyser research in Iceland. His pioneering trapped, and sometimes injured by elk. Bull theory on geyser activity was published in elk also sometimes attack cars during the the 1800s, it is still considered accurate. and autumn mating season, or rut.

What were these old buildings? Uinta ground squirrels form large colonies Some of these historic buildings were built every summer in front of the visitor center by the U.S. Army from 1891 to 1918. (See and among the hotel cabins. Pick up the Mammoth Chapter 1.) Visitors can walk a self-guiding South of Bunsen Peak is Swan Lake Flat, Area Trail Guide at visitor trail through Fort Yellowstone, a National centers or at the terrace where visitors often see elk, bison, and Historic Landmark District. trailheads. 50c donation sometimes grizzlies and wolves. It is also an requested. Can we soak in the hot springs? excellent place for watching cranes, ducks, and other birds. Yellowstone Resources No. You may soak in bodies of water fed by & Issues 2008 runoff from hydrothermal features, such as 22 at "Boiling River" two miles north of Mammoth. It is open during daylight hours Is Norris Geyser Basin within the Yellowstone Caldera? FAQ: Norris is close to the caldera, but not in it. Norris East of Norris, on the road to Canyon, you come close to the caldera rim on Virginia Area Cascade Drive. The waterfall is formed by the Gibbon River as it crosses the Lava Creek Tuff, which occurred after the caldera collapsed. This is a great place to see lava flows and ash deposits up close. South of Norris, you'll cross the caldera rim at Gibbon Falls. Virginia Cascade When does Echinus Geyser erupt? Once very predictable, Echinus's eruptions the second superintendent of Yellowstone, can vary from hours to days. who provided early detailed information When will Steamboat Geyser erupt? about the hydrothermal features. Two his- Steamboat's major eruptions (more than 300 toric buildings remain in this area: The feet high) are unpredictable and often many Norris Geyser Basin Museum and the years apart. Its most recent major eruption Museum of the National Park Ranger, occurred May 2005. Its frequent "minor which is housed in the Norris Soldier phase" eruptions eject water 10 to 40 feet Station, one of the only remaining soldier high. stations in the park. (See Chapter 1.) Historic Areas & Why is Norris so colorful? Did Roaring Mountain used to roar? Structures The colors here, like in other hydrothermal Visitors during the late 1800s and early Norris Soldier areas, are due to combinations of minerals 1900s would say so. Roaring Mountain is a Station (now the and life forms that thrive in acidity and large, acidic hydrothermal area (solfatara) Museum of the heat. Silica or clay minerals saturate some with many fumaroles. The number, size, National Park Ranger) acidic waters, making them appear milky. and power of the fumaroles were much Iron oxides, arsenic, and cyanobacteria cre- greater than today. The fumaroles are most Norris Geyser Basin Museum ate the red-orange colors. Cyanidium grows easily seen in the cooler, low-light condi- bright green. Mats of Zygogonium are dark tions of morning and evening. purple to black on the surface where they See Chapter 1 for What will I see on Virginia Cascade Drive? are exposed to the sun, bright green more information This one-way drive east of Norris is an older beneath. Sulfur creates a pale yellow hue. on historic areas in portion of the Grand Loop Road that passes the park. (See Chapter 4.) lava flows, ash deposits, and the 60-foot

What is the "disturbance" at Norris that high Virginia Cascade. The waterfall is people talk about? formed by the Gibbon River as it drops over Periodically, Norris Geyser Basin undergoes the edge of a lava flow. a large-scale basin-wide thermal distur-

What animals can I see in this area? bance lasting a few days to a few weeks. Both black and grizzly bears pass through Water levels fluctuate, temperatures and pH the Norris area. Grizzlies feed on carcasses change, color changes, and eruptive pat- of elk and bison that died in the hydrother- terns change throughout the basin. A dis- mal areas during the winter. turbance may be caused by a massive fluctuation in the underground reservoirs pro- Norris is one of the few areas in the park viding water to the basin's features. In the where lizards live. The sagebrush lizard can fall, a disturbance could be caused when survive here due to the influence of hydro- less surface water mixes with water from thermal activity. Chorus frogs may be heard deep underground, which holds more silica in the area in the spring. Pick up the Norris Area Trail Guide at visitor and clogs the cracks and crevices that sup- Killdeer are found in the basin year-round centers or at Norris. 50tf ply water, thereby creating a "disturbance" taking advantage of the brine flies and other donation requested. as pressure builds. insects that live in the warm waters. Yellowstone Resources How did Norris get its name? & Issues 2008 The area was named for Philetus W. Norris, 23 eruptions mean more water and heat are FAQ: discharged and they require more time to Old rebuild. Currently, staff uses eruption data from a temperature logger to determine the Faithful interval.

Area What else can I see at this geyser basin? The Upper Geyser Basin has 150 geysers in one square mile, plus hundreds of hot Upper, springs. Five large geysers are predicted reg- Midway, & ularly by the interpretive ranger staff. You can reach them and other features on Lower Geyser boardwalks that loop through this basin. Basins Walk or drive to nearby Black Sand Basin and Biscuit Basin to view their features. How often does Old Faithful Geyser erupt; how tall is it; how long does it last? What will I see at Midway Geyser Basin? average interval between eruptions of The This geyser basin, 6 miles north of the Old Old Faithful Geyser changes; as of March Faithful area, is small but spectacular. 2008, the usual interval is 90 minutes ± 10 Excelsior Geyser is a 200 x 300 foot crater minutes, with intervals ranging from 51 to that constantly discharges more than 4,000 minutes. Old Faithful can vary in height 120 gallons of water per minute into the Firehole Historic Areas & from 106 to more than 180 feet, averaging River. Grand Prismatic Spring, Yellow- Structures 130 feet. Eruptions normally last between hot spring, is 200-330 feet in Nez Perce National stone's largest \Vi to 5 minutes and expel from 3,700 to Historic Trail diameter and more than 121 feet deep. 8,400 gallons of water. At the vent, water is Old Faithful Inn 204°F (95.6°C). Can I see mudpots in this area? Old Faithful You'll see all four types of thermal features Historic District Is Old Faithful Geyser as "faithful" as it (geysers, hot springs, fumaroles, and has always been? General store mudpots) at Fountain Paint Pots, 8 miles north the Old Since its formal discovery in 1870, Old of north of Old Faithful and 2 miles north of Faithful Inn Faithful has been one of the more predict- Midway Geyser Basin. Be sure to drive the Queen's Laundry, able geysers. Over time, the average interval Firehole Lake Drive, where you can walk begun in 1881 but between Old Faithful's eruptions has springs large and neverfinished, in past hot cascades, hot increased, in part due to ongoing processes Sentinel Meadows small, and view geysers such as White Dome within its plumbing. Changes also result and Great Fountain. Chapter 1 for See from earthquakes. Prior to the Hebgen Lake information on Earthquake (1959), the interval between Old What animals can I see in this area? historic areas. Faithful's eruptions averaged more than one Hydrothermal basins provide important hour. Its average interval increased after habitat for wildlife in the Old Faithful area. OWFtfMul 1m Tiad Gu*» that earthquake and again after the 1983 Bison and elk live here year-round. In the Borah Peak Earthquake, centered in Idaho. winter, they take advantage of the warm In 1998, an earthquake near Old Faithful ground and thin snow cover. Both black and lengthened the interval again; subsequent grizzly bears are seen, especially during the earthquake swarms further increased spring when winter-killed animals are avail- intervals. able. Yellow-bellied marmots are frequently seen in the rocks behind Grand Geyser and How can you predict it, if it changes so near Riverside Geyser. Thermophiles live in much? the runoff channels of hot springs and gey- Old Faithful Geyser has been analyzed for sers, providing food for tiny black ephydrid years by mathematicians, statisticians, and flies. The flies, in turn, lay their eggs in dedicated observers. We know a relation- Pick up the Old Faithful salmon colored clumps just above the water ship exists between the duration of Old Area Trail Guide at visitor surface where they are then preyed upon by centers or at area geyser Faithful's eruption and the length of the spiders. Killdeer also feast on the adult flies. basins. 50c donation following interval. During a short eruption, requested. less water and heat are discharged; thus, time. Yellowstone Resources they rebuild again in a short Longer & Issues 2008 24 Northeast Entrance

How tall is Tower Fall? FAQ: 132 feet. Tower- Can I hike to the bottom of Tower Fall? No, the lower part of the trail is closed Roosevelt because of severe erosion. You can walk past the Tower Fall Overlook % mile, ending Area with a view of Tower Creek flowing into the Yellowstone River. If you have heart, lung, or knee problems, you may want to enjoy Valley the view from the overlook. Lamar

What formed the rock columns in the canyon north of Tower Fall? The rock columns were formed by a basaltic Northeast lava flow that cracked into hexagonal col- The gorge and cliffs between the junction Entrance and Tower Fall provide habitat for bighorn umns as it slowly cooled. You can see other Road basalt columns at Sheepeater Cliff along the sheep, osprey, peregrine falcons, and red- Gardner River between Mammoth and tailed hawks. Norris. Both grizzly and black bears are sighted throughout the area, particularly in the How did the Petrified Tree become petrified? spring. Black bears are more commonly The Petrified Tree, west of Tower Junction, seen around Tower Fall and Tower Junction. Grizzlies are seen in the is an excellent example of an ancient red- sometimes Lamar wood. Petrification of this and other trees Valley and on the north slopes of Mt. occurred for two main reasons. They were Washburn, particularly in the spring when buried rapidly by volcanic deposits and elk are calving. Road pullouts provide excel- mudflows 45-50 million years ago; this lent places from which to watch wildlife. rapid burial minimized decay. Plus, the trees grew where ground water contained high concentrations of silica. The silica precipi- tated from ground water, filled the spaces within wood cells, and petrified the tree.

In Yellowstone, glacial ice, running water, and wind have uncovered vast areas of petrified trees. You can see some of these areas from the road that follows the base of Specimen Ridge, east of Tower Junction.

Did Teddy Roosevelt really stay at Roosevelt Lodge? Historic Areas & No, but President Theodore Roosevelt Structures Lamar Buffalo camped nearby during his visit to Ranch Yellowstone in 1903. The lodge opened in Northeast 1920. The area is registered as the Roosevelt Entrance Station Lodge Historic District. (See Chapter 1.) Roosevelt Lodge Historic District What animals can I see in this area?

Elk, bison, deer, and pronghorn thrive in See Chapter 1 for the grasslands of this area, known as the more information on northern range. In fact, some of the largest historic areas in the wild herds of bison and elk in North park. America are found here. The northern range is critical winter habitat for these large animals, which in turn provide food for several packs of wolves. Coyotes are also common, Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 and an occasional bobcat, cougar, or red fox is reported. 25 —

FAQ: Faithful area. They could continue on the stagecoach or board the steamship "Zillah" West to reach the Lake Hotel. Thumb Later, a gas station, marina, photo shop, store, cafeteria, and cabins were built here. & Grant They were removed in the 1980s to protect the hydrothermal features and improve visi- Village tor experience. Grant Village now provides Area most of these facilities. West Thumb still has restrooms, picnic tables, and a bookstore and information station in the historic ranger station.

Why does Grant Campground open so

Why is this area called West Thumb? late? Yellowstone Lake resembles the shape of a Grizzly and black bears frequent this area in human hand; West Thumb is the large spring when cutthroat trout spawn in five southwestern bay that would be the thumb. streams here. To protect bears and people,

The bay is a caldera within a caldera. It was the campground opens after most of the formed by a volcanic explosion 168,000- spawn is over. 175,000 years ago. The resulting caldera Isn't there a unique lake nearby? later filled with water forming an extension That's Isa Lake, at Craig Pass. At one time, it of Yellowstone Lake. was probably the only lake on Earth that West Thumb is also the largest geyser basin drained naturally backwards to two oceans, on the shore of Yellowstone Lake—and its the east side draining to the Pacific and the hydrothermal features lie under the lake west side to the Atlantic. If this still occurs,

too. They can prevent lake ice from it is only at the peak of snow melt after win- forming. ters with deep snowfall.

How did Fishing Cone get its name? What's that big lake you see south of People learned they could stand on this Craig Pass?

shoreside geyser, catch a fish in the cold Shoshone Lake is the park's second largest

lake, and cook it in the hot spring. Fortu- lake, and is thought to be the largest lake in nately for anglers, this geyser has only two the lower 48 states that cannot be reached

years of known eruptions: In 1919, it erupt- by road. Its maximum depth is 205 feet and

ed frequently to 40 feet and in 1939 to lesser it has an area of 8,050 acres. The Shoshone heights. Fishing here is now prohibited. Geyser Basin contains one of the highest concentrations of geysers in the world How hot are the springs at West Thumb? more than 80 in an area 1,600 x 800 feet. Temperatures vary from less than 100°F to

just over 200°F. What animals can I see in the West Thumb area? How deep are Abyss & Black pools? In addition to the bears that frequent this Abyss is about 53 feet deep; nearby Black area in spring (see above), elk cows and their Pool is 35-40 feet deep. new calves are often seen here in May and The mudpots here aren't like they used to June. Bald eagles and osprey dive into the be. What happened? bay to catch cutthroat trout. Other birds Like all hvdrothermal features, the West include ravens, common loons, and Thumb Paint Pots change over time. During bufflehead and goldeneye ducks. the 1970s and 1980s, they were less active; In winter, pine marten are sometimes seen. they became more active in the 1990s. in out of holes in the Pick up the West Thumb River otters pop and Area Trail Guide at visitor ice; coyotes and bald eagles eat their fish What happened to the development at centers or at the trail. 50< West Thumb? scraps. donation requested. West Thumb was center of visitor activity Yellowstone Resources until the 1980s. Early visitors would arrive & Issues 2008 at West Thumb via stagecoach from the Old 26 Introduction

The Beginning of an Idea

One of the most enduring legends of Yellowstone National Park involves its beginning. In 1870, explorers gathered around a campfire at the junction of two pristine rivers, overshadowed by the towering cliffs of the Madison Plateau. They discussed what they had seen during their exploration and realized that this land of fire and ice and wild animals needed to be preserved. Thus, the legend goes, the idea of Yellowstone National Park was born.

It is a wonderful story—and a myth. But The management of Yellowstone from 1872 TWO "ORGANIC those men were real, and so is this land they through the early 1900s, which is described ACTS" explored. Thanks to their reports and the in Chapter 1, helped set the stage for the cre- The laws creat- work of explorers and artists who followed, ation of an agency whose sole purpose was ing Yellowstone National Park the United States Congress established to manage the national parks. Promoters of and the National Yellowstone National Park in 1872. The this idea gathered support from influential Park Service are Yellowstone National Park Protection Act journalists, railroads likely to profit from both called "The says "the headwaters of the Yellowstone increased park tourism, and members of Organic Act" River ... is hereby reserved and withdrawn Congress. The National Park Service because each from settlement, occupancy, or sale . . . and Organic Act was passed by Congress and was significant dedicated and set apart as a public park or approved by President Woodrow Wilson on enabling legislation. pleasuring-ground for the benefit and August 25, 1916: However, the name enjoyment of the people." In an era of most often refers to There is created in the Department of expansion throughout the young nation, the the law that created the Interior a service to be called the federal government had the foresight to set the National Park National Park Service, [which] . . . shall Service. To avoid aside land deemed too valuable to develop. promote and regulate the use of the confusion, we refer For the following 18 years, Yellowstone was Federal areas known as national parks, to the laws by their "the national park." Then in 1890 Congress monuments, and reservations ... by names as listed in established three more national parks: such means and measures as conform to the U.S. Code Table Sequoia, General Grant (now part of Kings the fundamental purpose to conserve of Popular Names: Canyon), and Yosemite. Mount Rainier the scenery and the natural and historic The Yellowstone National Park followed in 1899. In 1906, Congress passed objects and the wild life therein and to Protection Act and the Antiquities Act, which gave the presi- provide for the enjoyment of the same in The National Park dent authority to establish national monu- such manner and by such means as will Service Organic ments. By 1914, the United States had 30 leave them unimpaired for the enjoy- Act. national parks and monuments, each man- ment of future generations. aged separately and administered by three different federal departments— Interior, Agriculture, and War. No unified policy or Yellowstone Resources plan provided for the protection, adminis- & Issues 2008 tration, and development of these parks and monuments. 27 Today's The National Park Service (NPS) manages approximately 83 million acres in 49 states, National the Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, Guam, and American Samoa. Delaware is the only state Park without a unit in the national park system. System National parks are the oldest, most well commemorate some facet of the history known part of the system and are usually of the people of those areas. areas of spectacular natural scenery Many national memorials fit the descrip- Units in the relatively untouched by human develop- tion for national historical parks or sites, National Park ment. National parks are established by but some of these are also set aside System acts of Congress. Total, as ofJanuary because of important historical issues 2008: 391 National monuments are areas of histor- not specifically linked to the site of the

1 International ic or scientific interest established by memorial, such as Mt. Rushmore and historic site presidential proclamation. Vietnam Veterans.

3 Natl, battlefield National historical parks and national Most other types of National Park System parks historic sites are both set aside to units are well defined by their titles. 1 Natl, battlefield site

11 Natl, battlefields

42 Natl, historical parks National Park Units Near Yellowstone

79 Natl, historic sites CANADA UNITED STATES 4 Natl, lakeshores > Glacier National Park Bear* 28 Natl, memorials Paw Battlefield 9 Natl, military parks 74 Natl, monuments 58 Natl, parks 4 Natl, parkways .Missoula 18 Natl, preserves 18 Natl, recreation • Grant-Kohrs Ranch • Nez Perce National areas National Historic Site \ Historical Park Big Hole > Billings Natl, reserves 2 National Bozeman. • Little Bighorn Battlefield • Battlefield .Livingston 5 Natl, rivers National Monument

3 Natl, scenic trails WYOMING Bighorn Canyon National Devil's Tower* 10 Natl, seashores Recreation Area National Monument 10 Natl. wild& scenic rivers and riverways Craters of the Moon • John D. Rockefeller, Jr. Memorial Parkway National Monument • Grand Teton National Park 11 Sites without • designation 'Idaho Falls 'Jackson

For a detailed list of Fort Laramie NPS units, visit National Historic Site • www.nps.gov/ pub_afflrefdesk! • Fossil Butte index.html National Monument

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 28 —

Implementing the NPS Mission Mission Systemwide Statement: The NPS Mission Statement expresses the dual responsibility of preserving parks in National their natural state (or, at historical areas, to

preserve a scene as nearly as it appeared on Park a certain date), and making these areas Service accessible for public use and enjoyment. These two fundamental goals can be incompatible and present difficult choices; The National Park Service preserves unimpaired two policies provide some direction: the natural and cultural resources and values of the

Natural resources (plants, animals, National Park Systemfor the enjoyment, education, water, air, soils, topographic features, and inspiration of this andfuture generations. The Park paleontologic resources, and esthetic Service cooperates with partners to extend the benefits values such as scenic vistas, natural of natural and cultural resource conservation and quiet, and clear night skies) are managed outdoor recreation throughout this country and the to maintain, rehabilitate, and perpetuate world. their inherent integrity. Native species that have been exterminated should be all reasonable measures to limit adverse reintroduced and exotic species elimi- effects will be taken, including recovery nated, if possible. Livestock grazing, of data and salvage of materials. hunting, and resource extraction are prohibited in National Park System Development zones, such the Old areas, with a few exceptions. Faithful area, allow for visitor use. Roads, walks, buildings, and other visi- Cultural resources (prehistoric and tor and management facilities may occu- historic structures and resources, much of the zone and the natural landscapes, archeologic resources, py aspect of the land may be altered. ethnographic resources, and museum However, if a park manager determines collections) are preserved. that a resource is or would become Individual Parks impaired by public use or development, To implement these policies, each park unit the manager may limit public use or prepares a General Management Plan/ close a specific area. Master Plan that outlines management International Leadership zones. In Yellowstone: The National Park Service example has Natural zones (most of Yellowstone inspired countries around the world to National Park) protect natural resources establish more than 100 national parks and values. All components and pro- modeled in whole or part on Yellowstone cesses of park ecosystems, including the National Park and the National Park natural abundance, diversity, and eco- Service idea. Additionally, NPS lends its logical integrity of the plants and ani- experienced staff to other countries to mals, should be maintained. Change is evaluate park proposals, management recognized as an integral part of func- plans, and resource issues. tioning natural systems, and interference first is allowed only under special circum- As the national park, Yellowstone stances such as emergencies when also continues to be a leader in developing human life and property are at stake. and implementing policies in the National Park Service, such as the benefits-sharing Cultural or historic zones, such as policies described in Chapter 8. Fort Yellowstone, preserve cultural resources. Where compatible with cultural resource objectives, the policies for natural zones will be followed. Any action that will adversely affect cultural Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 resources will be undertaken only if there is no reasonable alternative, and 29 Mission Preserved within Yellowstone National Park are Old Statement: Faithful and the majority of the world's geysers and hot springs. An outstanding mountain wildland with Yellowstone clean water and air, Yellowstone is home of the grizzly National bear and wolf andfree-ranging herds of bison and elk. Centuries-old sites and historic buildings that reflect the Park unique heritage ofAmerica'sfirst national park are also protected. Yellowstone National Park serves as a model and inspirationfor national parks throughout the world. The National Park Service preserves, unimpaired, these and other natural and cultural resources and valuesfor the enjoyment, education, and inspiration of this and future generations.

Purpose Yellowstone, the world's first national park: • preserves geologic wonders, including the world's most extraordi- Statement nary collection of geysers and hot springs and the underlying volcanic activity that sustains them;

• preserves abundant and diverse wildlife in one of the largest remaining intact wild ecosystems on Earth, supporting unparalleled biodiversity;

• preserves an 11,000-year-old continuum of human history, including the sites, structures, and events that reflect our shared heritage; and

• provides for the benefit, enjoyment, education, and inspiration of this and future generations.

Significance International symbol of natural ignated experimental and non-essential in preservation. Yellowstone National Park) and one of A Biosphere Reserve and a World Heritage threatened species—the Canada lynx. Yellowstone Site. (Seepage 10.) Home to one of the largest concentrations Contains approximately half of the world's of elk in the world. (Rocky Mountain National hydrothermal features—more than 10,000 National Park also has a large concentra- Park —including the world's largest concentration of elk.) tion of geysers—more than 300. Only place in the U.S. where bison have Home of the world's tallest active geyser, existed in the wild since primitive times. Steamboat, which erupts to more than 300 The early legislation that protected these feet. bison, the Lacey Act of 1894, was a precursor to the Endangered Species Act. One of the few places in the world with active travertine terraces. Site of one of the largest volcanic eruptions in the world, which left behind one of the Hydrothermal features are habitats for largest calderas. (See Chapter 3.) microbes that are providing links to primal

life, origins of life, and astrobiology; plus Site of the spectacular Grand Canyon of they are proving useful in solving some of the Yellowstone River. (See Chapter 3.) our most perplexing medical and environ- Location of largest lake above 7,000 feet in mental problems. (See Chapter 8.) North America—Yellowstone Lake. (See With the restoration of the gray wolf in Chapter 3.) 1995, the park now contains all the large Source of two great North American riv- mammal species known to be present ers: two of the three forks of the Missouri when European Americans first arrived. River, and the Snake, which is part of the Yellowstone Resources Protects the gray wolf (as of January 2008, Columbia River system. The Yellowstone & Issues 2008 of the park, still federally listed as endangered and des- River, which begins just south 30 is the longest free-flowing river in the U.S. History of the Park 1

HIGHLIGHTS OF YELLOWSTONE'S HISTORY

• People have been in Yellowstone more than 11,000 years, as shown by

archeological sites, trails, and oral histories. • Although Sheep Eaters are the most well-known group of Native

Americans to use the park, many other tribes and bands lived in and trav-

eled through what is now Yellowstone National Park prior to and after European American arrival. The human history of the Yellowstone European Americans began exploring Yellowstone in the early 1800s. region goes back more than 11,000 years. First organized expedition explored Yellowstone in 1870. How far back is still to be determined, but Yellowstone National Park established in 1872. humans probably were not here when the Railroad arrived in 1883, allowing easier visitor access. The U.S. Army managed the park from 1886 through 1918. entire area was covered by ice caps and Automobiles allowed into the park in 1915, making visits easier and more glaciers. The last period of ice coverage economical. ended 13,000-14,000 years ago —and some- First boundary adjustment of the park made in 1929. time after that, humans arrived here. "Leopold Report" released in 1963; its recommendations changed how

wildlife is managed in the park. The Earliest Humans in Yellowstone 1970: New bear management plan eliminates open-pit garbage dumps in Human occupation of the greater Yellow- park. stone area seems to follow environmental 1988: "Summer of Fire." changes of the last 15,000 years. Glaciers 1995: Wolves restored to the park. and a continental ice cap covered most of 1996: Federal buyout of gold mine northeast of Yellowstone protects the what is now Yellowstone National Park. park. They left behind rivers and valleys people 2007: Grizzly bear delisted from the federal list of threatened species. will begin in could follow in pursuit of Ice Age mammals 2007: New winter use plan approved, 2008. such as the mammoth and the giant bison.

The first people arrived in this region some- B. P = Before Present time before 12,000 years ago. Archeologists have found little C. E. = Common Era physical evidence of their presence except for their distinctive (replaces A. D.) stone tools and projectile points. From these artifacts, scientists B.C.E. = Before surmise that they hunted mammals and ate berries, seeds, and Common Era (replaces B.C.) roots.

As the climate in the Yellowstone region warmed and dried, the animals, vegetation, and human lifestyles also changed. Large Ice Age animals that were adapted to cold and wet conditions became extinct. The glaciers left behind layers of sediment in valleys in which grasses and sagebrush thrived and pockets of exposed rocks that provided protected areas for aspens and fir to grow. The uncovered volcanic plateau sprouted lodgepole forests. By about 7,000 years ago, people had adapted to these changing conditions. They could no longer rely on large mammals for food. Knife (9350 B.P.) Instead, smaller animals such as deer and bighorn sheep became from the Yellowstone National Park more important in their diet as did plants such as prickly pear Museum Collection cactus. They may have also established a distinct home territory in the valleys and surrounding mountains. Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 31 Paleolndian Period (B.P.= Before Present

o W 1 1 — A Clovis point from this period was found near Folsom people were in the A site on the shore of History Yellowstone and was made Yellowstone area as early as Yellowstone Lake has been from obsidian obtained at 10,900 B.P.—the date of an dated to 9350 B.P The obsidian Obsidian Cliff. Folsom projectile points had traces of blood point found near Pinedale, from rabbit, dog, deer, and Wyoming. bighorn. People seem to Sites along the Canyon to Lake have occupied this site for Road yielded Paleolndian arti- short, seasonal periods. facts.

This favorable climate would continue more than 9,000 years. Evidence of these people in Yellowstone remained uninvestigated, even long after archeologists began excavat- ing sites elsewhere in North America. Archeologists used to think high regions such as Yellowstone were inhospitable to humans and thus, did little exploratory work in these areas. However, park superintendent Philetus W. Norris (1877-82) found artifacts in Yellowstone and sent them to the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. Today, archeologists study environmental change as a tool for understanding human uses of areas such as Yellowstone.

Approximately 1,500 archeological sites have been documented in Yellowstone National Park, with the majority from the Archaic period. Sites contain evidence of successful hunts for bison, sheep, and elk.

Campsites and trails in Yellowstone (see map next page) also provide evidence of early use. Some trails have been used by people since the Paleolndian period.

No scientific evidence conclusively con- nects prehistoric tribes with historic people such as the Crow and Sioux, but oral histories provide links. For example, the oral tradition of the Salish places their ancestors in this region several thousand years ago. The Shoshone say they originated here.

Increased Use People seem to have increased their use of the Yellowstone area beginning about 3,000 years ago. During this time, they began to use the bow and arrow, which replaced the Obsidian Cliff, formerly a major source of obsidian atlatl, or spear-thrower, that had been used for Native Americans, as seen from the Grand Loop for thousands of years. With the bow and Road, between Mammoth and Norris. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in June 1996. arrow, people hunted more efficiently. They also developed sheep traps and bison corrals, and used both near the park, and per-

haps in it. This increased use of Yellowstone may have occurred when the environment Yellowstone Resources was warmer, favoring extended seasonal use & Issues 2008 on and around the Yellowstone Plateau. 32 Archaic Period (7000 BP-200 CE o a Beginning 9000 B.P until s w WOO C.E., people leave — traces of camps on 1 shores of Yellowstone Lake. Vegetation similar to Oral histories of the Bow and arrow begins what we find today Salish place their ances- to replace atlatl (throw- History begins to appear. tors in the Yellowstone ing spear); sheep traps Projectile points begin to area. (in the mountains) and be notched. bison corrals (on the plains) begin to be used in the Rocky Mountain region.

Archeologists and other scientists are working together to study evidence such as plant pollen, landforms, and tree rings to understand how the area's environment changed over time.

The Little Ice Age Climatic evidence has already confirmed the Yellowstone area experienced colder temperatures during what is known as the Little Ice Age—mid-1400s to mid-1800s. Archeological evidence indicates fewer people used this region during this time. Campsites appear to have been used by smaller groups of people, mostly in the summer. Such a pattern of use would make sense in a cold region where hunting and gathering were practical for only a few months each year.

Historic Tribes Tribal oral histories indicate more extensive use during the Little Ice Age. Kiowa stories place their ancestors here from around 1400 to 1700. Ancestors to contemporary Blackfeet, Cayuse, Coeur dAlene, Bannock, Nez Perce, Shoshone, and Umatilla, among others, continued to travel the park on the already established Above: An ancient trail, now called the Bannock trails. They visited geysers, conducted ceremonies, hunted, Trail, is shown in two proposed locations. gathered plants and minerals, and engaged in trade. The Shoshone Physical evidence of the trail is extremely diffi- say family groups came to Yellowstone to gather obsidian, which cult to find; historic maps and journals do not they used to field dress buffalo. Some tribes used the Fishing Bridge match modern maps; and oral histories of tribes do not always match what little evidence exists area as a rendezvous site. of the trail. The solid line shows the trail's loca- The Crow occupied the country generally east of the park, and the tion as interpreted in the 20th century. Today, Blackfeet occupied the country to the north. The Shoshone, many scholars think the dashed line shows the more accurate location, which is based on an Bannock, and other tribes of the plateaus to the west traversed the 1869 map by Henry D. Washburn. park annually to hunt on the plains to the east. Other Shoshonean groups hunted in open areas west and south of Yellowstone. Below: Wickiups provided temporary shelter for some Native Americans while they were in In the early 1700s, some tribes in this region began to acquire the Yellowstone. None remain standing. horse. Some historians believe the horse fundamentally changed lifestyles because tribes could now travel faster and farther to hunt bison and other animals of the plains. However, the horse does not seem to have changed the tribes' traditional uses of the Yellowstone area.

The "Sheep Eaters" Some groups of Shoshone who adapted to a mountain existence chose not to acquire the horse. These included the Sheep Eaters, or Tukudika, who used their dogs to transport food, hides, and other provisions.

Sheep Eaters acquired their name from the bighorn sheep whose migrations they followed. Bighorn sheep were a significant part of their diet, and they crafted the carcasses into a wide array of tools Yellowstone Resources and implements. For example, they made bows from sheep horn & Issues 2008 33 C.E. 1000-1 700s T Little Ice Age Lakota Sioux begin 1 begins. exploring the North American tribes in Yellowstone area. the southwest begin acquir- History Oral histories of the ing horses in the mid- to Kiowa place their ances- late 1600s. Fur traders travel the tors in the Yellowstone Ancestors of the Crow may rivers into the area from this time have come into Yellowstone Yellowstone region. through the 1700s. during this time. Tribes in the Yellowstone area begin using horses.

Not long after Colter's explorations, the United States became embroiled in the War of 1812, which drew men and money away from exploration of the Yellowstone region. The demand for furs resumed after the war and trappers returned to the Rocky Mountains in the 1820s. Among them was Daniel Potts, who also published the first account of Yellowstone's wonders as a letter in a Philadelphia newspaper.

Jim Bridger also explored Yellowstone during this time. Like many trappers, Bridger spun tall tales as a form of entertainment around the evening fire. His stories inspired future explorers to discover the truth.

As quickly as it started, the trapper era pliable soaking in hot springs. Tribes used hydro- made from ended. By the mid-1840s, beaver became thermal sites They traded these bows, plus scarce and fashions changed. Trappers ceremonially and clothing and hides, to other tribes. medicinally. The turned to guiding or other pursuits. Mud Volcano area is European Americans Arrive especially significant Looking for Gold In the late 1700s, fur traders traveled the for the Kiowa. Their During 1863-1871, prospectors crisscrossed tradition that great tributary of the Missouri River, the says a the Yellowstone Plateau every year and hot spring called Yellowstone, in search of Native Americans searched every crevice for gold and other Dragon's Mouth to trade with. called the river its They by precious minerals. gold (above) is where Although was found French name, "Roche Jaune." As far as we their creator gave nearby, no big strikes were ever made inside know, pre-1800 travelers did not observe the them the Yellow- what is now Yellowstone National Park. stone area for their hydrothermal activity in this area but they home. The Crow probably learned of these features from Expeditions "Discover" Yellowstone also have stories Native American acquaintances. Although Yellowstone had been thoroughly about this feature. The Lewis and Clark Expedition, sent by tracked by trappers and tribes, in the view President Thomas Jefferson to explore the of the nation at large it was really "discov- newly acquired lands of the Louisiana ered" by formal expeditions. The first orga- Purchase, bypassed Yellowstone. They had nized attempt came in 1860 when Captain heard descriptions of the region, but did not William F. Raynolds led a military expedi- explore the Yellowstone River beyond what tion, but it was unable to explore the

is now Livingston, Montana. Yellowstone Plateau because of late spring snow. The Civil War preoccupied the gov- A member of the Lewis and Clark Expedi- ernment during the next few years. tion, John Colter, left that group during its Afterward, several explorations were return journey to join trappers in the planned but none actually got underway. Yellowstone area. During his travels, Colter probably skirted the northwest shore of Yellowstone Lake and crossed the Yellow- stone River near Tower Fall, where he noted Yellowstone Resources the presence of "Hot Spring Brimstone." & Issues 2008 34 1800-1850S 1 The War of 1812.

John Colter explores part Trappers return to Trapper era ends. History of Yellowstone. Yellowstone area.

The Lewis and Clark Trapper Osborne Russell Little Ice Age Expedition passes within encounters Sheep Eaters ends, climate 50 miles of Yellowstone. in Lamar Valley. begins to warm.

The 1869 Folsom-Cook-Peterson The 1871 Hayden Expedition Expedition In 1869, three members of one would-be Ferdinand V. Hayden, expedition set out on their own. David E. head of the U.S. Folsom, Charles W. Cook, and William Geological and Peterson ignored the warning of a friend Geographical Survey who said their journey was "the next thing of the Territories, led to suicide" because of "Indian trouble" the next scientific along the way. From Bozeman, they traveled expedition in 1871, down the divide between the Gallatin and simultaneous with a Yellowstone rivers, crossed the mountains survey by the U.S. to the Yellowstone and continued into the Army Corps of present park. They observed Tower Fall, the Engineers. Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone— "this The Hayden Survey masterpiece of nature's handiwork" con- — brought back scien- tinued past Mud Volcano to Yellowstone tific corroboration of Lake, then south to West Thumb. From the earlier tales of there, they visited Shoshone Lake and the thermal activity. The geyser basins of the Firehole River. The expedition gave the expedition an earlier explorer's updated world an improved map (DeLacy, in 1865), wrote an article in map of Yellowstone Western Monthly magazine, and refueled the and visual proof of excitement of scientists who decided to see the area's unique for themselves the truth of the party's tales curiosities through This photo of of "the beautiful places we had found fash- the photographs of William Henry Jackson Tower Fall was ioned by the practiced hand of nature, that and the art of Henry W. Elliot and Thomas one of many taken man had not desecrated." Moran. The expedition's reports excited the by W.H. Jackson during the 1871 scientific community and aroused even The 1870 Washburn-Langford-Doane Hayden Survey. national interest in Yellowstone. Expedition more His photos helped In August 1870, a second expedition set out to bring public 1872— Birth of a National Park attention to the for Yellowstone, led by Surveyor-General The crowning achievement of Yellowstone's wonders of Henry D. Washburn, politician and busi- explorers was helping to save Yellowstone Yellowstone. nessman Nathaniel P. Langford, and attor- Both the 1870 and from private development. They promoted a ney Cornelius Hedges. Lt. Gustavus C. 1871 expeditions park bill in Washington in late 1871 and Doane provided military escort from Fort spread the word early 1872 that drew upon the precedent of through newspa- Ellis (near present-day Bozeman, Montana). the Yosemite Act of 1864, which reserved per and magazine The explorers traveled to Tower Fall, Yosemite Valley from settlement and articles, speaking Canyon, and Yellowstone Lake, followed tours, and other entrusted it to the care of the state of the lake's eastern and southern shores, and publicity. California. To permanently close to settle- explored the Lower, Midway, and Upper ment an expanse of the public domain the geyser basins (where they named Old size of Yellowstone would depart from the Faithful). They climbed several peaks, established policy of transferring public descended into the Grand Canyon of the lands to private ownership. But the wonders Yellowstone, and attempted measurements of Yellowstone—shown through Jackson's and analyses of several of the prominent Yellowstone Resources photographs, Moran's paintings, and Elliot's natural features. & Issues 2008 sketches— had caught the imagination of 35 1860s-1870s

00 I OC 1 -1" 1 Civil War Civil Yellowstone National y f War ends. Park Nez Perce (Nee- begins. Protection Act establishes me-poo) flee U.S. History Gold strike the first national park. Army through northwest of Yellowstone. Yellowstone.

First organized expedition attempts First Hayden Expedition. but fails to explore the Yellowstone Washburn-Langford-Doane Expedition; Plateau. Old Faithful Geyser named.

Folsom-Cook-Peterson Expedition.

CANADA Congress. On March 1, 1872, President Ulysses S. Grant signed the Yellowstone National Park Protection Act into law. The world's first national park was born.

The Formative Years The park's promoters envisioned Yellow- stone National Park would exist at no

expense to the government. Nathaniel P. Langford, member of the Washburn Expedition and advocate of the Yellowstone National Park Act, was appointed to the unpaid post of superintendent. (He earned his living elsewhere.) He entered the park at least twice during five years in office — as part of the 1872 Hayden Expedition and to evict a squatter in 1874. His task was made more difficult by the lack of laws protecting wildlife and other natural features.

Flight of the Nez Perce Political pressure forced Langford's removal

Summer 1877 brought tragedy to the Nez Perce (or, in their language, in 1877. Philetus W. Norris was appointed Nimiipu or Nee-Me-Poo). A band of 800 men, women, and children — the second superintendent, and the follow- plus almost 2,000 horses— left their homeland in what is now Oregon ing year. Congress authorized appropria- and Idaho. Settlers were moving into their homeland and the U.S. tions "to protect, preserve, and improve the Government was trying to force them onto a reservation. At Big Hole, Park." Montana, many their group, including women and children, were of Norris constructed roads, built a park head- killed in a battle with the Army. The remainder the group of quarters at Mammoth Hot Springs, hired continuedfleeing, and entered Yellowstone National Park on the eve- the first "gamekeeper," and waged a difficult ning August 23rd. During the they crossed the of two weeks park, the campaign against hunters and vandals. Nez Perce encountered all 25 visitors in the park, some more than Much of the primitive road system he laid once. Warriors took hostage or attacked several these tourists, kill- of out remains today as the Grand Loop Road. ing two. The group continued traveling through the park and over the Through constant exploration, Norris also Absaroka Mountains into Montana. The Army stopped them near the added immensely to geographical knowl- Bear's Paw Mountains, less than 40 miles the from Canadian border. edge of the park. Some Nez Perce escaped into Canada, but afterfiercefighting and a Norris's tenure occurred during an era of siege, the rest of the band surrendered on October 5. This is where it is warfare between the United States and believed ChiefJoseph said, "From where the sun now stands, I will many Native American tribes. To reassure fight no moreforever." The 1,170-mile flight had ended. the public that they faced no threat from Theirflight is commemorated at 39 sites in Washington, Oregon, these conflicts, he promoted the idea that Idaho, Montana, and Yellowstone National Park as part the Nez of Native Americans shunned this area Perce National Historical Park. To learn more about the Nez Perce because they feared the hydrothermal fea- National Historic Trail, visit the website at www.fs.fed.us/npnht. tures, especially the geysers. This idea belied evidence to the contrary, but the myth endured. Yellowstone Resources Norris fell victim to political maneuvering & Issues 2008 and was removed from his post in 1882. He 36 1880s- 1890s 1

History Northern Pacific Railroad The U.S. Army arrives to Poacher Ed Howell captured; reaches the North administer the park. They National Park Protection Act Entrance of the park. stay until 1918. (Lacey Act) passed.

was succeeded by three powerless superin- Secretary of War for assistance. On August tendents who could not protect the park. 20, 1886, the U.S. Army took charge of Even when ten assistant superintendents Yellowstone. were authorized to act as police, they failed The Army strengthened, posted, and to stop the destruction of wildlife. Poachers, enforced regulations in the park. Troops squatters, woodcutters, and vandals ravaged guarded the major attractions and evicted Yellowstone. troublemakers, and cavalry patrolled the 1886—The Army Arrives vast interior. In 1886 Congress refused to appropriate The most persistent menace came from money for ineffective administration. The poachers, whose activities threatened to Secretary of the Interior, under authority exterminate animals such as the bison. In given by the Congress, called on the 1894, soldiers arrested a man named Ed

Touring the Park they bounced along in passenger coaches called Atfirst, travel to and within the park was "Yellowstone wagons," which had to be difficult. Visitors had to transport themselves unloaded at steep grades. Each night visitors or patronize a costly transportation enterprise. enjoyed a warm bed and a lavish meal at a In the park, theyfound only afew placesfor grand hotel. and lodging. Access improved in 1883 food These visitors carried home unforgettable when the Northern Pacific Railroad reached memories of experiences and sights, and they Cinnabar, Montana, a town near the North wrote hundreds of accounts of their trip. They Entrance. recommended the tour to theirfriends, and A typical tour began when visitors descended each year more of them came to Yellowstone to from the train in Cinnabar, boarded large see its wonders. When the first automobile "tally ho" stagecoaches (above), and headed up entered in 1915, Yellowstone truly became a the scenic Gardner River Canyon to Mammoth national park, accessible to anyone who could Springs. Hot After checking into the hotel, they afford a car. Yellowstone Resources toured the hot springs. For the nextfour days, & Issues 2008 37 Early 20th century

1 I 1 I Union Pacific train service begins The National Park U.S. Army turns over at West Yellowstone. Service Organic Act park management to the establishes the National Park Service. History The Antiquities Act provides for the pro- National Park tection of historic, prehistoric, and scien- Service. tific features on and artifacts from federal lands.

President Theodore Roosevelt dedicates arch at Private automobiles are officially admitted to the park. the North Entrance in Gardiner.

Howell for slaughtering bison in Pelican I If Valley. The maximum sentence possible was banishment from the park. Emerson Hough, a well-known journalist, was present and wired his report to Forest & Stream, a popular magazine of the time. Its editor, renowned naturalist George Bird Grinnell, helped create a national outcry. Within two PI months Congress passed the National Park Protection Act (the Lacey Act), which 7 increased the Army's authority for protect- 74 ing Yellowstone's treasures. Running a park was not the Army's usual line of work. The troops could protect the park and ensure access, but they could not fully satisfy the visitor's desire for knowledge. Moreover, each of the 14 other national parks established in the late 1800s Soldiers pose with bison heads captured from poacher Ed Howell. When Howell returned to the park later that year, he was the first person arrested and early 1900s was separately adminis- and punished under the new National Park Protection Act, passed in 1894. tered, resulting in uneven management, inefficiency, and a lack of direction.

The National 1916: The National Park Service Park Service Begins Organic Act National parks clearly needed coordinated Passed in 1916, administration professionals attuned to this law created by the National Park the special requirements of these preserves. Service and estab- Accordingly, in 1916, Congress passed

lished its mission: the National Park Service Organic Act,

"to conserve the creating the National Park Service.

scenery and the Yellowstone's first rangers, which included natural and histor- veterans of Army service in the park, ic objects and the became responsible for Yellowstone in 1918. wildlife therein and The park's first superintendent under the to providefor the new National Park Service was Horace M. enjoyment of the Albright, who served simultaneously as same in such manner and by such assistant to Stephen T. Mather, Director of means as will leave the National Park Service. Albright estab- them unimpaired lished a framework of management that for the enjoyment guided administration of Yellowstone for offuture genera- decades. tions." When Frances Pound applied for a law enforce- Adjustments Updated mission Boundary ment position in 1926, Superintendent Albright statement on p. 29. Almost as soon as the park was established, suggested she use her nickname, "Jim, " because people began suggesting that the boundaries Yellowstone Resources she would be one of the first women hired to do & Issues 2008 law enforcement in Yellowstone. be revised to conform more closely to natu- 38 ral topographic features, such as the "

1920s-! 940s Is V 1- President Hoover NPS Director's The Historic Sites Act Park receives signs first law Order prohibits sets a national policy to one million changing park's killing predators. "preserve for future pub- visitors. boundary. lic use historic sites, buildings, and objects. President Hoover Civilian Conservation Nineteen snowplane expands the park Corps established, trips carry 49 passen- again. works in Yellowstone gers into the park in through 1941. winter.

The 1940s

World War II drew away employees, visitors, and money from all national parks, including Yellowstone. The money needed to maintain the park's facilities, much less con- This box represents struct new ones, was directed to the war the original boundary of effort. Among other projects, the road from Yellowstone National Park Old Faithful to Craig Pass was unfinished. Adjustments were made Proposals again surfaced to use the park's in 1929 and 1932. natural resources—this time in the war effort. As before, the park's wonders spoke for themselves and were preserved.

Visitation jumped as soon as the war ended. By 1948, park visitation reached one million people per year. The park's budget did not keep pace, and the neglect of the war years quickly caught up with the park. ridgeline of the Absaroka Range along the east boundary. Although these people had Mission 66 the ear of influential politicians, did their so In 1955 the National opponents which at one time also included — Park Service initiat- the United States Forest Service. Eventually ed a program to a compromise was reached and in 1929, address backlogged President Hoover signed the first bill chang- construction and ing the park's boundaries: The northwest maintenance and to CANYON corner now included a significant area of provide modern VISITOR CENTER petrified trees; the northeast corner was facilities for the trav- Information - Exhibits defined by the watershed of Pebble Creek; Ranger Station eling public. The the eastern boundary included the headwa- program was target- ters of the Lamar River and part of the ed for completion by watershed of the Yellowstone River. (The 1966, the golden Yellowstone's headwaters remain outside anniversary 7 of the the park in Bridger-Teton National Forest.) National Park This Mission 66 era In 1932, President Hoover added more than Service, and was called Mission 66. visitor center was 7,000 acres between the north boundary renovated and In Yellowstone, the Canyon Area was remodeled into the and the Yellowstone River, west of redeveloped as part of Mission 66. Visitor Canyon Visitor and Gardiner. These lands provided winter facilities were designed to reflect American Education Center, range for elk and other ungulates. attitudes of the 1950s: Anything "old" had which opened in 2006. Efforts to exploit the park also expanded no value or relevance in "modern" times, during this time. Water users, from the town and convenience was paramount. Visitor of Gardiner to the potato farmers of Idaho, services were arranged around a large park- wanted the park's water. Proposals included ing plaza with small cabins a short distance damming the southwest corner of the away. Canyon Village opened in July 1958, park—the Bechler region. The failure of the first Mission 66 project completed by these schemes confirmed that Yellowstone's the National Park Service. Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 wonders were so special that they should be forever preserved from exploitation. 39 —

1950s-1970s 1 I Mission 66 initiated. The Leopold Thermus aquaticus Grizzly bear listed as The first concession-run Reportnis discovered in a threatened species in History snowcoach trips carry more issued. Yellowstone hot spring the lower 48 states. than 500 people into the (see Chapter 8, Overnight winter in "Bioprospecting"). park winter. > lodging opens in park.

Magnitude 7.5 earthquake strikes on August 17 west New bear management plan begins, of Yellowstone, killing campers in Gallatin National which includes closing open-pit dumps in

Forest and affecting geysers and hot springs in the park (see Chapter 8). park.

From Managed to "Natural" throughout the National Park System. By adopting this Until the mid-1960s, park managers actively management philosophy, Yellowstone managed the elk and bison of Yellowstone. went from an unnatural managing of resources "natural Elk population limits were determined to regulation" today as Ecological Process according to formulas designed to manage known livestock range. When elk reached those Management. limits, park managers "culled" or killed the The Leopold Report's recommendations animals to reduce the population. Bison were upheld by the 2002 National Academy were likewise heavily managed. of Science report, Ecological Dynamics Yellowstone's Northern Range. In 1963, a national park advisory group, On comprised of prominent scientists, released Involving Native Americans a report recommending parks "maintain Yellowstone National Park has 26 associated biotic associations" within the context of tribes (see map next page). Each tribe has their ecosystem, and based on scientific evidence of its ancestral presence in Yellow- research. Known as the Leopold Report, stone National Park through ethnohistoric this document established the framework documentation, interviews with tribal for park management still used today elders, or ongoing consultations. Many places and resources remain important to A Decade of Environmental Laws these tribes' sense of themselves and in Beginning in the late 1960s, the U.S. Congress passed an unprecedent- maintaining their traditional practices. ed suite of laws to protect the environment. The laws described here In addition, tribes are sovereign nations particularly influence the management of our national parks. whose leaders have a legal relationship with The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), passed in 1970, the federal government that is not shared by establishes a national policy "to which will prevent or promote efforts the general public. Consequently, represen- eliminate damage to the environment. ..stimulate the health wel- and tatives of Yellowstone's associated tribes ." man. . .and enrich the understanding ecological systems. . fare of of participate in periodic consultation meet- It requires detailed analysis environmental impacts any major of of ings with park managers. They bring tribal federal action that significantly the quality the envi- affects of human perspectives to current issues such as bison ronment. Environmental assessments (EAs) environmental and management. Tribes also comment on park impact statements (EISs) are written to detail these analyses to and projects that could affect their ethnographic provide public involvement in forumsfor management decisions. resources. The Endangered Species Act (1973) requires federal agencies to pro- Times tect species that are (or are likely to become) at risk of extinction Complex throughout all or a significant part of their range. It prohibits any Although change and controversy have action that would jeopardize their continued existence or result in the occurred in Yellowstone since its inception, destruction or modification of their habitat. the last three decades have seen many issues arise. Most involve natural resources; some The Clean Water Act (1972) is enacted to "restore and maintain the of these issues are presented in Chapter 8. chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the Nation's waters" by prohibiting the discharge ofpollutants. One issue was the threat of water pollution from a gold mine outside the northeast cor- The Clean Air Act (1970) mandates protection of air quality in all ner of the park. Among other concerns, the units of the National Park System; Yellowstone is classified as Class 1, New World Mine would have sited waste the highest level of clean air protection. storage along the headwaters of Soda Butte

Yellowstone Resources Creek, which flows into the Lamar River & Issues 2008 and then the Yellowstone River. After years 40 of public debate, a federal buyout of the Late 20th Centur I- T I 00 1 Y I 1 Public Law 100-443 protects Congress enacts a law allowing a The National hydrothermal features in nation- percentage of park entrance fees Parks Omnibus al parks from geothermal devel- to be kept in the parks. Management Act. History opment on adjacent federal Federal buyout of gold lands. Wolves are restored to the park. mine on Yellowstone's

northeast border is Summer of Fire: more than Clean Air Act Amendments require air 790,000 acres affected by quality monitoring at sites including authorized.

fires in Yellowstone. Yellowstone, a Class I airshed— one of the purest in the nation.

mining company was authorized in 1996. Act. Projects funded in part by this program include a major renovation of Canyon In an effort to resolve other park manage- Visitor Education Center, campground and ment issues, Congress passed the National amphitheater upgrades, preservation of rare Parks Omnibus Management Act in 1998. documents, and studies on bison. This law requires using high quality science inventory, monitoring, and research to from Preserving the Park's History understand and manage park resources. Adding to the complexity of management, Park facilities are seeing some improve- Yellowstone's mission includes preserving ments due to a change in funding. In 1994, historical materials and sites. as part of a pilot program, Yellowstone More than 1,500 prehistoric sites exist in National Park was authorized to increase its Yellowstone. The oldest known site is on the entrance fee and retain more than half of shore of Yellowstone Lake, and is eroding. the fee for park projects. (Previously, park Rather than stopping that natural process, entrance fees did not specifically fund park archeologists excavated the site in 2000 and projects.) In 2004, the U.S. Congress 2002. They found evidence of early North extended this program until 2015 under the American people considered typical of Federal Lands Recreation Enhancement

Turtle Mountain Chippewa

Colvilie Spirit Lake Sioux Blackfeet

Gros Ventre/ Assinboine Assinibome/ Coeur d'Alene • Sioux Sisseton 'Salish/Kootenai Standing Rock Wahpeton ' Sioux Stoux * H>erce Umatilla Crow Northern Cheyenne

"Flandreau Lower Brule Sioux Santee Sioux Yellowstone National Park nI

[Eastern Shoshone/ Rosebud iNorthern Arapaho Oglala Yankton Sioux Shoshone/Bannock Sioux Sioux Associated Tribes plus Kiowa in Anadarko, Oklahoma of Yellowstone National Park and Comanche in Lawton, Oklahoma as of January 2008

Assiniboine & Sioux Confederated Tribes of the Nez Perce Turtle Mountain Band of the Blackfeet Umatilla Reservation Northern Arapaho Chippewa Cheyenne River Sioux Crow Northern Cheyenne Yankton Sioux Coeur d'Alene Crow Creek Sioux Oglala Sioux Comanche Eastern Shoshone Rosebud Sioux Confederated Salish & Flandreau Santee Sioux Shoshone-Bannock Kootenai Tribes Gros Ventre and Assiniboine Sisseton-Wahpeton Sioux

Confederated Tribes of the Kiowa Spirit Lake Sioux Colvilie Reservation Lower Brule Sioux Standing Rock Sioux

Note: Map shows each tribe's reservation; it does not show their historic territory. Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 41 — —

Early 21st Centu 1 t April: The Yellowstone population of grizzly bears removed from History National Academy of The park fee program, begun as an the federal threatened species Sciences report confirms experiment in 1994, is reauthorized list. effectiveness of until 2015. December: A new winter use Ecological Process plan approved for winters begin- (aka natu- Management The Canyon Visitor Education Center ning in 2008. ral regulation). opens with two floors of exhibits about Yellowstone's supervolcano.

lower, more open lands. They probably used this Yellowstone site YELLOWSTONE'S in the summer while hunting bear, deer, bighorn, rabbits, per- CULTURAL RESOURCES and and haps making tools and clothes. Archeologists speculate these people may have also made rafts to visit islands in Yellowstone Lake.

Cultural landscapes also reflect the park's history, development patterns, and the relationship between people and the park. They include areas significant to European American culture, such as Fort Yellowstone, and areas significant to Native American cul- tures, such as sacred sites.

Additionally, Yellowstone National Park has more than 300 ethnographic resources identified by tribal peoples. These include animals such as bison, plants, hydrothermal areas, mineral paints from hydrothermal areas, Yellowstone Lake, vision questing sites, obsidi- More than 300 ethnographic resources an, rendezvous sites, and hunting sites. (animals, plants, sites) Approximately 1,500 prehistoric and historic These and thousands of other materials, documents, and photo- Native American archeological sites and his- graphs are cared for in the Heritage and Research Center. toric European American archeological sites

More than 2 dozen sites, landmarks, and dis- Historic Structures & Districts tricts listed on the National Register of Historic Mammoth Hot Springs/Fort Yellowstone Places; many more eligible for listing The Mammoth Hot Springs Historic District includes Fort More than 900 historic buildings Yellowstone, where 35 structures remain from the 1890s and early 1 National Historic Trail Museum collection of more than 379,000 1900s when the U.S. Army administered the park. Significant con- cultural objects and natural science specimens servation policies were developed here that led to the origin of the available to researchers National Park Service. Fort Yellowstone is also listed as a National Archives containing thousands of historic Historic Landmark District, the highest designation. documents Thousands of books and periodicals available Lake Hotel

to the public; plus manuscripts and rare books The Lake Hotel is the oldest operating hotel in the park. When it available to historians and other researchers opened in 1891, the building resembled other hotels financed by the 90,000 historic photographs used by staff, Northern Pacific Railroad. In 1903, the architect of the Old Faithful scholars, authors, and filmmakers Inn, Robert Reamer, designed the ionic Right: Albright Visitor columns, extended Center, in the the roof in three Mammoth Hot Springs Historic places, and added the

District and Ft. 15 false balconies,

Yellowstone Historic which prompted it to Landmark District, be known for years housed the first as the "Lake Colonial "information office" (visitor center) Hotel." By 1929, additional changes dining room, porte- cochere (portico), sunroom, plus interi- Yellowstone Resources or refurbishing & Issues 2008 created the landmark 42 we see today. w

Historic Park Buildings still in use

_ 1 - 1 - - 1 - .... SO 1 vo 1906 1908 O 1 —

1903-04 1 — ^ ? 8 1 Lake Hotel, Roosevelt Arch, Old Faithful Lamar Norris Soldier Albright Visitor Old Faithful National in the Ft. Inn, National Buffalo Station, now the Center, in Lodge, in Historic Site Yellowstone Historic Ranch, Museum of the Mammoth the Old History Historic Landmark; in National National Park Historic District Faithful

Landmark & the Old Historic Ranger, in Ft. & Ft. Historic North Entrance Faithful District Yellowstone Yellowstone District Road Historic Historic Historic Landmark Historic District District District Landmark District

National Register of Historic Places National Historic Landmarks

The National Register of Historic Places is the National Historic Landmarks are nationally Nation's official list of cultural resources wor- significant historic places designated by the thy ofpreservation. Authorized under the Secretary of the Interior because they possess National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, exceptional value or quality in illustrating or the National Register is part of a national pro- interpreting the heritage of the United States. gram to coordinate and support public and Today, fewer than 3,500 historic places bear private efforts to identify, evaluate, and pro- this national designa- tect our historic and archeological resources. tion. The National Properties listed in the Register include dis- Historic Landmarks

tricts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects program draws upon that are significant in American history, archi- the expertise of tecture, archaeology, engineering, and culture. National Park Service

The National Register is administered by the staff who evaluate

National Park Service. Currently 73,000 list- potential landmarks ings have been nominated by governments, and provide assistance organizations, and individuals because they to existing landmarks. are important to a community, a state, or the nation.

Roosevelt Arch of bison in The Roosevelt Arch rises in the North Yellowstone. Entrance Road Historic District and part of Remnants of irriga- the Fort Yellowstone Historic Landmark tion ditches, fencing, District. This soaring stone structure was and water troughs conceived by U.S. Engineer Hiram can still be found, Chittenden; Robert Reamer may have con- and four buildings from the original tributed to the design, and architect N.J. ranch compound Ness also worked on it. President Theodore Roosevelt placed the cornerstone for the remain (photo right) resi- Buffalo Ranch arch in 1903. The top of the arch is inscribed —two with a line from the Yellowstone National dences, the bunk- Park Act of 1872: "For the benefit and enjoy- house, and the barn. ment of the people." New cabins, which blend with the his- Roosevelt Area toric buildings, Diners at Roosevelt Lodge (President house students at Theodore Roosevelt had camped nearby) the Yellowstone view much the same landscape seen by visi- Association Institute tors when the lodge opened in 1920. The or the National Park area is registered as the Roosevelt Lodge Service's residential Historic District. education program. Old Faithful Inn The Buffalo Ranch Old Faithful Inn & Historic District The Lamar Buffalo Ranch Historic District Most people who step into the Old Faithful Yellowstone Resources overlooks Lamar Valley. The ranch, which Inn for the first time stop as their eyes fol- & Issues 2008 operated from 1906 until the 1950s, was the low thick rustic logs up to the soaring peak center of an effort to increase the herd size of the ceiling. Robert Reamer designed this 43 Historic Park Buildings still in use

so SO 3 so

I 1 Ov O I I Lake Lodge, Roosevelt Four trailside museums built; Mammoth Hot part of Lake Lodge, in the three are still used: Madison, Springs Hotel, History Fish Hatchery Roosevelt Norris, and Fishing Bridge. part of the Historic Lodge Historic They are National Historic Mammoth Hot District District Landmarks. Springs Historic District

National Historic Landmark, which opened in 1904. It is the centerpiece of the Old Faithful Historic District. Nearby, the Old Faithful Lodge is a result of numerous changes made until 1928 when the lodge reached its present configuration.

Trailside Museums Four trailside museums were built in Yellowstone as part of a national idea that a national park is itself a museum. An interpretive structure should blend in with its surroundings and its exhibits explain but not substitute for the park experience. The museums here are well-known examples of Yellowstone on the National Register the architectural style, National Park Rustic of Historic Places (also called "parkitecture").

This is a partial list. The Old Faithful Museum was the first trailside museum in National Historic Landmark District: Yellowstone, and the only one no longer standing. It opened in 1929 Fort Yellowstone to acclaim for its quality materials and construction, and for the way it blended into its surroundings. National Historic Landmarks: Fishing Bridge, Madison, and Norris The Norris Museum, built in 1930, still serves as a gateway to the Trailside Museums Norris Geyser Basin. Visitors first glimpse the area's hydrothermal features from a breezeway; they learn about the area from exhibits Northeast Entrance Station in the wings as well as from trailside exhibits and a trail guide. Obsidian Cliff The Madison Museum (photo above), overlooking the junction of Old Faithful Inn the Gibbon and Firehole rivers, features many elements associated National Register Historic Districts: with National Park Rustic: stone and wood-shingled walls, and

Lake Fish Hatchery rafters of peeled logs. Built in 1930, it now serves as an information Mammoth Hot Springs station and bookstore. North Entrance Road The Fishing Bridge Museum, built in 1932, retains many of its original exhibits as an example of early National Park Service Old Faithful Area displays. On the south side of the museum, visitors can cross a flag- Roosevelt Lodge stone terrace overlooking Yellowstone Lake and descend steps to National Historic Sites: the shore. Lake Hotel Lodging No Longer Standing Lamar Buffalo Ranch Marshall's Hotel, which stood near the present-day intersection of Obsidian Cliff Kiosk Fountain Flats Drive and Grand Loop Road, was built in 1880 and was the second hotel in the park. Later renamed the Firehole Hotel, Queen 's Laundry Bath House it was razed in 1895. Mammoth Post Office Fountain Hotel opened in 1891 north of Fountain Paint Pot. This was one of the first Yellowstone hotels where bears were fed for the entertainment of guests. The hotel closed after 1916 and was torn Yellowstone Resources down in 1927. & Issues 2008 Four lodging facilities were built at Norris. Three were built 44 between 1886 and 1892; the first two burned. The last hotel at 1

Norris, which overlooked Porcelain Basin, The national park idea was part of a new History served the public from 1901 to 1917. view of the nation's responsibility for the public domain. By the end of the 19th cen- Three hotels were built in succession at tury, many thoughtful people no longer Canyon, the last being the largest hotel in believed that wilderness should be fair the park. Sited where the horse stables are game for the first person who could claim now, the Canyon Hotel was closed in 1958 and plunder it. They believed its fruits were due to financial and maintenance problems the rightful possession of all the people, and burned in 1960. Construction including those yet unborn. Besides the These and other sites of former park facili- Dates for Other areas set aside as national parks, still greater Park Buildings ties are historic archeologic sites. They are expanses of land were placed into national Tower General studied and documented for what they forests and other reserves so the country's Store 1932, 36, 61 reveal about the history of visitor use in the natural wealth — in the form of lumber, graz- Lake General Store park. ing, minerals, and recreation lands —would 1920 not be consumed at once by the greed of a The Legacy of Yellowstone few, but would perpetually benefit all. Lake Ranger The years have shown that the legacy of Station 1922-23 those who worked to establish Yellowstone The preservation idea, born in Yellowstone, Chapel spread around the world. Scores of nations Mammoth National Park in 1872 was far greater than 1912-13 simply preserving a unique landscape. This have preserved areas of natural beauty and historical worth so that all will Mammoth Gas one act has led to a lasting concept—the humankind Station 1920 national park idea. This idea conceived wil- have the opportunity to reflect on their natural cultural heritage derness to be the inheritance of all people, and and to return to Old Faithful Gas who gain more from an experience in nature nature and be spiritually reborn. Of all the Station (Lower) 1920, 1925 than from private exploitation of the land. benefits resulting from the establishment of Yellowstone National Park, this may be the Old Faithful Lower greatest. General Store 1897, 1921 addition

Old Faithful Upper Cultural Resource Laws General Store These laws guide the management historic and cultural resources in national parks: of 1929-30 The Antiquities Act (1906) providesfor the protection historic, prehistoric, and scientific of South Entrance features on and artifacts federal lands. from Ranger Station The Historic Sites Act (1935) sets a national policy to "preserveforfuture public use historic Duplex 1928 sites, buildings, and objects." West Thumb The National Historic Preservation Act (1966) authorizes the creation of the National Ranger Station 1925; an Register of Historic Places and gives extra protection to national historic landmarks and proper- now information ties in the national register. National parks establishedfor their historic value automatically are station registered; others, such as Yellowstone, must nominate landmarks and properties to the register.

The Archeological and Historic Preservation Act (1974) providesfor the preservation of significant scientific, historic, and archeological material and data that might be lost or destroyed by federally sponsored projects. For example, federal highway projects in Yellowstone include archeological surveys.

The Archeological Resources Protection Act (1979) providesfor the preservation and custody of excavated materials, records, and data.

The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (1990) assigns ownership or control of Native American human remains, funerary objects, and sacred objects of cultural patrimony to culturally affiliated Native American groups.

American Indian Religious Freedom Act (AIRFA) protects and preserves American Indian access to sites, use and possession of sacred objects, and the freedom to worship through ceremo- nials and traditional rites.

Executive Order 13007 guarantees access to and ceremonial use of Indian sacred sites by Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 Indian religious practitioners and that these sites not be adversely affected. 45 1

For More Information

www.nps.gov/yell. Staff reviewers: Ann Johnson, Archeologist; Rosemary Sucec, Cultural Anthropologist; Lee Whittlesey, Park Historian

www.greateryellowstone- science.org/mdex.html

Yellowstone Science, free Bartlett, Richard. 1974. Nature's Yellowstone. Tucson: UArizona Reinhart, Karen and Jeff Henry. 2004. Old Faithful Inn: Crown from the Yellowstone Press. Jewel of National Park Lodges. Emigrant, MT: Roche Jaune Pictures, Inc. Center for Resources, in Bartlett, Richard. 1985. Yellowstone: A Wilderness Besieged. the Yellowstone Research Tucson: UArizona Press. Russell, Osborne. 1997. Journal of a Trapper. New York: MJF Library, or online at Books. Clary, David. 1993. The Place Where Hell Bubbled Up: A History www.nps.gov/yell. of Yellowstone National Park. Moose, WY: Homestead Santucci, Vincent. 1998. Paleontological resources of

Yellowstone Today, Publishing. Yellowstone National Park. Mammoth, WY. YCR-NR-98-1. www2.nature.nps.gov/grd/geology/paleo/yell_survey/index. distributed at entrance Cook, Charles W, David E. Folsom, and William Peterson. htm. gates and visitor centers. 1965. The Valley of the Upper Yellowstone: An Exploration of the Headwaters of the Yellowstone River in the Year 1869. Schullery, Paul, editor. 1979. Old Yellowstone Days. Site Bulletins, published Norman: UOklahoma Press. Boulder: Colorado Associated U Press. as needed, provide more detailed information Culpin, Mary S. 2003. For the Benefit and Enjoyment of the Schullery, Paul. 1997. Searching for Yellowstone. Houghton on park topics such as People: A History of Concession Development in Yellowstone Mifflin. National Park, 1872-1966. NPS, trailside museums and the YCR-CR-2003-01. Mammoth, Schullery, Paul. 1965. Yellowstone's Ski Pioneers. High Plains grand hotels. Free; avail- WY. Publishing Company.

able from L. B. al. 1995. Cliff upon request Davis, et The Obsidian plateau Strong, W.E. 1968. A Trip to Yellowstone National Park in July, visitor centers. prehistoric lithic source, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. August, and September of 1875. Norman: UOklahoma Press. U. S. Dept. of the Interior, NPS Rocky Mtn. Region, Div. of Weixelman, Joseph. 2001. Fear or reverence 7 Yellowstone Cultural Resources, Selections Series. No. 6, Denver, CO. Science. Fall. Everhart, William. 1983. The National Park Service. Boulder: Whittlesey, Lee H. 2006. Yellowstone Place Names. Wonderland Westview Press. Publishing Co. Fnson, George. 1978. Prehistoric Hunters of the High Plains. Whittlesey, Lee H. and National Park Service Staff. A New York: Academic Press. Yellowstone Album. Boulder: Roberts Rinehart. Haines, Aubrey. 1996. The Yellowstone Story: A History of Our Whittlesey, Lee H. and Paul Schullery. 2003. Myth and History in First National Park. 2 vols. Niwot: U. Press Colorado. the Creation of Yellowstone National Park. Lincoln/UNebraska. Haines, Aubrey. 1974. Yellowstone National Park: Its Exploration and Establishment. National Park Service.

Janetski, Joel C. 2002. Indians of Yellowstone Park. Revised edition. Salt Lake City: U Utah Press.

Keller, Robert and Michael Turek. 1998. American Indians and National Parks. Tucson: UArizona Press.

Langford, Nathaniel P. 1972. The Discovery of Yellow-stone Park. Lincoln: UNebraska Press.

Leopold, A.S. et al. 1963. Wildlife Management in the National Parks, www.nps.gov

Merrill, M. 1999. Yellowstone and the Great West: Journals, Letters, and Images from the 1811 Hayden Expedition. Lincoln:

UNebraska Press.

Milstein, Michael. 1996. Yellowstone: 125 Years of America's

Best Idea. Billings MT: Billings Gazette.

Nabokov, Peter and Larry Loendorf. 2004. Restoring a Presence:

American Indians in Yellowstone National Park. Norman/ UOklahoma

National Park Service. Management Policies 2006. www.nps. gov/policy/mp/policies.html

National Park Service. Director's Order 28: Cultural Resource Management. (1998; being revised) www.nps.gov/refdesk.

National Park System Advisory Board. 2001. Rethinking the National Parks for the 21st Century, www.nps.gov/policy Yellowstone Resources Quinn, Ruth. 2004 Weaver of Dreams: The Life and & Issues 2008 Architecture of Robert C. Reamer. Bozeman, MT: Ruth & Leslie 46 Quinn. ——

Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem 2

Yellowstone National Park forms the core of GYE BASICS • One of two grizzly populations in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE) contiguous U.S. • 12-18 million acres; 18,750-28,125 at square miles, is one of the and 28,000 • Home to the rare wolverine and square miles (see map, next page, largest intact temperate-zone ecosystems on lynx for why it varies) Earth today. • States: Wyoming, Montana, Idaho In Yellowstone National Each of Yellowstone National Park's sepa- • Encompasses state lands, two Park:

national parks, portions of six rate parts—the hydrothermal features, the 67 mammals national forests, three national wildlife, the lakes, the Grand Canyon of the 322 bird species; 148 species nest wildlife refuges, Bureau of Land Yellowstone River, and the petrified trees here Management holdings, private could easily stand alone as a national park. 16 fish species: 11 native, 5 non- and tribal lands That they are all at one place is testimony to native • Managed by state governments, Greater Yellowstone's diversity and natural 10 reptiles and amphibians federal government, tribal gov- wealth. 12,000+ insect species, including 128 ernments, and private individuals species of butterflies • One of the largest elk herds in Geological characteristics form the founda- 1,100+ species of native vascular North America tion of an ecosystem. In Yellowstone, the plants interplay between volcanic, hydrothermal, • Largest free-roaming, wild herd of bison in and glacial processes and the distribution of U.S. flora and fauna are intricate and unique.

The topography of the land from southern Idaho northeast to Yellowstone probably results from millions of years of hotspot influence. (See Chapter 3.) Some scientists believe the Yellowstone

Plateau itself is a result of uplift due to hotspot volcanism. Today's landforms even influence the weather, channeling westerly storm systems onto the plateau where they drop large amounts of snow.

The distribution of rocks and sediments in the park also influences the distribution of flora and fauna. The volcanic rhyolites and tuffs of the Yellowstone Caldera are rich in quartz and potassium feld- spar, which form nutrient-poor soils. Thus, areas of the park underlain by rhyolites and tuffs generally are characterized by extensive stands of lodgepole pine, which are drought tolerant and have shallow roots that take advantage of the nutrients in the soil. In contrast, andesitic volcanic rocks that underlie the Absaroka Mountains are rich in calcium, magnesium, and iron. These minerals weather into soils that can store more water and provide better nutrients than rhyolitic soils. These soils support more vegetation, which adds organic matter and enriches the soil. You can see the result when you drive over Dunraven Pass or through other areas of the park with Absaroka rocks. They have a more diverse flora, including mixed forests interspersed with meadows. Lake sediments such as those underlying Hayden Valley, which were deposited during glacial periods, form clay soils that allow meadow communities to out-compete trees for water. The patches of lodgepole pines in Hayden Valley grow in areas of rhyolite rock outcrops. These whitebark pines Yellowstone Resources grow in the andesitic & Issues 2008 soils on Mount Washburn. 47 1 2 Because of the influence rock types have on animals such as elk and bison are found in plant distribution, some scientists theorize the park's grasslands, which grow best in Greater that geology also influences wildlife distri- soils formed by sediments in valleys such as Yellowstone butions and movement. Whitebark pine is Hayden and Lamar. And the many hydro- an important food source for grizzly bears thermal areas of the park, where grasses and Ecosystem during autumn. The bears migrate to other food remain uncovered, provide sus- whitebark pine areas such as the andesitic tenance for animals during winter. volcanic terrain of Mt. Washburn. Grazing

The Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem

Sizes, boundaries, and descriptions of any ecosystem can vary—and the GYE is no exception. The park most often uses the two figures listed on the previous page, and most often uses the map shown here. Beaverhead- Custer

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Grand 1 Caribou- x /Shoshone Targhee Teton National N.F. N.P. _f Forest

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Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 48 2 Biological Diversity Cycles and Processes Biological diversity is one of the bench- Cycles and processes are the building blocks Diversity marks measuring the health of an ecosys- in the foundation of any ecosystem. Photo- tem. Biodiversity can be measured two synthesis, predation, decomposition, & ways: the number of different species (also climate, and precipitation facilitate the flow called richness) and the abundance of each of energy and raw materials. Living things Processes species (also called evenness). The diversity absorb, transform, and circulate energy and of animals within the Greater Yellowstone raw materials and release them again. Cycles

Ecosystem is as great as that found anywhere in the contiguous 48 states.

Significantly, Greater Yellow- stone's natural diversity is essentially intact. With the exception of the black-footed ferret, the region appears to have retained or restored its full historic complement of vertebrate wildlife species— something truly unique in the The Lamar Valley's and processes are the essential connections wildlands of the thick grasses grow within the ecosystem. in soils formed from contiguous 48 states. sediments laid down Life forms are active at all levels. Microbes The extent of wildlife diversity is due in part by glaciers. This and beneath Yellowstone Lake thrive in hydro- other Yellowstone to the different habitats found in the region, thermal vents where they obtain energy grasslands provide ranging from high alpine areas to sagebrush from sulfur instead of the sun. Plants draw habitat for bison, country, hydrothermal areas, forests, mead- elk, deer, prong- energy from the sun and cycle nutrients ows, and other habitat types. All of these are horn, coyote, wolf, such as carbon, sulfur, and nitrogen connected, including linkages provided by grizzly and black through the system. Herbivores, ranging bear, golden and streams and rivers that course through the from ephydrid flies to elk, feed on the plants bald eagles, ravens, changing elevations. osprey and and, in turn, provide food for predators like many Other unique life forms are protected here, other species. coyotes and hawks. Decomposers—bacte- too. Various species of microorganisms are ria, fungi, other microorganisms — link all the living representatives of the primitive that dies with all that is alive. life forms now recognized as the beginnings The ecosystem is constantly changing and of life on this planet. Cyanobacteria found evolving. A forest fire is one example of such in Yellowstone's hot springs are similar to an integral, dynamic process. Fires rejuve- the cyanobacteria that were among the first nate forests on a grand scale. Some species organisms capable of photosynthesis (the of plants survive the intense burning to process by which plants use sunlight to con- resprout. Some cones of lodgepole pines vert carbon dioxide to oxygen and other pop open only in heat generated by fires, byproducts). Because Earth's original atmo- spreading millions of on the forest sphere was anoxic (without oxygen), cyano- seeds floor. After fire sweeps through an area, bacteria's photosynthesis began to mammals, birds, and insects quickly take create an atmosphere on Earth that would advantage of the newly created habitats. eventually support plants and animals. Fires recycle and release nutrients and create dead trees or snags that serve a number Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 of ecological functions, such as the addition of organic matter to the soil when the trees 49 decompose. (See chapters 5 & 6.) 2 Increasing Community Complexity indirectly increasing riparian bird habitat and improving fish habitat. Complexity Many scientists consider the restoration of the wolf to Yellowstone to be the restoration It is too soon to know for sure if this trophic of ecological completeness in the Greater cascade is actually happening, and how Yellowstone Ecosystem. This region now extensive it might be — or if it is one of many contains every large wild mammal, predator factors at work. For example, ecologists

or prey, that inhabited it when Europeans have documented a substantial rise in tem- first arrived in North America. But the wolf perature in the northern range: From 1995 is only one factor— albeit restored—in the to 2005, the number of days above freezing For many, the extremely complex and dynamic communi- has increased from 90 to 110 days. Changes sight a wolf of ty of wild Yellowstone. in precipitation and effects of global climate chasing an elk change are also affecting vegetation growth. through a meadow For the visitor, this community's complexity Ongoing, long-term scientific research will is the highest sym- has been highlighted primarily through the continue to examine these complicated bol ofwildness. large predators and their prey species. This interweavings of the Greater Yellowstone That's a good ecological "suite" of species provides a rare Ecosystem. (See chapters 5 and 8.) start, but it's the display of the dramatic pre-European con- meadow that is ditions of wildlife in North America. Balancing telling us the most Nature? about what wild- Intricate Layers In some circles, some people expected ness really means. wolves would restore a "balance" to park Since wolves were restored, scientists have — ecosystems, meaning that animal popula- Paul Schullery discovered layers of complexity reaching far tions would stabilize at levels pleasing to beyond the large mammals. For example, humans. Instead, a more dynamic variability the carcasses of elk, bison, and other large is present, which probably characterized mammals each become ecosystems of their this region's wildlife populations for millen- own. Researchers have identified at least 57 nia. Nature does have balances, but they are species of beetle associated with these fluid rather than static, flexible rather than ungulate carcasses on the northern range. rigid. Only one of those 57 species eats ungulate meat. All the rest prey on other small scav- Consider the northern Yellowstone elk engers, especially the larvae of flies and herd, which has been declining. The recov- beetles. Others consume carcass byproducts ery of the wolf occurred simultaneously such as microscopic fungal spores. In this with increased grizzly bear and mountain very busy neighborhood, thousands of lion populations, increased human hunting appetites interact until the carcass melts of elk (especially female or "antlerless") away and everybody moves on. north of the park, and an extended drought. Computer models prior to wolf recovery Thus the large predators point us toward predicted a decline in elk, but did not incor- the true richness, messiness, and subtlety of porate these other factors, and the decline wild Yellowstone. For a wolf pack, an elk is has exceeded predictions. Populations of dinner waiting to happen; for beetles, flies, prey species that share their habitat with and many other small animals, the elk is a more, rather than fewer species of predators village waiting to happen. are now thought to fluctuate around lower Trophic Cascades equilibria. The elk populations of Yellow- Scientists in Yellowstone have been explor- stone will continue to adjust to the pres- face, as will ing the hypothesis that wolf restoration is sures and opportunities they causing changes in predator/prey/vegetation their wild neighbors, large and small. relationships —what ecologists call a While some people delight in the chance to "trophic cascade." Most researchers agree experience the new completeness of the that wolves have caused elk to change their Yellowstone ecosystem, others are alarmed behavior. For example, elk don't linger in and angered by the changes. But with so willow or aspen areas. Some researchers say few places remaining on Earth where we this behavioral change is the reason why can preserve and study such ecological recent willow growth has been strong. completeness, there seems little doubt about Yellowstone Resources Not all scientists agree with this conclusion. the extraordinary educational, scientific, & Issues 2008 However, if wolves are the main factor in and even spiritual values of such a wild 50 willow increase, they could also be community. Bison can reach food beneath three feet of snow, as long as the snow is not solidified by melting and refreez- 2 ing. A bison's hump is made of elongated ver- tebrae to which strong neck muscles are Winter attached, which enable Challenges the animal to sweep its massive head from side to side.

Winter in Yellowstone ing in the snow and shaking their wet fur. Types of Snow Temperature Deep snow, cold temperatures, and short • Snowshoe hares, long-tailed weasels, and Gradient Snow days characterize winter in the Greater short-tailed weasels turn white for winter. or "depth hoar," Yellowstone Ecosystem, conditions to which White provides camouflage but may have forms through evolved primarily to keep these animals plants and animals are adapted. For exam- snow metamor- insulated as hollow white hairs contain air ple, conifers retain their needles through phosis during cold instead of pigment. the winter, which extends their ability to air temperatures photosynthesize. Aspens and cottonwoods • Snowshoe hares have large feet to spread when water moves contain chlorophyll in their bark, enabling their weight over the snow; martens and from warmer snow them to photosynthesize before they pro- lynx grow additional fur between their toes near the ground to duce leaves. to give them effectively larger feet. colder snow near the surface. Snow • Moose have special joints that allow them Animal Behavioral Adaptations crystals grow in to swing their legs over snow rather than • Red squirrels and beavers cache food size, forming sugar push through snow as elk do. before winter. snow where small • Chickadees' half-inch-thick layer of mammals burrow. • Some birds roost with their heads tucked feathers keeps them up to 100 degrees into their back feathers to conserve heat. Equitemperature warmer than the ambient temperature. Snow • Deer mice huddle together to stay warm. Biochemical/Physiological forms as new • Deer, elk, and bison sometimes follow each Adaptations crystals of snow other through deep snow to save energy. become rounded • Mammals and waterfowl exhibit • Small mammals find insulation, protection and snowpack counter-current heat exchange in their from predators, and easier travel by living settles. limbs that enables them to stand in cold beneath the snow. Rime Frost water: Cold temperatures cause surface forms when super- • Grouse roost overnight by burrowing into blood vessels to constrict, shunting blood cooled water drop- snow for insulation. into deeper veins that lie close to arteries. lets contact an • Bison, elk, geese, and other animals find Cooled blood returning from extremities is object andfreeze in food and warmth in hydrothermal areas. warmed by arterial blood traveling towards place. Animal Morphological/Physical the extremities, conserving heat. Hoar Frost Adaptations • At night, chickadees' body temperature forms when water 88°F, lessens vapor sublimates • Mammals molt their fur in fall. Incoming drops from 108°F to which onto a surface. guard hairs are longer and protect the the sharp gradient between the tempera- Formation of sur- underfur. Additional underfur grows each ture of their bodies and the external tem- face hoar occurs fall and consists of short, thick, often wavy perature. This leads to a 23 percent when night temper- decrease in the amount of fat burned each hairs designed to trap air. A sebaceous (oil) atures are very night. gland, adjacent to each hair canal, secretes low. oil to waterproof the fur. Mammals have • Chorus frogs tolerate freezing by becoming

muscular control of their fur, fluffing it up severely diabetic in response to cold tem- to trap air when they are cold and sleeking peratures and the formation of ice within

it down to remove air when they are warm. their bodies. The liver quickly converts gly-

• River otters' fur has long guard hairs with cogen to glucose, which enters the blood interlocking spikes that protect the under- stream and serves as an anti-freeze. Within rises fur, which is extremely wavy and dense to eight hours, blood sugar 200-fold. trap insulating air. Oil secreted from seba- When a frog's internal ice content reaches 60-65 percent, the frog's heart and breath- ceous glands prevents water from contact- Yellowstone Resources ing the otters' skin. After emerging from ing stop. Within one hour of thawing, the & Issues 2008 frog's heart resumes beating. water, they replace air in their fur by roll- 51 2 Ecosystem Management Challenges Ecosystem management includes human activities. Development proposals are Despite the size of the ecosystem, Greater evaluated using methods such as "cumula- Management Yellowstone's biodiversity is in jeopardy. tive effects analysis," which considers com- Challenges Many of its plant and animal species are bined effects of all development not just rare, threatened, endangered, or of special — one activity on an entire area. concern—including more than 100 plants, — hundreds of invertebrates, six fish species, In the past, the GYE has been managed as several amphibian species, at least 20 bird individual units drawn along political lines, species, and 18 mammal species. These are which results in fragmented, inconsistent, estimates because comprehensive invento- and sometimes contradictory management. ries have not been completed. Carnivorous Now, however, managers for the two nation- mammals— including the grizzly bear, wol- al parks and six national forests in the eco- verine, and lynx—represent more than half system collaborate as the Greater Yellow- of the mammals in danger. stone Coordinating Committee to discuss common issues and seek solutions. Habitat modification—beyond the levels of natural disturbance —poses a serious threat The GYE is included in the Yellowstone to to both biodiversity and to ecosystem pro- Yukon Conservation Initiative, or "Y2Y." cesses. Such modifications fragment habi- More than 170 organizations, institutions, tats and isolate populations of plants and and foundations based in Canada and the animals, cutting them off from processes United States are working together to necessary for survival. ensure the long-term survival of wildlife in the Northern Rockies from the Greater Ecosystem management is gaining support Yellowstone Ecosystem to the Yukon among conservationists and resource Highlands a distance of miles. managers who recognize that most protect- — 1,900 Ecosystem management on this scale is ed parks and reserves represent fragments needed for wide-ranging wildlife species of much larger ecosystems. Ecosystem man- such as grizzly bears and wolves; Y2Y seeks agement addresses the whole ecosystem, to build maintain a life-sustaining including preserving individual components and system of core reserves and connecting and the relationships and linkages between wildlife corridors. Existing national, state, them. Maintaining healthy, functioning and provincial parks and wilderness areas ecosystems more effectively preserves spe- will anchor the system, while the creation cies than do emergency measures to bring of new protected areas and cooperation of For More back threatened species from the brink of will provide the additional extinction. land-owners Information reserves and corridors.

www.nps.gov/yell.

Staff reviewers: Douglas W. Smith, Wolf Project Leader; predators: grey wolf subsidies to scavengers in YNP. J Animal www.greateryellowstone- P.J. White, Wildlife Biologist; Cheryl Jaworowski, geologist. Ecology. 72:909-916. science.org/index.html Despain, D. G. 1987. The two climates of Yellowstone National Ripple, W.J. et al. 2001. Trophic cascades among wolves, elk Yellowstone Science, free Park. Biological Science Proceedings of The Montana Academy and aspen on YNP's northern range. Bio. Cons. 102: 227+. from the Yellowstone of Science. 47:11-20. Wolf, Evan C. et al. 2007 Hydrologic regime and herbivory stabi- Center for Resources, in Forrest, Louise. 1988. Field Guide to Tracking Animals in Snow. lize an alternative state in YNP. Ecol. App. 17(6): 1572-1587. the Yellowstone Research Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books. Library, or online at Yellowstone to Yukon: www.Y2Y.net www.nps.gov/yell. Fortin, D. et al. 2005. Wolves influence elk movements: behavior shapes a trophic cascade in YNP. Ecology. 86(5):1320+. Yellowstone Today, Greater Yellowstone Coordinating Committee: distributed at entrance bsi.montana.edu/web/gycc/ gates and visitor centers. Halfpenny, James C. and Roy D. Ozanne. 1989. Winter: An Site Bulletins, published Ecological Handbook. Boulder: Johnson Books. as needed, provide more Kauffman, Mathew et al. 2007. Landscape heterogeneity shapes detailed information on predation in restored predator-prey system. Ecology Letters park topics such as geol- 10: 690-700. ogy & wildlife. Free; available upon request from Marchand, Peter J. 1996. Life in the Cold. UNew England.

visitor centers. Meagher, M. and D. B. Houston. 1998. Yellowstone and the Biology of Time. Norman: UOklahoma Press. Yellowstone Resources Wilmers, et al. 2003. Resource dispersion and consumer domi- & Issues 2008 nance: scavenging at wolf- and hunter-killed carcasses in 52 Greater Yellowstone. Ecology Letters. 6:996-1003. Wilmers, et al. 2003. Trophic facilitation by introduced top Geology 3

Yellowstone National Park's physical land- YELLOWSTONE'S approximately half of the world's scape has been and is being created by many GEOLOGIC SIGNIFICANCE total. geological forces. Here, some of the Earth's Most of the undisturbed geyser • One of the most geologically active (water + most volcanic, hydrothermal basins left in the world. dynamic areas on Earth due to heat), and earthquake systems make this (Kamchatka Peninsula has the oth- shallow source of magma and national park a priceless treasure. In fact, ers; the rest have been modified resulting volcanic activity. Yellowstone was established as the world's or destroyed by human develop- • One of the largest volcanic erup- first national park primarily of its ment.) because tions known to have occurred in One of the few places in the world extraordinary geysers, hot springs, mudpots the world, creating one of the where active travertine terraces and steam vents, and other wonders such as largest known calderas. are found, at Mammoth Hot the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone River. • More than 10,000 hydrothermal Springs. features, including more than 300 Site of many petrified trees What Lies Beneath geysers. resulting from repeated volcanic Yellowstone's geologic story provides exam- • The largest concentration of eruptions over the ages. ples of how geologic processes work on a active geysers in the world— planetary scale. The foundation to understanding this story begins with the structure of the Earth and how this structure gives rise to forces that shape the planet's surface.

The Earth is frequently depicted as a ball with a central core surrounded by concentric layers that culminate in the crust or surface layer (see at right). The distance from the Earth's surface to its center or core is approximately 4,000 miles. The core may once have been entirely molten, but, as the planet cooled, the inner core (about 1,500 miles thick) solidified. The outer core (about 1,400 miles thick) remains molten and is surrounded by a 1,800 mile thick mantle of dense, mostly solid rock. Above this layer is the relatively thin crust, three to forty-eight miles thick, on which the continents and ocean floors are found.

The Earth's lithosphere (crust and upper mantle; see illustration next page) is divided into many plates, which are in constant motion. Where plate edges meet, one plate may slide past another, one plate may be driven beneath another (subduction), or upwelling volcanic material pushes the vection currents in the partially molten plates apart at mid-ocean ridges. asthenosphere (the zone of mantle beneath Continental plates are made of less dense the lithosphere) move the rigid crustal rocks (granites) than oceanic plates (basalts) plates above. The volcanism that has so and thus, "ride" higher than oceanic plates. greatly shaped today's Yellowstone is a Yellowstone Resources Many theories have been proposed to product of plate movement combined with & Issues 2008 explain crustal plate movement. Currently, upwellings of molten rock, as described on most evidence supports the that 53 theory con- the next pages. Yellowstone Geologic History (mya=millions of years ago)

570 to 66 mya, area covered by inland 50-40 million years ago seas — — 3 Absaroka Volcanics

Ancient Most of Earth's history (from the beginning along an east-west axis. This stretching pro- to approximately 570 million years ago) is cess increased about 17 million years ago Yellowstone known as the Precambrian era. Rocks of and continues today, creating the modern this age are found in northern Yellowstone basin and range topography (north-south and in the hearts of the Teton, Beartooth, mountain ranges interspersed with long Wind River, and Gros Ventre ranges. north-south valleys) characterizing much of Throughout much of this era, the West was the Western landscape. repeatedly flooded by ancient seas. During Lamar Canyon con- About 16.5 million years ago, an intense the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras (570 to 66 tains outcrops of period of volcanism appeared near the area million years ago), this area was covered at granite and granitic now marked by the convergence of the gneiss more than times by ocean. At other times it was a land Nevada, Oregon, and Idaho state lines. two billion years old. of sand dunes, tidal flats, and vast plains. Over time, heat and Repeated volcanic eruptions can be traced Near the end of this era, mountain building pressure have across southern Idaho into Yellowstone processes created the Rocky Mountains. altered these rocks National Park. This volcanism remains a and obscured their During the Cenozoic era (approximately the driving force in Yellowstone today. early history. Only in last 66 million years of Earth's history), the Gallatin Range Magma & Hotspots are older outcrops widespread mountain-building, volcanism, found inside the faulting, and glaciation sculpted the Magma (molten rock from Earth's mantle) park. Yellowstone area. The Absaroka Range rises to within a few miles of the surface in along the park's north and east sides was Yellowstone. This heat fuels the Yellowstone formed by numerous volcanic eruptions volcano and its associated hydrothermal about 50 million years ago. Volcanic debris areas. How it rises and whether or not a Illustrations on buried trees that are seen today as fossilized hotspot is involved remain the subject of pages 53-56 & remnants along Specimen Ridge in northern much scientific research and discussion. page 62 adapted Yellowstone. This period of volcanism is not (See illustration below.) with permission from Windows related to the present Yellowstone volcano. Traditional hotspot theory holds that a Into the Earth, Dr. Approximately 30 million years ago, vast plume of molten rock rises from Earth's Robert Smith and expanses of the West began stretching apart core-mantle boundary to trigger volcanic Lee J. Siegel, 2000.

wy Core 30 mya to present. "Basin & Range" forces creating Great Basin topography

16 mya, volcanics begin again in present day Nevada and Idaho 3 eruptions at the surface. Newer theories (see below). Upward pressure from the shal- Volcano relate the rise of molten rock to areas in low magma chamber caused overlying rocks Earth's crust weakened by stretching and to break, forming faults and causing earth- thinning such as that which is ongoing quakes. Eventually, these faults reached the throughout the interior West. Some of these deep magma chamber. Magma oozed theories also propose a shallower mantle through these cracks, releasing pressure origin for hotspots. Still other theories place within the chamber and allowing trapped

Rim boundary faulty -Yellowstone Caldera Geysers Geysers Resurgent dome

^ Shallow hot water reservoirs Earthquakes Earthquakes

Granitic magma

Crustal stretching (partial melt) Crustal stretching I %

lotspot utter mantle magma and

At Yellowstone and Yellowstone's hotspot on the surface as a gases to expand rapidly. A massive eruption some other volca- manifestation of longlived volcanism. then occurred, spewing volcanic ash and noes, some gas high into the atmosphere and causing fast- scientists theorize Regardless of its origins and subsurface that Earth's crust moving superhot debris (pyroclastic) flows behavior, the magma chamber feeding fractures and cracks on the ground. As the underground magma Yellowstone's volcano has been close to the in a concentric or chamber emptied, the ground above it sunk, surface for some 16.5 million years, erupting ring-fracture pat- creating a huge crater known as the Huckle- tern. At some point repeatedly and leaving a track of 100 gigan- berry Ridge Caldera. Smaller lava flows these cracks reach tic calderas (craters) across 500 miles from the magma "reser- eventually filled in the caldera over tens to the Nevada-Oregon border northeast up voir, " release the hundreds of thousands of years. Idaho's Snake River Plain and into central pressure, and the Yellowstone. This trail of evidence was cre- The volume of material ejected during this volcano explodes. The huge amount of ated as the North American plate moved in eruption is estimated to have been 6,000 material released a southwestern direction the over shallow times the size of the 1980 eruption of Mt. St. causes the volcano magma body. Earth's surface bulges above Helens in Washington (see illustration next to collapse into a it, notable in the Yellowstone area where the page), and ash has been found as far away as huge steaming crater— caldera. average elevation is 1,700 feet higher than Missouri. Approximately 1.3 million years a surrounding regions. ago, a second, smaller volcanic eruption occurred on the western edge of the About 2.1 million years ago, the movement Huckleberry Ridge Caldera and created the of the North American plate brought the Henry's Fork Caldera. Then years Yellowstone area into proximity with the 640,000 ago, the third massive volcanic eruption in shallow magma body. The heat melted rocks Yellowstone Resources central Yellowstone created the Yellowstone & Issues 2008 in the crust, creating a magma chamber of Caldera, 30 by 45 miles in size. Then partially molten, partially solid rock 55 Yellowstone Geologic History (mya=millions of years ago) 1.3 mya: 2nd Yellowstone eruption 2. 1 mya: 1st Yellowstone eruption

3 Volume Comparison of Volcanic Eruptions

cubic miles = volume of material ejected Volcano

1st Yellowstone eruption

2. 1 million years ago; 600 cubic miles

3rd Yellowstone eruption 640, 000 years ago: 240 cubic miles

2nd Yellowstone eruption 1.3 million years ago; 67 cubic miles

Mazama (U.S.)

7, 600 years ago; 18 cubic miles

Krakatau (Indonesia); 1883; 4.3 cubic miles

Mt. St. Helens (U.S.) f~ L 1980; 0.1 cubic miles

West Thumb 165,000-175,000 years ago, a volcanic erup- Rising magma has created two large bulges formation tion created a smaller caldera now filled by in the Earth called resurgent domes (Sour the West Thumb of Yellowstone Lake. Creek and Mallard Lake), which we see as Yellowstone remains atop the shallow large hills. magma. The pressure and movement of the Sour Creek Dome, east of the Yellowstone underlying heat, magma, and fluids cause River from LeHardys Rapids through the entire caldera floor to inflate and deflate Hayden Valley, currently has a net uplift of rapidly (compared to more typical geologic about one half-inch per year. This uplift is processes). causing Yellowstone Lake to tilt southward. Larger sandy beaches can now be found on the north shore of the lake, and flooded areas can be found in the southern arms.

From the summit of Mt. Washburn, one can look south into much of the vast caldera. The rim is also visible along the park road system at Gibbon Falls, Lewis Falls, and Lake Butte.

Future Volcanic Activity Will Yellowstone's volcano erupt again? Over the next thousands to millions of years, probably. In the next few hundred years? Not likely.

More likely activity would be lava flows, such as those that occurred after the last major eruption. Such a lava flow would ooze slowly over months and years, allowing plenty of time for park managers to evaluate the situation and protect people. No scientific evidence indicates such a lava flow will occur soon. (kya=thousands of years ago)

640 kya: 3rd Yellowstone eruption 165-175 kya: West Thumb eruption 140 kya: Bull Lake Glaciation underway 70-13 kya: 3 Pinedale Glaciation Geyser Basin Systems creates convection currents that allow the Geyser lighter, more buoyant, superheated water to Yellowstone's hydrothermal features would begin its journey back to the surface follow- not exist without the underlying magma Basin ing the cracks, fissures, and weak areas body that releases tremendous heat. They through rhyolitic lava flows. As hot water Systems also depend on sources of water, such as in travels through this rock, the high water the mountains surrounding the Yellowstone temperatures dissolve some silica in the Plateau. There, snow and rain slowly perco- rhyolite. late through layers of porous rock riddled with cracks and fissures. Some of this cold While in solution underground, some silica water meets hot saline brine directly heated coats the walls of the cracks and fissures to by the shallow magma body. The water's form a nearly pressure-tight seal. This locks temperature rises well above the boiling in the hot water and creates a natural point but the water remains in a liquid state "plumbing" system that can withstand the due to the great pressure and weight of the great pressure needed to produce a geyser. overlying rock and water. The result is At the surface, silica precipitates to form superheated water with temperatures either geyserite or sinter, creating the mas- exceeding 400°F. sive geyser cones, the scalloped edges of hot springs, and the seemingly barren landscape The superheated water is less dense than the of geyser basins. colder, heavier water sinking around it. This

Geysers are hot springs with constrictions in their plumbing, usually near the surface, that prevent water from circulating freely to the surface where heat would escape. The deepest circulating water can exceed the surface boiling point (199°F/93°C). Surrounding pressure also increases with depth, much as

it does with depth in the ocean. Increased pressure exerted by the enormous weight of the overlying rock and water prevents the water from boiling. As the water rises, steam forms. Bubbling upward, steam expands as it nears the top of the water column until the bubbles are too large and numerous to pass freely through the tight spots. At a critical point, the con-

fined bubbles actually lift the water above, causing the geyser to splash or overflow. This decreases pressure on the system, and violent boiling results. Tremendous amounts of steam force water out of the vent, and an eruption

begins. Water is expelled faster than it can enter the geyser's plumbing system, and the heat and pressure gradually decrease. The eruption stops

when the water reservoir is depleted or when the system cools.

Cone geysers, such as Riverside in Upper Geyser Basin (above) erupt in a narrow jet of water, usually from a cone. Fountain geysers, such as Echinus in Norris Geyser Basin (right) shoot water in various directions, typically from a pool.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 57 3 Fumaroles or steam vents, are the hottest Hydrothermal hydrothermal features in the park. They have

Features so little water that it all flashes into steam before reaching the surface. At places like Roaring Mountain

(right), the result is a loud hissing of steam and gases.

Travertine terraces, found at Mammoth Hot Springs (right), are formed from limestone (calcium carbonate). Thermal waters rise through the limestone, carrying high amounts of dissolved calcium carbonate. At the surface, carbon diox-

ide is released and

calcium carbonate is deposited as travertine, the chalky white rock of the terraces. Due to the rapid rate of deposition, these features constantly and quickly change. Mudpots such as Fountain Paint Pot (center, right) are acidic hot springs with a limited water supply. Some microorganisms use hydrogen sulfide, which rises from deep within the earth, as an energy source. They help convert the gas to sulfuric acid, which breaks down rock into clay. Various gases escape

through the wet clay mud, causing it to bubble. Mudpot consistency and activity vary with the seasons and precipitation.

Hot springs such as this one at West Thumb (right) are the most common hydrothermal features in the park. Their plumbing has no

constrictions. Superheated water cools as it

reaches the surface, sinks, and is replaced by hotter water from below. This circulation, called convection, prevents water from reaching the temperature needed to set off an eruption.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 58 3

Yellowstone Lake's Geology

Some geologists think Yellowstone Lake originally drained south via the Snake River into the Pacific Ocean drainage. The lake now drains north

from its outlet at Fishing Bridge. The Hydrothermal vents in northern Yellowstone Lake Beneath Yellowstone Lake elevation of the (above) were mapped as part of a five-year project. Until the late 1990s, few details were lake's north end known Scientists also are studying spires from Bridge Bay does not drop about the geology beneath Yellowstone (below) that were discovered in 1996. They may be Lake. In 1996, researchers saw anomalies very old hydrothermal vents. substantially until LeHardys Rapids, on the floor of Bridge Bay as they took which is considered depth soundings. They deployed a submers- the northern ible remotely operated vehicle (ROV), geologic boundary equipped with photographic equipment and of the lake. sector-scan sonar. Large targets appeared on the sonar image when suddenly very large, spire-like structures appeared in the photographic field of view (photo at right). These structures looked similar to hydrothermal structures found in deep ocean areas, such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the Juan de Fuca Ridge. They also provided habitat for aquatic species such as fresh- water sponges and algae. Lake-bottom Surveys From 1999 to 2003, scientists from the U.S. Geological Survey and a private company, Eastern Oceanics, surveyed the bottom of Yellowstone Lake using high-resolution, multi-beam swath sonar imaging, seismic reflection profiling, and a ROV. The survey showed the northern half of the lake to be inside the 640,000-year-old Yellowstone Caldera and mapped previously unknown features such as large hydrothermal explosion craters, siliceous spires, hundreds of caldera and has been shaped by glacial and hydrothermal vents and craters, active fis- other processes. The floor of the Southeast sures, and domal features containing gas Arm has many glacial features, similar to pockets and deformed sediments. It also the glacial terrain seen on land in Jackson mapped young previously unmapped faults, Hole, south of the park. landslide deposits, and submerged older These new surveys give an accurate picture lake shorelines. These features are part of Yellowstone Resources an undulating landscape shaped by old of the geologic forces shaping Yellowstone & Issues 2008 geologic influences rhyolitic lava flows that filled the caldera. Lake and determine affecting the present-day aquatic biosphere. 59 The southern half of the lake lies outside the 3 For example, hydrothermal explosions formed craters at Mary Bay and Turbid Lake Lake. Spires may form similarly to black smoker chimneys, which are hydrothermal Geology features associated with oceanic plate boundaries.

Spire Analysis With the cooperation of the National Park Service, scientists from the University of Initial Spire Growth Wisconsin-Milwaukee collected a small spire for study by several teams. They conducted a CAT scan of the spire, which showed structures seeming to be conduits, perhaps for hydrothermal circulation. outer shell precipitates t When they cut open the spire, they con- due to mixing with firmed the presence of conduits and also ambient lake water and cooling by dilution saw a layered structure. Early tests by the r porous silica sinter with U.S. Geological myriad small channels Survey show that the forms by conductive cooling in the center of the spire spire may be more than 11,000 years old, which indicates

it was formed after the last glaciers retreated. In addition to silica, the ascending spire contains dia- hydrothermal tom tests (shells) and vent fluids silica produced by underwater hydrothermal processes. Mature Spire Ongoing investiga-

tions include con- 80-1 00°C firming the spire's hydrothermal vent fluids age and composition.

Both research projects have already expanded our understanding of the geological forces at work beneath Yellowstone Lake. Additional study of the spires and other underwater features will continue to contribute to our understanding of the relationship between these features and the aquatic ecosystem.

Illustrations on this porous 8 page adapted from permeable originals by amorphous silica structure Dr. Lisa A. Morgan, U.S.G.S. Research Geologist

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 60 3 Earthquakes Earthquakes in Yellowstone help to maintain hydrothermal activity by keeping the Earthquakes occur along fault zones in the "plumbing" system open. Without the peri- Earthquakes crust where forces from crustal plate move- odic disturbance of relatively small earth- ment build to a significant level. The rock quakes, the small fractures and conduits along these faults becomes so stressed that that supply hot water to geysers and hot eventually it slips or breaks. Energy is then springs might be sealed by mineral deposi- released as shock waves (seismic waves) that tion. earthquakes generate changes in reverberate throughout the surrounding Some Yellowstone's hydrothermal systems. For rock. example, the 1959 Hebgen Lake and 1983 Different kinds of seismic waves are Borah Peak earthquakes caused measurable released inside the earth during an earth- changes in Old Faithful Geyser and other ("P-waves") quake. Primary waves move hydrothermal features. quickly in the direction of travel, compress- Earthquakes help us understand the subsur- ing and stretching the rock. Secondary face geology around and beneath waves ("S-waves") move up, down, and side- Yellowstone. The energy from earthquakes ways through rock in a rolling motion. Once travels through hard and molten rock at dif- a seismic wave reaches the surface of the ferent rates. We can "see" the subsurface Earth, it may be felt. Surface waves affect Scales of and make images of the magma chamber the ground, which can roll, crack open, or Magnitude and the caldera by "reading" the energy be vertically and/or laterally displaced. emitted during earthquakes. extensive On the Richter Structures are susceptible to earthquake An Magnitude scale, geological monitoring system is in place to damage because the ground motion is usu- the amplitude aid in that interpretation. of ally horizontal. shaking goes up by afactor of 10 for Earthquakes in Yellowstone National Park, 2007 each unit. Thus, the shaking will be Yellowstone is the most 10 times as large seismically active area in the Intermountain during a magni- West. Approximately tude 5 earthquake 2,000 earthquakes as during a magni- occur each year in the tude 4 earthquake. Yellowstone area — The total amount most are not felt. Instruments monitored of energy released by the University of by the earthquake, Utah recorded less than however, goes up average activity in by afactor of 32. 2007—868 earth- There are many quakes (map). ways to measure

Real-time data about magnitudefrom earthquakes in seismograms, Yellowstone is available partially because at www.seis.utah.edu, each method only a website maintained works over a by the University of Utah Seismograph limited range of Stations. magnitudes and with different types ofseismome- ters. But, all methods are designed to agree well over the range where they overlap.

earthquake ^ Yellowstone Resources — caldera boundary & Issues 2008 — main park roads 61 3

Glaciers

The extent of two

major glaciations is shown on this map: Bull Lake- orange outline Pinedale— blue outline

Glaciers subsequent Pinedale Glaciation (described in the next paragraph), but evidence of it Glaciers result when, for a period of years, no is found to the north and east. This indi- more snow falls in an area than melts. Once cates that the Pinedale Glaciation destroyed the snow reaches a certain depth, it turns surface evidence of Bull Lake Glaciation in into ice and begins to move under the force these areas. of gravity or the pressure of its own weight. During this movement, rocks are picked up The Yellowstone region's last (and most and carried in the ice, and these rocks grind studied) major glaciation, the Pinedale, Earth's surface, eroding and carrying mate- began as early as 70,000 years ago. It ended rial away. Glaciers also deposit materials. 13,000-14,000 years ago. Glaciers advanced Scientific understanding of glacier Large U-shaped valleys, ridges of debris and retreated from the Beartooth dates, sequence, (moraines), and out-of-place boulders Mountains, scouring the landscape we and extent contin- (erratics) are evidence of a glacier's passing. know today as the northern range. Glacial ues to evolve, and dams backed up and released enormous varying information Yellowstone and much of North America amounts of water, contributing to the appears in different have experienced numerous periods of formation of Hayden Valley and the Black references (includ- glaciation during the last two million years. ing previous edi- River. During Succeeding periods of glaciation have Canyon of the Yellowstone tions of this book). years ago) nearly all destroyed most surface evidence of previous the peak (16,000-20,000 The information of Yellowstone was covered by a huge ice here is considered glacial periods, but scientists have found cap 4,000 feet thick (see above). Mount current by Yellow- evidence of them in sediment cores taken Washburn and Sheridan were both stone's geologist as on land and in the ocean. In Yellowstone, a Mount of January 2008. completely covered by ice. This ice field was glacial deposit near Tower Fall dates back not part of the continental ice sheet extend- 1.3 million years. Evidence of such ancient ing south from Canada. The ice field glaciers is rare. occurred here, in part, because the hotspot Yellowstone Resources The Bull Lake Period glaciers covered the beneath Yellowstone had pushed up the & Issues 2008 region about 140,000 years ago. Evidence area to a higher elevation with colder tem- exists that this glacial episode extended far- 62 peratures and more precipitation than the ther south of Yellowstone than the and west surrounding land. 3 Sedimentation & Erosion

Not all the rocks in Yellowstone are of "recent" volcanic origin. Precambrian igne- Sedimenta- ous and metamorphic rock in the northeast- tion & ern portion of the park and Beartooth Mountains are at least 2.7 billion years old. Erosion These rocks are very hard and erode slowly.

Sedimentary sandstones and shales, deposited by seas during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras (570 million to 66 million years ago) can be seen in the Gallatin Range and Mount Everts. Sedimentary rocks in Yellowstone tend to erode more easily than the Precambrian rocks.

Weathering breaks down earth materials from large sizes to small particles, and happens in place. The freeze/thaw action of ice is one type of weathering common in Yellowstone. Agents of erosion—wind, water, ice, and waves—move weathered materials from one place to another.

When erosion takes place, sedimentation— the deposition of material— also eventually occurs. Through time, sediments are buried by more sediments and the material hardens into rock. This rock is eventually exposed (through erosion, uplift, and/or faulting), and the cycle repeats itself. Sedimentation and erosion are "reshapers" and "refiners" of the landscape —and they also expose Yellowstone's past life as seen in fossils like the petrified trees (see next page).

Above: The Beartooth Mountains northeast of Yellowstone are actually an uplifted block of Precambrian rock. Left: Mt. Everts, near Mammoth, exposes sedimentary rock, which erodes easily and often tumbles into Gardner Canyon.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 63 3 Fossils Around 1900, F. H. Knowlton identified 147 species of fossil plants from Yellowstone, Paleobotany 81 Fossils of them new to science. He also proposed Nearly 150 species of fossil plants (exclusive the theory that the petrified trees on the of fossil pollen specimens) from Yellowstone northwest end of Specimen Ridge were have been described, including ferns, horse- forests petrified in place. tail rushes, conifers, and deciduous plants Another theory proposes that the trees such as sycamores, walnuts, oaks, chestnuts, were uprooted by volcanic debris flows and transported to lower elevations. The 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens supported this idea. Mud flows not only transported trees to lower elevations, they also deposited the trees upright.

Cretaceous marine and nonmarine sediments are exposed on Mount Everts. The area is under study; fossil leaves, ferns, clam-like fossils, shark teeth, and several species of vertebrates have been found. In 1994 fossil plants were discovered in Yellowstone during the East Entrance road construction project, which uncovered areas containing fossil sycamore leaves and petrified wood.

Fossil Invertebrates Fossil invertebrates are abundant in Paleozoic rocks, especially the limestones associated with the Madison Group in the northern and south-central parts of the In Yellowstone, park. include corals, bryozoans, maples, and hickories. Sequoia is abundant, They many petrified trees brachiopods, trilobites, gastropods, and can be seen (above). and other species such as spruce and fir are Resulting from also present. crinoids. Trace fossils, such as channeling volcanic eruptions and burrowing of worms, are found in some Most petrified wood and other plant fossils about 50 million petrified tree bark. years ago, they pres- come from Eocene deposits about 50 mil- ent questions that lion years old, which occur in many north- Fossil Vertebrates scientists continue to ern parts of the park, including the Gallatin Fossil remains of vertebrates are rare, but ponder: Were the Range, Specimen Creek, Tower, Crescent perhaps only because of insufficient field trees petrified in Hill, Elk Creek, Specimen Ridge, Bison place and thus rep- research. A one-day survey led by paleontol- resent layers of for- Peak, Barronette Peak, Abiathar Peak, ogist Jack Horner, of the Museum of the est? Or were they Mount Norris, Cache Creek, and Miller Rockies, Bozeman, Montana, resulted in the scattered before and Creek. Petrified wood is also found along discovery of the skeleton of a Cretaceous after petrification, streams in areas east of Yellowstone Lake. vertebrate. Other vertebrate fossils found in which means the The most accessible petrified tree site is on number of forests Yellowstone include: cannot be deter- Specimen Ridge. • Fish: crushing tooth plate; phosphatized mined? The first fossil plants from Yellowstone fish bones; fish scales; fish teeth. were collected by the early Hayden Survey • Horse: possible Pleistocene horse, Equus parties. In his 1878 report, Holmes made nebraskensis, reported in 1939. the first reference to Yellowstone's fossil • Other mammals: Holocene mammals "forests." The report identified the petrified recovered from Lamar Cave; Titanothere trees on the north slope of Amethyst (type of rhinocerus) tooth and mandible Mountain opposite the mouth of Soda Butte found on Mt. Hornaday in 1999. Creek, about eight miles southeast of Junction Butte. Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 64 — 3 Dr. Robert Smith and assistant set up a temporary

seismographic station. It is one of dozens throughout the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem sending Research seismic data to researchers at the University of Utah.

THE YELLOWSTONE VOLCANO OBSERVATORY Increased scientific surveil- lance of Yellowstone in the past 30 years has detected

unmistakable changes in its vast underground volcanic Yellowstone Volcano Observatory system, similar to historical changes observed at many other large calderas (volcanic depressions) in the world. To strengthen the capabilities of scientists to track and respond to changes in Yellowstone's Yellowstone as a Laboratory activity, a fifth U.S. volcano

Yellowstone is a unique outdoor laboratory observatory was created in US. Geological Survey University Utah for research scientists. Many of these scien- 2001, complementing existing of Yellowstone National Park ones Hawaii, Alaska, the tific studies have ramifications far beyond for Cascades, and Long Valley, Yellowstone National Park. Current California. The Yellowstone Volcano Observatory (YVO) is research examples: supported jointly by the U.S. Geological Survey, the University of • Using earthquake monitoring stations to Utah, and Yellowstone National Park. detect the numerous daily tremors in the The principal goals YVO include: Yellowstone region, and studying the of * patterns to develop an understanding of Strengthening the monitoring system for tracking earthquake activity, uplift and subsidence, and changes in the hydrothermal the geodynamics of Yellowstone's hotspot. (hot water) system; • Studying the location of previously * Assessing the long-term potential hazards of volcanism, earth- unmapped geologic structures to help quakes, and explosive hydrothermal activity in the Yellowstone understand what controls subsurface fluid region; flow recharge in and geothermal * Enhancing scientific understanding of active geologic and hydro- systems. logic processes occurring beneath Yellowstone and in the surrounding region the Earth's crust; and • Using baseline geochemical studies to of distinguish between human and natural * Communicating new scientific results, the current status of Yellowstone's activity, andforecasts potential hazardous hydro- influences on the underground water of thermal explosions or volcanic eruptions to Yellowstone National network in the region. Park staff, the public, and local, state, andfederal officials. • Measuring the changes in heat being radi- Current real-time-monitoring data are online at ated from thermal areas, which provides volcanoes.usgs.gov/yvo/monitoring.html. the basis for monitoring Yellowstone's This text from a YVO pamphlet, "Steam Explosions, Earthquakes, and geothermal resources. Volcanic Eruptions— What's in Yellowstone's Future?," sold by the • Studying sinter deposition around hot Yellowstone Association. springs to understand how early life developed on Earth and to look for similarities on other planets, particularly Mars.

• Collecting thermophiles—microorganisms that can live in extreme environments from hydrothermal features to study their heat-resistant enzymes. already are All scientists in Yellowstone work under Some Yellowstone Resources being used in a variety of medical and special permits and are closely supervised & Issues 2008 forensic processes. (See chapters 4 & 8.) by National Park Service staff. 65 3 Staff reviewer: Cheryl Jaworowski, geologist Northern Arizona University.

Hamilton, L. in Anderson, Roger J. and D. Harmon, eds. 2002. Yellowstone Wayne Geological investigations Yellowstone For More Lake: Hotbed of Chaos or Reservoir of Resilience? Proceedings National Park, 1976-1981. In Wyoming Geological Association of the 6th Biennial Scientific Conference on the Greater Guidebook.

Information Yellowstone Ecosystem. Yellowstone Center for Resources and Ingebntsen, S. E. and S. A. Rojstaczer. 1993. Controls on geyser

George Wright Society. periodicity. Science. 262: 889-892.

Brock, Thomas. 1994. Life at High Temperatures. Mammoth, Ingebritsen, S. E. and S. A. Rojstaczer. 1996. Geyser periodicity

WY: Association for Natural Science, History, and Education. and the response of geysers to deformation. J. Geophys. Res. 10KB10): 21,891-21,905. Bryan, T. Scott. 1990. Geysers: What They Are and How They

Work. Niwot, CO: Roberts Rinehart. Kay, Glen 1982. Hawaii Volcanoes: The Story Behind the

www.nps.gov/yell. Scenery. KC Publications. Bryan, T. Scott. 1995. The Geysers of Yellowstone.

www.greateryellowstone- Boulder: Colorado Associated University Press. Third Edition. Keefer, William R. 1976. The Geologic Story of Yellowstone science.org/index.html Cannon, K.P et al. 1997. Results of Archeological and National Park. U.S. Geological Survey.

Yellowstone Science, free Paleoenvironmental Investigations Along the North Shore Kharaka, YK. and A.S. Maest, eds. 1992. Proc. of the 7th intern, from the Yellowstone of Yellowstone Lake, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming: symp. on water-rock interaction-WRI-7. Park City, Utah. Center for Resources, in 1990-1994. Lincoln: NPS Midwest Archeological Center. Marler, George D. 1973. Inventory of thermal features of the the Yellowstone Research Firehole River geyser basins and other selected areas of Christiansen, Robert L. 2000. The Quaternary + Pliocene, Library, or online at Yellowstone National Park. U.S. Department of Commerce, www.nps.gov/yell. Recent Yellowstone Plateau Volcanic Field of Wyoming, Idaho, and National Technical Information Service, Publication PB221 289. articles covered historic Montana. USGS Professional Paper 729-6. Marler, George D. 1969. The Story of Old Faithful. Mammoth, sites park history. and Christiansen, Robert L. et al. 2002. Upper-mantle origin of the WY: Yellowstone Library and Museum Association. Yellowstone Today, Yellowstone hotspot. Geological Society of America Bulletin. Morgan, Lisa et al. 2003. The floor of Yellowstone Lake Is any- distributed at entrance October. 114:10, pgs. 1245-1256. thing but quiet. Yellowstone Science. 11(2): 15-30. gates and visitor centers. Christiansen, Robert L. et al. 1994. A Field-Trip Guide to Pierce, Kenneth L. 1979. History and dynamics of glaciation in Site Bulletins, published Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, Montana, and Idaho- the Northern Yellowstone National Park Area. U.S. Geological as needed, provide more Volcanic, Hydrothermal, and Glacial Activity in the Region. U.S. Survey Professional Paper 729-F. detailed information on Geological Survey Bulletin 2099. park topics such as geol- Pierce, Kenneth L. 2004. Pleistocene glaciations of the Rocky Cottrell, Dr. William H. 1987. Bom of Fire: The Volcanic Origin of ogy & wildlife. Free; avail- Mountains in Developments in Quaternary Science, J. Rose Yellowstone National Park. Boulder: Roberts Rinehart. able upon request from (ed). 1: 63-76. Elsevier Press.

visitor centers. Cuhel, Russell et al. 2005. The Bridge Bay spires. Yellowstone Puskas, CM. 2000. Deformation of the Yellowstone Caldera, Science. 12(4): 25-40. Podcasts and livestream Hebgen Lake fault zone, and eastern Snake River plain from Decker, Robert Barbara. 1980. Volcano Watching. Hawaii webcam at Old Faithful and GPS, seismicity, and moment release. Masters thesis. U Utah. available at www.nps. Natural History Association. Raymo, Chet. The Crust of Our Earth. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: gov/yell Ehrlich, Gretel. 1987. Land of Fire and Ice. New York: Harper Prentice-Hall. Collins. Rinehart, John S. 1976. Guide to Geyser Gazing. Santa Fe: Hyper Fouke, B. W. et al. 2000. Depositional facies and aqueous-solid Dynamics. geochemistry of travertine-depositing hot springs (Angel Terrace, Mammoth Hot Springs, Yellowstone National Park, Scientific American. 1982. Volcanoes and the Earth's Interior. W.H. Freeman & Co. U.S.A.) J. Sedimentary Res. 70(3): 565-585.

Smith, Robert B. and Robert L. Christiansen. 1980. Yellowstone Fournier, R. O. 1989. Geochemistry and dynamics of the the earth's interior. Scientific American. Yellowstone National Park hydrothermal system. Ann. Rev. Park as a window on 242(2): 1004-117. February. Earth Planet. So. 17:13-53.

Smith, Robert B. and Lee J. Siegel. 2000. Windows Into the Francis, Peter. 1983. Giant Volcanic Calderas. Scientific Earth: The Geologic Story of Yellowstone and Grand Teton American. June. National Parks. Oxford University Press. Fritz, William J. 1985. Roadside Geology of the Yellowstone Tuttle, Sherwood D. 1997. Yellowstone National Park in Country. Missoula: Mountain Press Publishing Company. Geology of National Parks. Kendall-Hunt Publishing Company, Gallant, Roy A. 1997. Geysers: Earth Roared. Franklin When Dubuque, IA. Watts. Watt, Fiona. Usborne Guide: Earthguakes and Volcanoes. John Kenneth L. Pierce. 1996. Interpreting the Good, M. and Tulsa: EDC Publishing. Landscapes of Grand Teton and Yellowstone National Parks: Recent and Ongoing Geology. Moose, WY: Grand Teton volcanoes.usgs.gov/yvo Natural History Association. www.seis.utah.edu Hadly, Elizabeth. 1995. Evolution, ecology, and taphonomy Additional information available on numerous other websites. of late-Holocene mammals from Lamar Cave, Yellowstone

National Park, Wyoming. Ph.D. dissertation. UCalifornia, Berkeley. Videos

E. 1999. Fidelity of terrestrial vertebrate fossils to a Hadly, A. The Complete Yellowstone modern ecosystem. Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology, Yellowstone: Imprints of Time Palaeoecology 149(1999): 389-409. Yellowstone: A Symphony of Fire and Ice Yellowstone Resources Hadly, E.A. 1990. [afe holocene mammalian fauna of & Issues 2008 Lamar Cave and its implications for ecosystem dynamics 66 in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. Master's thesis. Thermophile: Heat-loving microorganism. Microorganism: Single- or multi-celled organism of microscopic

or submicroscopic size. Also called a microbe.

Microbes in Yellowstone

In addition to the thermophilic microorganisms,

millions of other microbes thrive in

Yellowstone's soils, streams, rivers, lakes, vegetation, and animals. Some of them are dis- The hydrothermal features of Yellowstone are magnificent evidence cussed in other chapters of this book. of Earth's volcanic activity. Amazingly, they are also habitats in Bacteria (Bacterium) which microscopic organisms called thermophiles—"thermo" for Single-celled microorganisms without nuclei, heat, "phile" for lover— survive and thrive. varying in shape, metabolism, and ability to move. Grand Prismatic Spring at Midway Geyser Basin (above) is an out- Archaea (Archaeum) standing example of this dual characteristic. Visitors marvel at its Single-celled microorganisms without nuclei size and brilliant colors. Along the boardwalk (lower right ofphoto), and with membranes different from all other cross a vast habitat for thermophiles. Nourished by energy and they organisms. Once thought to be bacteria. chemical building blocks available in the hot springs, microbes con- Viruses struct vividly colored communities. Living with these microscopic Non-living parasitic microorganisms consisting life forms are larger examples of life in extreme environments, such of a piece of DNA or RNA coated by protein. as mites, flies, spiders, and plants. Eukarya (Eukaryote) People for thousands of years likely have wondered about these Single- or multi-celled organisms whose cells extreme habitats. The color of Yellowstone's superheated environ- contain a distinct membrane-bound nucleus. ments certainly caused geologist Walter Harvey Weed to pause and think, and even question scientists who preceded him. In 1889, he wrote:

There is good reason to believe that the existence of algae of other colors, particularly the pink, yellow and redforms so common in the Yellowstone waters, have been overlooked or mistaken for deposits ofpurely mineral matter.

However, he could not have imagined what a fantastic world exists in these waters of brimstone. Species, unseen to the human eye, thrive in waters as acidic as the liquid in your car battery and hot enough to blister your skin. Some create layers that look like molten wax on the surface of calcium-rich steaming pools. Still others, apparent to us through the odors they create, exist only in murky, sulfuric caldrons that stink worse than rotten eggs.

Today, many scientists study Yellowstone's thermophiles. Some of these microbes are similar to the first life forms capable of photosynthesis—using sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide to oxygen, sugars, and other byproducts. These life forms, called cyanobacteria, began to create an atmosphere that would eventually Yellowstone Resources support human life. Cyanobacteria are found in some of the color- & Issues 2008 ful mats and streamers of Yellowstone's hot springs. 67 4

About Other life forms —the archaea (see page 70) to something else Mr. Weed said about —predated cyanobacteria and other Yellowstone, more than a century ago: photosynthesizers. Archaea can live in the Microbes The vegetation of the acid waters is hottest, most acidic conditions in seldom a conspicuousfeature of the Yellowstone; their relatives are considered springs. But in the alkaline waters among the very earliest life forms on Earth. that characterize the geyser basins, Yellowstone's thermophiles and their envi- and in the carbonated, calcareous ronments provide a living laboratory for waters of the Mammoth Hot Springs, scientists, who continue to explore these the case is otherwise, and the red and extraordinary organisms. They know many yellow tinges of the algae combine mysteries of Yellowstone's extreme environ- with the weird whiteness of the sinter ments remain to be revealed. and the varied blue and green of the

hot water to a scene that is, Regardless of scientific advances, visitors form without doubt, one of the most beauti- and explorers in Yellowstone can still relate ful as well as one of the strangest sights in the world.

Thermophiles In the Tree of Life

In the last few decades, microbial research has led to a revised tree of life, far different from the one taught

before. The new tree combines animal, plant, and fungi in one branch. The other two branches consist solely of microorganisms, including an entire branch of microorganisms not known until the 1970s—Archaea.

Bacteria Archaea Eukarya Yellowstone's nimals' hot springs contain Slime species from the Entoamoebae molds 15 groups circled on the <3 Tree of Life ^^Chloroflexus^

' ^^\\^-^/age//afes <^vanobacteria\ \ V Havobacteria *" \ jr / \ ^\ Trichonomads

Microsporidia Diplomonads

Common Ancestor approximately or before 4 billion years Dr. Jack Farmer ago produced this Image Dr. Carl Woese first proposed this "tree" in the 1970s. He also proposed the new branch, Archaea, which of the tree of life, includes many microorganisms formerly considered bacteria. The red line links the earliest organisms that which first appeared evolved from a common ancestor. These are all hyperthermophiles, which thrive in water above 176°F (80°C), in GSA Today, July indicating life may have arisen in hot environments on the young Earth. 2000. Used with permission. Relevance to Yellowstone Among the earliest organisms to evolve on Earth were microorganisms whose descendants are found today

in extreme high-temperature, and in some cases acidic, environments, such as those in Yellowstone. Their

history exhibits principles of ecology and ways in which geologic processes might have influenced biological Yellowstone Resources evolution. & Issues 2008 68 —

The word "bacteria" is often associated with thermophiles. All of the cyanobacteria and disease, but only a few kinds of bacteria green nonsulfur bacteria photosynthesize. cause problems for humans. The other Some fulfill both roles. For example, thousands of bacteria, although all simple Thermus sp. —which are photosynthetic organisms, play a complex role in Earth's also may be able to oxidize arsenic into a ecosystems. In fact, cyanobacteria made our less toxic form. oxygen-rich atmosphere possible. They Individual bacteria may be rod or sphere were the first photosynthesizers, more than shaped, but they often join end to end to 3 billion years ago. Without bacteria, we form long strands called filaments. These would not be here. strands help bind thermophilic mats, form- Almost any hot spring or geyser you see ing a vast community or mini-ecosystem. hosts bacteria. Some chemosynthesize, Other groups of bacteria form layered struc- changing hydrogen or sulfur into forms tures, which look like tiny towers, that can other thermophiles can use. Most photo- trap sand and other organic materials. (See synthesize, providing oxygen to other bottom photo, page 74.)

Name pH &T Description Where found

Cyanobacteria: 45-75°C color: usually orange; can be yellow, Mammoth Hot Springs Calothrix 113-167°F blue-green, black Upper, Midway, and Lower Oscillatoria usually metabolism: photosynthetic geyser basins Leptolyngbya alkaline mobility: some can move to favorable West Thumb Spirulina light and temperatures within a mat Synechococcus form: usually long filaments entwined into mats with other thermophiles

Green nonsulfur bacteria: 60-80°C color: carotenoid pigments cause them Mammoth Hot Springs Aquifex 140-176°F to vary in pinks, yellows, and oranges Upper, Midway, and Lower Chloroflexus usually metabolism: photosynthetic geyser basins Thermus alkaline form: usually long filaments that West Thumb entwine into mats with other Thermus sp. at Norris,

thermophiles especially at Cistern Spring

Sulfur-oxidizing bacteria: 60-86°C color: black, pink, or gray green, yellow, Lower Geyser Basin

Aquificales sp. 140-187°F white Mammoth Hot optimum metabolism: chemosynthesis, using Springs: Angel Terrace >70°C hydrogen or sulfur >158°C form: filaments and mats

Yellowstone Resources Note: The cyanobacteria genus Phormidium is now Leptolyngbya. & Issues 2008 69 — 4

Thermophilic Archaea

Archaea (Archaeum)

single-celled microorganisms without nuclei

and with membranes different from all other organisms. Once thought to be bacteria.

Archaea are the most extreme of all closely related to Eukarya—which includes extremophiles —some kinds live in the frigid plants and animals. environments of Antarctica, others live in Many kinds of archaea live in the hydro- boiling acidic springs of Yellowstone. the thermal waters of Yellowstone. For example, These single-celled organisms have no Grand Prismatic Spring at Midway Geyser nucleus, but have a unique, tough outer cell Basin contains archaea. They are most well wall. This tough wall contains molecules known in the superheated acidic features of and enzymes that may keep acid out of the Norris Geyser Basin and in the muddy roil- organism, allowing it to live in environ- ing springs of the Mud Volcano area. ments of pH 3 or less. (Vinegar, for example, Whenever you see a hot, muddy, acidic has a pH of less than 3.) Archaea also have spring, you are probably seeing the results protective enzymes within their cells. of a thriving community of archaea called Some scientists think present-day archaea Sulfolobus. This is the archaea most often have not changed much from their ances- isolated and most well known by scientists. tors. This may be due to the extreme envi- In sulfuric hydrothermal areas, it oxidizes ronments in which they live, which would hydrogen sulfide into sulfuric acid, which allow little chance for successful changes to helps dissolve the rocks into mud. The occur. If this is so, modern archaea may not Sulfolobus community in Congress Pool be much different from the original forms (Norris) is providing interesting new and thus provide an important link with research directions for scientists: It is para- Earth's earliest life forms. sitized by viruses never before known on Once thought to be bacteria, organisms in Earth. (See next page.) the domain Archaea actually may be more

Name pH &T Description Where found

Domain Archaea pH 0.9-5.8 color: none in many of Yellowstone's upper temp.: metabolism: chemosynthesis, using hydrothermal features >80°C/176°F hydrogen, sulfur, carbon dioxide

form: unicellular, tough cell membrane

Sulfolobus pH 2-3, ideal color: none Mud Volcano acidocaldarium <90°C/194°F metabolism: chemosynthesis; oxidizes Norris, esp. Congress Pool

is the species most oft<:n sulfur and sulfur compounds into Roaring Mountain isolated sulfuric acid form: spherical with lobes

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 70 —

Like bacteria, the word "virus" often con- own. Instead, a virus inserts itself into a host jures up images of sickness and death. cell and uses that cell's nutrients and metab- However, relatively few of the many types of olism to produce more viruses. viruses cause problems for humans. None of Scientists suspect many viruses exist in thermophilic viruses in Yellowstone the Yellowstone's hydrothermal features should cause problems for human health because they would be a logical part of the bodies are cold, for one thing. our too thermophilic ecosystem. One kind was Unlike microorganisms in the three discovered in Congress Pool, at Norris domains, viruses are not considered to be Geyser Basin. It was infecting the archaeum alive. (Yet they are still called "life forms.") Sulfolobus. Another kind of virus has been They have no cell structure, only a protein identified in pools near Midway Geyser "envelope" that encloses a piece of genetic Basin. material. They cannot reproduce on their

Name pH &T Description Where found

Viruses pH 0.9-5.8; protein coats a core of genetic material in many of Yellowstone's

(not in a domain) optimum 2-3 cannot reproduce by itself hydrothermal features

55-80°C/ reproduces by using the host cell's 131-176°F metabolism optimum not considered living 70-75°C predators of other microbes

unnamed acidic shape very similar to viruses that infect unnamed pool near boiling bacteria and animals, which could mean Midway Geyser Basin this group of viruses existed early in the

development of life on Earth

unnamed acidic parasitizes the archaeum, Sulfolobus Norris, Congress Pool boiling

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 71 4

Thermophilic Eukarya

Eukarya (Eukaryote)

single- or multi-celled organisms whose cells contain a distinct membrane-bound nucleus

Plants, animals, and mushrooms are the eukarya most of us know. Millions of unseen, microscopic members of this kingdom exist throughout our world, including in the extreme environments of Yellowstone.

Norris Geyser Basin (photo above) is one of the best places to see thermophilic algae. Bright green Cyanidium caldarium grows on top of orange-red iron deposits around Whirligig and Echinus geysers and their runoff channels. Waving streamers of Zygogonium are especially easy to see in Porcelain Basin, where their dark colors contrast with the white surface (top photo at left).

From the boardwalk crossing Porcelain Basin, you can also see larger eukarya, such as ephydrid flies. They live among the thermophilic mats and streamers, and eat, among other things, algae. The species that lives in the waters of Geyser Hill, in the Upper Geyser Basin, lays its eggs in pink-orange mounds, sometimes on the firm surfaces of the mats (visible in center photo at left). Part of the thermophilic food chain, ephydrid flies become prey for spiders, beetles, and birds. Some microscopic eukarya consume other thermophiles. A predatory protozoan, called Vorticella, thrives in the warm, acidic waters of Obsidian Creek, which flows north toward Mammoth Hot

Springs, where it consumes thermophilic bacteria.

Thermophilic eukarya include one form that is dangerous to humans: Naegleria, a type of amoeba, that can cause disease and death in humans if inhaled through the nose.

Although they aren't visible like mushrooms, several kinds of thermophilic fungi thrive in Yellowstone. Curvularia protuberata lives in the roots and leaves of hot springs panic grass (bottom photo left), which can grow on the edges of hot springs only with the aid of this fungus. The fungus contains the pigment melanin, which may somehow protect the plant from extreme heat. In return the fungus feeds on nutrients produced by the plant.

Of all the thousands (if not millions) of thermophilic species thriving in Yellowstone's extreme environments, the eukarya are the group that bridges the world of thermophilic microbes with the hot springs panic grass larger life forms — such as geese, elk, and bison — that thrive in ecological communities beyond the hot springs. Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 72 4

Eukarya

Name pH &T Description Where found

Algae pH 0.5-3 color: bright green Roaring Mountain Cyanidium caldarium <56°C/133°F metabolism: photosynthetic Norris, both basins form: coating on top of formations; mats

Zygogonium pH 2-3 color: dark brown or purple Norris, especially 35°C (96°F) metabolism: photosynthetic Porcelain Basin form: filaments and mats

Protozoa warm predator; can infect humans when Huckleberry Hot Springs Naegleria (amoeba) alkaline ingested through nose Boiling River

Vorticella (ciliate) consumer; single-celled ciliate (feathery Obsidian Creek appendages swirl water, bringing prey)

Euglenids pH 1-2 single-celled Mutablis <43°C/109°F photosynthetic moves by waving one or two strands called flagella

Fungi <55°C/131°F grows in roots and leaves of hot Curvularia protuberata springs panic grass (Dichanthelium lanuginosum), enabling plant to survive

high temperatures; in return the fungus feeds on sugars produced by the plant

Ephydrid fly >pH2 nonbiting insect that eats microscopic Norris, especially Porcelain

Ephydra sp. <43°C/109°F algae as larvae and adult; prey for Basin spiders, beetles, dragonflies, killdeer Upper Geyser Basin, especially Geyser Hill Mammoth Hot Springs

Ross's bentgrass 38°C/100°F one of Yellowstone's two endemic plant banks of Firehole River

Agrostis rossiae species (see p. 84); may bloom in winter; near Shoshone Lake dries out in summer's hot air temperatures

Warm springs spike rush, warm forms thick floating mats, which also Obsidian Creek with some Tweedy's rush acidic provide habitat for thermophilic algae and other thermophiles

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 73 Thermophilic communities are as diverse as the communities that humans live in. Community formations, colors, and locations vary depending on the types of microbes, the pH, and the temperature of their environments.

Millions of individual microbes can connect into long strands called filaments. Some bacteria (photo left) and algae form thin and delicate structures in fast moving water such as the runoff channels of hot springs and geysers. Other microbes form thick, sturdy structures in slower water or where chemical precipitates quickly coat their filaments.

A bacteria called Thermocrinis formed the structures in the middle photo; this bacteria is descended from ancient bacteria that metab- olized hydrogen and oxygen. Its filaments entwine, forming mats. Flowing water carries other microbes, organic matter, and minerals that become caught in the streamers and add to the mat.

Photosynthetic activity of cyanobacteria such as Lyptolyngbya form columns or pedestals (bottom photo). Oxygen bubbles rise in the mat, forcing the microbes upward. The higher formations capture more organic matter and sediment than the lower mats, which help build the columns. Called stromatolites or microbialites, these structures are similar to ancient microbial communities still preserved in formations in some parts of the world.

Mats can be as thin as tissue paper or as thick as lasagna. Multiple layers of microorganisms comprise inch-thick mats. Dozens of types of microbes from all three domains can exist in these layers.

Each microbial layer is a community, and each layer interacts with the other layers, forming a complex community full of millions of microorganisms and their life processes.

Visible and invisible changes occur in thermophile communities as light, temperature, and chemical concentrations change —both short term (within one day) and long term (seasonally). As day brightens to noon, cyanobacteria sensitive to light may move away from the surface; microbes less sensitive to light may move to the top layers of the mat. When light levels cause shifts in organisms, the community is responding to a light gradient.

Temperature and chemical gradients most often affect thermophilic communities in runoff channels of geysers and in shallow outflows from hot springs. In the photo above, the runoff channels from Pinwheel and Whirligig geysers meet. The outer edges of both are too hot for visible thermophile communities to develop. But as Pinwheel's water cools in the shallower channel edge, Cyanidium (an alga) can grow, forming a bright green community. Whirligig's runoff is hotter, which prevents Cyanidium from growing, but another type of thermophile thrives by oxidizing the abundant iron in the water, forming the orange community. — 4

Communities

Thermophile community inhabitants are controlled, in part, by water temperature and 93°0199°F pH. The chart at right Archaea provides general guidelines for what lives in which temperature. Chocolate Pots, on the Gibbon River, are an iron-rich community.

At the Chocolate Pots (photo above), which 73°0163°F you can see from pullouts along the Gibbon Cyanobacteria River just north of Gibbon Meadows, iron- rich water flows from the vents. Three kinds of cyanobacteria Synechococcus, Chloro- flexus, and Oscillatoria — thrive in the iron- rich waters that flow from the vents. The bacterial filaments form mats, in which the 62°G144°F mineral is captured. The iron may also be Fungi caught on the bacteria as the microbes move about within the mat. An olive green color 60°O140°F indicates where the orange iron and green Algae bacteria are enmeshed. Darker streaks indicate the presence of manganese. Scientists think the bacterial concentration may contribute to the iron concentrations at the Chocolate Pots, which are one hundred 56°0133°F times more concentrated here than at other Protozoa neutral hydrothermal features. Communities formed by thermophilic microbes sustain communities of larger organisms within Yellowstone's hydrother- 50°G122°F mal areas, some of which were described on Mosses pages 72-73. These communities in turn crustaceans affect even larger communities of the park's insects mammals. For example, bison and elk find food and warmth on the less extreme edges of thermophilic environments in winter (photos at right). In turn, coyotes, wolves, and bears seek prey in these areas— especially in late winter and early spring when bison and elk are weaker than any other time of year.

Whether it's the strike of a grizzly's paw or 27°G80°F the shift of heat beneath the Earth, these Trout communities change through common and strange processes. Biologists continue to discover more about the individuals Yellowstone Resources involved in thermophilic communities, and & Issues 2008 ecologists continue to follow the threads of these intricate webs. 75 4

Thermophiles by Place & Color

Upper, Midway, & Lower Geyser Basins and West Thumb Geyser Basin

Characteristics Thermophiles by Temp. Thermophiles by Color

• pH 7-11 (alkaline) • >75°C/167°F, bacteria and archaea • pink, yellow, orange, gray fila-

• underlain by rhyolitic • >75°C/167°F, Thermocrinis and other ments—Thermocrinis bacteria

rock bacteria form streamers of pink, • orange mats— cyanobacteria,

• water rich in silica, which yellow, orange, or gray. especially on sunny summer days

forms sinter and geyserite • <75°C/167°F, Synechococcus, (carotenoids protect the organisms deposits Lyptolyngbya, and Calothrix (cyano- from the bright sun)

bacteria) plus Roseiflexus (filamen- • olive-green mats— cyanobacteria tous green bacterium) form mats that mixed with iron line cooler hot springs and runoff channels

Norris Geyser Basin & Mud Volcano Area

pH 0-5 (acidic) >75°C/167°F, Sulfolobus, an archaeum, pink-pinkish-orange mats and underlain by rhyolite and viruses that parasitize Sulfolobus streamers—Thermus aquaticus and rock >60°C/140°F, filamentous bacteria in other Thermus sp. yellowish streamers and mats green streamers and mats- <60°C/140°F, filamentous bacteria Cyan idium and archaea form red brown mats orange— iron and/or arsenic, <56°C/133°F, Zygogonium, other algae, perhaps oxidized by thermophiles and fungi form mats in runoff gray, muddy pools— Sulfolobus channels

Mammoth Hot Springs

pH 6-8 (neutral to 66-75°C/151-167°F, Aquificales (bacte- orange— Chloroflexus and cyanobac-

slightly acidic) ria) filaments near hot springs vents teria in summer underlain by ancient <66°C/151°F, Chloroflexus (green green— Chloroflexus and cyanobac- limestone deposits nonsulfur bacteria) and cyanobacteria in winter; Chlorobium in cooler

water rich in calcium teria mats, and filamentous bacteria water carbonate and sulfur streamers cream— filamentous bacteria <58°C/136°F, Chromatium (bacteria) form dark mats (uncommon) 25-54C/77-129F, Chlorobium (bacteria) mats; Calothrix streamers; Synechococcus

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 76 " 4 These layers of rock on Mars have minerals and features developed by interactions between liquid water and rocks Thermophiles over time. This evidence does not prove life developed on Mars, but it brings in Time & the possibility one step closer to reality.

Photo and caption adapted from Space uvivw.nasa.goi/, image by NasalJPL

To Mars—and What's the Connection? Beyond? • Yellowstone's hydrothermal features contain

The hydrothermal modern examples of Earth's earliest life forms, features of Yellow- both chemo- and photosynthetic, and thus stone and their provide a window into Earth's ancient past. associated • Yellowstone hydrothermal communities reveal thermophilic com- the extremes life can endure, providing clues environments that might harbor life on munities are studied to other worlds. by scientists searching for evidence of life on other planets. The • Yellowstone environments show how mineral- connection is extreme environments. If life began in the extreme ization preserves biosignatures of thermophilic conditions thought to have been widespread on ancient Earth, it communities, which could help scientists still exist may well have developed on other planets— and might recognize similar signatures elsewhere. today. • Based on the history of life on Earth, the The chemosynthetic microbes that thrive in some of Yellowstone's search for life on other planets seems more likely to encounter evidence of microorganisms hot springs do so by metabolizing inorganic chemicals, a source of than of more complex life. energy that does not require sunlight. Such chemical energy sources provide the most likely habitable niches for life on Mars or on the For additional moons of Jupiter—Ganymede, Europa, and Callisto —where unin- information about habitable surface conditions preclude photosynthesis. Chemical energy sources, along with the scientific value extensive groundwater systems (such as on Mars) or oceans beneath icy crusts (such as on of thermophiles, Jupiter's moons) could provide habitats for life. see Chapter 8, "Bioprospecting. Similar Signatures Thermophile communities leave behind evidence of their shapes as biological "signatures." For example, at Mammoth Hot Springs, rapidly depositing minerals entomb thermophile communities. Scientists compare these modern signatures to those of ancient deposits elsewhere, such as sinter deposits in Australia that are 350 million years old. These comparisons help scientists better understand the environment and evolution on early Earth, and give them an idea of what to look for on other planets.

Yellowstone National Park will continue to be an important site for studies at the physical and chemical limits of survival. These studies will give scientists a better understanding of the conditions that give rise to and support life, and how to recognize signatures of life in ancient rocks and on distant planets.

Earth formed

Era of chemical Age of microorganisms Age of mammals evolution Oxygen atmosphere forming Age of dinosaurs Earth's crust stabilizing

4.5 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 0.5 Billions of years ago

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 77 for fossil life on Mars. Icarus 101: Staff reviewer: Cheryl Jaworowski, geologist a strategy for the search 129-143. Andrews, Mark. 2005. Could It fie? Life on Mars? Podcast: Terra Microbiology in Yellowstone National Park. Videos, episode 105. terravideos.blogspot.com. Ward, D.M. 1998. ASM News. 64:141-146. Barns, Susan et al. 1996. Perspectives on archaeal diversity, ther- phototrophic microbial mats: mophily, and monophyly from environmental rRNA sequences. Ward, D.M. et al. 1992. Modern oxygenic/anoxygenic, thermal, Proceedings Natl Acad. So. 93: 9188-9193. anoxygenic, intermittently eucaryotic and terrestrial. In The Proterozoic Biosphere: Boomer, Sarah et al. 2002. Molecular characterization of novel a Multidisciplinary Study, J.W. Schopf and C. Klein, eds. red green nonsulfur bacteria from five distinct hot spring Cambridge U Press/Cambridge. communities in Yellowstone National Park. Applied and Cyanobactena in Environmental Microbiology. January: 346-355. Ward, D.M. and R.W. Castenholz. 2000. geo-thermal habitats. In Ecology of Cyanobacteria. Kluwer Brock, Thomas D. 1978. Thermophilic microorganisms and life at Academic Publishers. high temperatures. Springer-Verlag, New York. Ward, D.M. et al. 2002. Natural history of microorganisms —1998. Early days in Yellowstone Microbiology. inhabiting hot spring microbial mat communities: clues to the ASM News. 64:137-140. origin of microbial diversity and implications for micro- and T. D. 1994 Life at High Temperatures. Yellowstone — macro-biology. In Biodiversity of Microbial Life: Foundation of Association/Mammoth, WY. Earth's Biosphere, J.T. Staley and A-L. Reysenbach, eds. John Dyer, Betsey Dexter 2003 A Field Guide to Bacteria. Cornell/ Wiley and Sons/New York. Ithaca.

Carsten, Laura. 2001. Life in extreme environments. Northwest Colors: Windows into Science and Technology. Spring: 14-21. www.windowsintowonderland.org, "Hot Hidden Worlds" (electronic field trip) Farmer, Jack D. 2000. Hydrothermal Systems: Doorways to Early website of the American Biosphere Evolution. GSA Today 10(7): 1-9. www.microbeworld.org, the public Society for Microbiology Farmer, J. D., and D. J. Des Marais. 1999. Exploring for a record website of the Thermal Biology Institute of ancient Martian life. J. Geophys. Res. 104. www.tbi.montana.edu, of Montana State University Fouke, Bruce et al. 2000. Depositional facies and aqueous-solid websites. Search geochemistry of travertine-depositing hot springs. Additional information available on numerous thermophiles, extreme life, and astrobiology. J Sedimentary Research. 70(3): 565-585. topics include

Gihring, Thomas et al. 2001. Rapid arsenite oxidation by T.

aquaticus and T. thermophilus: Field and laboratory investiga-

tions. Environ. So. Technol. 35:3857-3862.

Madigan, Michael and Aharon Oren. 1999. Thermophilic and halophilic extremophiles. Current Opinion in Microbiology.

2: 265-269.

Pierson, Beverly and Mary Parenteau. 2000. Phototrophs in high

iron microbial mats: microstructure of mats in iron-depositing hot springs. Microbiology Ecology. 32: 181-196.

Reysenbach, A-L. et al, eds. 2001. Thermophiles: Biodiversity, Ecology, and Evolution. Kluwer Academic Press/Plenum, New York.

Reysenbach, A-L and Sherry Cady. 2001. Microbiology of ancient and modern hydrothermal systems. Trends in Microbi-

ology 9(2): 80-86.

Reysenbach, A-L, et al. 2000. Microbial diversity at 83°C in Calcite Springs, Yellowstone National Park. Extremophiles. 4: 61-67.

Sheehan, K.B. et al. 2005. Seen and Unseen: Discovering the Microbes of Yellowstone. Falcon/Helena.

Sheehan, K.B. et al. 2004. Yellowstone Under the Microscope. The Globe Pequot Press/Gilford, CT.

Walter, M. R. and D. J. Des Marais. 1993. Preservation of

biological information in thermal spring deposits: developing Vegetation 5

Vegetation Overview Rocky Mountain juniper, limber pine. Vegetation in Yellowstone is • Deciduous trees include quaking typical of the Rocky Mountains. aspen and cottonwood. Elements of the Great Plains and • Shrubs include common juniper, Great Basin floras mix with Rocky sagebrush (many species), Rocky Mountain vegetation in the Mountain maple. vicinity of Gardiner and Stephen's • Wildflowers number in the Arrowleaf balsamroot Creek. hundreds. The interaction of climate and • Three endemics— Ross' bentgrass, geologic substrate controls distri- Yellowstone sand verbena, bution of vegetation in the park. Yellowstone's vegetation is composed Yellowstone sulfur wild buck- Disturbances—fire, floods, insects, primarily of typical Rocky Mountain wheat (see p. 84). disease—occur periodically, affect- • More than 200 exotics. species. It is also influenced by flora of the ing portions of the park. Great Plains to the east and the Intermoun- Hydrothermal areas support Management tain to the west. The exact plant community unique plant communities and • Controlling exotics, which threaten present in any area of the park reflects a rare species. native species, that are prevalent complex interaction between many factors Lodgepole pine alone comprises in developed areas; some are including the regional flora, the climate, the 80% of the forest canopy. spreading into the backcountry. • Surveying areas for sensitive or topography, and the local substrates/soils. Six other conifer species: whitebark pine, Engelmann rare vegetation before disturbance vegetation of the park is interrelated The spruce, subalpine fir, Douglas-fir, such as constructing a new facility. with the geology of the park (see Chapter 2). The region's caldera explosions catastrophi- especially in areas such as the Absaroka cally destroyed vegetation. In addition, Range that are underlain by andesites. glaciers significantly altered the region. These species can also be common in the Today, the roughly 1,100 native species of understory where the canopy is entirely flowering plants in the park represent the composed of lodgepole pine. Through time, species able to either persist in the area or in the absence of fire and in non-rhyolitic recolonize after glaciers, lava flows, and soil, subalpine fir and Engelmann spruce other major disturbances. Unlike south- can replace the lodgepole pine, leading to a western Wyoming or central Idaho, the canopy dominated by these species. In Greater Yellowstone region has few endemic rhyolitic soils, which are poor in nutrients vascular plant species, primarily in the east- needed by fir and spruce, lodgepole pine ern portion of the Absaroka Mountains out- remains dominant. At higher elevations side of Yellowstone. Within Yellowstone, such as the Absaroka Mountains and the only three endemics occur, Yellowstone Washburn Range, whitebark pine becomes a sand verbena (Abronia ammophila), Ross' New Endemic significant component of the forest. In the bentgrass (Agrostis rossiae), Yellowstone sul- upper subalpine zone, whitebark pine, fur wild buckwheat (Eriogonum umbellatum Engelmann spruce, and subalpine fir often var. cladophorum). grow in small areas separated by subalpine Major Types meadows. Wind and dessication cause dis- torted forms known as krumholtz where Montane Forests most of the 'tree' is protected below snow. Forests cover roughly 80 percent of the park. Miles and miles of lodgepole pine Douglas-fir Forests forest characterize the park, especially Douglas-fir forests occur at lower eleva- Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 within the Yellowstone Caldera. Extensive tions, especially in the northern portion of areas of forest dominated by subalpine fir the park. The thick bark of Douglas-fir trees 79 and Engelmann spruce are also present, allows them to tolerate low-intensity fire. 5

Major Some of the trees in these forests are several (Chapter 7), and for numerous insects, birds, hundred years old and show fire scars from and fish. ground fires. In Vegetation a succession of low intensity Hydrothermal Communities contrast, lodgepole pine trees have very thin Yellowstone is the best place in the world to Types bark and can be killed by ground fires see hydrothermal phenomenon such as gey- Understory Vegetation sers and hot springs. Fascinating and unique The understory vegetation differs according plant communities have developed in the Finding to precipitation regime, the forest type, and expanses of thermally heated ground. Many Wetlands the substrate. Lodgepole pine forest is often of the species that occur in the geyser basins characterized by a very sparse understory are actually species that tolerate tremen- Here are a few composed mostly of elk sedge (Carex geyeri), dously different conditions, and thus grow wetlands locations (Vaccinium scopari- all over the western United States. Other near roads: or grouse whortleberry um). Pinegrass (Calamagrostis rubescens) species, though, are typical of the central Northeast occurs frequently under Douglas-fir forest Rockies, or are regional endemics. Entrance Road, but is also common under other forest beginning east of types, especially where the soil is better Yellowstone Picnic developed or moister. In some areas of the Area: listen for Vegetation Map (next page) park such as Bechler and around the edges frogs in spring, of the northern range, a more obviously Lodgepole pine forests look for sandhill • Dominate more than 80% of the total park cranes throughout developed shrub layer is composed of spe- forested area. the Lamar Valley cies such as Utah honeysuckle (Lonicera uta- • Can be serai (developing) or climax. hensis), snowberry (Symphoricarpos spp.), Firehole Lake • Climax forests underlain by rhyolite. and buffaloberry (Shepherdia canadensis). Road: listen for Douglas-fir forests frogs and look for Sagebrush-Steppe • Associated with the Lamar, Yellowstone, and elephant's head river drainages below 7,600 feet. The northern range is composed of exten- Madison flowers where the • Often less than 20 inches annual precipitation. sive stretches of sagebrush-steppe. road begins • More frequent historic fire interval (25-60 year) Mountain big sagebrush (Artemisia tridenta- than other forest types in the park. Dunraven Pass ta var. vaseyana) dominates this community area: look for type, along with several other species and Spruce-fir forests • Engelmann spruce and subalpine fir dominate abundant wild- varieties of sagebrush. Several grass species, older forests. flowers in high such as Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis), elevation wetlands • Usually found on moist and/or fertile substrates. also dominate sagebrush-steppe. The north- near the road • Climax forests underlain by andesitic soils. ern range can be spectacular with wildflow- Whitebark pine forests Norris Geyser ers in late June and early July. Sagebrush- • Major overstory component above 8,400 feet. Basin, Back steppe also occurs in Hayden Valley, Pelican • Major understory component of lodgepole- Basin: near Puff Valley, and Gardner's Hole. dominated forests from 7,000 to 8,400 feet. 'n' Stuff Geyser, • Seeds are ecologically important food for a look for dragon- Wetlands variety of wildlife species. flies Yellowstone's wetlands include lakes, rivers, ponds, streams, seeps, marshes, fens, wet Non-forest All thermal • sagebrush, alpine mead- meadows, forested wetlands, and hydro- Includes grasslands, areas: look for ows, talus, and hydrothermal environments. thermal pools. They occupy over 357 square ephydridflies, • Encompasses the moisture spectrum from dry miles of Yellowstone: 44 percent are lakes thermophiles, and sagebrush shrublands to wet alpine meadows. and ponds larger than 20 acres or having other life forms • Provides the winter and summer forage base 6.6 feet at water; 4 water deeper than low for ungulates. percent are rivers and streams; 52 percent Other types not shown on map are shallow water systems that dry up most • Aspen—found in small clones interspersed Approximately 38 percent of park's years. among the sagebrush/forest ecotone (transition plant species—including half of the rare zone) along the Yellowstone, Madison, and plants—are associated with wetlands and 11 Snake river drainages. percent grow only in wetlands. Wetlands • Wetland— includes various grass, forb, rush, and provide essential habitat for Yellowstone's sedge species. Yellowstone Resources • streamside vegetation & Issues 2008 endemic plants (seepage 84), thermal species Riparian—typically includes cottonwoods, willows, and various (Chapter 4), reptiles and amphibians 80 deciduous shrubs. 5

Major Vegetation Types

Map legend on page 80

Effects of Disturbances while an adjacent area may be turning cooler, allowing plants to invade a previ- The park's vegetation appears at first ously inhospitable place. vegetation of glance to be static and unchanging, but The the park today reflects the effects of many must, in fact, respond to change. Hydro- different types of natural disturbance such thermal plant communities demonstrate in as forest fire (see Chapter 6), floods, land- very short periods of time that change is slides, insect infestations, blowdowns, and fundamental in any natural system. In a few days, the ground can heat up, perhaps the continually changing climate. Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 triggered by an earthquake, and fry plants, 81 5

Trees

Major Types of Trees Douglas-fir Pseudotsuga menziesii • Resembles the fir and the

Lodgepole pine Pinus contorta hemlock, hence its generic name • Most common tree in park Pseudotsuga, which means "false • Needles in groups of twos hemlock" • May have serotinous cones • Cones hang down and remain • Up to 75 feet tall intact, with 3-pronged bract LODGEPOLE PINE between scales Limber pine P. flexilus The lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) is by far • Thick bark resists fires • Needles in groups of five the most common tree in Yellowstone. Early • Young branches are flexible • Up to 100 feet tall botanical explorers first encountered the • Up to 75 feet tall Rocky Mountain juniper species along the West Coast where it is • Often on calcium-rich soil Juniperus scopulorum often contorted into a twisted tree by the albicaulis • Needles scale-like Whitebark pine P. wind, and thus named it Pinus contorta var. • Cones are small and fleshy • Grows above 7000 feet contorta. The Rocky Mountain variety, • • Needles in groups of five Up to 30 feet tall which grows very straight, is Pinus contorta • Purple-brown cones produce Cottonwood Populus spp. var. latifolia. Various Native American tribes important food for squirrels, • Several species and hybrids used this tree to make the frames of their bears, Clark's nutcrackers • Up to 75 feet tall tipis or lodges, hence the name "lodgepole" • feet tall Up to 75 • Thick, furrowed bark pine. Typically, lodgepole pine in Yellow- Engelmann spruce • Seeds with tangled hairs—the stone is seldom more than 75 feet tall. The Picea engelmannii "cotton"— dispersed by wind species is shade intolerant; any branches left • Often along creeks, or wet areas Quaking aspen in the shade below the canopy will wither • Sharp, square needles grow singly Populus tremuloides and fall off the tree. Lodgepoles growing by • Cones hang down and remain • Sedimentary soils in damp areas all intact, with no bract between themselves will often have branches the • Flexible stems quake and shiver in way to the base of the trunk because sun- scales the breeze • feet tall light can reach the whole tree. Up to 100 • Trunks often rough and black due

Subalpine fir Abies lasiocarpa to browsing by elk and other Lodgepoles are the only pine in Yellowstone animals • Only true fir in the park whose needles grow in groups of two. The • • Reproduces by cloning (most Blunt, flat needles bark is typically somewhat brown to yellow- • Cones grow upright, disintegrate often), and by seeds (related to ish, but a grayish-black fungus often grows on tree fire) on the shady parts of the bark, giving the • Up to 100 feet tall tree a dark cast.

Like all conifers, lodgepole pines have both male and female cones. The male cones produce huge quantities of yellow pollen in June and July. This yellow pollen is often seen in pools of rainwater around the park or at the edges of lakes and ponds. The lodgepole's female cone takes two years to mature. In the first summer, the cones look like tiny, ruby-red miniature cones out near the end of the branches. The next year, after fertilization, the cone starts rapidly growing and soon becomes a conspicuous green. The Yellowstone Resources female cones either open at maturity releas- & Issues 2008 ing the seeds, or remain closed— a condition 82 5 called serotiny— until subjected to high heat Trees such as a forest fire. These cones remain closed and hanging on the tree for years until the right conditions allow them to open. Within a short period of time after the tree flashes into flame, the cones open up and release seeds over the blackened area, effectively dispersing seeds after forest fires. Trees without serotinous cones (like Engelmann spruce, subalpine fir, and Douglas-fir) must rely on wind, animals, or other agents to carry seeds into recently burned areas.

Lodgepole pines prefer a slightly acid soil, and will grow quickly in mineral soils disturbed by fire or by humans (such as a road cut). Their roots spread out sideways and do not extend deeply— an advantage in Yellowstone where the topsoil is only about 6 to 12 inches deep, but a disadvantage in high winds. Lodgepole pines are vulnerable in windstorms, especially individuals that are isolated or in the open.

Besides reseeding effectively after disturbance, lodgepole pines can grow in conditions ranging from very wet ground to very poor soil prevalent within the Yellowstone Caldera. This flexibility allows the species to occur in habitat that otherwise would not be forested.

Because lodgepole pines are dependent on sunny situations for seedling establishment and survival, the trees do not reproduce well until the canopy opens up significantly. In the Yellowstone region, this allows the lodgepole pine forest to be replaced by shade-loving seedlings of subalpine fir and

Engelmann spruce where the soil is well- developed enough to support either of these species. In areas of nutrient poor soil, where Engelmann spruce and subalpine fir struggle, lodgepole pines will eventually be replaced by more lodgepole pine trees as the forest finally opens enough to allow young lodgepoles to become established.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 83 Only Here

• Yellowstone is home to three endemic species— plants that grow nowhere else— Ross's bentgrass, Yellowstone sand verbena, and Yellowstone sulfur wild buckwheat. • Endemics occur in unusual or specialized habitats such as hydrothermal areas.

• Several other unusual species in Greater Yellowstone Area: warm springs

spike rush, which grows in warm water; and Tweedy's rush, sometimes the

only vascular plant growing in acidic hydrothermal areas.

Ross's Bentgrass (Agrostis rossiae) spread in thermal areas, they eventually may Ross's bentgrass only occurs on thermal outcompete Ross's bentgrass. Wildflowers ground along the Firehole River and near Yellowstone Sand Verbena Shoshone Lake. This species seems to Wild/lowers such (Abronia ammophila) require locations providing the right combi- as lupine and Yellowstone sand verbena occurs along the nation of moisture and warmth that create a arnica often grow shore of Yellowstone Lake. Taxonomists under the forest natural greenhouse. The temperature with- debate the relationship of this population of canopy, but the in an inch of the surface under a patch of sand verbena to other sand verbenas. Recent most conspicuous this grass is usually about 100°F. As a result, work suggests that Yellowstone sand verbe- wildflower this grass is one of the first plants to green na is distinct at least at the subspecific level, displays occur in up in warm pockets of geyserite — some- open and is certainly reproductively isolated from meadows times as early as January. and sagebrush- the closest sand verbena populations in the steppe. The Ross's bentgrass rarely grows taller than six Bighorn Basin of Wyoming. appearance inches and more typically only 2-3 inches. of Sand verbenas are a member of the four spring beauties, Another diagnostic characteristic of Ross's o'clock family. Very few members of the glacier lilies, bentgrass is that the inflorescence (flower) family grow this far north. Little is known and steer's head never completely opens up. Flowers may be about the life history of Yellowstone sand announce spring present in February and March, but the in the park. Soon verbena. It was described as an annual in plants typically do not produce viable seed colors splash the the only monograph that has examined this that early. Full bloom occurs in late May slopes, especially genus in recent years, but it is a perennial. It and early June. As soon as temperatures rise on the northern grows close to the sand surface. Some indi- in the early summer, the plants dry out due range—yellow viduals occur near warm ground, so the to the sun's heat from above and the thermal from arrowleaf thermal activity in Yellowstone may be balsamroot, white heat from below. Ross's bentgrass is already helping this species survive. The flowers are from phlox, reds dead and hard to find by July. white and the foliage is sticky. Apparently, and orangesfrom Any plant growing in thermal areas must be the sand verbena flowers from mid-June paintbrush, and able to deal with constant change. A suc- until killing frosts in autumn. blue from penste- cessful plant in the geyser basins must be mon and lupine. Yellowstone Sulfur Wild Buckwheat Goldenrod and able to shift location relatively easily as one (Eriogonum umbellatum var. cladophorum) gentians indicate major thermal change or several changes Several varieties of sulfur buckwheat live in the coming of could eradicate the entire population. autumn. Apparently, Ross's bentgrass deals with this the park, but this variety grows along edges problem efficiently. Its seed dispersal mech- of thermally influenced sites from Madison Junction to the Upper Geyser Basin. It dif- Yellowstone Resources anism probably includes traveling on the & Issues 2008 muddy hooves of bison and elk who inhabit fers from the more common varieties by the densely hairy upper surface of the leaves, 84 thermal areas during the winter. Exotic species pose the only known threat; as they and by the bright yellow of its flowers. 5

Exotics

The full extent and impact of exotic plants Exotic Species Species include (common names): in Yellowstone is unknown. Many grow in Dalmation toadflax • More than 200 exotic plant disturbed areas such as developments, road Spotted knapweed species in the park. corridors, and thermal basins; they also are Canada thistle • Resource managers target the spreading into the backcountry. Several Ox-eye daisy most threatening species for exotics, such as the common dandelion, Houndstongue control or removal. have spread throughout the park. Leafy spurge

Exotic plants can displace native plant species and change the nature of vegetation most serious threat or those most likely to communities. These changes can profound- be controlled. ly effect the entire ecosystem. For example, The park uses Integrated Pest Management exotics unpalatable to wildlife may replace —chemical, biological, sociological, and preferred native plants, leading to changes mechanical methods—to control some of in grazing activity. In turn, this stresses the exotic plants. The park also cooperates plants not adapted to grazing. with adjacent state and county Weed Dalmatian Controlling all the exotic species, some Control Boards to share knowledge and toadflax well-established, is unrealistic. The park technology related to exotic plant focuses control action on species posing the detection and control.

Dalmation toadflax Linaria dalmatica • Control efforts have substantially 1 • Northern portions of the park, especially around curtailed infestation; monitoring and Mammoth. evaluation continue. • Highly invasive, replacing native plants. Houndstongue • Intense biological and chemical control efforts Cynoglossum officinale during the late 1960s and early 1970s were • Primarily Mammoth and East Entrance. ' unsuccessful. 3r £v#> • May have been introduced by contami- Spotted knapweed Centaurea maculosa nated hay used by both the National

• Along roadsides and in the vicinity of Mammoth. Park Service and concessioners in their • Aggressive species that, once established, forms a horse operations. monoculture, which could displace native grasses • Highly invasive, replacing native plants. on the ungulate winter and summer ranges. • Seeds easily attach to the coats of • Aggressive control efforts underway to prevent a animals, and thus spread along animal

catastrophic change in park vegetation. corridors.

Canada thistle Cirsium arvense Leafy spurge Euphorbia esula

• Throughout the park and adjacent national • Small patches in Bechler and along road- forests. sides, so far being successfully controlled

• Airborne seed enable it to spread widely through- but spreading actively in Paradise Valley out the park, invading wetlands. north of the park and outside Bechler on • Forms dense monocultures, thus radically the Targhee National Forest. changing vegetation. • Becomes a monoculture, forcing out native vegetation. Ox-eye daisy Leucanthemum vulgare • Extremely hard to control because of • Mammoth and Madison areas, where it may have deep roots (up to 30 feet) and dense been planted in flower gardens. vegetation. • Can become dominant in meadows, is unpalatable Yellowstone Resources to elk and other wildlife. & Issues 2008 85 5

For More Staff reviewers: Mary Hektner; Jennifer Whipple, Botanist; Roy Renkin

et al. 1963. A Field Guide to Rocky Information Craighead, John J. Mountain Wildflowers from Northern Arizona and New Mexico to British Colombia. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Cronquist et al. (ongoing, currently 5 volumes) Intermountain

Flora. New York Botanical Garden. Despam, Don. 1990. Yellowstone Vegetation: Consequences of Environment and History in a Natural Setting. www.nps.gov/yell. Boulder: Roberts Rinehart. www.greateryellowstone- Dorn, Bob. 2001. Vascular Plants of Wyoming. 3rd edition.

5cience.org/index.html Elliot, C.R. and M.M. Hektner. 2000. Wetland Resources of Yellowstone National Park. YNP: Wyoming. Out of print, Yellowstone Science, free available at www.nps.gov/yell. from the Yellowstone 1974. Flora of the Pacific Northwest. Center for Resources, in Hitchcock & Cronquist. the Yellowstone Research Seattle: UWashington Press.

Library, or online at Hitchcock et al. Vascular Plants of the Northwest (5 volumes). www.nps.gov/yell. Seattle: U Washington Press.

of the Rocky Mountains. Lone Pine Yellowstone Today, Kershaw et al. 1998. Plants distributed at entrance Publishing. gates and visitor centers. Pauchard, A. and Alaback, P. 2006. Edge types defines alien

species invasions along P. contorta burned, highway and Site Bulletins, published clearcut forest edges. Forest Eco. & Mgt 223: 327-335. as needed, provide more

J. 1968. Rocky Mountain Trees: A Handbook detailed information on Preston, Richard with Plates and Distribution Maps. New park topics such as wild- of the Native Species flowers. Free; available York: Dover. upon request from visitor Romme, William H. and Dennis Knight. 1982. Landscape

centers. diversity: The concept applied to Yellowstone National Park. Bioscience. 32:8.

Shaw, Richard J. 1964. Trees and Flowering Shrubs of Yellowstone and Grand Teton National Parks. Salt Lake City: Wheelwright Press.

Shaw, Richard J. 1992. Wildflowers of Yellowstone and Grand Teton National Parks. Salt Lake City: Wheelwright Press.

Sheley, Roger L. and Janet K. Petroff. 1999. Biology and Management of Noxious Rangeland Weeds. Corvallis: OSU

Press.

Whitson, Tom L. et al. 2002. Weeds of the West. Western Society of Weed Science. Jackson, WY/Grand Teton Lithography.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 86 Fire in Yellowstone 6

The Yellowstone Fires of 1988

This year, we begin this chapter with a special section about the historic fires

of 1988, now twenty years past. Sections about fire in Yellowstone today follow this special introduction. ' 6 ^ The Fires i- ?5 "."-Red Fire begins. of 1988 is -J i Shoshone Fire begins.

Statistics

• 9 fires caused by humans. • 42 fires caused by lightning. • 36% (793,880 acres) of the park was affected. • Fires begun outside of the park burned 63% or approximately 500,000 acres of the total acreage. • About 300 large mammals perished as a direct result of the fires: 246 elk, 9 bison, 4 mule V deer, 2 moose.

• $120 million spent fighting the fires. • 25,000 people involved in these efforts. The spring of 1988 was wet until June, when hardly any rain fell. Park managers and fire behavior specialists expected that July

Fighting the Fires would be wet, though, as it had been historically (see chart below). • Until July 15, park managers followed the Eighteen lightning-caused fires were allowed to burn after evalua- policy to let naturally-caused fires burn. tion according to the fire management plan. Eleven of these fires • Beginning July park managers suspended 15, burned themselves out, behaving like many fires had in previous the natural fire policy and began suppressing years. new natural fires.

• After July 21, park managers began fighting Rains did not come in July as predicted. By late July, after almost

all fires, including natural fires that had been two months of little rain, moisture content of grasses and small allowed to burn. branches reached levels as low as 2 or 3 percent, and downed trees • The 1988 fires comprised the largest fire- were as low as 7 percent (kiln-dried lumber is 12 percent). A series fighting effort in the United States at that of unusually high winds fanned flames that even in the dry condi- time. tions would not have moved with great speed. • Effort saved human life and property, but had

little impact on the fires themselves. Because of the extremely dry conditions, after July 15 no new natu-

• Rain and snow in September finally stopped ral fires were allowed to burn except those started adjacent to exist- the advance of the fires. ing fires and which were clearly going to burn into existing fires. Even so, within a week the fire acreage in the park doubled to about 17,000 acres. After THE YEAR THE RAINS FAILED July 21, all fires —including those started Percent of Normal Rainfall naturally—were fully suppressed as staffing Mammoth Hot Springs would allow. (Human-caused fires had been suppressed from the beginning.) On July 27, April May June July Aug. during a visit to Yellowstone, the Secretary of 1977 10 96 63 195 163 the Interior reaffirmed the natural fire 1978 91 126 42 99 46 program was suspended, and all fires would 1979 6 17 42 115 151 be fought. 1980 33 152 55 143 199 1981 49 176 102 103 25 1982 169 74 89 118 163 1983 22 29 69 269 88 1984 44 84 66 297 121 1985 42 93 44 160 84 1986 145 47 64 212 75 1987 42 144 75 303 122 1988 155 181 20 79 10 Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 88 Fighting the Fires distances by "spotting," a phenomenon in which wind carries embers across unburned An extensive interagency fire suppression forest to start spot fires ahead of the main effort was initiated in mid-July in the greater fire. Spotting to a mile and a half Yellowstone area in an attempt to control or up away from the fires the widest bulldozer contain the unprecedented series of wild- made lines useless and enabled the fires to jump fires. The extreme weather conditions and rivers, roads, even the of heavy, dry fuel accumulations presented and Grand Canyon the Yellowstone River. even the most skilled professional firefighters with conditions rarely observed. Fires often moved two miles per hour, with daily of five ten miles. Accepted firefighting techniques were common advances to fast movement, coupled with spotting, often ineffective because fires spread long The made direct attacks on the fires impossibly dangerous, as fire crews could easily be overrun or trapped between a main fire and its outlying spot fires. Even during the night, fires could not be fought. Normally, wildfires "lie down" at night as increased humidity and decreased temperature quiet them. But in 1988, the humidity remained low at night, and fire fighting was complicated by the danger of falling trees.

Firefighting efforts were directed at controlling the flanks of fires and protecting lives and property in their paths. The fire experts on site generally agreed that only rain or snow could stop the fires. They were right: one-quarter inch of snow on September 11 stopped the advance of the fires.

By the last week in September, about 50 lightning-caused fires had occurred in or burned into the park, but only eight were still burning. More than $120,000,000 had been spent in control efforts on fires in the Yellowstone Resources greater Yellowstone area, and most major & Issues 2008 89 —

6 I "Black Saturday"— Fires double to more than 480,000 acres. The Fires of 1988

titiNBG ffffGHTEVNEWS NEW YORK WEST YELLOWSTONE

park developments —and a few surrounding communities—had been evacuated at least once as fires approached within a few miles. The fire suppression efforts involved many different federal and state agencies, including the armed forces. At the height of the fires, ten thousand people were involved. This was the largest such coop- TOM ROGER erative effort ever undertaken in the United States. BROKAW O'NEIL Confusion in the Media

The Yellowstone fires of 1988 received more national attention than any other event in the history of national parks up to that time. Unfortunately, many media reports were inaccurate or misleading and confused or alarmed the public. The reports tended to lump all fires in the Yellowstone area together as the "Yellowstone Park Fire"; they referred to these fires as part of the park's natural fire program, which was not true; and they often oversimplified events and exaggerated how many acres had burned. In Yellowstone National Park itself, the fires affected—but did not "devastate" 793,880 acres or 36 percent of total park acreage.

A number of major fires started outside the park. These fires accounted for more than half of the total acres burned in the greater Yellowstone area, and included most of the ones that received intensive media attention. The North Fork Fire began in the Targhee National Forest and suppression attempts began immediately. The Storm Creek Fire started as a lightning strike in the Absaroka-Beartooth Wilderness of the Custer National Forest

northeast of Yellowstone; it eventually threatened the Cooke City-

Silver Gate area, where it received extended national television coverage.

Additional confusion resulted from the mistaken belief that managers in the Yellowstone area let park fires continue burning unchecked because of the natural fire plan—long after such fires were being fought. Confusion was probably heightened by misun- derstandings about how fires are fought: if crews were observed letting a fire burn, casual observers might think the burn was merely

Yellowstone Resources being monitored. In fact, in many instances, fire bosses recognized & Issues 2008 the hopelessness of stopping fires and concentrated their efforts on 90 6

The Fires

^Residents of Mammoth Hot of 1988 Fire storm blasts Springs evacuated as fire moves Old Faithful area; across Bunsen Peak toward the Inn is saved, no area. one is injured.

Storm Creek Fire burns over Silver Tip Ranch, north of park; historic ranch survives. H Ho

the protection of buildings and developed that summer, and noisy: helicopters flew areas. overhead constantly to haul water, crews, and supplies into the park. He says "helicop- The most unfortunate public and media ter" was one of the first words his daughter misconception about the Yellowstone learned. Jim continues documenting the firefighting effort may have been that after-effects of the 1988 fires, returning human beings can always control fire. periodically to specific locations, or "photo These fires could not be controlled; their points," that he established in 1988. He pho- raw, unbridled power cannot be over- tographs each photo point to show the emphasized. Firefighters were compelled to changes since the great fires. (See pages choose their fights very carefully, and they 96-97.) deserve great praise for working so successfully to save all but a few park buildings.

Voices from 1988 Eleanor Clark, Chief of Comprehensive Planning and Design, was a landscape architect in 1988. She helped plan 30 miles of bulldozer fireline and 650 miles of hand- line during the fire suppressions, and then helped rehabilitate them so that the effects of the fire suppression would not be evident. She recalls:

I spent the night in the Old Faithful Inn the day the fire burned over the

area . . . it was one of the most incred- ible moments in my career. To witness such a natural event, to be a part of the enormous and lengthy effort to suppress the fires, and then to realize that even in the most potentially dire

moments, what is most significant about Yellowstone will always be there. I woke the next morning to Old Faithful erupting into the silence! Yellowstone Resources Jim Peaco, who is the park photographer, & Issues 2008 lived with his family in Gardiner during the fires of 1988. The town was often smoky 91 6

The Fires of 1988

The fires affected— but did not necessarily burn —thousands GALLATIN of acres. Many of the NATIONAL Storm effects were positive, FOREST Creek as research since that Fire time has shown. CUSTER NATIONAL FOREST

This map uses colors only to help you see fire boundaries. The colors do not indicate intensity, duration, or GALLATIN NATIONAL anything else. FOREST

West Yellowston

CARIBOU- TARGHEE NATIONAL FOREST

Rockefeller Parkway To Grand Teton N.P. BRIDGER-TETON NATIONAL FOREST

Burned Area Within Yellowstone National Park

Burn Type Acres Percent of Park

• Crown fire: consuming the forest canopy, needles, and ground cover and debris 323,291 15%

• Mixed: mixture of burn types in areas where most of ground surface was burned 281,098 13%

• Meadows, sagebrush, grassland 51,301 2%

• Undifferentiated: variety of burn types 37,202 2%

• Undelineated: surface burns not detectable by satellite because under unburned canopy 100,988 4%

Total Burned Area 793,880 36% 64% Yellowstone Resources Total Unburned Area 1,427,920 & Issues 2008 Data from the Geographic Information Systems Laboratory, Yellowstone National Park, 1989; Table 92 adapted from Yellowstone in the Afterglow: Lessons From the Fires, Mary Ann Franke, 2000. Post-fire Response and Ecological Consequences

By late September, as the fires were diminishing, plans were already underway in Yellowstone to develop comprehensive programs for all aspects of post-fire response. These included replacing, rehabili- tating, or repairing damaged buildings, power lines, firelines, trails, campsites, and other facilities. Interpretive rangers developed programs to interpret the fires and their effects for visitors and for the general public. Other interpretive specialists developed indoor and outdoor exhibits, publications, and trails to help visitors learn about these historic fires. The park also cooperated with other agencies and state and local governments in promoting the economic recovery of communities near the park that were affected by the fires.

Scientists wanted to monitor the ecological processes following these major fires. The National Park Service cooperated with other agencies and independent researchers and institutions in developing comprehensive research directions for this unparalleled scientific opportunity.

Observations began while the fires were still burning, when it was apparent that the fires did not annihilate all life forms in their paths. Burning at a variety of intensities, sometimes as ground fires, sometimes as crown fires, the fires killed many lodgepole pines and other trees, but did not kill most other plants; they merely burned the tops off of them, leaving roots to regenerate.

Temperatures high enough to kill deep roots occurred in less than one-tenth of one percent of the park. Only under logs and in deep litter accumulations, where the fire was able to burn for several hours, did lethal heat penetrate more deeply into the soil. Where water was available, new plant growth began within a few days. In dry soils, the rhizomes, bulbs, seeds, and other reproductive tissues had to wait until soil moisture was replenished the following spring.

The fires of 1988 created a landscape of burns, partial burns, and unburned areas— called a mosaic. A mosaic provides natural fire- breaks and sustains a greater variety of plant and animal species. Vegetation capable of sustaining another major fire will be rare for decades, except in extraordinary situations.

Though animal movements were sometimes affected dramatically by the passage of fires, relatively few animals died. However, portions of the northern range burned, which affected winter survival of grazing animals when coupled with summer drought conditions. In this and many other ways, fires dramatically altered the habitat and food production of Yellowstone for the short term.

Contrary to what was feared, the fires of 1988 did not deter visitors. In 1989, more than 2,600,000 people came to Yellowstone—the highest annual vistation of the 1980s. 6

After the 1988 Fires

Research Results in the First Ten Years After the 1988 Fires

Soils

Fertile soils with good water-holding capacity that had a dense, diverse vegetation before the fire were likely to respond quickly after the fire with a variety of species and nearly complete cover. Some soils in Yellowstone supported little vegetation before the fires and have continued to have little since then. Areas that appear barren and highly erosive did not necessarily become that way because of fire.

Vegetation As root systems of standing dead trees decay and lose their grip on the soil, the trees are gradually falling down, often with the help of a strong wind. However, many will remain upright for decades.

Many forests that burned in 1988 were mature lodgepole stands, and this species recolonized most burned areas. Other species — such as Engelmann spruce, subalpine fir, and Douglas-fir—have also emerged.

The density of lodgepole pine seedlings in burned areas after the 1988 fires varied, depending on factors such as fire severity, elevation, abundance of serotinous cones (which require fire to open), and seedbed characteristics. Density ranged from 80 seedlings per hectare in a high-elevation stand with no serotinous cones to 1.9 million seedlings per hectare in a low-elevation stand in which nearly half the trees had serotinous cones. (One hectare is approximately 2.5 acres.) About 24 percent of the park's whitebark pine forest burned in 1988. This affects grizzly bears, for which whitebark pine seeds are an important food in fall. Seeds not consumed by grizzlies remain in caches of red squirrels and Clark's nutcracker. These buried seeds and the hardiness of whitebark pine seedlings on exposed sites give this tree an initial advantage in large burned areas over conifers dependent on wind to disperse seeds. However, this slow-growing and long-lived tree is typically more than 50 years old before pro- In 2000, The ducing cones. The young trees may die before reproducing if the Yellowstone Center interval between fires is too short or if faster-growing conifers over- for Resources take them. By 1995, whitebark pine seedlings had appeared in all published 275 study plots, though density was not significantly different Yellowstone in the between burned and unburned sites. Afterglow: Lessons in the from the Fires, by About one-third of the aspen in the northern range burned Mary Ann Franke. 1988 fires—but the aspen stands were not destroyed. Fire that killed Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 Some findings are adult stems also enhanced aspen reproduction. Like other distur- summarized here. growth of suckers from the aspen's 94 bances, fire stimulates the extensive underground root system. (Suckers and root shoots 6

After the 1988 Fires

What Did NOT Happen produce clones of the "parent" aspen.) Fire Many predictions were made about the 1988 fires' long-term also leaves bare mineral soil devoid of taller consequences for visitation, wildlife, and vegetation. However, the following have not come to pass: plants—perfect conditions for aspen seedlings. After the fires of 1988, aspen seedlings X A long-term drop in park visitation. appeared throughout the park's burned X Flooding downstream of the park because of increased runoff on All trees, clones areas. the young whether or bare slopes. seedlings, can be heavily browsed by elk and X A decline in fish populations because increased erosion silted up the may not grow much beyond shrub height. water. But the fires indirectly helped protect some X An increase in fish populations in smaller streams where defores- of these young trees: the trunks of fallen tation and loss of shade could result in warmer water and higher trees keep elk from reaching some young nutrient levels. aspen. X More rapid invasion of non-native plants into burned areas and corridors cleared asfire breaks. Like trees, most other types of vegetation in the park were not killed by the fires; the X An increase in lynxfollowing a boom in snowshoe hares as a result changes in structure. portion above ground may have been of forest increase in the elk population because burned off, but the roots were left to regen- X An of improvedforage. erate. The regrowth of plant communities X A decline in the endangered grizzly bear population because of smaller whitebark pine seed crops. began as soon as the fire was gone and moisture was available, which in some sites was X Another bigfire season in Yellowstone because of all the fuel provided by so many dead and downed trees. within days. In dry soils, the seeds had to wait until moisture was replenished the fol- What DID Change lowing spring. New seedlings grew even in These changes have been caused entirely or in part by the fires of the few areas where the soil had burned 1988: intensely enough to become sterilized. Within a few years, grasslands had largely / The replacement of thousands of acres offorest with standing or returned to their pre-fire appearance. fallen snags and millions of lodgepole pine seedlings. Sagebrush also recovered rapidly. / The establishment of aspen seedlings in areas of the park where aspen had not previously existed. Plant growth was unusually lush in the first decline in the population because the loss old growth years after the fires because of the mineral /A moose of of forest. nutrients in the ash and increased sunlight / Shifts in stream channels as a result debrisflows burned on the forest floor. Moss an inch or more of from slopes. thick became established in burned soils, /An increase in the public understanding and acceptance the role and may have been a factor in moisture of offire in wildland areas. retention, promoting revegetation and slow- / A program to reduce hazardousfuels around developed areas. ing erosion.

Wildlife The most recent research will be presented September 22-27, 2008, at the Most ungulate (hoofed) species were more 9th Biennial Scientific Conference, "The '88 Fires: Yellowstone & Beyond," in Jackson, Wyoming. (More information at www.nps.gov/yell/planyourvisit/ affected by the drought and the relatively conference2008. htm) severe winter that followed than by the fires. Although none of their winter range burned, mule deer declined 19 percent and pronghorn 29 percent during the winter of 1988. Yellowstone Resources Elk mortality rose to about 40 percent in the & Issues 2008 winter of 1988-89, but scientists are unsure how much of this was due to reduced forage 95 6

After the 1988 Fires

Yellowstone's park photographer established "photo points," or specific locations, to be photographed in 1988 and in subsequent years. The set above shows a pond along the road between Canyon and Norris junctions, as it appeared in 1988 (left) and 1989 (right).

because of the fires. (At least 15 percent of the deaths were due to hunting seasons outside the park.) Even without the fires, several factors would probably have led to high elk mortality that winter: summer drought, herd density, hunting harvest, and winter severity. The greatest impact of the fires would therefore be on the quantity and quality of forage available to elk in subsequent years. A two- year study following the fires found that the forage quality of three types of grasses was better at burned sites than unburned sites.

Of the 38 grizzly bears wearing radio transmitters when the fires began, 21 had home ranges burned by one or more of the fires: 13 of these bears moved into burned areas after the fire front had passed, three bears (adult females without young) stayed within active burns as the fire progressed, three bears remained outside the burn lines at all times, and two adult females could not be located. In a study from 1989-92, bears were found grazing more frequently at burned than unburned sites, especially on clover and fireweed. Even though bear feeding activity in some whitebark pine areas decreased as much as 63 percent, the fires had no discernible impact on the number of grizzly bears in greater Yellowstone.

Rodents probably had the highest fire-related mortality of any mammals. Although many could escape the fires in burrows, others died of suffocation as the fires came through. They also were more exposed to predators because they had lost the cover of grasses and other plants. But, because of their capacity to have multiple litters with many young per year, rodents quickly repopulated burned areas.

Most birds were not directly harmed by the fires and some benefited. For example, raptors hunted rodents fleeing the fires. But young osprey that were still in their nests died. Post-fire habitat changes helped some birds. Cavity-nesting birds, such as Barrow's

goldeneye, flickers, and bluebirds (photo, left), had many dead trees for their nests. Robins and flickers found ants and worms more eas-

ily. Boreal owls, however, lost some of the mature forests they need. Aquatic Resources

In general, the amount of soil loss and sediment deposits in streams varied greatly, but in most cases were considered normal.

About a quarter of the Yellowstone Lake and Lewis Lake watersheds and half of the Heart Lake watershed burned to some extent, but no significant changes were observed in nutrient enrichment, plankton production, or fish growth afterward. No apparent Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 streambank erosion or other changes occured that affected cutthroat trout spawning habitat, nor did the number of spawning 96 6

After the 1988 Fires

Another set of photo points was taken 3 miles east of the West Entrance in 1988 (left) and 1998 (right). streams decline. No discernible fire-related effects have been observed in the fish populations or the angling experience in the six rivers that have been monitored regularly since 1988.

In other park watersheds, such as the Gibbon River, massive erosion and mudslides occurred during and after the heavy rains of the summer of 1989. Scientists don't know how much the fires of 1988 facil- itated these events. However, by 1991, growth of plants had slowed this erosion. Conclusion

In the first years after a major fire, new Above: The moose is the only large mammal whose population appears to vistas appear while the lush growth of new, have declined because of the 1988 fires. Willow and subalpine fir—winter trees young emerges from the burned food for moose—were reduced by the fires. Dense forest canopies were also ground. Today, twenty years after the 1988 gone, so snow accumulated more deeply. The combination of less food and fires, those young trees are renewed forests, deeper snow contributed to increased winter moose mortality. once again filling in vistas. Some visitors Below left: In 1988, these two people photographed an area along the Canyon-Norris Road that seemed particularly hard hit. What they didn't know still feel that the Yellowstone they knew and was that a storm had blown down the trees a few years before, which pro- loved is gone forever. But Yellowstone is not vided extra fuel in 1988. a museum it is a functioning ecosystem in — Below right: Visitors in 1989 could walk on a new trail through this remark- which fire plays a vital role. able site, and read trailside exhibits that explained wny the fire had been unusually intense here. Today, the lodgepole pines are taller than the visitors.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 97 6

Fire as a Natural Force

FIRE ECOLOGY

• Fires have always occurred periodically in the Yellowstone ecosystem. • Lightning starts many fires each year that go out on their own.

• Vegetation in this ecosystem is adapted to fire • Controlling fires alters the dynamics of the ecosystem.

in the ground fires. In the past, in areas like the Effects of Fire Fire is a natural force operating Control Yellowstone ecosystem for thousands of park's northern range, frequent ground fire scars on old Douglas-fir trees in kept most young trees from becoming part Vegetation diver- years. Fire overstory. The widely scattered, large, sity decreases in the northern range indicate an average of of the some communi- one fire every 25 to 30 years. Tree-ring fire-scarred trees in some of the dense ties. research indicates different intervals for Douglas-fir stands in the valleys of the Species that do lodgepole pine forests, depending on soil: Lamar and Gardner rivers are probably not benefitfrom 150 years or more on andesitic soils to 300 remnants of these communities. fire are favored. years on rhyolitic soils on the Yellowstone Lodgepole pines produce two types of Insects and Plateau. Records kept from 1931 show that of which opens and releases diseases are more cones, one lightning started an average of 22 fires each likely to spread. seeds after being heated to at least 113°F. year until the 1990s, when fire average fire-dependent cones— called Litter and These began increasing due, in part, to climate dead-fall serotinous— ensure seedling establishment accumulate in change. (See Chapter 8.) after a fire. Lodgepole seedlings need an some habitats, The vegetation in the Greater Yellowstone open canopy that allows plenty of sun increasing Ecosystem has adapted to fire and in some through. This happens only if mature trees chances of in a lodgepole stand are periodically extreme fire cases is dependent on it. Some plant com- behavior. munities depend on the removal of the for- thinned by disease, insects, fire, or other est overstory to become established; they natural agents. Such disturbances create a are the first to inhabit sites after a fire. landscape more diverse in age, which reduc- Other plants growing on the forest floor are es the probability of disease or fire spread- adapted to survive at a subsistence level for ing through large areas. until fires the long periods of time open Fire influences the rate minerals become overstory. available to plants by rapidly releasing these Fire can limit trees in grasslands. Micro- nutrients from wood and forest litter. Fire's habitats suitable for tree seedling establish- heat may also hasten the weathering and ment are rare in a grassland, but if a seed release of soil minerals. Following a fire, reaches such a microhabitat during a favor- plants absorb this abundant supply of solu- able year, a tree may grow. Once the tree is ble minerals. the immedi- growing, it begins to influence Fire suppression alters these natural condi- tree habitat is creat- ate environment. More tions. Landscape diversity diminishes, for- forest island eventually ed and a small est size increases, and plant community small trees appears. Periodic fire kills the structure and composition change. Diseases before they have a chance to become and insect infestations spread over greater Yellowstone Resources the grassland. islands, thus maintaining litter and deadfall accumulate, and & Issues 2008 areas, Older Douglas-fir trees are adapted to fire minerals remain locked up or are more 98 by having thick bark that resists damage by slowly released. 6 Managing Fire

Evolution of Fire Management History • Between 1972 and 2005, 397

Fire suppression began with the arrival of • For the first 100 years of the park's natural, unsuppressed fires burned the U.S. Army, which was placed in charge existence, managers believed fires 66,354 acres—mostly in 3 dry of protecting the park in 1886. The Army, had to be extinguished to pre- years: 1979, 1981, 1988. (In 1988, which was in Yellowstone until 1918, suc- serve park resources. natural fires were allowed to burn • Scientific research revealed: in early summer. See page 88.) cessfully extinguished some fires, though it —fires have occurred in Yellowstone • The fires of 1988 brought about is difficult to determine what effect their for as long as there has been veg- management changes. efforts had on overall fire frequency or etation to burn extent of fires. Their fire suppression was Current Fire Management —fire plays role in creating the a Policy most effective on the northern range's landscape The National Fire Plan (next page) grasslands. Reliable and consistent fire sup- —fire is a part of the ecosystem that emphasizes interagency cooperation pression began in the rest of the park when park managers want to preserve in fire management. Appropriations modern airborne firefighting techniques —suppressing fires alters the natural for the plan include $101 million for became available after World II. landscape and diminishes diversity. War National Park Service projects and • 1972, Yellowstone began using In 1972, Yellowstone was one of several activities identified in the plan. natural fire management. national parks to initiate programs allowing some natural fires to run their courses. Two backcountry areas in the park (340,000 acres) were designated as locations where natural fires could burn.

In 1975, following initial successes of the program, an environmental assessment (EA) was prepared to expand the program to

1,700,000 acres in the park. It was approved early in 1976. Shortly thereafter Yellowstone National Park and Bridger-Teton National Forest entered into a cooperative program allowing naturally caused fires in the Teton Wilderness to burn across the boundary between the two federal units.

In the years following, Yellowstone's fire management plan was revised and updated to meet National Park Service guidelines in the park's written history was in 1931 at This old fire truck was and as research provided new information Heart Lake. About 18,000 acres burned.) pressed into use during the 1988 fires. about fire behavior in the park, such as: • human lives were lost, and no signifi- No Fire management cant injuries occurred to fires. • Tens of thousands of lightning strikes human due policy, like the equipment, has been failed to ignite fire. • No park structures or special features were updated many times affected. • 140 lightning-caused fires burned only a since that fiery year. small area. By 1985, cooperative agreements were in place all Greater Yellowstone units • More than 80 percent of the lightning among starts went out by themselves. to allow natural fires to burn across the public land boundaries. • A total of 34,175 acres burned in the park as a result of natural fires. A fire plan revision was begun in late 1986 and was in the final stages of Yellowstone Resources • The largest natural fire approval by burned about 7,400 & Issues 2008 spring 1988. plan's acres. (Prior to this, the largest natural fire The goals: 99 6

• To permit some lightning-caused fires to Managing burn under natural conditions. Fire • To prevent wildfire from destroying human life, property, historic and cultural sites, special natural features.

• To suppress all human-caused fires (and any natural fires whose suppression is deemed necessary) safely, cost-effectively, The National Fire Plan and in an environmentally sensitive During the 2000 fire season in the United States, almost 123,000 wild- manner. 8.4 million acres and destroyed numerous landfires burned more than • To prescribe burn when and where neces- recommendations were developed on how structures. Subsequently, sary and practical to reduce hazardous to reduce the impacts offire on rural communities and ensure suf- fuels. ficientfirefighting resources for thefuture. That report, now known The plan was reviewed again after the fires as the "National Fire Plan," identifiedfive key points that continue to of the emphasize interagency approaches: of 1988 when the Secretaries Departments of the Interior and Agriculture - Firefighting: Continue to fightfires and be adequately preparedfor Policy Review the next year. appointed a Fire Management Team. Its final report, issued in May 1989, • Rehabilitation and Restoration: Restore landscapes and rebuild communities damaged by the wildfires of 2000. reaffirmed the basic soundness of natural fire policies in national parks and wilder- • Hazardous Fuel Reduction: Invest in projects to reduce fire risk. ness areas and offered 15 recommendations • Community Assistance: Work directly with communities to ensure federal fire management pro- adequate protection. to improve grams. These recommendations were incor- • Accountability: Be accountable and establish adequate oversight, Park Service's coordination, program development, and monitoringfor perfor- porated into the National mance. Wildland Fire Management Policy Guideline revised in 1990 and into The House and Senate approved an appropriations bill that included June Park's fire manage- $101 million for National Park Service projects and activities identi- Yellowstone National fied in the National Fire Plan, including those in Yellowstone. ment plan of 1992.

National fire management plans continue to reviewed after major fire seasons. For Arthur Fire, 2002 be example, a major review of federal policies and programs followed the 1994 fire season when 34 people were killed in the western United States (none in Yellowstone, though). That review, completed in 1995, directs federal agencies to achieve a balance between suppression to protect life, property, and resources and "fire use" (the new term for natural fires) to regulate fuels and maintain healthy ecosystems. The report provides nine guiding principles and 13 policies to be incorporated into all wildland fire management actions. The principles include:

• Firefighter and public safety is the first priority.

• Wildland fire is an essential ecological process and a natural change agent, which should be allowed to burn when safe to do so, and which will be incorporated into the planning process. These principles and policies were incorpo- Yellowstone Resources rated into wildland fire management activi- & Issues 2008 ties for the fire seasons since 1996. 100 6

Major Fire Years in Yellowstone Since 1994 Managing & Number of Fires Fire Year Fire-use Suppression Acres Burned

1994 4 60 16,343

1996 13 11 3,263

2000 2 31 7,209

2001 16 21 7,987

2002 8 38 12,755

2003 7 71 28,849

2006 8 6 4,247

2007 (not available) (not available) 24,601

The table lists major fire years since that time. The map shows major fires since Recent Fires 2000 that burned Visible from Park Roads close enough to park Custer roads for visitors to National Forest see effects. They are: Cooke City 2001 Sulphur 3,976 acres

Gallatin 2002 National Broad Forest Shoshone 8,775 acres National Forest 2003 East Fire 17,293 acres

Grizzly acres West 4,095 Yellowstone +90% of Frank Island, in Yellowstone Lake

To Cody 2007 Columbine 18,337 acres Columbine Fire Caribou 2007; 18,337 acres Targhee National Forest Updated acreages

Bridger - Teton Yellowstone Resources National Forest & Issues 2008 To Grand Teton N.P. 101 Reality and Staff reviewers: Andy Mitchell, Fire Management- Varley, John D. and Paul Schullery. 1991. In The Greater Roy Renkin, Fire Ecology opportunity in the Yellowstone Fires of 1988. Yellowstone Ecosystem: Redefining American Heritage, R. Barbee, Robert and Paul Schullery. 1989. Yellowstone: The Keiter and M. Boyce, eds. New Haven: Yale U Press. smoke clears. National Parks 62:18-19. Wallace, Linda L, editor. 2004. After the Fires: The Ecology of Barker, Rocky. 2005. Scorched Earth: How the fires of Yellowstone changed America. Island Press/Washington. Change in YNP. New Haven: Yale U Press.

Blanchard, B.M. and R.R. Knight. 1996. Effects of wildfire Wuerthner, George. 1988. Ve//owsfone and the Fires of Change. on grizzly bear movements and foraging strategies in Proc. Salt Lake City: Haggis House Publications. Second Biennial Conf. on the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem.

Fairfield, WA: Int. Assoc. Wildl. Fire. www.fire.nps.gov for information about the National Fire Plan Despain, Don, editor. 1993. Plants & Their Environments:

Proceedings of the First Biennial Scientific Conference on the

Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. NPS, Mammoth, WY.

Franke, Mary Ann. 2000. Yellowstone in the Afterglow: Lessons

from the Fires. YCR-NR-2000-3. NPS, Mammoth, WY.

Greenlee, J., ed. The Ecological Implications of Fire in Greater Yellowstone: Proceedings of the Second Biennial Conference on the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. Fairfield, WA: Int.

Assoc. Wildl. Fire.

Houston, D.B. 1973. Wildfires in Northern Yellowstone National Park. Ecology 54: 1111-1117.

Knight, D.H. and Li. Wallace. 1989. The Yellowstone fires:

issues in landscape ecology. Bioscience 39:707-715.

Littell, J.S. 2002. Determinants of fire regime variability in lower elevation forest of the northern Yellowstone ecosystem. M.S.

thesis. MSU/Bozeman.

Marston, D.B. 1983. Wildfires in Yellowstone National Park. Ecology. 54(5): 1111-1117.

Millspaugh, S.H. et al. 2000. Variations in fire frequency and

climate over the last 17,000 years in Yellowstone National Park. Geology 28(3): 211-214.

Morrison, M. 1993. Fire in Paradise: The Yellowstone Fires and

the Politics of Environmentalism. New York: Harper Collins.

Nyland, R. D. 1998. Patterns of lodgepole pine regeneration fol-

lowing the 1988 Yellowstone fires. Elsevier Forest Ecology and Management. 111:23-33.

Pyne, S.J. 1989. Letting wildfire loose: the fires of '88. Montana the Magazine of Western Living. 39(3): 76-79.

Renkin, R.A. and D.G. Despain. 1992. Fuel moisture, forest

type, and lightning-caused fire in Yellowstone National Park.

Canadian J. Forestry Research 22(1):37-45.

Romme, W. H. et al. 1997. A rare episode of sexual reproduc-

tion in aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.) following the 1988

Yellowstone fires. Natural Areas Journal 17:17-25.

Romme, W.H. 1982. Fire and landscape diversity in subalpine forest of Yellowstone National Park. Ecological Monographs 52(2):199-221.

Romme, W.H. et al. 1995. Aspen, elk, and fire in northern Yellowstone National Park. Ecology 76(7):2097-2106.

Turner, M.G., et al. 2003. Surprises and Lessons from the 1988

Yellowstone Fires. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 1(7)351-358. " "

Wildlife 7a

Mammals

MAMMALS large expanses of undisturbed habitat, live here. • Yellowstone is home to the Seven native species of ungu- largest concentration of mammals lates—elk, mule deer, bison, in the lower 48 states. moose, bighorn sheep, prong- • 67 different mammals live here, horn, and white-tailed deer— live including many small mammals. here, including one of the largest • Several hundred grizzly bears live herds of elk in the United States. in the greater Yellowstone area. Non-native mountain goats have • Black bears are common. colonized the northwestern and • Gray wolves were restored in northeastern portions of the 1995; >100 live in the park now. park. • Wolverine and lynx, which require

ORDER Carnivora Habitat Estimated Population in Park

Family Ursidae

*Black Bear (Ursus americanus) forests, meadows 500-650

*Grizzly Bear (Ursus arctos horribilis) forests, meadows ±150 in the park * indicates a species >500 in Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem described in the species accounts Family Canidae that begin on page *Coyote (Canis latrans) forests, meadows, grasslands common 113, following "Small Mammals. *Gray Wolf (Canis lupus) forests, meadows 171

*Fox (Vulpes vulpes) meadows common **indicates a species described Family Felidae on pages 106-112 *Bobcat (Lynx rufus) forests, rocky areas may be widespread under "Small Mammals. *Cougar (Puma concolor) mountains, rocky areas 14-23

*Lynx (Lynx canadensis) subalpine forests few Species described under "Small Family Procyonidae Mammals" are alphabetized by Raccoon (Procyon lotor) rivers, cottonwoods rare their common name Family Mustelidae on this list.

Badger (Taxidea taxus) sagebrush common

Fisher (Martes pennanti) forests rare, if present

**Marten (Martes martes) coniferous forests common

Mink (Mustela vison) riparian forests occasional

**River Otter (Lutra canadensis) rivers, lakes, ponds common

Striped Skunk (Mephitus mephitus) riparian to forest rare

**Long-tailed Weasel (Mustelafrenata) willows to spruce/fir forests common **Short-tailed Weasel (ermine) Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 (Mustela erminea) willows to spruce/fir forests common **Wolverine (Gulogulo) alpine, coniferous forests rare 103 7a ORDER Artiodactyla

Family Cervidae Mammals *Elk (Wapiti) (Cervus elaphus) meadows, forests 10,000-2,000 in summer

*Moose (Alces dices shirasi) riparian, forests <200 *Mule Deer (Odocoileus hemionus) forests, grasslands, shrub lands 2,300-2,500

*White-tailed Deer (O. virginianus) forests, grasslands, shrub lands occasional

Family Bovidae

*Bison (Bison bison) meadows, grasslands >4,500

*Bighorn Sheep (Ovis canadensis) cliffs, mountain slopes 250-275 Mountain Goat (non-native) (Oreamnus americanus) alpine meadows, rocky slopes 175-225

Family Antilocapridae *Pronghorn (Antilocapra americanus) sagebrush, grasslands 250-300

ORDER Chiroptera

Family Vespertilionidae Big Brown Bat (Eptesicus fuscus) roost in buildings, other sheltered areas common

Fringe-tailed bat (Myotis thysanodes) roost in cliffs, large snags uncommon

Hoary Bat (Lasiurus cinereus) roost in trees uncommon

Little Brown Bat (M. lucifugus) roost in caves, buildings, trees common

Long-eared Bat (M. evotis) roost in cliffs, buildings uncommon Long-legged Bat (M. volans) roost in tree cavities, cliffs, buildings common

Silver-haired bat (Lasionycteris noctivagans)

roost in trees, including snags common

Western small-footed Bat (M. ciliolabrum) roost in rocky areas, caves rare, if present

Townsend's Big- eared Bat (Corynorhinus townsendii) roost in caves uncommon

Yuma Bat (M. yumanensis) roost in caves, buildings, trees rare, if present ORDER Lagomorpha

Family Leporidae **Snowshoe Hare (Lepus americanus) forests, willows common White-tailed Jackrabbit (Lepus townsendii) sagebrush, grasslands common

Desert Cottontail (Sylvilagus audubonii) shrub lands common

Mountain Cottontail (S. nuttallii) shrub lands common

Family Ochotonidae

**Pika (Ochotona princeps) rocky slopes common

ORDER Insectivora

Family Soricidae Yellowstone Resources Dusky Shrew (Sorex monticolus) moist meadows, forests common & Issues 2008 104 7a Masked Shrew (S. cinereus) moist meadows, forests common

Water Shrew (S. palustris) moist meadows, forests common

Preble's Shrew (S. preblei) moist meadows, forests rare, if present Mammals

Dwarf Shrew (S. nanus) moist meadows, forests rare

ORDER Rodentia

Family Castoridae *Beaver (Castor candensis) ponds, streams 500

Family Sciuridae

**Least Chipmunk (Tamius minimus) forests common

Uinta Chipmunk (T. umbrinus) forests common

Yellow Pine Chipmunk (T. amoenus) forests common

**Yellow-bellied Marmot (Marmota flaviventris) rocky slopes common

**Golden-mantled Ground Squirrel (Spermophilus lateralis) forests, rocky slopes common

Northern Flying Squirrel (Glaucomys sabrinus) forests occasional

**Red Squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) forests common **Uinta Ground Squirrel (Spermophilus armatus) sagebrush, meadows common

Family Geomyidae

**Northern Pocket Gopher (Thomomys talpoides) sagebrush, meadows, forests common

Family Cricetidae Deer Mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) grasslands common

Western Jumping Mouse (Zapus princeps) riparian occasional

Muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus) streams, lakes, ponds common

Heather Vole (Phenacomys intermedius) sagebrush to forests occasional

Long-tailed Vole (Microtus longicaudus) moist meadows common Meadow Vole (M. pennsylvanicus) moist meadows common **Montane Vole (M. montanus) moist meadows common

Red-backed Vole (Clethrionomys gapperi) dense forests common

Water Vole (M. richardsoni) riparian occasional

Bushy-tailed Woodrat (Neotoma cinerea) rocky slopes common

Family Erethizontidae

Porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum) forests, sagebrush, willows common

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 105 7a Numerous small mammals live in Yellowstone National Park. The park's interpretive rangers chose the following spe- Small cies to describe because visitors are likely to see them or inquire about them. Descriptive photos and illustrations Mammals exist in numerous books about these species; see "For More Information" on pages 150-154 for suggested titles.

Species accounts GOLDEN-MANTLED Habitat appear in alphabeti- GROUND SQUIRREL cal order by their • Found throughout Yellowstone at all Spermophilus lateralis common name. elevations in rocky areas, edges of moun- Identification tain meadows, forest openings, tundra.

• 9-12 inches long, • 87% of diet consists of fungi and leaves of 7.4-11 ounces. flowering plants; other foods include buds,

• Adult head and seeds, nuts, roots, bird eggs, insects, and shoulders are carrion.

reddish-brown, • Predators include coyotes, weasels, bad- their "mantle." gers, hawks.

• Often mistaken Behavior for a least chipmunk (described below); • Hibernate October to March or April. distinguished by larger size, more robust • Breeding occurs shortly after both males body, shorter tail, and stripes that do not and females emerge from hibernation; one extend onto the sides of the head. litter of 5 young per year.

LEAST CHIPMUNK Habitat Tamius minimus • Prefers sagebrush valleys, shrub Identification communities, and forest openings.

• 7.5-8.5 inches long, 1.2 • Eat primarily plant material, especially ounces. seeds and other fruits, but will also eat

• Smallest member of the conifer seeds and some insects.

squirrel family; one of three • Preyed on by various hawks and probably chipmunk species in the foxes and coyotes. park. Behavior • Alternating light and dark • In Yellowstone, this species hibernates but stripes on its back and sides, outermost also stores some food and probably arous- stripe on the sides is dark; underside tends es frequently during the winter. to be white and tail has black-tipped hairs • Breeding begins as snowmelt occurs, with a reddish undertone. usually late March until mid-May; one Often mistaken for golden-mantled litter of 5-6 young per year. ground squirrel (described above); • Little is known about their vocalizations distinguished by smaller size, longer tail, but they do have "chipping" (which may and lateral stripes that extend onto the be an alarm) and "clucking" calls. sides of the head. • Can be identified by quick darting Ail drawings in this chapter © Zachary movements and it seems to carry its tail Zdinak vertically when moving.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 106 7a

Small Mammals

LONG-TAILED WEASEL Habitat Mustelafrenata • Found in forests, open grassy meadows Identification and marshes, and near water.

• Typical weasel shape: a very long body, • Eat voles, pocket gophers, mice, ground short legs, pointed face, long tail. and tree squirrels, rabbits; to a lesser

• 13-18 inches long, 4.8-11 ounces. degree birds, eggs, snakes, frogs, and

• Fur is light brown above and buff to rusty insects. orange below in summer; all white in win- Behavior ter, except for tail, which is black-tipped • Breed in early July and August; one litter all year. of 6-9 young per year. • Males 40% larger than females. • Solitary animals except during breeding Compare to marten (below) and and rearing of young. short-tailed weasel, page 110.

MARTEN Behavior Martes americana • Solitary except in Identification breeding season ESS*

• 18-26 inches long, 1-3 pounds. (July & August); delayed implanta- • Weasel family; short limbs and long bushy tion; 1-5 tail; fur varies from yellow to brown to young black; irregular, yellowish to bright orange born in mid-March throat patch. to late April.

• • Smaller than a fisher; lighter in color, Active throughout orange bib rather than white. the year; hunts mostly on the Compare to long-tailed weasel (above) ground. and short-tailed weasel, page 110. • Rest or den in Habitat hollow trees or • Found in conifer forests with dense cano- stumps, in ground py and understory of fallen logs and burrows or rock stumps; will use riparian areas, meadows, piles, in excavations forest edges and rocky alpine areas. under tree roots.

• Eat primarily small mammals such as red- backed voles, red squirrels, snowshoe hares, flying squirrels, chipmunks, mice and shrews; also to a lesser extent birds and eggs, amphibians and reptiles, earth- Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 worms, insects, fruit, berries, and carrion. 107 7a

Small Mammals

MONTANE VOLE species in the park; eaten by coyotes, Microtus montanus raptors, and other animals. Identification Behavior

• 1.2-3.2 ounces. 5-7.6 inches long, • Active year-round maintaining • Brownish to grayish-brown, occasionally tunnels in the winter; also dig shallow grizzled; ventral side is silvery gray; rela- burrows. bi-colored. tively short tail is • Typically breed from mid-February to Habitat November; up to 4 litters of 2-10 young per year. • Found at all elevations in moist mountain meadows with abundant grass and grassy sagebrush communities; also common in riparian areas.

• Grass is their primary food.

• Probably the most important prey

PIKA Behavior Ochotona • on rocks; princeps Active year-round; darts around travels through tunnels under snow. Identification • Breed in spring; two litters per year. • 7-8.4 in. long, • Often heard but not seen; makes a 5.3-6.2 ounces distinct shrill whistle call or a short (about the size of "mew." a guinea pig). • Scent marks by frequently rubbing cheeks • Tailless, gray to on rocks. brown with • Late summer it gathers mouthfuls of circular ears. vegetation to build "haystacks" for winter Habitat food; defends haystacks vigorously.

• Found on talus slopes and rock falls at • Haystacks often built in same place year nearly all elevations in the park. after year; have been known to become

• Eat plant foods such as grasses, sedges, three feet in diameter.

aspen, lichen, and conifer twigs. • Like rabbits and hares, pika eat their own

• Predators include coyotes, martens, and feces. hawks.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 108 7a

Small Mammals

POCKET GOPHER • In the top 6-8 inches below the Thomomys talpoides surface they forage for forbs, some grasses and underground stems, bulbs and tubers. Identification Behavior • 6-10 inches long, 2.6-6.3 ounces. • Transport food in their cheek • Very small eyes and ears; brown or tan pouches to underground cache. smooth fur; short tail; long front claws for burrowing; large external pouches for car- • Grizzly bears will sometimes dig up these rying food. caches, including an unsuspecting gopher. Habitat • Do not hibernate, but instead burrow into the snow; often fill tunnels with soil form- • Only range restriction seems to be ing worm-like cores that remain in the topsoil depth, which limits burrowing. spring after snow melts. • Preyed upon by owls, badgers, grizzly • Breed in May and April; one litter of 5 bears, coyotes, weasels, and other young per year. predators. • Burrow systems are elaborate and often • Snakes, lizards, ground squirrels, deer bi-level; can be 400-500 feet long. mice, and other animals use their • Very territorial; only burrow. burrows. one per

RED SQUIRREL Behavior Tamiasciurus hudsonicus • Breed February through May, typically Identification March and April; one litter of 3-5 young.

• 1 1-1 5 inches long, 6.7-7 ounces. • One of the park's mo st territorial • Brownish-red on its upper half; dark stripe animals; territorial- above white ventral side; light eye ring; ism ensures winter bushy tail. food supply.

• Quick, energetic. • In fall, cuts cones

• Loud, long chirp to advertise presence; from trees and

much more pronounced in the fall. caches them in middens, which are Habitat used for years and • Spruce, fir, and pine forests; young can be 15 by 30 feet; squirrels found in marginal aspen habitat. grizzlies search out • Eat conifer seeds, terminal buds of conifer these middens in trees, fungi, some insects; sometimes steal whitebark pine young birds from nests. habitat to obtain the

• Preyed on by coyotes, grizzly bears, nuts. hawks.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 109 7a

Small Mammals

RIVER OTTER Behavior Lutra canadensis • Active year-round. Identification • Breed in late March through April; one • 40-54 inches long, 10-30 pounds. litter of two young per year.

• Sleek, cylindrical body; small head; tail • Females and offspring remain together nearly one third of the body and tapers to until next litter; may temporarily join other a point; feet webbed; claws short; fur is family groups. dark dense brown. • Can swim underwater up to 6 miles per • Ears and nostrils close when underwater; hour and for 2-3 minutes at a time. whiskers aid in locating prey. • Not agile or fast on land unless they find Habitat snow or ice, then can move rapidly by alternating hops and slides; can reach • Most aquatic member of weasel family; hour. rarely found far from water. speeds of 15 miles per • Mostly crepuscular but have been seen at • Eat crayfish and fish; also frogs, turtles, sometimes young muskrats or beavers. all times of the day.

SHORT-TAILED WEASEL (ERMINE) Mustela erminea

Identification

• 8-13 inches long, 2.1-7 ounces.

• Typical weasel shape: very long body, short legs, pointed face, long tail.

• Males about 40% larger than females.

• Fur is light brown above and white below in summer; all white in winter except for Behavior tail, which is black-tipped all year. • Breed in early to mid-summer; 1 litter of 6- Compare to long-tailed weasel and 7 young per year.

marten, page 107. • Can leap repeatedly three times their Habitat length. • Will often move through and hunt in • Eat voles, shrews, deer mice, rabbits, rats, chipmunks, grasshoppers, and frogs. rodent burrows.

• Found in willows and spruce forests.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 110 7a

Small Mammals

SNOWSHOE HARE • Preyed upon by lynx, bobcats, Lepus americanus coyotes, foxes, some hawks, and great Identification horned owls.

• 14.5-20 inches long, 3-4 pounds. Behavior

• Large hind feet enable easy travel on • Breed from early March to late snow; white winter coat offers camouflage; August. gray summer coat. • Young are born with hair, grow • Transition in seasonal fur color takes rapidly and are weaned within 30 about 70-90 days; seems to be triggered in days. part by day length. • Mostly nocturnal; their presence

Habitat in winter is only advertised by a trails the • Found throughout Yellowstone in conif- network of well-worn in erous forests with dense understory of snow. shrubs, riparian areas with many willows, • Docile except during the breeding or low areas in spruce-fir cover. season when they chase each the • Rarely venture from dense forest cover other, drum on ground with the hind except to feed in forest openings. foot, leap into the air, and occasionally battle each other. • Eat plants.

UINTA GROUND SQUIRREL During the winter, Behavior Uinta ground sguirrels Spermophilus armatus are sometimes active • Hibernate as early as mid-July through near the Albright Identification March. Visitor Center and • 11-12 inches long, 7-10 ounces. • Breed in early spring; one litter of 6-8 hotel at Mammoth Hot Springs. Perhaps • Grayish back and rump with fine white young per year. they are aroused spots on back; nose and shoulders are tan • Young, after they leave the burrow, are from hibernation to cinnamon; tail is grayish underneath. vulnerable to long-tailed weasels and due to ground tem- Habitat hawks. peratures rising as hydrothermal activity • During cool spring weather, • Uinta ground Found in disturbed or heavily grazed increases in the vicini- squirrels active at all times of day, as the grasslands, sagebrush meadows, and ty. No one knows for weather warms activity more limited to mountain meadows up to 11,000 feet. sure. morning, late afternoon, and evening. • Eat grasses, forbs, mushrooms, insects, and carrion (including road-killed members of its own species).

• Preyed on by long-tailed weasels, hawks, coyotes, badgers.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 111 7a

Small Mammals

WOLVERINE Behavior Gulo gulo • Active year-round, intermittently through- Identification out the day

• 13-31 38-47 inches long, pounds. • Breed April to October; 1 litter of 2-4

• Largest member of weasel family; compact young each year. built, legs; and strongly broad head, short • Den under log jams and uprooted trees in black to dark brown with white on chest avalanche chutes. may extend as bands onto sides; shaggy • Solitary except when breeding. appearance due to long guard hairs. Research Habitat In 2005, researchers began a 5-year field • Found in high-elevation conifer forests study to gather information about this and alpine tundra; rarely seen. species in east Yellowstone National Park • Eat burrowing rodents, birds, eggs, bea- and the adjoining Shoshone and Gallatin vers, squirrels, marmots, mice, and vegeta- national forests. Animals are being live- tion; chiefly a scavenger in winter, but has trapped and fitted with radio collars also been known to take large prey such as equipped with Global Positioning Systems deer or elk. to track their movement.

YELLOW-BELLIED MARMOT • Preyed on by coyotes, grizzlies, and golden eagles. Marmota flaviventris Behavior Identification • Hibernate up to 8 months, emerging from • 20-28 inches long; 3.5-11 pounds. February to May depending on elevation;

• One of the largest rodents in Yellowstone. may estivate in June in response to dry lack of green vegetation • Reddish-brown upper body; yellowish conditions and in late summer. belly; small ears; prominent active tail. and reappear

• from Habitat Breed within two weeks of emerging hibernation; average 5 young per year. • Found from lowest • Active in morning, late afternoon, and valleys to alpine evening. tundra, usually in open grassy com- • Colonies consist of one male, several munities and females, plus young of the year. almost always near • Vocalizations include a loud whistle rocks. (early settlers called them "whistle pigs"), a "scream" used for fear and excitement; • Feed on grasses threat. and forbs in early a quiet tooth chatter that may be a summer; switch to • Males are territorial; dominance and seeds in late sum- aggressiveness demonstrated by waving tail mer, occasionally slowly back and forth. will eat insects. Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 112 . — 7a

Bear, Black

As of January 2008 . . History • Like grizzlies, used to be fed at Number in Yellowstone dumps within the park. 500-650, estimate In Yellowstone, about 50 percent of black • For years, black bears were fed by Where to see bears (Ursus americanus) are black in color, visitors from vehicles. Tower and Mammoth areas, most others are brown, blonde, and cinnamon. • Both of these actions resulted in often. They stand about 3 feet high at the shoul- bears losing fear of humans and Behavior Size pursuing human food, which der. Males weigh 210-315 pounds; females & • Males weigh 210-315 pounds, resulted in visitor injuries, prop- weigh 135-200 pounds. They have fair eye- females weigh 135-200 pounds; erty damage, and the need to sight and an exceptional sense of smell. adults stand about 3 feet at the destroy "problem bears." Black bears eat almost anything, including shoulder. Management Status grass, fruits, tree eggs, insects, • May live 15-30 years. cambium, • 2000, study begun to find out • Home range: male, 6-124 square fish, elk calves, and carrion. Their short, how black bears fit into the mix miles, female, 2-45 square miles. curved claws enable them to climb trees, of northern range predators; • Can climb trees; adapted to life in but do not allow them to dig for roots or nine black bears have been radio- forest and along forest edges. ants as well as a grizzly bear can. (Grizzlies collared. • Food includes rodents, insects, elk have longer, less-curved claws.) calves, cutthroat trout, pine nuts, See "Bear Management" in During fall and early winter, bears spend grasses and other vegetation. Chapter 8. most of their time feeding, in a predenning • Mates in spring; gives birth the period known as "hyperphagia." In following winter to 1-3 cubs. November they locate or excavate a den on • Considered true hibernators. north-facing slopes between 5,800-8,600 feet. There, they hibernate until late March. Birth occurs in mid-January to early Most scientists consider bears to be true February; the female becomes semicon- hibernators. Some hibernating animals scious during delivery. Usually two cubs are experience an extreme drop in metabolism born. At birth, the cubs are blind, toothless, with a cooling of body temperature and and almost hairless. After delivery the near stoppage of respiration and circula- mother continues to sleep for another two tion. Bears undergo these changes less than months while the cubs suckle and sleep. some other species, and they can be easily After emerging from the den, the cubs and roused from hibernation. their mother roam over her home territory. Males and females without cubs are soli- The animals have no regular summer den, tary, except during the mating season, May but they often dig shallow depressions— day to early July. They may mate with a number beds—near abundant food sources. In the of individuals, but occasionally a pair stays fall, the cubs den with their mother. The together for the entire period. Both genders following spring, the cubs and mother usually begin breeding at age four. separate.

After fertilization, the barely developed When faced with a threat, black bears are blastocyst (egg) does not immediately likely to retreat up a tree or flee, rather than implant in the uterus, a process called reacting aggressively. However, any bear,

"delayed implantation." If the bear is particularly a female with cubs, may attack healthy when she dens for the winter, when surprised at close range. Black bears implantation and development will begin; occasionally stalk and kill humans if not, her body will abort the blastocyst. although this is rare. Whether it's a grizzly Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 Total gestation time is 200 to 220 days, but or a black bear, always give these animals a only during the last half of this period does wide berth. fetal development occur. 113 . 7a

Bear, Grizzly

increase in size and as their claws grow longer, they have a harder time climbing. Stories that bears cannot swim or run downhill

. . Adapted to life in forest and As of January 2008 are also wrong. meadows. Number in Yellowstone Grizzlies can sprint up • Food includes rodents, insects, elk ±150 with home ranges wholly or to 40 miles per hour. calves, cutthroat trout, roots, pine partially in park; >500 in Greater nuts, grasses, and large mammals. Bears are generally solitary, although they Yellowstone Ecosystem. • Mates in spring; gives birth the may tolerate other bears when food is not Where to see following winter; 1-3 cubs. limited. Mating season occurs from mid- • Considered true hibernators. Dawn and dusk in the Hayden and May to mid-July, and bears may mate with Lamar valleys, on the north slopes Status multiple partners during a single season. Washburn, and from Fishing • of Mt. Yellowstone is one of only two Females do not breed until at least age 4 or Bridge to the East Entrance. major areas south of Canada still 5. Bears experience "delayed implantation," Behavior & Size inhabited by grizzly bears. meaning that the embryos do not begin to • In 1975, the grizzly bear was listed • Males weigh 300-700 pounds, develop until late November or December. weigh 200-400 pounds; as a threatened species under the females This appears to be a strategy allowing the Species Act. adults stand about 3'A feet at the Endangered mother bear to save up energy until enter- shoulder. • In 2007, the grizzly bear popula- ing her winter den, where the cubs are born tion in the Yellowstone ecosystem • May live 15-30 years. in late January or February. A litter of one • Home range: male, 813-2,075 was delisted from the federal to three cubs is common, litters of four square miles, female, 309-537 threatened species list. cubs occur occasionally. Male bears take square miles. Current Management raising pose a • Agile; can run up to 35-40 mph. See "Bear Management" in no part in cubs and may • Can climb trees but curved claws Chapter 8. threat to younger bears. A mother grizzly and weight make this difficult. will usually keep her cubs with her for two winters following their birth, after which time she (or a prospective suitor) chases the The grizzly bear (Ursus arctos horribilis) is a subadult bears away so she can mate again. subspecies of brown bear that once roamed Female cubs frequently establish their the mountains and prairies of the American home range in the vicinity of their mother, West. Today, the grizzly bear remains in a but male cubs must disperse farther in few isolated locations in the lower 48 states, search of a home. including Yellowstone. They can be effective predators, especially The name "grizzly" comes from silver- on such vulnerable prey as elk calves and tipped or "grizzled" hairs on some animals' spawning cutthroat trout. They also scav- coats. However, the coloration of black and enge meat when available, such as from grizzly bears is so variable that it is not a winter-killed carcasses of elk and bison, reliable means of telling the two species from road-killed wildlife, and from wolves apart. Particularly when bears are not fully and cougars. They eat small mammals (such grown or when seen only briefly or at a long as pocket gophers) and insects (such as ants distance, it can be difficult to correctly and army cutworm moths that summer on identify one bear species from another. high-elevation talus slopes), both of which Yellowstone Resources It is commonly said that grizzly bears can- & Issues 2008 provide important, high-protein food. A not climb trees. This is not true, especially grizzly's long claws and strong shoulders 114 when the bears are small. As grizzlies 7a

Bear, Compare

enable it to efficiently dig for roots, bulbs, Black Bear corms, and tubers, and rodents and their rump higher than no hump caches. They also eat a wide variety of shoulders plants, including whitebark pine nuts, berries, sedges, grasses, glacier lilies, dandeli- ons, yampas and biscuitroots, horsetails and thistles. They will eat human food and garbage where they can get it. This is why managers emphasize that keeping human foods secure from bears increases the likeli- hood that humans and bears can peacefully co-exist in greater Yellowstone.

Grizzlies have a social hierarchy that determines which bears dominate the best habitats and food sources: 4.5 in 1. adult males

2. lone adult females, females with two- year-old cubs; females with yearlings

3. females with cubs of the year

4. subadults of either sex rear front

Subadult bears, who are just learning to live on their own away from mother's protection, are most likely to be living in poor- quality habitat or in areas nearer roads and Grizzly Bear developments. Thus, young adult bears are rump lower than hump present most vulnerable to danger from humans shoulders and other bears, and to being conditioned to human foods. Food-conditioned bears are removed from the wild population.

Bears spend most of their time feeding, and this effort increases during "hyperphagia," the predenning period in autumn. They locate or excavate dens on densely vegetat- ed, north-facing slopes between 6,562- 10,000 feet. Bears enter their winter dens between mid-October and early December. Although grizzlies are considered true hibernators (see black bear description for more on this), they do sometimes awaken and leave their dens during the winter. Win 5.25 in

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 rear front 115 . — 7a

Beaver

As of January 2008 . . Behavior & Size • Number in Yellowstone Active at night. • If live on rivers, may build bank Minimum estimate: 500 in 85 dens instead lodges. colonies of • One lodge may support 6-13 Where to see beavers that are usually related; Beavers often have lodges in Willow this group is called a colony. Park (between Mammoth and • 35-40 inches long, including tail. and for food. In areas where preferred Norris), Beaver Ponds (Mammoth • Weighs 30-60 pounds. area), Harlequin Lake (Madison woody plants are only present in very small • Average life span: 5 years. area), and the Gallatin River along densities or are absent, beavers may feed on Other Information U.S. 191. In the backcountry, they submerged vegetation such as pond lilies. • Beavers are native to Yellowstone. often have lodges in the upper Beavers • Yellowstone's are famous as dam builders, and Yellowstone River (Thorofare beavers escaped most of the trapping that examples of their work can be seen from region), Bechler River, and Slough occurred in the 1800s the roads in the park. An old dam is visible Creek. They may also be seen occa- due to the region's inaccessibility. at Beaver Lake between Norris sionally in the Lamar, Gardner, and and • The most recent survey for Madison rivers. Mammoth. Most dams are on small beavers in Yellowstone was streams where the gradient is mild, and the conducted in 2005. current is relatively placid during much of the year. Colonies located on major rivers Since 1989, park staff have periodically or in areas of frequent water level fluctua- surveyed riparian habitat in Yellowstone to tions, such as the Lamar River, den in holes determine current presence and distribu- in the riverbank. tion of beaver (Castor canadensis). These Male and female beavers look alike—thick surveys confirm that beavers live through- brown fur, paddle-shaped tail, weigh 30-60 out Yellowstone National Park but are con- pounds, and are 35 to 40 inches long, centrated in the southeast (Yellowstone including tail. When hunched over their River delta area), southwest (Bechler area), food, beaver can resemble round rocks. and northwest portions (Madison and Because beavers are Gallatin rivers) of the park. They are also most active at night, visitors seldom see them. But these animals making a comeback in Slough Creek due to new willow growth and because they were do not necessarily avoid areas of moderate to high levels reintroduced upstream in the Gallatin of human use. Several occupied lodges in are National Forest. These areas are likely Yellowstone close to popular backcountry trails important habitat because of their water- and campsites. Every year, ways, meadows, and the presence of pre- beavers are seen along main park roadways. ferred foods such as willow, aspen, and The nocturnal habits of cottonwood. beavers seem to be enough to separate them from human use of the same area. Beavers, however, are not restricted to areas People wait that have their preferred foods. Essentially who near known beaver activity areas no aspen exist in some areas where beaver may be rewarded with the sight of them swimming smoothly along or clam- sign is most abundant, such as in the bering onto the bank to gnaw at trees and Bechler River. The same is true in other willows. But they may just as likely hear the areas where beavers periodically live, such sound of as Heart Lake, Grizzly Lake, the lower a startled or surprised beaver the sharp sound of the beaver slapping its Yellowstone Resources Lamar River and Slough Creek area, Slide & Issues 2008 tail on the water before it seek Lake, and the lower Gardner River. In these submerges to safety. areas, beavers 116 use willows for construction .

• As of January 2008 . . Both sexes have horns. Millions of bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) • Feed primarily on grasses; forage Number in Yellowstone once lived in the western United States. By 250-275 on shrubby plants in fall and 1900, though, bighorn numbers were winter. Where to See reduced to a few hundred due to market • Mating season begins in • Summer: slopes of Mount hunting. In 1912, naturalist Ernest T. Seton November. Washburn, along Dunraven Pass. • One to two lambs born in May or reported bighorns in the park had increased • Year-round: Gardner Canyon June. to more than 200, and travelers could find between Mammoth and the North them around Mt. Everts or Mt. Washburn. Entrance. Management • Bighorns exhibit some habituation Bighorn sheep inhabit high, rocky country. Also: On cliffs along the to humans; be alert to them along Yellowstone River opposite Calcite The bottoms of their feet are concave, the road; never feed them. Springs; above Soda Butte; in enabling them to walk and run over rocks • Early reports of large numbers backcountry of eastern Absarokas. very easily. Their tan-colored fur camou- of bighorn sheep in Yellowstone Behavior and Size flages them against cliff rocks. have led to speculation they were • Adult male (ram) up to 300 more numerous before the park Both males and females have horns. For the pounds, including horns that can was established. first two years of its life, the horns of a male weigh 40 pounds. • A chlamydia (pinkeye) epidemic in • Average life span: males, 9-12 are similar to the small, slightly curved 1982 reduced the northern herd years; females 10-14 years. horns of a female. By the time a male is six by 60%. • Adult female (ewe) up to 200 or seven years old, the horns form the better • Other unknown factors may be pounds. part of a circle. The bone interior of the limiting the population now. horn does not extend out very far; the outer parts of the horns are hollow and may be Population and Management damaged during the rut (mating season). in Broken or splintered tips are never replaced, After a chlamydia (pinkeye) epidemic the population of the and the horn continues to grow from the 1982, bighorns on northern range has not recovered to previ- base throughout the animal's life. ous levels. Because no sign of the disease is The rut begins in November. Males chal- present, other factors may be limiting popu- lenge one another in dramatic battles, lation growth. snorting and grunting and rising onto their Researchers have also studied bighorn hind legs, then racing toward each other On the morning of sheep habitat use and the effect of and crashing their heads and horns togeth- human November 12, 2001, activity the cougar researchers er. Their extra thick skull protects their along Gardiner-Mammoth found the fresh brain during these jarring encounters. At road. About 65 percent of all sheep observa- carcasses of cougar tions occur atop McMinn Bench of Mt. a the end of the two-month rut, males are and a bighorn ram Everts, which has been proposed as an often battered and bruised. at the base of alternate route for the road. Moving the Mt. Norris. Evidence Although they are sure-footed in a steep road to this location would affect at least 2 at the top of the cliff and rocky environment, bighorns do have ewe groups and 2-3 ram groups. indicated that the accidents. They fall off cliffs, slip on ice, cougar had attacked and can become caught in avalanches. In the ram and both Yellowstone, they also have been struck by had fallen to their deaths. lightning and hit by automobiles.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 117 . 7a

Bison

As of January 2008 . . History horns, those of the cow being slightly more Number • Yellowstone National Park is the only place in the lower 48 states curved and slender than the bull's. approximately 4,700 have a continuously free-rang- to Bison are animals of the grasslands; they eat Where to see bison population since prehis- ing massive • Year-round: Hayden and Lamar primarily grasses and sedges. Their toric times. valleys. hump supports strong muscles that allow • In the 1800s, market hunting, • grasslands of the park. the bison to use its head as a snowplow in Summer: sport hunting, and the U.S. Army • Winter: hydrothermal areas and side to aside nearly caused the extinction of winter, swinging side to sweep the Madison River. along the bison. the snow. • poachers reduced Behavior & Size By 1902, Cows, calves, and some younger bulls • Male (bull) weighs up to 2,000 Yellowstone's small herd to about comprise a herd. Mature bulls, however, pounds, female (cow) weighs up two dozen animals. spend most of the year alone or with other to 1,000 pounds. • The U.S. Army, who administered bulls. The exception is during the rut, or • May live 12-15 years. Yellowstone then, protected these mating season. At this time, in late July and • Feed primarily on grasses and bison from further poaching. females. display sedges. • Bison from private herds aug- August, bulls seek out They

• Mate in late July through August; mented the native herd. their dominance by bellowing, wallowing, give birth to one calf in late April • For decades, bison were inten- and engaging in fights with other bulls. or May. sively managed due to belief that Once a bull has found a female who is close • Can be aggressive, are very agile, they, along with elk and prong- to estrus, he will stay by her side until she is and can run up to 30 miles per horn, were over-grazing the park. ready to mate. Then he moves on to another hour. • By 1968, intensive manipulative female. • Two subpopulations: Northern management (including herd l Range and Hayden Valley reductions) of bison ceased. After a gestation period of 9 to 9 A months, single reddish-brown calves are born in late Current Issues April and May. Calves can keep up with the See "Bison Management, " in 2-3 hours after birth and they Chapter 8. herds about are well protected by their mothers and other members of the herd. However, For many years scientists considered wolves and grizzly bears have killed bison Yellowstone's bison to be a subspecies calves. known as the mountain bison. Most scien- no large predators for many tists no longer make this distinction, and Adult bison had restoration of wolves in consider all bison to be one species, Bison decades, but the In North America, wolves kill bison. Yellowstone has changed that— both "bison" and some adult bison each year. Scientists have "buffalo" refer to The bison is the largest land mammal in hunting American bison also recently seen grizzly bears the North America. Bulls are more massive in (Bison bison). bison successfully. Dead bison provide an appearance than cows, and more bearded. Generally, important source of food for scavengers and For their size, bison are agile and quick, "buffalo" is used other carnivores. informally; "bison" is capable of speeds in excess of 30 mph. Each insects feed the bison, and preferred for more year, bison injure park visitors who Many upon formal or scientific bison will rub against trees, rocks, or in dirt approach too closely. purposes. wallows in an attempt to rid themselves of Bison are sexually mature at age 2. insect pests. Birds such as the magpie "ride" Although female bison may breed at young- a bison in order to feed on insects in its er ages, older males (>7 years) participate in coat. The cowbird will also follow close most of the breeding. In Yellowstone, life Yellowstone Resources behind a bison, feeding on insects disturbed & Issues 2008 span averages 12-15 years, few individuals by its steps. live as long as 20 years. Both sexes have 118 7a History Policy began to shift in the 1930s to the preservation of bison in a more natural From 30 to 60 million bison may have state with less artificial manipulation. The roamed North America before the mid introduced bison were released and allowed Bison 1800s. Their historic range spread from the to move freely throughout the park and Pacific to the Appalachians. As a result of intermingle with the native bison. However, over-hunting, they disappeared east of the bison were still managed, albeit sporadical- Mississippi by 1832. ly, through culling. While bison were found throughout most of In January 1954, an aerial survey of the country, their main habitat was the the entire park placed the Great Plains. For millennia bison had number of bison at 1,477. roamed there in herds that often numbered Because of concerns about three to five million animals. Plains tribes possible over-grazing, developed a culture that depended on subsequent management bison. Almost all parts of the bison provid- reductions were carried ed something for the Native American's way out, and an aerial count of life —food, tools, shelter, or clothing. No in 1967 indicated part of the animal was wasted; even the March 397 bison in the entire dung was burned for fuel. Hunting bison park. required skill and cooperation to herd and capture the animals. After tribes acquired In 1968, manipulative horses from the Spanish in the 1600s, they management of bison was could travel farther to find bison and hunt replaced by the strategy of the animals more easily. allowing natural ecological processes to operate. The But European American settlers moving bison population bison west during the 1800s changed the balance. grew and to seek ranges inside and outside Market hunting, sport hunting, and a U.S. began new the park. Because humans now occupy Army campaign in the late 1800s nearly of bison habitat out- caused the extinction of the bison. much what used to be side the park, conflicts inevitably occur. Yellowstone was the only place in the lower Bison can be a threat to human safety and 48 states where a population of wild, free- can cause considerable damage to fences, ranging bison persisted. The U.S. Army, crops, landscaping, and other private prop- which administered Yellowstone at that erty. And, of significant concern to livestock time, protected these few dozen bison from producers, some Yellowstone bison are poaching as best they could. The protection infected with the disease brucellosis. of bison in Yellowstone and their subse- Because of brucellosis, the bison are not quent recovery is one of the great triumphs of the American conservation movement. welcome outside the park even though other ungulates that may also harbor the (See Chapter 1.) brucellosis organism are. Through the Management History 1980s and 1990s, this issue has grown Despite protection, Yellowstone's bison steadily into one of the most heated and were reduced by poaching to less than two complex of Yellowstone's resource contro- dozen animals in 1902. Fearing the demise versies. For more information about brucello- of the wild herd, the U.S. Army brought 21 sis and bison management, see Chapter 8, " bison from ranches to Yellowstone. In "Bison Management. 1906-07, the Buffalo Ranch in Lamar Valley was constructed and began operation to increase the number of bison in the park. Various management strategies were used until the mid-1930s to increase the herd size, which grew to more than 1,000 animals. During that period, the park's surviving native bison herd in Pelican Valley also Yellowstone Resources slowly increased. & Issues 2008 119 7a

Cats: Bobcat & Lynx

The cats of Yellowstone are seldom seen and little known. Of the three living in the park, cougars are better studied and are discussed in their own section. The little information available on bobcats and lynx is summarized below.

Bobcat Lynx rufus • Color ranges from red-brown fur with indistinct markings to light buff with dark Number in Yellowstone spotting; short tail; ear tufts. Unknown, but probably widespread. • Distinguish from lynx: black rings do not

Where to see fully circle the tail, no black tip on tail,

• Rarely seen; most reports from northern shorter ear tufts, smaller track (2").

half of the park. • Solitary, active between sunset and

• Typical habitat: rocky areas, conifer sunrise.

forests, and sagebrush. • Eats rabbits, hares, voles, mice, red Behavior and Size squirrels, birds such as wrens, sparrows, grouse; may take young deer and adult • Adult: 15-30 pounds; 31-34 inches long. pronghorn.

Lynx • Wide paws with fur in and around pads; Lynx canadensis allows lynx to run across snow.

• Track: 4-5 inches. Number in Yellowstone • Solitary, diurnal and nocturnal. Few; 111 known • Eats primarily snowshoe hares, especially observations in in winter; also rodents, rabbits, birds, red 4 // entire park history. squirrels, and other small mammals, particularly in summer. ''if .UlL. , \ llf Where to see Research • Very rarely seen. A four-year research project to document • Typical habitat: the number and distribution of lynx in the cold conifer park was completed in 2004. Researchers forests. confirmed lynx presence and reproduction Behavior and Size in the central and eastern portions of the

• Adult: 16-35 park. pounds, 26-33 No photos existed of inches long. lynx in the park until 2007, • Gray brown fur December when Fred Paulsen, a Xanterra with white, buff, employee in Yellow- brown on throat stone, saw this lynx and ruff; tufted ears; short tail; hind legs along the Gibbon River. longer than front.

Yellowstone Resources Distinguish from bobcat: tail tip solid & Issues 2008 black; longer ear tufts; larger track. 120 .

As of January 2008 . . small mammals. The cougar (Puma concolor), also called the • Bears frequently displace cougars in mountain lion, is among the largest cats in Number Yellowstone from their kills. 14-23 resident adults on the north- North America. (The jaguar, which occurs • Male cougars may kill other male ern range; others in park seasonally. in New Mexico and Arizona, is larger.) cougars within their territory. Where to see Cougars live throughout the park in • Adult cougars and kittens have Seldom seen. summer, but their secretive nature results in been killed by wolves. few sightings. The northern range of Behavior and size • Litters range from 2-3 kittens;

Yellowstone is prime habitat for cougars • Adult males weigh 140-165 50% survive first year. pounds; females weigh about 100 because snowfall is light and prey always Interaction with humans pounds; length, including tail, available. Cougars follow their main prey as • Very few documented cougar 6.5-7.5 feet. they move to higher elevations in summer - human confrontations have • Average life span: males, 8-10 and lower elevations in the winter. occurred in Yellowstone. years; females, 12-14 years • If a big cat is close by: Stay togeth- Adult male cougars are territorial and may • Preferred terrain: rocky breaks and er in a hiking group; carry small kill other adult in their forested areas that provide cover males home range. children; make noise. Do not run, for hunting prey and for escape Male territories may overlap with several do not bend down to pick up from competitors such as wolves females. In non-hunted populations, such as sticks. Act dominant—stare in the and bears. in Yellowstone, the resident adult males liv- cat's eyes and show your teeth • Prey primarily on elk and mule ing in an area the longest are the dominant while making noise. deer, plus porcupines and other males. These males sire most of the litters within a population; males not established in the same area have little opportunity for In Yellowstone, most kittens are born June breeding. through September. Female cougars den in a secure area with ample rock and/or vegeta- Although cougars may breed and have tive cover. Kittens are about one pound at kittens at any time of year, most populations birth and gain about one pound per week have a peak breeding and birthing season. for the first 8-10 weeks. During this time, In Yellowstone, males and females breed they remain at the den while the mother primarily February through May. Males and makes short hunting forays and then returns females without kittens search for one to nurse her kittens. When the kittens are 8- another by moving throughout their home 10 weeks old, the female begins to hunt in a ranges and communicating through visual larger area. After making a kill, she moves and scent markers called scrapes. A female the kittens to the kill. Before hunting again, scrape conveys her reproductive status. A she stashes the kittens. Kittens are rarely male's scrape advertises his presence to involved in killing until after their first year. females and warns other males that an area is occupied. After breeding, the males leave Most kittens leave their area of birth at 14 to the female. 18 months of age. Approximately 99 percent Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 121 7a of young males disperse 50 to 400 miles; Cougars are solitary hunters who face about 70-80 percent of young females competition for their kills from other large

disperse 20 to 150 miles. The remaining mammals. Even though a cached carcass is Cougar proportion of males and females establish harder to detect, scavengers and competi- living areas near where they were born. tors such as bears and wolves sometimes

Therefore, most resident adult males in find it. In Yellowstone, black and grizzly Yellowstone are immigrants from other bears will take over a cougar's kill. Coyotes areas, thus maintaining genetic variability will try, but can be killed by the cougar across a wide geographic area. instead. Wolves displace cougars from approximately 6 percent of their elk carcasses.

Management History In the early 1900s, cougars were killed as part of predator control in the park. By 1925, very few individuals remained. Reports of cougars in Yellowstone have increased steadily from 1 each year between 1930 and 1939 to about 16 each year between 1980 and 1988. However, increases in visitor travel in Yellowstone and improvements in record keeping during this period probably contributed to this trend.

In 1987, the first cougar ecology study began in Yellowstone National Park. The research documented population dynamics of cougars in the northern Yellowstone ecosystem inside and outside the park boundary, determined home ranges and habitat requirements, and assessed the role of cougars as a predator. Between 1998 and In 1998, the second phase of research 2005, researchers documented 473 began. Researchers collared 87 cougars, known or probable including 50 kittens in 22 litters. Monitoring cougar kills, includ- This cougar kitten was photographed by continued through 2006. Between 1998 and ing: researchers under controlled research conditions. 2005, researchers documented 473 known 345 elk or probable cougar kills. Elk comprised 74 64 mule deer Yellowstone's cougars are not hunted with- percent 52 percent calves, 36 percent 12 bighorn sheep — in the park. Thus, their life span may be 12- 10 pronghorn cows, 9 percent bulls, 3 percent unknown 14 for 8-10 10 coyotes years females and years for sex or age. Cougars killed about one elk or males. Cougars living in areas 7 marmots where they deer every 9.4 days and spent almost 4 days 5 porcupines are hunted have much shorter life spans. at each kill. 1 red fox In Yellowstone, cougars prey upon elk 1 mountain goat The study also documented when wolves (mostly calves) deer. stalk 1 blue grouse and They the interfered with cougar kills. Wolves detect- 1 golden eagle animal then attack, aiming for the animal's ed and may have scavenged 22.5 percent of back and killing it with a bite to the base of cougar-killed ungulates; and they displaced Cougars also killed the skull or the throat area. cougars from 27 of their elk carcasses. six of their own kind, but few were eaten. A cougar eats until full, then caches the Very few cougar/human confrontations carcass for later meals. Cougars spend an have occurred in Yellowstone. However, average of 3-4 days consuming an elk or observations of cougars, particularly those 4-5 deer and days hunting for the next close to areas of human use or residence, meal. Cougars catch other animals —includ- should be reported. ing red squirrels, porcupines, marmots, Yellowstone Resources grouse, and moose— if the opportunity & Issues 2008 arises. 122 . 7a

Coyote

wolf coyote Updated information

• As of January 2008 . . Killed by wolves, mountain

Coyotes (Canis latrans) are intelligent and lions. Number in Yellowstone adaptable. Like wolves, they were perceived Total unknown, but numerous. In Management threats to the survival of elk and other as the northern range, the coyote • Like other predators, coyotes were ungulates in the park's early days. Unlike population decreased 30-50% after often destroyed in the early part wolves, however, coyotes successfully resist- wolves were restored, but their of the 20th century because they ed extermination. Since then, research has population is increasing again. sometimes preyed on livestock. shown coyotes eat mainly voles, mice, rab- Where to see • Coyotes continued to thrive because their adaptability bits, other small animals, and carrion—and Meadows, fields, other grasslands, enabled them to compensate for only the very young elk calves in the spring. and foraging for small mammals the destruction efforts. along roadways. Often mistaken for a wolf, the coyote is • Elimination of wolves probably Behavior & Size about one-third the wolf's size with a resulted in high coyote population • Weigh 25-35 pounds, 16-20 slighter build. Its coat colors range from densities; wolves' absence opened inches high at the shoulder. tan to buff, sometimes gray, and with some a niche that coyotes could par- • Average life span 6 years; up to 13 orange on its tail and ears. Males are tially occupy in Yellowstone. years in the park. slightly larger than females. • NPS staff monitors coyotes and • Home range: 3-15 square miles. uses cracker-shell rounds, pepper During the 20th century, coyotes partially • Primarily eat rodents, birds, spray, or other negative stimuli to filled left insects, carrion, elk calves, some the niche vacant after wolves were discourage coyotes that have lost adult elk. exterminated from the park. In Yellow- their wariness of humans. • 4-8 pups are born in April in stone, they live in packs or family groups of dens; emerge in May. up to 7 animals, with an alpha male and female, and subordinate individuals (usually feeding. This may lead to aggressive behav- pups from previous litters). This social ior toward humans and can increase the organization is characteristic of coyotes liv- risk of the coyote being hit by a vehicle. ing in areas free from human hunting. Several instances of coyote aggression Coyotes, also known as 'song dogs', com- toward humans have occurred here, includ- municate with each other by a variety of ing a few attacks. long-range vocalizations. You may hear Park staff scare unwary coyotes from groups or lone animals howling, especially visitor-use areas with cracker-shell rounds, during dawn and dusk periods. Coyotes bear repellent spray, or other negative stim- also use scent-marks (urine and feces) to uli. Animals that continue to pose a threat communicate their location, breeding sta- to themselves or to humans are moved to •••• tus, and territorial boundaries. other areas of the park or killed. Signs, Until recently, coyotes faced few predators interpretive brochures, and park staff con- in Yellowstone other than cougars, who will tinue to remind visitors that coyotes and kill coyotes feeding on cougar kills. Since other park wildlife are wild and potentially wolves were restored, however, dozens of dangerous and should never be fed or coyote pups and adults have been killed by approached. wolves—primarily when feeding on other animals killed by wolves. On the northern range, wolves caused a 30-50 percent reduction in coyote population density through direct mortality and changes in coyote denning behaviors and success. Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 Coyotes also face threats from humans. They quickly learn like habits roadside 123 7a Mule deer are common in Yellowstone, living throughout the park in almost all habitats; white-tailed deer are uncommon, restricted to streamside areas of the northern range. Deer

Mule deer and Mule deer Odocoileus hemionus Males grow antlers from April or May white-tailed deer until August or September; shed them in can be told apart Number in Yellowstone late winter and spring. by their coloration, Summer: 2,300-2,500 antler shape, tail, Mating season (rut) in November and behavior, and Winter: less than 100 December; fawns born late May to early where they live. August. to see All species of deer Where Lives in brushy areas, coniferous forests, use their hearing, • Summer: throughout the park. smell, and sight to grasslands. • Winter: North Entrance area. detect predators Bounding gait, when four feet leave the such as coyotes or Behavior Size and ground, enables it to move more quickly cougars. They • Male (buck): 150-250 pounds; female through shrubs and rock fields. probably smell or hear the approach- (doe): 100-175 pounds; V/i feet at the Eats shrubs, forbs, grasses; conifers in ing predator first; shoulder. spring. then may raise their • Summer coat: reddish; winter coat: gray- Predators include wolf, coyote, cougar, heads high and brown; white rump patch with black- stare hard, rotating bear. ears forward to tipped tail; brown patch on forehead; large hear better. If a ears. deer hears or sees

movement, it flees.

White-tailed Deer o. virginianus whitish patches; belly, inner thighs, and in Number Yellowstone underside of tail white. Scarce Waves tail like a white flag when fleeing. Where to see Males grow antlers from May until August; Along streams and rivers in northern part shed them in early to late spring. of the park. Mating season (rut) peaks in November; fawns born usually in late May or June. Behavior and Size Eats shrubs, forbs, grasses; conifers in • Adults 150-250 pounds; V/i feet at the spring. shoulder. Yellowstone Resources Predators include wolf, coyote, cougar, • Issues 2008 Summer coat: red-brown; winter coat: & bear. gray-brown; throat and inside ears with 124 .

As of January 2008 . . Behavior and Size • Male (bull) weighs about 700 Number in Yellowstone pounds and is about 5 feet high • Summer: 10,000-20,000 elk in 6 to at the shoulder; female (cow) 7 different herds. weighs about 500 pounds and is Winter: Approximately 6,000- slightly shorter; calf is about 30 9,000 pounds at birth. • Largest herds: • Average life span: 13-18 years. Northern: 6,000-9,000 in winter • Bulls have antlers, which begin Firehole-Madison: 150-200 year- growing in the spring and usually round. drop in March or April. elaphus) Where to see Elk (Cervus are the most abundant • Feed on grasses, sedges, other Summer: Gibbon Meadows, Elk Park, large mammal found in Yellowstone. herbs and shrubs, bark of aspen and Lamar Valley. European American settlers used the word trees, conifer needles, burned Autumn, during "rut" or mating "elk" to describe the animal, which is the bark, aquatic plants. season: northern range, including word used in Europe for moose (causing • Mating season (rut) in September Mammoth Hot Springs; Norris; great confusion for European visitors). The and October; calves born in May Madison River. Shawnee word "wapiti," which means to late June. Winter: migrate south to the See article on the northern range, "white deer" or "white-rumped deer," is Jackson Hole Elk Refuge in Chapter 8. another name for elk. The North American Jackson, Wyoming, or north to elk is considered the same species as the red the northern range and around deer of Europe. Gardiner, Montana; 150-200 along the Firehole and Madison Bull elk are probably the most photo- rivers. graphed animals in Yellowstone, due to their huge antlers. Bull elk begin growing their first set of antlers when they are about days). Roughly 70 percent of the antler growth takes place in the last one year old. Antler growth is triggered in spring by a combination of two factors: a half of the period, when the antlers 2 depression of testosterone levels and of a mature elk will grow A of an lengthening daylight. The first result of this inch each day. The antlers of a typical healthy bull are 55-60 inches long, just change is the casting or shedding of the previous year's "rack." Most bulls drop their under six feet wide, and weigh about 30 antlers in March and April. New growth pounds per pair. begins soon after. Bulls retain their antlers through the win-

Growing antlers are covered with a thick, ter. When antlered, bulls usually settle dis- fuzzy coating of skin commonly referred to putes by wrestling with their antlers. When as "velvet." Blood flowing in the skin depos- antlerless, they use their front hooves (as its calcium that makes the antler. Usually cows do), which is more likely to result in around early August, further hormonal injury to one of the combatants. Because changes signal the end of antler growth, bulls spend the winter with other bulls or and the animal begins scraping the velvet with gender-mixed herds, retaining antlers off, polishing and sharpening the antlers in means fewer injuries sustained overall. the process. Also, bulls with large antlers that are retained longer are at the top of elk social The antler growing period is shortest for structure, allowing them preferential access yearlings (about 90 days) and longest for to feeding sites. Yellowstone Resources healthy, mature individuals (about 140 & Issues 2008 125 " 7a golden eagles. Female elk can live 17-18 years; rare individuals may live 22 years. Elk Habitat Climate is an important factor affecting the size and distribution of elk herds here. While nearly the entire park provides summer habitat for 10,000-20,000 elk, winter snowfalls force elk and other ungulates to Antler Details leave most of the high elevation grasslands • Are usually of the park. The number of elk that winter symmetrical. in the park averages 6,000-9,000.

• The average, The northern range, with more moderate healthy, mature temperatures less snowfall than the bull has 6 tines and on each antler, Mating Season park interior, can support large numbers of and is known as wintering elk. The northern Yellowstone The mating season (rut) generally occurs "six or a point" herd is one of the largest herds of elk in the "six by six." from early September to mid-October. United States. The herd winters in the area Elk gather in mixed herds — lots of females • Can occur on of the Lamar and Yellowstone river valleys female elk. and calves, with a few bulls nearby. Bulls from Soda Butte to Gardiner, Montana. It bugle to announce their availability and • One-year-old also migrates outside of the park into the bulls grow 10-20 fitness to females and to warn and challenge Gallatin National Forest and onto private inch spikes, some- other bulls. When answered, bulls move lands. timesforked. toward one another and sometimes engage • Two-year-old in battle for access to the cows. They crash Only one herd lives both winter and sum- bulls usually have their antlers together, push each other mer inside the park. The Madison-Firehole slender antlers intensely, and wrestle for dominance. While elk herd of 150-200 animals has been the with 4 to 5 points. loud and extremely strenuous, fights rarely focus of a research study since November • Three-year-old cause serious injury. The weaker bull ulti- 1991. Researchers are examining how envi- bulls have thicker variability effects ungulate antlers. mately gives up and wanders off. ronmental reproduction and survival. Prior to wolf • Four-year-old Calves are born in May and June. They are bulls restoration, the population was naturally and older brown with white spots and have little typically have 6 regulated by severe winter conditions to a scent, providing them with good camou- points; antlers degree not found in other, human-hunted flage from predators. They can walk within are thicker and elk herds. The elk are also affected by high longer each year. an hour of birth, but they spend much of fluoride and silica levels in the water and their first • Eleven- or week to ten days bedded down plants they eat, which affect enamel forma- twelve-year old between nursings. Soon thereafter they tion and wear out teeth quickly —thus bulls often grow begin grazing with their mothers, and join a shortening their lives. The average life span the heaviest ant- herd of other cows and calves. Up to two- lers; after that is 13 years; elk on the northern range live thirds of each year's calves may be killed by age, the size of approximately 18 years. Information gained antlers generally predators. Elk calves are food for black and in this study will be useful in comparing diminishes. grizzly bears, wolves, coyotes, cougars, and unhunted and hunted elk populations.

Researchers also examined elk use of areas Horns vs. Antlers burned in the wildfires of 1988. They found Antlers, found on members of the deerfamily, grow as an extension that elk ate the bark of burned trees. Fires of the animal's skull. They are true bone, are a single structure, and, generally, are found only on males. Horns, found on pronghorn, big- had altered the chemical composition of horn sheep, and bison, are a two-part structure. An interior portion of lodgepole pine bark, making it more digest- bone (an extension of the skull) is covered by an exterior sheath grown ible and of higher protein content than live by specialized hairfollicles (similar to human fingernails). Antlers are bark. While the burned bark was not the

shed and regrown yearly while horns are never shed and continue to highest quality forage for elk, it is compara- grow throughout an animal's life. One exception is the pronghorn, ble to other low-quality browse species. which sheds and regrows its horn sheath each year. Researchers speculate that elk selected

burned bark because it was readily available Yellowstone Resources above the snow cover in winter. & Issues 2008 See also Chapter 8, "Northern Range. 126 . 7a

Fox

Updated wolf coyote information

As of January 2008 . . averages 3.75 square miles, The red fox (Vulpes vulpes) has been with males having slightly larger Number in Yellowstone since the range than females. documented in Yellowstone Total unknown, but nearly as Several color phases; usually red 1880s. In relation to other canids in the numerous as coyotes. park, red foxes are the smallest. Adult foxes fur with white-tipped tail, dark Where to see weigh 9-12 pounds; coyotes average 28 legs; slender, long snout. • Lamar and Hayden valleys, Barks; rarely howls or sings. pounds in Yellowstone; and adult wolves Canyon Village area. Distinguish from coyote by size, weigh closer to 100 pounds. Red foxes • Typical habitat: edges of sage- color, and bushier tail. occur in several color phases, but they are brush/grassland and within Solitary, in mated pairs, or with usually distinguished from coyotes by their forests. female from previous litter. reddish yellow coat that is somewhat darker Behavior and Size Prey: voles, mice, rabbits, birds, on the back and shoulders, with black • Adult males weigh 11-12 pounds; amphibians, other small animals. "socks" on their lower legs. "Cross" phases females weigh average 10 pounds. Other food: carrion and some of the red fox (a dark cross on their shoul- • Average 43 inches long. plants. ders) have been reported a few times in • Average life span: 3-7 years; up to Killed by coyotes, wolves, recent years near Canyon and Lamar 11 years in Yellowstone. mountain lions. • In northern range, home range Valley. Also, a lighter-colored red fox has been seen at higher elevations.

Foxes feed on a wide variety of animal and plant materials. Small mammals such as mice and voles, rabbits, and insects comprise the bulk of their diet. Carrion seems to be an important winter food source in some areas. The many miles of forest edge and extensive semi-open and canyon areas of the park seem to offer suitable habitat and food for foxes. They are widespread throughout the northern part of the park with somewhat patchy distribution elsewhere in the park. Foxes are more abundant than were previously thought in Yellowstone, yet they are not often seen because they are nocturnal, usually forage alone, and travel along edges of meadows and forests. During winter, foxes may The fox was relocated between 10 and 60 increase their activity around dawn and miles away from Tower but twice it dusk, and even sometimes in broad day- returned. Finally the fox came to light. In late April and May, when females Mammoth where it was fed again and as a are nursing kits at their dens, they are result was destroyed. While this story gives sometimes more visible during daylight us interesting information about the hom- hours, foraging busily to get enough food ing instinct of fox, it also points out the for their growing offspring. importance of obeying rules to avoid inad- Foxes can become habituated to humans vertently causing the death of one of usually due to being fed. One fox in the Yellowstone's animals. summer of 1997 was trapped and relocated Yellowstone Resources A little known fact about red foxes is most & Issues 2008 three times from the Tower Fall parking of them in the lower 48 states, especially in area because visitors fed it human food. 127 7a the eastern and plains states, were intro- as Cooke City and the Beartooth Plateau. duced from Europe in the 18th and 19th Recent genetic analyses are beginning to centuries for fox hunts and fur farms. The shed light on this mysterious 'Yellow fox of Fox foxes that survived the hunt or escaped the the Yellowstone,' and new evidence is fur farms proliferated and headed west- beginning to support the distinctiveness of ward. In addition to this introduced subspe- this high elevation fox. cies of red fox, three native subspecies exist During the past century, especially within at high elevations in the Sierra (V. v. necat- the past few decades, the number of fox ar), Cascade (V. v. cascadensis), and Rocky sightings has increased greatly. This could (V. v. macroura) mountains and are collec- be due to better documentation of sightings tively called mountain foxes. (Yellowstone's through the rare animal sighting reports fox is V. v. macroura.) Little is known about that began in 1986. In addition, an increase any of these subspecies. in visitors means more chances to see foxes. A research project conducted between There may also be a gradual increase in the 1994-1998 determined at least two number of foxes now that the wolf has subpopulations of foxes live in the Greater returned to Yellowstone. Yellowstone Ecosystem. At about 7,000 feet Wolves and coyotes are more closely related in elevation, there seemed to be a dividing both genetically and physically than wolves line with no geographical barriers separat- and foxes, and wolves are successfully coming these foxes. The genetic difference peting with coyotes, causing a decline in the between these foxes was similar to main- coyote population. This may have caused an land and island populations of foxes in increase in the number of fox sightings in Australia and their habitat use was different core wolf areas such as the Lamar Valley. as well. In addition, their actual dimensions, research that red fox are such as ear length and hind foot length, Recent shows nocturnal than coyotes, and strongly were adapted to some degree for colder more environments with deep snow and long prefer forested habitats, while coyotes tend winters. to use sagebrush and open meadow areas. In this way, potential competition between Ever since red fox sightings were first fox and coyotes is minimized. Fox don't recorded in Yellowstone National Park, a seem to actively avoid coyotes during an novel coat color has been seen at higher ele- average day, they just stick with forested vations. This yellowish or cream color most habitat, sleep when coyotes are most active, often occurs above 7,000 feet in areas such and then forage opportunistically. Fox will visit carcasses (like wolf kills) for the occasional big meal, especially during winter,

but this is more rare than the scavenging coyotes that park visitors can expect to see on many days, especially during winter.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 128 . 7a

Moose

As of January 2008 . . Behavior & Size • Largest member of deer family. Number in Yellowstone • Adult male (bull) weighs close • Less than 200. to 1,000 pounds; female (cow) Population has declined in last 40 weighs up to 900 pounds; 5!^ to years perhaps due to a number of TA feet at the shoulder. factors such as loss of old growth • Browses on willows and aquatic forests surrounding the park, plants in summer; willows where hunting outside the park, burning available in winter or on conifers of winter habitat (spruce-fir above 8,500 feet. forests) in 1988. Moose (Alces alces shirasi) are the largest • Usually alone or in small family Where to see members of the deer family in Yellowstone. groups. Marshy areas of meadows, lake A male (bull) moose can weigh nearly 1,000 • Mating season peaks in late Sep- shores, and along rivers. pounds and stand more than 7 feet at the tember and early October; one or two calves born in late May or shoulder. Both sexes have long legs that June. enable them to wade into rivers and • Lives up to 20 years. through deep snow, to swim, and to run fast. Despite its size, a moose can slip through the woods without a sound. subalpine fir and Douglas-fir. Moose, especially cows with calves, are Moose can also move easily in unpredictable and have chased people in these thick fir stands because the the park. branches prevent snow from accumulating on the ground Both sexes are dark brown, often with tan legs and muzzle. Bulls can be distinguished Moose are solitary creatures from cows by their antlers. Adults of both for most of the year, except sexes have "bells"— a pendulous dewlap of during the mating season skin and hair that dangles from the throat or rut. During the rut, both and has no known function. bulls and cows are vocal: the cows may be heard In summer, moose eat aquatic plants like grunting in search of a water lilies, duckweed, and burweed. But mate, and bulls challenge the principle staples of the moose diet are one another with low the leaves and twigs of the willow, followed croaks before clashing with by other woody browse species such as their antlers. A bull on the gooseberry and buffaloberry. An adult offensive tries to knock its moose consumes approximately 10-12 opponent sideways. If such a pounds of food per day in the winter and move is successful, the challenger approximately 22-26 pounds of food per follows through with another thrust of its day in the summer. antlers. The weaker animal usually gives up

Some moose that summer in the park before any serious damage is done; occa- migrate in winter to lower elevations west sionally the opponent's antlers inflict a and south of Yellowstone where willow mortal wound. remains exposed above the snow. But many Bulls usually shed their antlers in late moose move to higher elevations (as high as November or December, although young 8,500 feet) to winter in mature stands of bulls may retain their antlers as late as Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 129 March. Shedding their heavy antlers helps History them conserve energy and promotes easier Moose were reportedly very rare in north- winter survival. In April or May, bulls begin west Wyoming when the park was estab- to grow new antlers. Small bumps on each lished in 1872. Subsequent protection from side of the forehead start to swell, then hunting and wolf control programs may enlarge until they are knobs covered with a have contributed to increased numbers, but black fuzz (called velvet) and fed by blood suppression of forest fires probably was the that flows through a network of veins. most important factor in their population antlers Finally the knobs change into and increase. Moose depend on mature fir for- grow until August. The antlers are flat and ests for winter survival. By the 1970s, an palmate (shaped like a hand). Yearlings estimated 1,000 moose inhabited the park. grow six to eight inch spikes; prime adult The moose population declined following bulls usually grow the largest antlers— as the fires of 1988. Many old moose died wide as 5 feet from tip to tip. Then the bull during the winter of 1988-89, probably as a rubs and polishes his antlers on small trees combined result of the loss of good moose in preparation for the rut. forage and a harsh winter. Unlike moose Cows are pregnant through the winter; habitat elsewhere, northern Yellowstone gestation is approximately eight months. does not have woody browse species that When ready to give birth, the cow drives off will come in quickly after a fire and extend any previous year's offspring that may have above the snowpack to provide winter food. wintered with her and seeks out a thicket. Therefore, the overall short-term effect of calves, each She gives birth to one or more the fires was probably detrimental to moose weighing 25-35 pounds. populations. Their current population and A calf walks a few hours after birth and distribution are unknown. stays close to its mother. Even so, a moose Today, moose are most likely seen in the calf often becomes prey for bears or wolves park's southwestern corner and in the Soda and less frequently of cougars or coyotes. Butte Creek, Pelican Creek, Lewis River, and Gallatin River drainages. . 7a

Pronghorn

As of January 2008 . . History

The North American pronghorn • Prior to European American set- Number in Yellowstone is true ante- (Antilocapra americana) not a 250-300 tlement of the West, pronghorn lope, which are found in Africa and south- population estimated to be 35 Where to see east Asia. The pronghorn is the surviving million. • Summer: Lamar Valley; some may member of a group of animals that evolved • Early in the 19th century, prong- be near the North Entrance near horn abundant in river valleys in North America during the past 20 million Gardiner, Montana. radiating from Yellowstone; years. Use of the term "antelope" seems to • Winter: between the North settlement and hunting reduced have originated when the first written Entrance and Reese Creek. their range and numbers. description of the animal was made during Behavior and Size • Park management also culled the 1804-1806 Lewis and Clark Expedition. • Male (buck) weighs 100-125 pronghorn during the first half of The pronghorn has true horns, similar to pounds; female (doe) weighs 90- the 20th century due to overgraz- bison and bighorn sheep. The horns are 110 pounds; adult length is 45-55 ing concerns. inches and height is 35-40 inches made of modified, fused hair that grows Research Concerns at shoulder. over permanent bony cores, but they differ • Pronghorn are designated species • Average life span: 7-10 years. from those of other horned animals in two of special concern in the park. • Young (fawns) born in late May- major ways: the sheaths are shed and grown • During 1991-1995, the popula- June. tion dropped approximately every year and they are pronged. (A 50%; number • Live in grasslands. research is underway to deter- of other horned mammals occasionally • Can run for several miles at 45 mine why; possible causes include shed their horns, but not annually.) Adult mph. predation and loss of winter males (bucks) typically have 10-16 inch • Eat sagebrush and other shrubs, range. horns that are at tips. forbs, some grasses. curved the About 70 • This small population could face • Both sexes have horns; males are percent of the females (does) also have extirpation from random cata- pronged. horns, but they average 1-2 inches long and strophic events such as a severe are not pronged. The males usually shed the winter or disease outbreak. horny sheaths in November or December and begin growing the next year's set in February or March. The horns reach maximum development in August or September. Females shed and regrow their horns at various times.

Pronghorn are easy to distinguish from the park's other ungulates. Their deer-like bodies are reddish-tan on the back and white underneath, with a large white rump patch. Their eyes are very large, which provides a large field of vision. Males also have a black cheek patch.

Females that bred the previous fall commonly deliver a set of twins in May or June. The newborn fawns are a uniform grayish- brown and weigh 6-9 pounds. They can walk within 30 minutes of birth and are »'.'-. 4

Pronghorn

they begin to follow the females as they for- of males between 1-5 years old, and solitary age. Several females and their youngsters older males. The small nursery and bachelor join together in nursery herds along with herds may forage within home ranges of yearling females. 1,000 to 3,000 acres while solitary males roam smaller territories (60 to 1,000 acres Pronghorn form groups most likely for in size). Pronghorn, including three-fourths increased protection against predators. of the individuals in Yellowstone, migrate When one individual detects danger, it between different winter and summer flares its white rump patch, signaling the ranges to more fully utilize forage within others to flee. The pronghorn is well adapt- broad geographic areas. ed for outrunning its enemies— its oversized windpipe and heart allow large amounts of History oxygen and blood to be carried to and from During the early part of the 19th century, its unusually large lungs. Pronghorn can pronghorns ranked second only to bison in sustain sprints of 45-50 mph. Such speed, numbers, with an estimated 35 million together with keen vision, make the adults throughout the West. The herds were soon difficult prey for any natural predator. decimated by conversion of rangeland to Fawns, however, can be caught by coyotes, cropland, professional hunters who sold the bobcats, wolves, bears, and golden eagles. meat, and ranchers who believed that The pronghorn breeding season begins pronghorns were competing with livestock mid-September and extends through early for forage. Today, due to transplant pro- October. During the rut the older males grams and careful management, prong- "defend" groups of females (called a harem). horns again roam the sagebrush prairies in They warn any intruding males with loud herds totaling nearly one-half million snorts and wheezing coughs. If this behav- animals. ior does not scare off the opponent, a fight Pronghorn in Yellowstone have not fared as may erupt. The contenders slowly approach well. The park's pronghorn population one another until their horns meet, then declined in the 1960s and again in the they twist and shove each other. Eventually, 1990s. Research in 1991 found that the aver- the weaker individual will retreat. Although age fawn life span that year was about 35 the fights may be bloody, fatalities are rare. days and nearly all collared pronghorn The most important winter foods are fawns were apparently killed by coyotes. shrubs like sagebrush and rabbitbrush; they This mortality rate closely followed the eat succulent forbs during spring and sum- decline in total fawn numbers measured mer. They can eat lichens and plants like during weekly surveys of the entire park. In locoweed, lupine, and poisonvetch that are 1999 another cooperative study was initiat- toxic to some ungulates. Their large liver ed to determine fawn productivity and mor- (proportionately, almost twice the size of a tality rates. Other factors include declining domestic sheep's liver) may be able to amount and quality of winter range as pri- remove plant toxins from the blood stream. vate lands are taken out of agriculture. Grasses appear to be the least-used food Research continues to search for answers to item, but may be eaten during early spring the population decline. This small popula- when the young and tender shoots are espe- tion is susceptible to extirpation from ran- cially nutritious. dom catastrophic events such as a severe During winter, pronghorn form mixed-sex Yellowstone Resources winter or disease outbreak. & Issues 2008 and-age herds. In spring, they split into smaller bands of females, bachelor groups 132 — .

As of January 2008 . . and white; gray is the most com-

mon; white is usually in the high Wolves ranged widely throughout North Number in Arctic; and black is common only America in pre-Columbian times. Yellowstone area in the Rockies. • 443 wolves live in 51 packs in the Worldwide, all wolves, except the red wolf • Prey primarily on hoofed animals. greater Yellowstone area. (Canis rufus) of the southeastern United In Yellowstone, 90% of their win- • 11 of those packs with 171 indi- States, are the same species (Canis lupus). ter diet is elk; more deer in sum- viduals den in the park. Wolves are highly social animals and live in mer; also eat a variety of smaller Where to see mammals like beavers. packs. In Yellowstone, the average pack They inhabit most of the park now, • Mate in February; give birth to numbers eleven animals; some are more look at dawn and dusk. average of five pups in April after than twice that size. (In areas of abundant Behavior & Size a gestation period of 63 days; wolves, about 25 percent of the packs will • 26-36 inches high at the shoulder, young emerge at 10-14 days; pack have more than eight members.) The pack is 4-6 feet long from nose to tail remains at the den for 3-10 weeks a highly evolved and complex social family, tip; males weigh 100-130 pounds, unless disturbed. with leaders (the alpha male and alpha females weigh 80-110 pounds. • Human-caused death is the high- female) and subordinates, each having indi- • Home range: 18-540 square miles; est mortality factor for wolves; vidual personality traits. Packs generally varies with pack size, food, sea- the leading natural cause is command territory that they mark by urine son. wolves killing other wolves. • 3-4 scenting and defend against intrusion by Typically live years in wild. Current Management • Three color phases: gray, black, other wolves (individuals or packs). See Chapter 8, "Wolf Restoration."

Wolves consume a wide variety of prey, large and small. However, the evolution of Ecosystem. Wolves kill each packs their efficient and structure allows Disease is an important mortality factor in other and other carnivores, such hunting of large prey while still competing Yellowstone's wolves, and was especially as coyotes and with coyotes (and, to a lesser extent, foxes) high in 1999 and 2005. In 2005, for example, cougars, usually for smaller meals. In Yellowstone, 90 per- parvovirus and distemper killed two-thirds because of territory cent of their winter prey is elk: 40 percent of the pups. Infectious canine hepatitis disputes or competi- calves, 30-35 percent cows, 10-22 percent and sarcopitic mange also have been tion for carcasses. In bulls. (Wolves kill older cows; the average documented. 2000, however, the subordinate female age is 14. Hunters kill cows that average six wolves of the Druid years of age.) In winter, a wolf pack will kill History pack exhibited an average of 9-14 elk per month. Deer In the 1800s, westward expansion brought behavior never seen comprise 25 percent of their prey in sum- settlers and their livestock into direct con- before: they killed mer. Wolves can also kill adult bison. tact with native predator and prey species. their pack's alpha female; then they Much of the wolves' prey base was On the other hand, wolves have provided a carried her pups to a destroyed as agriculture flourished. With bounty of food for other animals in Yellow- central den and stone. When wolves kill an elk, ravens arrive the prey base removed, wolves began to raised them with almost immediately. Coyotes arrive soon prey on domestic stock, which resulted in their own litters. after, waiting nearby until the wolves are humans removing wolves from most of their sated. Bears will attempt to chase the wolves historic range. (Other predators such as away, and are usually successful. Many bears, cougars, and coyotes were also killed other animals —from magpies to foxes to protect livestock and "more desirable" dine on the remains. wildlife species, such as deer and elk.) By the early 1900s, wolves had been almost From their confined beginnings in a few entirely eliminated from the 48 states. pens, the wolves have expanded their popu- Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 lation and range, and now are found Today, it is difficult for many people to understand why early park managers would throughout the Greater Yellowstone 133 7a the future. One such law was the Endangered Species Act, passed in 1973. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is Wolf required by this law to restore endangered species that have been eliminated, if possible. (National Park Service policy also calls for restoration of native species where possible.) Wolves & Humans As wolf numbers increase, they will encounter more humans. Wolves are not normally a danger to humans, unless humans habituate them by providing them with food. No wolf has attacked a human in Yellowstone, but a few attacks have occurred in other places. Almost all were from wolves that had become conditioned to human foods. Like coyotes, wolves can quickly learn to associ- ate campgrounds, picnic areas, and roads with easy food. This often leads to aggressive behavior toward humans. have participated in the extermination of You Can Do wolves. After all, the Yellowstone National What Park Act of 1872 stated that the Secretary of • Never feed a wolf or any other wildlife. the Interior "shall provide against the wan- Do not leave food or garbage outside ton destruction of the fish and game found unattended. Make sure the door is shut on within said Park." But this was an era before a garbage can or dumpster after you people, including many biologists, under- deposit a bag of trash.

stood the concepts of ecosystem and the • Treat wolves with the same respect you interconnectedness of species. At the time, give any other wild animal. If you see a

the wolves' habit of killing prey species was wolf, do not approach it. destruction" of the considered "wanton • Never leave small children unattended. animals. People who poisoned every carcass • If you have a dog, keep it leashed. they passed in the backcountry (loading • If you are concerned about a wolf—it's too strychnine into carcasses was the easiest close, not showing sufficient fear of way to kill wolves) did so believing they humans, etc., do not run. Stop, stand tall, were supporting the Yellowstone National watch what the wolf is going to do. If it Park Act. Between 1914 and 1926, at least approaches, wave your arms, yell, flare 136 wolves were killed in the park; by the your jacket, and if it continues, throw 1940s, wolves were rarely reported. something at it. Group up with other In the 1960s, National Park Service policy people, continue waving and yelling. regarding human management of Yellow- • Report the presence of wolves near devel- stone's wildlife populations changed to a oped areas or any wolf behaving strangely. policy of allowing those populations to To date, four wolves in Yellowstone manage themselves. Many suggested at the National Park have become habituated to time that for such regulation to succeed, the See Chapter 2 for how humans. Biologists successfully conducted part of the picture. wolves are affecting wolf had to be a aversive conditioning on three of them to the ecosystem and Also in the 1960s and 1970s, a national discourage proximity with humans. The Chapter 8, "Wolf awareness of environmental issues and fourth was killed north of the park because Restoration, " for more consequences led to the passage of many it was not afraid of people at a ranch. details about their laws designed to correct the mistakes of the management. past and help prevent similar mistakes in

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 134 . 7b

Birds

of bird sightings have been kept in Records • As of January 2008 . . Species monitored: since its establishment in 1872; Yellowstone American white pelicans, trum- Number in Yellowstone these records document 322 species of peter swans, ospreys, and colonial • 322 bird species have been birds to date, of which approximately 148 nesting birds. documented in Yellowstone. species are known to nest in the park. This • Approximately 148 of these Current Management is remarkable considering the harsh condi- species nest in the park. Yellowstone is an active participant tions that characterize the area. in Western Working Group of Other Info the Partners in Flight, an international Many birds, such as American robins and • One endangered bird species effort to protect migrant land birds common ravens, are found throughout the previously occurred in the greater in the Americas, because more than park. Other species live in specific habitats. Yellowstone area: the whooping 100 bird species spend the winter in For example, belted kingfishers are found crane. Mexico and Central America. There, • The peregrine falcon nests here. near rivers and streams while Steller's jays they are threatened by loss of habi- Formerly an endangered species, are found in moist coniferous forests. tat, pesticide use, and increasing it was delisted in 1999. human development and pressure. Spring is a good time to look for birds. Migration brings many birds back to the park from their winter journeys south; other birds are passing through to more northern nesting areas. Songbirds are sing- ing to establish and defend their territories; and many ducks are in their colorful breeding plumages, which makes identification easier.

Watch for birds on early morning walks from mid-May through early July. At all times, but especially during the nesting season, birds should be viewed from a distance. Getting too close can stress a bird (as it can any animal) and sometimes cause the bird to abandon its nest.

Most birds migrate to lower elevations and more southern latitudes beginning in Visitors often ask, September. At the same time, other birds "What is the black pass through Yellowstone. Fall transients and white bird with include tundra swans and ferruginous the long tail?" They hawks. Some birds do stay in Yellowstone have seen the black- billed magpie, a year-round, including the common raven, gregarious bird Canada goose, blue grouse, gray jay, red- found throughout breasted nuthatch, American dipper, and the West. In the mountain chickadee. And a few species, right light, its dark such as rough-legged hawks and bohemian feathers appear a shiny blue-black or waxwings, migrate here for the winter. green -black. Brief descriptions of some of Yellowstone's significant bird species follow. Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 135 Behavior

• Bald eagles nest in large trees close to water.

• In severe winters, eagles may move to lower elevations such as Paradise Valley, north of the park, where food is more available. On these wintering areas, resident eagles may be joined by migrant bald eagles and golden eagles.

• Feed primarily on fish, except in winter when fish stay deeper in water.

• In winter, they eat more waterfowl.

• Eat carrion in winter if it is readily available.

• Form long-term pair bonds.

• Some remain on their territories year- round, while others return to their nesting sites by late winter.

• Two to three eggs (usually two) laid from February to mid-April.

• Both adults incubate the eggs, which hatch in 34 to 36 days.

• At birth, eaglets are immobile, downy, have their eyes open, and are completely dependent upon their parents for food.

• When 10-14 weeks old, they can fly from the nest.

Bald Eagle Haliaeetus leucocephalus • Some young migrate in fall to western Oregon and Washington. Identification • Many adults stay in the park year-round. • Large, dark bird; adult (four or five years old) has completely white head and tail. Status

• Females larger than males, as is true with • Removed from the threatened species list most predatory birds. in August 2007.

• Immature bald eagles show varying • As of 1989, recovery objectives had been amounts of white; they can be mistaken reached in the Greater Yellowstone for golden eagles. Ecosystem. Habitat • Some eagle territories are experiencing nest instability due to large numbers of Habitat can be a clue to which eagle you are trees that are falling as a result of the 1988 seeing: fires. • Bald eagles are usually near water where • In the park, 34 eagle nests produced 26 they feed on fish and waterfowl. eaglets in 2007. • Golden eagles hunt in open country for rabbits and other small mammals.

• Exception: Both feed on carcasses in the winter, sometimes together.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 136 Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus In 1962, Rachel L. Carson Because of the peregrine's great speed and sounded an alarm about

the irresponsible of 1 low population numbers, sightings in use \ Yellowstone are uncommon. pesticides with her landmark book, Silent Spring. Identification Among the dangers she

• Slightly smaller than a crow. described were the adverse effects

• of chemicals—particularly DDT— Black "helmet" and a black wedge below V the eye. on the reproductive capacity of some birds, especially • Uniformly gray under its wings. predatory species such as the (The prairie falcon, which also summers in bald eagle and peregrine Yellowstone, has black "armpits.") falcon. Her book raised public • Long tail, pointed wings. awareness of this issue, and was one of Habitat the catalysts leading to the United States

• Near water, meadows, cliffs. banning of the most damaging pesticides.

• Nests on large cliffs overlooking rivers or The peregrine falcon was among the birds valleys where prey is abundant. most affected by the toxins. It was listed on Behavior the endangered species list and a reintroduction program was spearheaded by • Resident in the park March through groups such as the non-profit Peregrine October, when its prey—songbirds and Fund of Boise, Idaho. Subsequently, the waterfowl—are abundant in park. peregrine has made a comeback in much of • Lays 3-4 eggs in late April to mid-May. its former range and was delisted in 1999. • Young fledge in July or early August.

• Migrates as far south as Mexico.

• Dives at high speeds (can exceed 200 mph) and strikes prey in mid-air. Status

• Yellowstone was a site for peregrine reintroductions in the 1980s.

• Reintroductions were discontinued after 1988 because the peregrine population was increasing on its own.

• The peregrine was removed from the

federal endangered/threatened species list

in 1999 because of its widespread recovery.

• In 2007, 32 nesting pairs fledged 47 young. 7b

Birds

Osprey Pandion haliaeetus Status Identification • Like many other birds of prey, osprey populations declined due to pesticides in • Slightly smaller than bald eagle. the mid-20th century. • Mostly white belly, white head with dark • Its populations rebounded during the lat- streak through eye. ter part of the 20th century. • Narrow wings with dark patch at bend or • In Yellowstone, the osprey population "wrist." fluctuates, with 31 nests producing 25 Habitat young in 2007 and a high of 100 nests and • Usually near lakes (such as Yellowstone 101 fledglings in 1994. Lake), river valleys (such as Hayden and • Osprey in Yellowstone are being moni- Lamar valleys), and in river canyons (such tored, along with other fish-eating wildlife, as the Gardner Canyon and the Grand to find out if populations of non-native of the River). Canyon Yellowstone lake trout will affect them. (See Chapter 8.) Behavior

• Generally returns to Yellowstone in April; departs for warmer climates by September.

• Builds nest of sticks in large trees or on pinnacles close to water.

• Lays 2-3 eggs in May to June.

• Eggs hatch in 4-5 weeks.

• Young can fly when 7-8 weeks old.

• Feed almost entirely on fish.

• Often hovers 30-100 feet above water before diving for a fish.

• In the air, arranges the fish with its head

pointed forward to reduce its resistance to

air.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 138 7b Trumpeter Swan Cygnus buccinator Identification • Largest wild fowl in North America. Birds

• White feathers, black bill with a pink streak at the base of the upper mandible.

• During migration, can be confused with

the tundra swan, which is smaller, lacks the pink mandible stripe, sometimes has a yellow spot in front of eye, and a rounder head. Habitat

• Slow moving rivers or quiet lakes.

• Nest is a large, floating mass of vegetation. Behavior

• Feed on submerged vegetation and aquatic invertebrates.

• Low reproduction rates; in 2007, no cygnets fledged.

• Can fail to hatch eggs if disturbed by humans.

• Lay 4-6 eggs in June; cygnets fledge in late September or early October. In fall and winter, • Usually in pairs with cygnets in summer; look closely at a larger groups in winter. Trumpeter swans in North America neared swan— it could be a Status extirpation in the early 1900s due to human trumpeter, which is encroachment, habitat destruction, and the native to the park, • North American population recovering or a tundra, which commercial swan-skin trade. Small popula- from decades of habitat destruction, hunt- is passing through. tions survived in isolated areas such as ing, and poaching. The swan above, Yellowstone. Red Rock Lakes National which has a yellow • Declining in the Greater Yellowstone Wildlife Refuge, west of the park, was set spot near the eye, is Ecosystem: 300-350 resident swans; as of aside in the 1930s specifically for the trum- a tundra swan. autumn 2007, only 10 adult swans reside in Trumpeter swans peter swan. In the 1950s, a sizeable popula- Yellowstone National Park. have a thin pink tion of swans was discovered in Alaska. stripe at the base • Winter population in the region varies Today, more than 20,000 trumpeters exist of their upper from 2,000-4,000; in the park, varies in North America. mandible. between less than one hundred to several hundred individual swans. In Yellowstone, however, resident trumpeter swans have rarely numbered more than • Limiting factors in Yellowstone appear to 20 individuals in recent years. Winter num- be flooding of nests and predation by bers vary from 60 to several hundred. coyotes. Reproduction rates are low. • The swan pair that used the floating nest- threat has eliminated. ing platform at Seven Mile Bridge on the One been Mute in Madison River lost the male to predation swans were introduced the 1960s by in 2001. In 2004, the female re-mated; but landowners in Paradise Valley, north of the park. she and her mate were killed by predators. These non-native swans threatened to displace native trumpeter swans in the region. However, beginning in 1989, mute swans were replaced on private lands with captive-raised trumpeter swans. Now more than one dozen adult trumpeter swans reside and nest in Paradise Valley. These swans have contributed to the park's popu- Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 lation of trumpeter swans. 139 . 7b Sandhill cranes (left) nest in Yellowstone each summer. Their guttural calls announce their presence long before most people see them— their gray Birds feathers blend in well with their grassland habitat. The all-white whooping crane, one of the world's most endangered birds, was the subject of recovery efforts in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem from 1975 until 2002. The last remaining whooping crane freguented the Centennial Valley of Montana (west of Yellowstone National Park). It was declared dead in the spring of 2002, marking the end of the experimental recovery efforts in Greater Yellowstone.

American white pelicans (right) spend the summer mainly on Yellowstone Lake and the Yellowstone River. These large white birds are often mistaken for trumpeter swans until their huge yellow beak and throat pouch are seen. Their black wing tips separate them from swans, which have pure white wings.

Ravens frequent parking lots, and have learned to unzip and unsnap packs. Do not allow them access to your food. Some ravens have also learned to follow wolves during hunts. They wait in trees or on the ground, until wolves finish at a carcass. Other animals—such as coyotes, eagles, black- billed magpies, and red Several raven relatives live in Yellowstone, including the Clark's nutcracker fox—also may (left) and gray jay (right). Like the raven, they often show up where people are be waiting eating. Do not feed them. They have plenty of natural food available. nearby

The dark gray American dipper (left) can be seen bobbing beside and diving into streams and rivers. The dipper, also called the water ouzel, dives into the water and swims in search of aquatic insects. Resources Yellowstone Thick downy feathers and oil from a preening & Issues 2008 gland enable this bird to survive the cold waters of Yellowstone. 140 . 7c

Yellowstone contains one of the most As of January 2008 . . Status significant, near-pristine aquatic ecosys- • By the Yellowstone's trout Number in Yellowstone 1960s, tems found in the United States. More than populations were in poor condi- • Native species: 11 634 lakes and ponds comprise approxi- tion and the angling experience —3 sport fish: cutthroat trout (3 mately 107,000 surface acres in Yellowstone had declined, prompting a major subspecies), Arctic grayling, moun- change in fisheries management. —94 percent of which can be attributed to tain whitefish • By the late 1980s, native trout had Yellowstone, Lewis, Shoshone, and Heart —8 non-game fish: 4 minnows: recovered in some areas under lakes. Some 1,000 rivers and streams make longnose dace, speckled dace, restrictions that allow catching up approximately 2,463 miles of running redside shiner, Utah chub; 3 suck- wild fish in a natural setting but water. ers: longnose sucker, mountain prohibit killing native sport fish. sucker, Utah sucker; mottled This may appear to be prime fish habitat, • In 2001, fishing regulations sculpin but waterfalls and other physical barriers changed to require the release of • Non-native: 5 species— brook all native sport fishes caught in prevent fish from colonizing the smaller trout, brown trout, lake trout, park waters. headwater streams and isolated lakes. rainbow trout, lake chub When Yellowstone became a national park, History • Four native fish at risk: fluvial form of Arctic grayling, westslope almost 40 percent of its waters were barren • When the park was established, cutthroat trout, Yellowstone fish including Lake, of — Lewis Shoshone many of its waters were fishless. cutthroat trout, Snake River cut- Lake, and the Firehole River above Firehole • Park waters were stocked with throat trout. Falls. That soon changed. native and non-native fish until • Threats to the fisheries: the mid-1950s. Early park managers transplanted fish into 1) Lake trout illegally introduced • Stocking changed the ecology of new locations, produced more fish in into Yellowstone Lake and its many Yellowstone waters as non- hatcheries, and introduced non-native spe- tributaries. native fish displaced or interbred Whirling disease now present cies. lakes fish; 2) Today, about 40 have the with native species. in Yellowstone Lake, the Firehole others either were not planted or have River, and Pelican Creek. reverted to their original fishless condition. 3) New Zealand mud snails.

The ranges and densities of the park's See Chapter 8, "Aquatic Invaders." native trout and grayling were substantially altered during the 20th century due to years, ending in 1996. Since then, National exploitation and introduction of non-native Park Service fisheries managers have species. Non-native species in the park focused on many of the same objectives: to include rainbow trout, brown trout, brook manage aquatic resources as an important trout, lake trout, and lake chub. part of the park ecosystem, preserve and Despite changes in species composition and restore native fishes and their habitats, and distribution, large-scale habitat degrada- provide anglers with the opportunity to tion has not occurred. Water diversions, fish for wild fish in a natural setting. water pollution, and other such impacts on aquatic ecosystems have rarely occurred here. Consequently, fish and other aquatic inhabitants continue to provide important food for grizzly and black bears, bald eagles, river otters, mink, ospreys, pelicans, loons, grebes, mergansers, ducks, terns, gulls, kingfishers, and herons.

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service main- Yellowstone Resources tained an aquatic research and monitoring & Issues 2008 program in the park for approximately 30 141 7c Fishing in • Lake trout must be killed if caught in Yellowstone National Park Yellowstone Lake and its tributaries. • Certain waters may be closed to protect About 75,000 of the park's three million Fish rare or endangered species, nesting birds, visitors fish each year. Angling is an anoma- or to provide undisturbed vistas. ly in a park where the primary purpose is to preserve natural environments and native Changes in Yellowstone Waters species in ways that maintain natural condi- • Historically, only Yellowstone cutthroat tions. Yet fishing has been a major visitor trout and longnose dace populated activity here for more than 100 years. Volunteer Angler Yellowstone Lake. Today, these two Fishing is a major industry in the Greater Report species are still present, but the longnose Yellowstone Ecosystem, and park anglers Anglers contrib- sucker, lake chub, redside shiner, and lake spend more than $4 million annually on ute to the park's trout have been introduced into the lake. fisheries database their sport. Angler groups have supported • Most of the Firehole River historically was by filling out the management actions, such as closing the fishless because Firehole Falls blocked fish Volunteer Angler Fishing Bridge to fishing in the early 1970s, from moving upstream. Today, anglers can Report card, which and have helped fund research on aquatic fish for rainbow trout, brown trout, brook is issued with each systems. fishing license. For trout, and Yellowstone cutthroat trout in Observing fish in their natural habitat is some park waters, the thermally influenced stream. also a popular activity for visitors. Fisheries these reports are • Historically, the Madison and Gibbon biologists monitored non-consumptive use the only data avail- rivers (below Gibbon Falls) were inhabited This of aquatic resources for about a decade able. informa- by westslope cutthroat trout, Arctic gray- tion helps manag- (ending in 1992) at Fishing Bridge and ling, mountain whitefish, mottled sculpin, ers monitor the LeHardys Rapids. The total number of visi- mountain sucker, and longnose dace. status offisheries tors each year to LeHardys Rapids, where Today, some of those species survive throughout the spawning cutthroat can be observed jump- park. (some in extremely depleted numbers) and ing the rapids, was about 134,000. Visitors at brown trout, rainbow trout, and brook Fishing Bridge, where fish can be seen in trout have been added to the mix. the waters below the bridge, numbered • When Heart Lake was first sampled for nearly 290,000 in 1988. fish, Yellowstone cutthroat trout, moun- Fishing Regulations tain whitefish, speckled dace, redside

Strict regulations allow ecological processes shiner, Utah sucker, Utah chub, and the to function with minimal interference from mottled sculpin were found.

humans and preserve fish populations for • Lewis and Shoshone lakes were historical- the animals that depend on them. Complete ly fishless because of waterfalls on the regulations are at all ranger stations and Lewis River. Today, the lakes support lake visitor centers. In summary: trout, brown trout, brook trout, Utah chub, and redside shiner. • Fishing is allowed only during certain seasons (usually late May through • The lower Lamar River and Soda Butte October). Creek historically were home to Yellow- stone cutthroat trout, longnose dace, • A permit is required (revenue stays in the longnose sucker, and mountain sucker. park to support park programs). Today, those species persist, but native • Terminal tackle must be lead-free (lead trout are threatened by hybridization with poisoning is a serious threat to waterfowl). rainbow trout and competition with brook • Bait fishing is prohibited, except for trout. children under 12 in a few areas (to prevent the introduction of non-native fish into park waters and because of an increased risk of death to fish caught with bait).

• All native sport fish—cutthroat trout, fluvial Arctic grayling, and mountain white-

Yellowstone Resources fish—must be released. & Issues 2008 142 — 7c Cutthroat Trout While the Yellowstone cutthroat trout is Oncorhynchus clarki essentially a Pacific drainage species, it has • Native to the Rocky Mountains. (naturally) traveled across the Continental Fish

• Three subspecies in Yellowstone: Divide into the Atlantic drainage. One Yellowstone cutthroat, Snake River cut- possible interconnection between the two throat, and the westslope cutthroat oceans in the Yellowstone area is Two (described below). Ocean Pass, south of the park in the Teton Wilderness. Here, it's possible for a fish to • The Yellowstone cutthroat originally across the Continental Divide at the occurred in the Yellowstone River, its swim Cutthroat As tributaries, the Snake River, and the Falls headwaters of Pacific Creek and Atlantic Food River. Creek and, thus, swim from the Pacific to Cutthroat trout the Atlantic via the Snake and Yellowstone spawn in shal- • The Snake River cutthroat is limited to the rivers. low water, where Snake River drainage. they become an • Require cold, clean water in streams or Management importantfood lakes. Yellowstone Lake and Yellowstone River resourcefor other Yellowstone wild- • Deep waters—even small lakes—provide a together contain the largest population of including the winter refuge. native cutthroat trout in the world. For life, grizzly bear. years, the fish in Yellowstone Lake • Spawn in rivers or streams in early May many through mid-July. have been intensively monitored and stud- A Cutthroat ied. In the 1960s, fisheries managers deter- Problem • Most important foods are aquatic insects mined that angler harvest was excessive Lake trout prey —mayflies, stoneflies, caddisflies, etc. and negatively impacting the fishery. on native cut- plus terrestrial insects that fall into the Increasingly restrictive angling regulations throat trout. If left water. were put into place. Cutthroat trout popula- unchecked, they • Also eat smaller fish, fish eggs, small could decimate tion numbers and the population age struc- rodents, frogs, algae and other plants, and the cutthroat trout ture were restored. Whirling disease and plankton. population in illegally introduced lake trout in Yellow- Yellowstone Lake, stone Lake now pose a significant threat to which would also the cutthroat trout population. (See Chapter impact predators 8, "Aquatic Invaders. ") that depend on cutthroat troutfor food. See Chapter 8 Westslope Cutthroat Trout Management for details. Oncorhynchus clarki lewisi Because the west- Park staff are searching for genetically pure • Evolved independently of other cutthroat slope cutthroat populations of westslope cutthroat trout trout species, but share their food and trout has interbred within the park. They conducted fish sur- habitat requirements. (See above.) with rainbow trout veys in small headwater streams in the north- and transplanted • Originally distributed throughout the western portion of the park, including Fan, Yellowstone cut- Madison and Gallatin river drainages. Specimen, and Grayling creeks. DNA anal- throat trout, its • Current distribution reduced to small ysis identified one genetically pure popula- genetics cannot headwater populations due to overfishing, tion in North Fork Fan Creek, but that pop- be assumed pure, competition, and interbreeding with non- ulation is now hybridizing with rainbow even in isolated fish. populations. native trout. Information is being gathered to

• Factors such as habitat loss and pollution determine if this population is a viable

appear negligible in the park. source of fish for current and future The park's fishing restoration efforts within the park. regulations include illustrations of these fish and additional information about

fishing in Yellowstone.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 143 — 7c Arctic Grayling • Like trout, grayling eat insects and other Thymallus arcticus montanus fish. Fish • Used to share similar habitat with native cutthroat trout and whitefish (with which Management

it is often confused). Current efforts on behalf of the grayling include sampling and tagging in Grebe and • Displaced by non-native species. Wolf lakes and downstream in the Gibbon • Now a rare and protected species in the River. Park staff wants to determine if gray- park. ling captured in the Gibbon River are sim- Whirling disease is a • Because of stocking in the 1920s, grayling ply downstream migrants displaced from parasitic infection of live in some lakes within the park the lakes or a distinct subpopulation of the fish caused by a particularly Grebe Lake. microscopic proto- fluvial form. Genetic sampling of grayling zoan that destroys • In these lakes, grayling spawn in June. handled during the Gibbon River surveys the cartilage of will also provide insight to this question. juvenile trout. Seriously infected fish have a reduced Mountain Whitefish ability to feed or Generally feeds from the bottom, eating Prospium williamsoni escape from preda- aquatic insect larvae. tors and mortality is • Slender silver fish, often confused with Does not seem to compete with trout for high. See Chapter 8 grayling. for details. food. • Lives in Yellowstone's rivers and streams. The whitefish has survived in its native • Requires deep pools, clear and clean water, waters for more than 100 years, unlike and is very sensitive to pollution. grayling. • Unlike other native fish, the whitefish

spawns in the fall.

Nongame Native Fish Minnows Suckers: longnose, mountain, and Utah • Small fish living in a variety of habitats and eating a variety of foods. • Bottom-dwelling fish that use ridges on their jaws to scrape aquatic flora and fauna • All four species eaten by trout. from rocks. Utah chub Gila atratria: Largest of the

• Eaten by birds, bears, otters, and brown minnows (12 inches); native to Snake trout. River drainage; seems to prefer slow, waters with abundant aquatic • Habitat distinguishes species: warm vegetation. Mountain sucker Castostomus platyrhyn- Rhinichthys cataractae: chus: cold, fast, rocky streams and some Longnose dace lakes. Most often found behind rocks and in Longnose sucker C. castostomus: eddies of cold, clear waters of the Yellowstone River drainage below the Yellowstone and Snake river drainages.

Grand Canyon; Yellowstone Lake and its Redside shiner Richarsonius balteatus: surrounding waters (introduced). Equally Minnow of lakes; native to the Snake River at home in warm and cold waters, streams drainage; has been introduced to Yellow- and lakes, clear and turbid waters. stone Lake, where it might compete with Utah sucker C. ardens: Snake River native trout because its diet is similar to drainage. that of young trout. Large shiners will also Mottled sculpin Cottus bairdi eat young trout.

• Lives in shallow, cold water throughout Speckled dace Rhinichthys osculus: Lives Yellowstone. in the Snake River drainage.

• Eats small insects, some fish and plants.

• Eaten by trout.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 144 . 7d

Reptiles & Amphibians

Yellowstone is home for a small variety of As of January 2008 . . 2006: Long-term, Vital Sign reptiles and amphibians. Glacial activity amphibian monitoring begins in Number in Yellowstone and current cool and dry conditions are Yellowstone. • Reptiles—six species: prairie likely responsible for their relatively low rattlesnake, bull snake, valley Status species diversity. However, they are wide- garter snake, wandering garter • Spotted and chorus frogs are spread in the park and often abundant at snake, rubber boa, sagebrush widely distributed with many breeding or wintering sites. lizard. breeding sites in the park. • four species: • Tiger salamanders are common To monitor amphibians in Yellowstone, Amphibians— boreal toad, boreal chorus frog, and abundant in some portions researchers are collecting data on the num- Columbia spotted frog, tiger sala- of the Yellowstone, such as the ber of wetlands that are occupied by breed- mander. northern range and Hayden ing populations of each amphibian species. Current Research Valley. If occupancy (the proportion of suitable • Boreal toads are abundant in 1991: NPS staff and Idaho State wetlands occupied) decreases, that species some local areas. University begin sampling park has probably declined. To implement moni- • None of the parks reptiles or habitats for reptiles and amphib- toring, researchers randomly selected amphibians are federally listed as ians. units, threatened or endangered. watershed known as catchments, 2000: Researchers begin inventory- • Scientists are concerned about the from within the four main drainage basins ing reptiles and amphibians. boreal toad, which has declined of Yellowstone (see map). Field crews search 2004: NPS Greater Yellowstone sharply in other parts of the West. potential amphibian habitat within the Network selects amphibian occur- catchments in June and July to document rence as a Vital Sign for monitor- the presence or absence of amphibians. ing ecosystem health. Researchers study the results to determine occupancy trends and factors that may be driving them.

Yellowstone provides a valuable study area; information about the status and trends of amphibians and reptiles here may shed light on declines documented in other high- elevation protected areas of the western U.S. Population declines may be caused by factors such as disease, drought or climate change, chemical contamination, non- native species, and habitat loss and frag- mentation. In addition, because many amphibians and reptiles congregate to breed or over winter, they can be adversely affected by disturbance or loss of key sites.

Amphibian Monitoring Sites

Monitored every year Monitored every 5 years

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 145 — 7d VALLEY GARTER SNAKE Habitat Thamnophis sirtalis fitchi • Thought to be common in the past, now in Identification Reptiles decline for no apparent reason. • Subspecies of the common garter snake. • Closely associated with permanent surface • Medium sized snake up to 34 inches long. water. • Nearly black background color with three • In Yellowstone observed only in the Falls bright longitudinal stripes running the River drainage in the Bechler region and length of the body, underside is pale yel- three miles south of the south entrance low or bluish gray. along the Snake River. • Most distinguishing characteristics of this Behavior subspecies in our region are the irregular • Generally red spots along the sides. active during the day.

• In the Yellowstone area it eats mostly toads, chorus frogs, fish remains, and earthworms; can eat relatively poisonous species.

• Predators include fish, birds, and carnivorous mammals.

Identification

• Most common reptile in the park.

• 6 to 30 inches long.

• Brown, brownish green, or gray with three light stripes—one running the length of the back and a stripe on each side. Habitat

• Usually found near water in all areas of the park.

• Eats small rodents, fish, frogs, tadpoles, salamanders, earthworms, slugs, snails, and WANDERING GARTER SNAKE leeches. T. elegans vagrans Behavior

• May discharge musk from glands at the base of the tail when threatened.

• Gives birth to as many as 20 live young in

late summer or fall.

BULLSNAKE Pituophis catenifer sayi Habitat Identification • In Yellowstone, found at lower elevations; • A subspecies of the gopher snake, is Descriptive photos drier, warmer climates; and open areas Yellowstone's largest reptile, ranging from and illustrations such as near Mammoth. 50 to 72 inches long. exist in numerous Behavior books about these • Yellowish with a series of black, brown, or • Lives in burrows and eats small rodents species; see "For reddish-brown blotches down the back; behavior that gave the gopher snake its More Information" the darkest, most contrasting colors are name. on pages 150-154 near the head and tail; blotches are shaped

for suggested titles. as rings around the tail. • Often mistaken for a rattlesnake because of its appearance and its defensive behav- • Head resembles a turtle's in shape, with a ior: disturbed, it will coil up, hiss Yellowstone Resources protruding scale at the tip of the snout and when & Issues 2008 loudly, vibrate its tail against the a dark band extending from the top of the and ground, producing a rattling sound. 146 head through the eye to the lower jaw. 7d RUBBER BOA Charina bottae Habitat & Behavior Identification • Eats rodents. • Infrequently encountered in Yellowstone, • May spend great deal of time partially bur- Reptiles perhaps due to its nocturnal and burrow- ied under leaves and soil, and in rodent ing habits. burrows. • One of two species of snakes in the United • Usually found in rocky areas near streams States related to tropical boa constrictors or rivers, with shrubs or trees nearby. and pythons. • Recent sightings have occurred in the • Maximum length of 24 inches. Both reptiles and Bechler region and Gibbon Meadows. amphibians are • Back is gray or greenish-brown, belly is ectothermic ("cold- lemon yellow; scales are small and smooth, blooded"), meaning making it almost velvety to the touch. they derive body heat from outside sources rather than generate

it internally. Reptiles PRAIRIE RATTLESNAKE have scaly, dry skin. Some lay eggs; Crotalis viridis viridis Habitat & Behavior others bear live • Only dangerously venomous snake Identification young. Amphibians in the park. have thin, moist glan- • Can be more than 48 inches in length. • Lives in the lower Yellowstone River areas dular skin permeable • Greenish gray to olive green, greenish to water and gases. of the park, including Reese Creek, brown, light brown, or yellowish with dark The young must pass Stephens Creek, and Rattlesnake Butte, through a larval brown splotches down its back that are where the habitat is drier and warmer than stage before chang- bordered in white. elsewhere in the park. ing into adults. Amphibious means • Usually defensive rather than aggressive. "double life" and • Only two snake bites are known during the reflects the fact that history of the park. salamanders, toads, and frogs live in water as larvae and on land for much of the rest of their lives. Habitat

• Usually found below 6,000 feet but in Yellowstone lives up to 8,300 feet.

• Populations living in thermally influenced areas are possibly isolated from others.

• Most common along the lower portions of the Yellowstone River near Gardiner, SAGEBRUSH LIZARD Montana and upstream to the mouth of Sceloporus graciosus graciosus Bear Creek; also occurs in Norris Geyser Basin, Shoshone and Heart Lake geyser Identification basins, and other hydrothermal areas. • Only lizard in Yellowstone. Behavior • Maximum size of five inches from snout to • tip of the tail; males have longer tails and Come out of hibernation about mid-May may grow slightly larger than females. and active through mid-September.

• • Gray or light brown with darker brown Diurnal, generally observed during warm, stripes on the back set inside lighter stripes sunny weather in dry rocky habitats. on the sides, running the length of the • During the breeding season males do body; stripes not always prominent and push-ups on elevated perches to display may appear as a pattern of checks down their bright blue side patches to warn off the back; underside usually cream or other males.

white. • Feed on various insects and arthropods.

• Males have bright blue patches on the • Eaten by bull snakes, wandering garter Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 belly and on each side, with blue mottling snakes, rattlesnakes and some birds. on the throat. • May shed tail when threatened or grabbed. 147 7d Habitat Amphibians • Breeds in ponds and Ashless lakes. • Widespread in Yellowstone in a great variety of habitats, with sizable populations in the Lamar Valley. Behavior

• Adult salamanders come out from

In the winter in hibernation in late April to June, depend- Yellowstone, some BLOTCHED TIGER SALAMANDER ing on elevation, and migrate to breeding tigrinum melanostictum amphibians go into Ambystoma ponds where they lay their eggs. water that does not Identification • migrations of freeze (spotted Mass salamanders crossing frogs), others enter • The only salamander in Yellowstone. roads are sometimes encountered, underground bur- particularly during or after rain. • Adults range up to about 9 inches, rows (salamanders including the tail. • After migration, return to their moist and toads), and homes under rocks and logs and in others (boreal • Head is broad, with a wide mouth. chorus frog) actually burrows. • Color ranges from light olive or brown to tolerate freezing nearly black, often with yellows blotches • Feed on adult insects, insect nymphs and and go into a heart- larvae, small aquatic invertebrates, frogs, stopped dormancy or streaks on back and sides; belly is dull tadpoles, and even small vertebrates. for the winter in lemon yellow with irregular black spots. leaf litter or under • Preyed upon by a wide variety of animals, • Larvae, which are aquatic, have a uniform woody debris. including fish, snakes, birds color and large feathery gills behind the mammals, and head; they can reach sizes comparable to such as sandhill cranes and great blue adults but are considerably heavier. herons.

BOREAL TOAD Bufo boreas boreas Toad or Frog? Habitat Toads can easily Identification • Once common throughout the park, now be distinguished • Yellowstone's only toad. appears to be much rarer than spotted from frogs by their • Adults range up to about 4 inches, frogs and chorus frogs; scientists fear this warty bodies, juveniles just metamorphosed from species has experienced a decline in the thick waists, and tadpoles are only one inch long. prominent glands Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. • behind their eyes. Stocky body and blunt nose. • Adults can range far from wetlands • Brown, gray, or olive green with irregular because of their ability to soak up water black spots, lots of "warts," and usually a from tiny puddles or moist areas. or white cream colored stripe down the • Lay eggs in shallow, sun-warmed water, back. such as ponds, lake edges, slow streams,

• Tadpoles are usually black and often and river backwaters. congregate in large groups. Behavior

• Tadpoles eat aquatic plants; adults eat insects, especially ants and beetles, worms and other small invertebrates.

• Sometimes active at night.

• Defends itself against predators by secret- ing an irritating fluid from numerous glands on its back and behind the eyes.

• Eaten by snakes, mammals, ravens, and large wading birds.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 148 7d

black spots; skin is bumpy; underside is white splashed with brilliant orange on the thighs and arms on many but not all Amphibians individuals.

• Tadpoles have long tails and may grow to 3 inches long. Habitat

• Found all summer along or in rivers, streams, smaller lakes, marshes, ponds, and rain pools.

• Lay eggs in stagnant or quiet water, in

globular masses surrounded by jelly. COLUMBIA SPOTTED FROG Behavior Rana luteiventris • Breeds in May or early June, depending on Identification temperatures. • Abundant and best known amphibian in • Tadpoles mature and change into adults Yellowstone. between July and September. • Maximum length is 3.2 inches, newly • Tadpoles eat aquatic plants, adults mostly metamorphosed juveniles less than one eat insects but are highly opportunistic in inch long. their food habits (like many other adult • Upper surface of the adult is gray-brown amphibians). to dark olive or even green, with irregular

Habitat

• Common, but seldom seen due to its small size and secretive habits.

• Live in moist meadows and forests near wetlands.

• Lays eggs in loose irregular clusters attached to submerged vegetation in quiet water. Behavior

• Breeds in shallow temporary pools or BOREAL CHORUS FROG ponds during the late spring.

Pseudacris maculata • Calls are very conspicuous, resemble the Identification sound of a thumb running along the teeth of a comb. • Adults reach 1 to 1.5 inches in length, and females are usually larger than males; • Males call and respond, producing a loud newly metamorphosed froglets are less and continuous chorus at good breeding than one inch long. sites, from April to early July, depending on elevation and weather. • Brown, olive, tan, or green (sometimes bi-colored) with a prominent black stripe • Usually call in late afternoon and evening.

on each side from the nostril through the • Tadpoles eat aquatic plants; adults mostly eye and down the sides to the groin; three eat insects.

dark stripes down the back, often incom- • Eaten by fish, predacious aquatic insect plete or broken into blotches. larvae, other amphibians, garter snakes, mammals, and birds. Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 149 7 MAMMALS zone. / Applied Ecol. 34: 926-940. Peacock, Doug. 1990. Grizzly Years. New York: Holt.

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population in YNP. MS thesis. Montana State University, Fox Bozeman. Staff reviewer: Doug Smith, Wolf Project Leader Byers, J. A. 2002. Fecundity and fawn mortality of northern

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Wildlife. 36(3):48. Caslick, J, and E. Caslick. 1999. Pronghorn distribution in winter 1998-1999. Mammoth, National Park Service. Crabtree, R. L. 1997. A new forest carnivore: Yellowstone's WY: YCR-NR-99-2. mountain fox. National Wildlife. 35. Goodman, D. 1996. Viability analysis of the antelope population Crabtree, R. L. 1993. Gray ghost of the Beartooth: on the taxo- wintering near Gardiner, Mont. Final report to NPS. nomic trail of the mountain fox. Yellowstone Science. 1:13-16. Houston, D.B. 1973. Letter to Superintendent regarding status Crabtree, R. L, and J. W. Sheldon. 1999. Coyotes and canid of pronghorn in YNP. January 24. Park archives box 119, coexistence in Yellowstone. Pages 127-163 in Clark, T. W., et Yellowstone National Park, WY al, editors. Carnivores in ecosystems: the Yellowstone experi- Keating, K. 2002. History of pronghorn population monitoring, ence. New Haven: Yale U Press. research, and management in Yellowstone National Park. Fuhrmann, R.T. 2002. Tracking down Yellowstone's red fox: Report to the NPS by USGS Northern Rocky Mountain Science Skis, satellites and historical sightings. Yellowstone Science. Center, Bozeman, MT. 10:1. White, P.J., et al. 2007. Partial migration and philopatry of

Fuhrmann, R. T. 1998. Distribution, morphology, and habitat use Yellowstone pronghorn. Bio. Conservation 135:518-526.

of the red fox in the northern Yellowstone ecosystem. M.S. Thesis. Bozeman: Montana State University. Wolf Staff reviewer: Douglas W. Smith, Wolf Project Leader Gehrt, Stanley D. and William R. Clark. 2003. Raccoons, coy-

otes, and reflections on the mesopredator release hypothesis Bangs, E.E. and D.W. Smith. In press. Re-introduction of the gray wolf into Yellowstone National Park and central Idaho. Wildlife Society Bulletin. 31(3): 836-842. IUCN Reintroduction Specialist Group. Gese, E.M. et al. 1996. Interactions between coyotes and red Brainard, S.M. et al. 2008. The effects of breeder loss on foxes in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. JMammology. wolves. J Wildlife Management. 72:89-98. 77(2): 377-382. Ferguson, Gary. 1996. The Yellowstone Wolves: The First Year. Henry, J. D. 1986. Red Fox: The Catlike Canine. Washington: Helena, MT: Falcon Press. Smithsonian Institution Press. Fischer, Hank. 1995. Wolf Wars. Helena, MT: Falcon Press. Kamler, Jan F. and Warren B. Ballard. 2002. A review of native Halfpenny, James C. 2003. Yellowstone Wolves: In the Wild. and nonnative red foxes in North America. Wildlife Society Helena, MT: Riverbend Press. Bulletin. 30(2): 370-379. Hebblewhite, M. and D.W. Smith. In press. Wolf community Swanson, B. J., R. T. Fuhrmann, and R. L. Crabtree. 2005. ecology: Ecosystem effects of recovering wolves in Banff and Elevational isolation of red fox populations in the Greater Yellowstone National Parks in M. Musiani, L. Boitani, and P Yellowstone Ecosystem. Conservation Genetics. 6:123-131. Paquet, editors, The world of wolves: new perspectives on Van Etten, K. W. 2006. Habitat selection by red fox in ecology, behavior and policy. Calgary: U Calgary Press Yellowstone National Park and mechanisms of coexistence Kauffman, M.J. et al. 2007. Landscape heterogeneity shapes with coyotes. M.S. Thesis. Fort Collins: Colorado State U. predation in a newly restored predator-prey system. Ecology

Etten, K. W., K. R. Wilson, and R. L. Crabtree. 2007. Habitat Van Letters. 10:1-11. use of red foxes in Yellowstone National Park based on snow Lopez, Barry. 1978. Of Wolves and Men. New York: Scribners. tracking and telemetry. J Mammalogy. 88:1498-1507. MacNulty, D.R. and L.D. Mech, D.W. Smith. 2007. A proposed Moose ethogram of large-carnivore predatory behavior, exemplified by the wolf. J Mammalogy. 88:595-605 Staff reviewer: P.J. White, Supervisory Wildlife Biologist Mclntyre, Rick, ed. 1995. War against the Wolf: America's Houston, Douglas B. Aspects of the social organizations of Campaign to Exterminate the Wolf. Stillwater, Voyageur moose. National Park Service Paper No. 37. MN: Press. Houston, Douglas B. 1968. The Shiras moose in Jackson Hole, Mclntyre, Rick. 1993. A Society of Wolves: National Parks and Wyoming. Technical Bulletin No. 1. Moose, WY: Grand Teton Battle Wolf. Stillwater, Press. Yellowstone Resources Natural History Association. the over the MN: Voyageur & Issues 2008 1997. Return of the Wolf to Tyers, Dan. 2003. Winter ecology of moose on the Northern McNamee, Thomas. The Yellowstone. New York: Henry Holt. 152 Yellowstone Winter Range. Doctoral dissertation. Montana 7 Mech, L. David. 1981. The Wolf: The Ecology and Behavior of an BIRDS Endangered Species. Minneapolis: U. Minnesota Press. Staff reviewer: P.J. White, Supervisory Wildlife Biologist

Mech, L. David and L. Boitani. 2003. Wolves: Behavior, Ecology, Follett, Dick. 1986. Birds of Yellowstone and Grand Teton & Conservation. U. Chicago Press. National Parks. Boulder: Roberts Rinehart. For More Peterson, Rolf et al. 2002. Leadership behavior in relation to Hansen, Skylar. 1984. The Trumpeter Swan—A White dominance and reproductive status in gray wolves. Can. J. Perfection. Flagstaff: Northland Press. Information Zool. 80: 1405-1412. Harmata, Al. 1994. Yellowstone's bald eagles. Yellowstone Phillips, Michael K. and Douglas W. Smith. 1996. The Wolves of Science. 2(3) Yellowstone. Stillwater, MN: Voyageur Press. McEneaney, Terry et al. 1998. Greater Yellowstone peregrine Schullery, Paul, ed. 1996. The Yellowstone Wolf: A Guide and falcons: their trials, tribulations, and triumphs. Yellowstone Sourcebook. Worland: High Plains Publishing Co. Science. 6(2) Shoemaker, Jennifer. 2005. The New Wolf Hunters. Podcast: McEneaney, Terry. Yellowstone Bird Report. Yellowstone Terra Videos, episode 208. terravideos.blogspot.com National Park. Annual. Smith, D.W. 2005. Ten years of Yellowstone Wolves. McEneaney, Terry. 1988. Birds of Yellowstone: A Practical Yellowstone Science, 13(1)7-33. Habitat Guide to the Birds of Yellowstone National Park, and conflicts: long, his- Smith, D.W. 2007. Wolf and human A bad Where to Find Them. Boulder: Roberts Rinehart Publishers.

tory. Pages 402-409 in M. Bekoff, editor, Encyclopedia of McEneaney, Terry. 1997. Harlequin ducks: noble ducks of turbu-

human-animal relationships. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. lent waters. Yellowstone Science 5(2): 2-7.

Smith, D.W. and Gary Ferguson. 2005. Decade of the Wolf: McEneaney, Terry. 2000. The common raven: Field notes on

Returning the Wild to Yellowstone. Guilford, CT: Lyons. an important Yellowstone predator in Greafer Yellowstone

Smith, D.W. and D.R. Stahler, M.S. Becker. In press. Wolf recolo- Predators: Ecology and Conservation in a Changing Landscape.

nization of the Madison headwaters area in Yellowstone in Proc, third biennial conference on the Greater Yellowstone Northern R.A. Garrott & P.J. White, editors, Large Mammal Ecology Ecosystem. Jackson, WY: Rockies Conservation Cooperative. in Central Yellowstone. Elsevier Academic Press-Terrestrial

Ecology Series. Peterson, Roger Tory. 1990. A Field Guide to Western Birds. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Smith, D.W. and E.E. Bangs. In press. Reintroduction of wolves

to Yellowstone National Park: History, values and ecosys- Sheffield, L. M. et al. 2001. Response of American kestrels

tem restoration in M. Hayward and M. Somers, editors, and gray-tailed voles to vegetation height and supplemental

J. 380-385. Reintroduction of Top-order Predators. Blackwell Scientific. perches. Can. Zoology 79:

Sibley, David. 2000. The Sibley Guide to Birds. York: Alfred Smith, D.W. et al. 2006. Wolf restoration in Yellowstone New A. Knopf. National Park. Pgs. 242-254 in D.R. McCullough, K. Kaji, and

M. Yamanaka, editors, Wildlife in Shiretoko and Yellowstone Skinner, M.P 1925. The Birds of Yellowstone National Park. Roosevelt Wildlife Bulletin. National Parks: Lessons in Wildlife Conservation from Two 3(1). World Heritage Sites. Hokkaido, Japan: Shiretoko Nature FISH Foundation. Staff reviewer: Todd M. Koel, Supervisory Fisheries Biologist Smith, D.W. et al. 2000. Wolf-bison interactions in Yellowstone Koel, Todd et al. Annual. Yellowstone Fisheries and Aquatic National Park J Mammalogy. 81(4):1 128-1 1 35. Sciences Report. National Park Service: Yellowstone. Stahler, D. R. 2000. Interspecific interactions between the com- Lilly, Bud and Paul Schullery. 2000. Bud Lilly's Guide to Fly mon raven and the gray wolf in Yellowstone National Park, Fishing the West. Portland, Publications. Wyoming: investigations of a predator and scavenger relation- New OR: Frank Amato ship. Master's thesis. Univ. of Vermont. Mathews, Craig and Clayton Molinero. 1970. The Yellowstone Fly Fishing Guide. New York: Lyons. VonHoldt, B.M. et al. 2008. The genealogy and genetic viability

of reintroduced Yellowstone grey wolves. Molecular Ecology. Parks, Richard. 1998. Fishing Yellowstone National Park. Helena, 17:252-274. MT: Falcon.

Wright, G.J. et al. 2006. Selection of northern Yellowstone Varley, John and Paul Schullery. 1998. Yellowstone Fishes. Harnsburg, PA: Stackpole. elk by gray wolves and hunters. J Wildlife Management. 70:1070-1078. Yellowstone National Park. Fishing Regulations. Annual. Wolverine REPTILES & AMPHIBIANS

Staff reviewer: Kerry Murphy, Wildlife Biologist Staff reviewer: Jeff Arnold, Fisheries Biologist

Consolo-Murphy, S. L, and M. Meagher. 1995. The status of Koch, Edward D. and Charles R. Peterson. 1995. Amphibians wolverine, Canada lynx, and fisher in Yellowstone National and Reptiles of Yellowstone and Grand Teton National Parks. Park in Proc. 3rd Biennial Conference on the GYE. Jackson, Salt Lake City: U Utah Press. WY: Northern Rockies Conservation Cooperative. Patla, D.A. 2000. Amphibians in native fish restoration areas,

Copeland, J. P., and J. S. Whitman. 2003. Wolverine in Wild Yellowstone National Park. Part II, Greater Yellowstone Mammals of North America: Biology, Management, and Amphibian Monitoring and Survey Project. Mammoth Hot Conservation. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Springs, WY. Herpetology Laboratory, Dept. of Biological Sciences, Idaho State Univ., Pocatello.

Patla, D. A. 1997. Changes in a population of spotted frogs in YNP between 1935 and 1995: the effects of habitat modification. Master's thesis. Idaho State Univ., Pocatello.

Patla, D.A. and Charles R. Peterson. 2004. Amphibian and reptile inventorying and monitoring: Grand Teton and Yellowstone Resources 2000-2003. Yellowstone National Parks Report. & Issues 2008 153 7

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 154 Park Issues 8 Aquatic Invaders

During the late 1880s when the Army The Issue Clean Your Boat! Yellowstone National Park, administered Clean Your Gear! Aquatic invaders can irreversibly the U.S. Fish Commission (a predecessor of • Remove all plants, animals, mud, damage the park's ecosystems. today's U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service) sand, and other debris from your stocked non-native fish in some park waters. Current Status boat and equipment. • In the U.S. currently, more than These stockings comprise the first known, • Rinse your boat, trailer, and 250 exotic (from another conti- deliberate introductions of non-native fish equipment with high-pressure hot nent) aquatic species and more to Yellowstone. Four trout species were water. than 450 non-native (moved out- introduced—brook, brown, lake, and rain- • Drain lake and river water from side their natural range) aquatic bilge area, livewell, and bow. Rainbow trout hybridize with native your boat species exist. other hidden compartments, away trout, thus diluting genetic diversity. All four • At least 6 invasive aquatic species from park waters. compete with and prey upon native trout. exist in Yellowstone's waters: • Dispose of all bait before entering 1 mollusk The other invasive aquatic species—New the park. Otherwise, seal bait in 4 fish Zealand mud snail and the microorganism plastic bags and place in park 1 exotic disease-causing causing whirling disease probably arrived trash containers. — microorganism via unaware boaters and anglers carrying • Dry all equipment in the sun for • Park staff continues to educate to 5 or treat equipment the organisms from other fishing locations up days visitors preventing the about with a 10 percent bleach solution. around the country. spread of aquatic invasive species. Repeat all of the above before you Angler and boater introduction of aquatic leave Yellowstone National Park. invasive species remain a serious threat to Yellowstone's aquatic ecosystem. Presently, invasive exotic aquatic species occur in streams, rivers, and lakes (both near the coasts and inland) all across the United States. We may never know exactly how whirling disease or mud snails were introduced to the park's waters, but anglers can help prevent other species from arriving.

For this reason, Yellowstone is publicizing this issue through a brochure and other information available to anglers and boaters in the park. The park's efforts join those of other agencies around the country working to protect the nation's aquatic ecosystems.

Mud Snails The New Zealand mud snail has invaded park waters. About one-quarter inch long (photo at right), the New Zealand mud snail forms dense colonies on aquatic vegetation and rocks along streambeds. The snails crowd out native aquatic insect communities, which are a primary food for fish. They also consume a majority of algae growth in park streams, another primary food for fish Yellowstone Resources • known locations & Issues 2008 and other native species. Strategies for deal- of New Zealand ing with this invader are being developed. mud snails 155 8

Aquatic Invaders: Lake Trout

Lake Trout • Many wildlife species, including the rizzl bear and bald eagle, Non-native lake trout have been 9 V ma de P end onthe c utthroat found in Yellowstone Lake and V , u ut for a ortlon of the ' r dl et - threaten the survival of native P f° , Most Predators can t catch lake Yellowstone cutthroat trout and ' trout because they live at greater other species that depend on the depths than cutthroat trout, native trout spawn in the lake instead of shal- History/Background | ow tributaries, and are too large • During the time the park stocked for many predators. Hydroacoustic work (using sonar-based fish fish, lake trout were introduced to finders) confirmed lake trout concentra- Cu e Statu * Lewis and Shoshone lakes. J? ?\ tions in the western portion of Yellowstone The fisheries staff ijis removinq i >y">w»» •. i„ mn^ ,„ ,,,„u+ +u~ t;„* a In 1994, an anqler cauqht the first . . also lake 9" "-netting: more Lake. These surveys revealed medium- verified lake trout in Yellowstone ^ ^ ^ than 200,000 lake trout have been sized (12-16 inches) lake trout tended to " r oved this waV since the mid reside in deeper water (greater than 130 . No one knows how lake trout A ^ feet) than Yellowstone cutthroat. Now biol- ' were introduced into Yellowstone , . ' Regulations encourage anglers to ogists can more easily target lake trout with- Lake, but it probably occurred catch lake trout; approximately several decades ago. out harming cutthroat trout. Hydroacoustic per year are caught. . One lake trout can eat approxi- ^,000 data also provides minimum abundance

B ' olo ts are parching the mately 41 cutthroat trout per * estimates of both cutthroat and lake trout, abundancef and distribution of which is invaluable information for long- ake troutin Ye»°wstone Lake, . If action is ' no taken, the cutthroat u term evaluation of our efforts. * With continued aggressive control trout population in Yellowstone efforts lake trout numbers can be Anglers are an important component in the Lake will likely fall to 10% of his- reduced and the impacts to cut- toric hiqhs lake trout management program. They have throat trout lessened. had the most success in catching lake trout between 15 and 24 inches long. These fish The lake trout is a large and aggressive are found in shallow, near-shore waters in predatory fish that has decimated cutthroat June and early July. Anglers have taken trout in other western waters. If its popula- approximately 30 percent of the lake trout tion is not controlled in Yellowstone Lake, removed from Yellowstone Lake. Fishing the impacts will reach far beyond the cut- regulations require anglers to kill all lake throat trout population. It has the potential trout caught in Yellowstone Lake and its to be an ecological disaster. tributaries. In 2001, regulations further restricted all cutthroat trout fishing to Tracking Lake Trout catch-and-release. Lake trout gill-netting begins after ice is About 80 percent of a mature lake trout's gone from the lake and continues into diet consists of cutthroat trout. Based on October. Since the mid-1990s, almost lake trout predation studies in Yellowstone 270,000 lake trout have been caught. Gill net Lake, fisheries biologists estimate that operations also provide valuable population approximately 41 cutthroat trout are saved data —numbers, age structure, maturity, each year for every lake trout caught. and potential new spawning areas—leading to more effective control. For example, dur- Lake trout probably can't be eliminated ing 1996, a lake trout spawning area was dis- from Yellowstone Lake. However, ongoing covered in the West Thumb of Yellowstone management of the problem can control Island. sci- lake trout population growth and maintain Yellowstone Resources Lake at Carrington Since then, & Issues 2008 entists found spawning areas in West the cutthroat trout population, which is a 156 Thumb between Breeze Point and Solution critical ecological link between Yellowstone Creek, and off the geyser basin. Lake and its surrounding landscape. 8

Aquatic Invaders: Whirling Disease

The Madison River in western Montana has Whirling Disease be rapidly spreading throughout long been considered a stable, world-class the western United States. Whirling disease is caused trout fishery. However, beginning in 1991, by a • Rainbow trout populations appear parasite attacking the developing studies in a section of the river outside to be most susceptible to the cartilage of young fish, resulting in Yellowstone National Park indicated this disease; recent laboratory tests skeletal deformities and sometimes was changing. The population of rainbow suggest cutthroat trout are also whirling behavior. Affected fish can- trout in the study section was declining dra- highly susceptible. Lake trout and not feed normally and are vulner- grayling appear immune to the matically. Testing completed in late 1994 able to predation. confirmed the presence of whirling disease, disease, and brown trout are History/Background resistant, but can be infected and which scientists believe is one of the factors • The disease first described in was can carry the parasite. in the decline. Europe more than 100 years ago. • There is no treatment. Whirling disease is caused by a microscopic It was detected in the U.S. in the Current Status mid-1950s. parasite that can infect trout and salmon; it • Testing for whirling disease • It most likely came to the U.S. in does not infect humans. The parasite attacks continues throughout the park. frozen fish products. the developing cartilage of fish between 1-6 • Pelican Creek's migratory cut- • Whirling disease has been con- months old and causes deformities of the throat trout population is fraction firmed in 20 states and appears to bony structures. An infected fish may have a of what it once was. deformed head and tail, blackened areas of the tail, and whirling swimming behavior.

It may be unable to feed normally and is vulnerable to predation.

Whirling Disease Life Cycle Myxobolus cerebralis Triactinomyxon

Tubifex

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 Months 157 —— 8 Little information exists on how the para- No effective treatment exists for wild trout site moves from one drainage to another in infected with this disease or for the waters

Aquatic the wild. In Montana, it is in the Madison, containing infected fish. Therefore, people Gallatin, and Yellowstone rivers. In Yellow- participating in water-related activities Invaders stone National Park, severe infections exist including anglers, boaters, or swimmers in the Yellowstone River and Pelican Creek; are encouraged to take steps to help prevent light infections exist in Clear Creek and the the spread of the disease. This includes

Firehole River. It has decimated the cut- thoroughly cleaning mud and aquatic throat trout population in Pelican Creek. vegetation from all equipment and inspect- ing footwear before moving to another In a June 1996 report, the Whirling Disease drainage. Anglers should not transport fish Task Force (Montana) stated that whirling between drainages and should clean fish in disease is "the most significant threat to the body of water where they were caught. wild, native and nonnative naturally reproducing trout populations in Montana," and "the relevant question appears no longer to

be if whirling disease will spread, but how

long it will take."

More Invaders on Their Way Several exotic aquat-

ic species are spreading through the United States, among them the Round goby species shown here. Fisheries biologists believe they are moving toward Yellowstone rapidly, Eurasian water-milfoil and may appear in Eurasian water-milfoil has spread through- park waters very out 45 of the 48 contiguous United States. Bighead carp soon. Their arrival In 2007, it was found in Montana. Now, might be delayed if Wyoming and Maine are the only states still anglers remember: free of this aquatic invader.

• It is illegal to use This exotic aquatic plant lives in calm any fish as bait in waters such as lakes, ponds, and calm areas Yellowstone of rivers and streams. It grows especially National Park. well in water that experiences sewage spills • It is illegal to or abundant motorboat use, such as Bridge transport fish Bay. among any waters Eurasian water-milfoil colonizes via stem Zebra mussels dog water intakes, in the Yellowstone fragments carried on boating equipment, crowd out bottom invertebrates, and region. which is another reason why boats should reduce lake productivity. • It is illegal to cleaned, rinsed, and inspect- Not shown: three zooplankton species be thoroughly introduce fish that can displace native zooplankton ed before entering Yellowstone National species of any kind that are important food for cutthroat Park. trout. These exotic zooplankton have to Yellowstone long spines, which make them difficult waters. for young fish to eat.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 158 — 8

Issues: Bear Management

Early visitors to Yellowstone National Park Bear Management • All garbage cans in the park developed an interest in the area's wildlife converted to a bear-proof design. especially the bears. Dumps as bear-viewing Feeding Bears • Garbage dumps closed within and • sites quickly became a primary tourist 1889: Bears gathered at night adjacent to the park. attraction. At the height of the bear-feeding to feed on garbage behind park Current Status era, hundreds of people nightly watched as hotels. • In 2007, the Yellowstone ecosys- • 1910: First incidents of bears seek- bears fed on garbage. tem grizzly bear population was ing human food along park roads. removed from the threatened list Despite the official prohibition in 1902 • 1916: First confirmed bear-caused under the Endangered Species against hand-feeding bears, Yellowstone human fatality. Act; it was listed in 1975. National Park became known as the place to Early Management • Decrease in human injuries from see and interact with bears. Roadside bears, • 1931: Park began keeping detailed 45 injuries per year in the 1960s to often receiving handouts from enthusiastic records of bear-inflicted human 1 injury per year in the 2000s. park visitors, caused "bear jams"— a traffic injuries, property damage, and • Decrease in property damage bear control actions. jam resulting from the presence of photoge- claims from 219 per year in the • 1931-1969: nic black bears, often with a park ranger average of 48 bear- 1960s to an average of 14 per year inflicted human injuries and more standing by to direct traffic, answer ques- in the 2000s. than 100 incidents of property tions, and even pose for pictures. • Decrease in number of bears that occurred annually in damage must be killed or removed from In 1931, as park visitation and the number of Yellowstone. the park from 33 black bears and bear-human conflicts began to increase, Changes in Management 4 grizzlies per year in the 1960s to park managers began keeping detailed • 1970: Yellowstone implemented a an average of 0.4 black bear and injuries, records of bear-caused human new bear management program 0.1 grizzly bear per year in the property damages, and subsequent nuisance to restore bears to subsistence on 2000s. bear control actions. Between 1931 and natural foods and to reduce prop- • Decrease in bear relocations away 1969 an average of 48 bear-inflicted human erty damage and human injuries. from the front country from more injuries and more than 100 incidents of • Strictly enforcing regulations than 100 black bears and 50 griz- property damage occurred annually in prohibiting the feeding of bears zlies per year in the 1960s to an 0.3 bear and 0.3 Yellowstone. and requiring proper storage of average of black human food and garbage. grizzly bear per year in the 2000s. In 1959 and continuing through 1971, Drs. John and Frank Craighead, who were brothers, conducted a pioneering ecological reduce its availability to bears, and the study of grizzly bears in Yellowstone. Their development and use of bear-proof garbage research provided the first scientific data cans; stricter enforcement of regulations about grizzlies in this ecosystem, which prohibiting the feeding of bears; and remov- enabled park staff to manage bears based al of potentially hazardous bears, habituat- on science and solve the underlying causes ed bears, and bears that damaged property leading to bear-human conflicts. in search of food.

In 1960, the park implemented a bear After 10 years of this bear management management program— directed primarily program, the number of bear-caused human at black bears— designed to reduce the injuries decreased only slightly, to an aver- number of bear-caused human injuries and age of 45 each year. Consequently, in 1970, property damages that occurred in the park Yellowstone initiated a more intensive bear and to re-establish bears in a natural state. It management program that included the included expanded efforts to educate visi- controversial decision to eliminate the tors about bear behavior and the proper way unsanitary open-pit garbage dumps inside Yellowstone Resources to store food, garbage, and other bear the park. The long-term goal was to wean & Issues 2008 attractants; prompt removal of garbage to bears off human foods and garbage and 159 8 back to a natural diet of plant and animal Park, the John D. Rockefeller, Jr. Memorial foods available throughout the ecosystem. Parkway, significant portions of Grand Teton National Park and the Bridger-Teton, Bear The Craigheads predicted bears would Shoshone, Gallatin, Caribou-Targhee, range more widely, resulting in more bear- Management Custer, and Beaverhead-Deer Lodge nation- human conflicts and subsequent bear mor- al forests. It also includes Bureau of Land talities. This indeed occurred during the Management lands and state and private program's first three years when an average lands in Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming. of 38 grizzly bears and 23 black bears were trapped each year and translocated from Research and management of grizzlies in roadsides and developed areas to back- greater Yellowstone intensified after the country areas. In addition, an average of 12 1975 establishment of the Interagency grizzly bears and 6 black bears were Grizzly Bear Study Team (IGBST). The removed from the population each of those team, in cooperation with state wildlife three years. However, bear-caused human managers in Idaho, Montana, and injuries decreased significantly to an aver- Wyoming, have monitored bears, estimated age of 10 each year. After 1972, the number the number and trend of the population, of bear-human conflicts and bear manage- and enhanced our understanding of grizzly ment control actions declined significantly. bear food habits and behavior in relation to humans and to other wildlife species. In 1983, the park implemented a new grizzly bear management program. The 1983 pro- In 1983, the Interagency Grizzly Bear gram emphasized habitat protection in Committee (IGBC) was created in order to backcountry areas. The park established increase the communication and coopera- "bear management areas" where recreation- tive efforts among managers of grizzly bears al use was restricted in areas with seasonal in all recovery areas. Twice each year, man- concentrations of grizzly bears. The goals agers meet to discuss common challenges were to minimize bear-human interactions related to grizzly bear recovery. They super- that might lead to habituation of bears to vise the implementation of public education people, to prevent human-caused displace- programs, sanitation initiatives, and ment of bears from prime food sources, and research studies to benefit the grizzly bear to decrease the risk of bear-caused human populations in Yellowstone and the other injury in areas with high levels of bear activ- recovery areas.

ity. continues today. This program Scientists and managers believe that, despite the continuing growth in human use of Listing As a Threatened Species greater Yellowstone, the grizzly population In 1975, the grizzly bear in the lower 48 has experienced robust population growth states was listed as threatened under the since 1986. Cub production and survival Endangered Species Act, in part, because have been high and bears are raising cubs in the species was reduced to only about two nearly all portions of the recovery area. percent of its former range south of Canada. More and more frequently, bears have been Five or six small populations were thought seen well outside Yellowstone National to remain, totaling 800 to 1,000 bears. The Park, south into Wyoming's Wind River southernmost—and most isolated— of those Range, north throughout the Gallatin populations was in greater Yellowstone, Range, and east of the Absarokas onto the where 136 grizzly bears were thought to live plains. in the mid-1970s. By radio tracking, trapping, and aerial The listing of the grizzly for protection observation, scientists know bears are dis- under the Endangered Species Act resulted persing into new habitat. In 2006, scientists in cessation of grizzly bear hunting in the estimated 549 grizzly bears lived in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, and the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. development of numerous plans and guide- Approximately 175 of these bears have home lines to protect the remaining bears and ranges wholly or partially in Yellowstone their habitat within an identified recovery National Park. area. The Yellowstone grizzly bear recovery

Yellowstone Resources area is approximately 9,500 square miles & Issues 2008 and includes all of Yellowstone National 160 irizzly Bear Management

The grizzly bear was listed as a threatened species in 1975, which required On July 28, 1975, under the authority of the recovering the species to a self-sustaining population. Endangered Species Act (ESA), the U.S. Fish Background and Wildlife Service (USFWS) listed the 1975: The grizzly bear is listed as a threatened species. grizzly bear as a threatened species. A 1993: A recovery plan is implemented with three specific recovery goals that primary goal of the ESA is to recover have to be met for six straight years. threatened or endangered species to self- 2000: A team of biologists and managers from the USPS, NPS, USFWS sustaining, viable populations that no longer and the states of Idaho, Wyoming, and Montana complete the Draft this need protection. To achieve goal, Conservation Strategy for the Grizzly Bear in the Greater Yellowstone federal and state agencies developed and Ecosystem. implemented a Grizzly Bear Recovery Plan 2000-2002: Public comment periods included meetings held in Montana, and a Conservation Strategy. Wyoming, and Idaho; total number of comments: 16,794.

2002: The Conservation Strategy is approved.

The Grizzly Bear Recovery Plan 2003: The recovery goals are met for the sixth year in a row. Until recently, the Grizzly Bear Recovery 2005: The USFWS proposes removing the grizzly bear from the list of threat- Plan involved three parameters with recov- ened species. 2006: The Grizzly Bear Recovery Plan is modified to update methods of ery goals. They were based on research cur- estimating population size and sustainable mortality. rent when the plan was developed in 1993. The parameters were: Grizzly Bear Recovery Plan Objectives 1. Estimated percent of total mortality of independent aged females not to 1. Annually calculate the adult female grizzly exceed 9%.

bears with cubs-of-the-year (COY) popula- 2. Estimated percent of total mortality of independent aged males not to tion using aerial and ground observations. exceed 15%.

Goal: Average 15 adult females with COY 3. Estimated percent mortality from human causes for dependent young on a 6-year running average both inside the not to exceed 9%. recovery zone and within a 10-mile area 4. Demographic objective of 48 females producing cubs annually. immediately surrounding the recovery Conservation Strategy Highlights

zone. This goal was achieved every year. 1. Establish population and habitat triggers that initiate a biological review

of the species if the population or habitat fall below certain threshold 2. Monitor grizzly bear population trends and levels. analyze consequences of human activities 2. Protect habitat. and development on bears in 18 Bear 3. Monitor changes in grizzly genetic diversity, major food sources, bear Management Units (BMUs) within the predation of livestock, private land development inside the recovery recovery area. Most BMUs contain com- area, hunter- related bear deaths, and cub production, mortality, and plete spring, summer, and fall habitat for distribution. grizzly bears. Goal: To have 16 of 18 BMUs Current Status occupied by at least one female with young In 2007, the grizzly bear population in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem from a running 6-year sum of observations was removed from the federal threatened species list. However both the and no two adjacent BMUs unoccupied. Recovery Plan and Conservation Strategy remain in place to continue moni- Occupancy required verified sightings or toring grizzly bear populations. tracks of at least one female with young at least once in each of 16 BMUs during a 6-year period. This goal was achieved every year.

3. The rate of human-caused grizzly bear mortality, especially of adult females, is a Yellowstone Resources key factor in the potential recovery of the & Issues 2008 161 8 population in the Yellowstone ecosystem. working relationships among management Therefore, recovery cannot be achieved if agencies, landowners, and the public to Bear mortality limits are exceeded during any ensure public support, continue application two consecutive years. Goals: Known of best scientific principles, and maintain Management, human-caused mortality is no more than 4 effective actions to benefit the coexistence Grizzly percent of the population estimate; and of grizzlies and humans in the ecosystem. It females comprise no more than 30 percent incorporates existing laws, regulations, pol- of the known human-caused mortality. icies, and goals such as those of the Grizzly The total mortality goal was achieved; Bear Recovery Plan. the female ratio was exceeded in 2004 and Flexibility in 2005. the Strategy • Grizzly/human conflict management and Since 1993, scientists have developed new bear habitat management are high priori- methods for estimating population size and ties in the recovery zone, is sustainable mortality. Redoing the Grizzly which known as the Primary Conservation Area (PCA). Bear Recovery Plan would have taken at Bears are favored when grizzly habitat and least five years, during which time scientists other land uses are incompatible; grizzly would be using outdated models for moni- bears are actively discouraged con- toring the grizzly bear. Instead, managers and trolled in developed areas. decided to revise the plan by publishing a new rule in the Federal Register that • State wildlife agencies have primary described the changes. responsibility to manage grizzly bears outside of national parks, including bears The recovery plan now has four demo- on national forests; national parks manage graphic and sustainable mortality goals for bears and habitat within their jurisdictions. the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, which • The goal to sustain a grizzly bear popula- are listed in the table below. tion at or above 500 bears includes the The Grizzly Conservation Strategy entire Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem.

The conservation strategy is the primary • State and federal wildlife managers will long-term guide for managing and monitor- continue to monitor the grizzly population ing the grizzly bear population and assuring and habitat conditions using the most fea-

sufficient habitat to maintain recovery. It sible and accepted techniques, including emphasizes coordination and cooperative the maintenance of a radio-collared sample

Grizzly Bear Recovery Plan: New Population Monitoring Criteria

Population Objectives Was the objective achieved?

01 02 03 04 05 06 07

1 Estimated percent of total mortality of independent aged females not to exceed 9%.

2 Estimated percent of total mortality of independent aged males not to exceed 15%.

3 Estimated percent mortality from human causes for dependent young not to exceed 9%.

4 Demographic objective of 48 females producing cubs annually. Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 162 8

Bear Management, Grizzly

of bears and scientific methods to assess What Is Next habitat conditions and changes on a broad Completion of a conservation strategy does geographic scale. not in itself propose or accomplish a change Removing nuisance bears will be conserva- in status of the grizzly bear population. tive and consistent with mortality limits The conservation strategy is a commitment outlined above, and with minimal removal by the responsible agencies to long-term of females. Managers will emphasize management of grizzly bears and their removing the human cause of conflict rath- habitat in ways that are compatible with er than removal of a bear. human occupation and enjoyment of greater Managers have more flexibility to manage Yellowstone. nuisance grizzlies, particularly bears. male In 2005, the USFWS proposed delisting the Bears may be relocated as many times as Yellowstone grizzly population; it became judged prudent managers. by official in 2007. Even so, scientists will con- Management areas, previously used to tinue to monitor the long-term recovery delineate differences in land-management goals for grizzly bears. When conditions strategies, are eliminated. Decisions affect- deviate from these goals, a recommendation ing grizzly bears and/or their habitat will be can be made for a formal status review by based on existing and future management USFWS to determine if the Yellowstone plans incorporating input from biologists, grizzly bear population needs to be relisted other professional land managers, and under the Endangered Species Act. affected publics.

Outside the PCA, state management plans define where grizzly bears are acceptable. These decisions will be made with input from affected groups and individuals.

Managers will periodically share information, implement coordinated management actions, ensure data collection, and identify research and financial needs across state and federal jurisdictions.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 163 T —— 8

Issues: Sioprospecting & Benefits- sharing

Yellowstone's hydrothermal microbes The Issue 1997: The park signed a benefits- (called thermophiles) have been the subject s harin 9 agreement with Diversa Should researchers who study mate- of scientific research and discovery for more Corporationr ensuring a por- rial obtained under a Yellowstone discoveries t,on of the,r future profits from than 100 years. One of these —of National Park research permit be **** m Yellowstone National the uses for Thermus aquaticus—has led to required to enter into benefits-

• . • 1 1 benefits far , 1 1 Park wi qo toward Kpark resource scientific and economic beyond sharing agreements with the ? n what anyone could have imagined. Today, Service using National Park before , P^f, , , „ + u u 1999: le a challenge put on hold several dozen scientific research projects their research results for any 9 implementationf of this agree- commercial purpose? sponsored by universities, NASA, and cor- ment until an environmental porations—are underway in the park to Definitions analysis (EA or EIS) is completed. investigate thermophiles. (See Chapter 4 for Bioprospecting is the search for Lu "en X*X" s more information on these life forms.) Some useful scientific information from V , u • NPS p u b 1 1 s h e a draft environ- nr w,^ a m\ r *\ rflrn „ r„ c d of their discoveries have been used for com- genetic or biochemical resources. , . . . . . , f , nnf !,..„„ mental impact statement (DEIS Z a~ ~+ rr^\ n " ,.' mercial purposes, which is the heart of the It does not require large-scale . , . , , , , nel P d ecid e eth er be n e resource consumption typical of *> . . . . benefits-sharing issue. f t M Jf snarm 9 should be national NPS extractive industries associated . fo a ks nationwide. with the term "prospecting," such ' P History ^ J as logging and mining. JT^,? P^P'^TT Careful scientific study of these curious life The final EIS is expected this year, Benefits sharing is an agreement forms began in earnest in 1966, when Dr. Eacn ear approximately 40 * V ' between researchers, their insti- discovered a to grow researcn err are granted to Thomas Brock way tutions, and the National Park P scientists to studyf* microbes in one of the microorganisms living in the SprvifP that returns benefits to Yellowstone. Research permits extraordinarily hot waters (more than the parks when results of research are only granted for projects that 158°F/70°C) of Mushroom Pool in the have potential for commercial meet stringent park protection Basin. This bacterium, T. development. Lower Geyser standards. aquaticus, proved essential to one of the History . Research microbiologists con- most exciting discoveries in the 20th 1966: The microorganism Thermus tinue f inc j microorganisms in t0 century. aquaticus was discovered in a Yellowstone that provide insights hot spring. Yellowstone int0 evolution, aid in the search Two decades ago, our ability to study DNA

1985: An enzyme from T. aquaticus, for life on other planets, and was limited. Things we take for granted which is synthetically reproduced, reveal how elements are cycled today such as DNA fingerprinting to identi- contributed to the DNA finger- through ecosystems. fy criminals, DNA medical diagnoses, DNA- » printing process that has earned > 5ee c^aprer 4> ljfe jn Extreme Heat based studies of nature, and genetic engi- hundreds of millions of dollars for neering were unimaginable. But in 1985, the the patent holder. polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was invented. PCR is an artificial way to do something that living things do every day replicate DNA. PCR is the rocket ship of

replication, because it allows scientists to make billions of copies of a piece of DNA in a few hours. Without PCR, scientists could not make enough copies of DNA quickly enough to perform their analyses. An enzyme discovered in T. aquaticus— called Taq polymerase—made PCR practical.

Because it came from a thermophile, Taq Yellowstone Resources polymerase can withstand the heat of the & Issues 2008 PCR process without breaking down like 164 ordinary polymerase enzymes. A laboratory version of this enzyme is now used and has allowed DNA studies to be practical and ronments of other planets. Research on affordable. park microbes also has proved useful in producing ethanol, treating agricultural Many other species of microbes have been food waste, bioremediating chlorinated found in Yellowstone since 1966. Each of hydrocarbons, recovering oil, biobleaching these thermophiles produces thousands of paper pulp, improving animal feed, increas- uncommon, heat-stable proteins, some use- ing juice yield from fruits, improving deter- ful to scientists. Researchers estimate more gents, and a host of other processes. than 99 percent of the species actually present in Yellowstone's hydrothermal features Controversy have yet to be identified. Along with this exciting new dimension in Science understanding park resources through research, questions have been raised about Because much of modern biotechnology is whether or not bioprospecting should be based on the use of enzymes in biochemical allowed. Bioprospecting is biological reactions —including genetic engineering, research associated with the development of fermentation, and bioproduction of antibi- commercial products. Bioprospecting does otics—heat-stable catalytic proteins that not require the sort of grand-scale resource allow reactions to occur faster are increas- consumption required by the kinds of ingly important in the advancement of sci- extractive industries typically associated ence, medicine, and industry. In addition, with the term "prospecting," such as timber genetic studies using knowledge developed harvesting and mining. In this case, the from the study of microbes is increasingly "prospecting" is for new knowledge. As important to medical and agricultural required by law, research is encouraged in research. Yellowstone's geology provides a Yellowstone if it does not adversely impact wide variety of high-temperature physical park resources and visitor use and enjoy- and chemical habitats that support one of ment. Importantly, only research results, i.e. the planet's greatest concentrations of information and insight gained during thermophilic biodiversity. Research on research on park specimens, may be com- these thermophiles can contribute to fur- themselves. ther advances. mercialized—not the specimens Nonetheless, some people question the Ongoing Research appropriateness of allowing scientists to Approximately 40 research studies are being perform research in a national park if they conducted in Yellowstone on the ecological are bioprospectors. roles and community dynamics of micro- The most famous commercial application Yellowstone Resources organisms, and how to search for traces of for Yellowstone-related research was the & Issues 2008 similar life forms in the inhospitable envi- invention of the polymerase chain reaction 165 8 (PCR), discussed above. PCR generated sig- tists spliced the most useful genes into nificant profits for Cetus Corporation, microbial "livestock," and these microbes Bioprospecting which had patented the processes. In 1991, then produced the compound or enzyme. Hoffman-La Roche, a Swiss pharmaceutical (Diversa no longer exists; it merged with Benefits- & company, purchased the U.S. patents for a another corporation.) As with all NPS sharing reported $300 million. Ten years later, research specimens, the Yellowstone annual sales of Taq polymerase reportedly microbes and DNA collected in the park were S100 million. Yellowstone National remain in federal ownership and are never Park and the United States public have sold. received no direct benefits even though this commercial product was developed from Into Court the study of a Yellowstone microbe. Shortly after the Yellowstone-Diversa Hoffman-La Roche and the researchers CRADA was signed, opponents sued acted lawfully throughout the development NPS in federal court arguing that the policy and sales of Taq polymerase. At issue is put into play a new commercial activity and whether or not the National Park Service was illegal and inappropriate in parks. In (NPS) should require researchers who study 1999, the judge ordered NPS to prepare an T. aquaticus as seen material obtained under a research permit environmental analysis of the potential through a scanning impacts of benefits-sharing agreements and electron microscope to enter into benefits-sharing agreements with NPS before using their research results suspended the CRADA pending completion for any commercial purpose. of the analysis. In 2000, the court dismissed the remainder of the case, ruling: Benefits-Sharing 1) the CRADA was consistent with the NPS Federal legislation authorizes the National mission of resource conservation; 2) Park Service to negotiate benefits-sharing bioprospecting did not constitute a con-

agreements that provide parks a reasonable sumptive use; 3) bioprospecting did not rep- share of profits when park-based research resent a "sale or commercial use" of park yields something of commercial value. resources; and 4) Yellowstone fell within the Similar agreements are used by other coun- definition of a federal laboratory and appro- tries to allow the host nation to benefit from priately implemented the CRADA. commercial discoveries that depended on NPS is conducting an environmental impact its natural heritage. In 1997, Yellowstone statement (EIS) to decide whether benefits- National Park became the first U.S. national sharing should be a part of NPS policy for park to enter into a benefits-sharing agree- parks nationwide. Through a public pro- ment with a commercial research firm. The cess, the EIS examines the potential impacts Yellowstone-Diversa Cooperative Research of implementing and not implementing ben- and Development Agreement (CRADA) efits-sharing agreements. provided that Diversa Corp. would pay The study of natural resources has long Yellowstone $100,000 over five years (even if a source of knowledge that benefits research resulted in no commercially valu- been humanity. For example, more than half of able discoveries) and included provisions of the pharmaceuticals used in the United no-cost scientific analyses and laboratory States contain at least one major active com- equipment, plus a royalty based on any sales derived from or patterned after natu- revenues related to results from research in pound ral global biodiversity the park. The CRADA did not authorize compounds. As declines, national parks and other preserves Diversa to collect specimens or conduct increasingly important as sources For more detailed research in the park. Permission to conduct become information, including scientific study to research can only be acquired by applying of genetic diversity for the 2000 court discover knowledge to develop new solu- for a research permit. In Yellowstone, an decision, go to tions the faced humanity. interdisciplinary team requires research to problems by www.nature.nps.gov/ permit applicants to abide by strict resource benefitssharing protection standards. Diversa, which had research sites around the world, was collecting DNA samples directly from nature and Yellowstone Resources screening the genes for the ability to pro- & Issues 2008 duce useful compounds. In its labs, scien- 166 8

Issues: Bison Management

About Brucellosis The Issue captivity. Brucellosis, caused by the bacterium • The state of Montana, like other About half of Yellowstone's Brucella abortus, can cause pregnant cattle states, has spent much time, bison test positive for exposure to their calves. disease is trans- effort, and money attempting to to abort The brucellosis, a disease that can cause eradicate brucellosis in cattle. mitted primarily when uninfected, suscepti- bison and domestic cattle to abort • Elk in the greater Yellowstone ble animals come into direct contact with their first calf. Because Yellowstone area also carry brucellosis. infected birth material. No cure exists for bison migrate into Montana, their brucellosis in wild animals. All cattle that exposure to brucellosis concerns the Current Status use overlapping ranges with bison are vacci- state's cattle industry. • A bison management plan has been in effect since December nated for brucellosis, as are bison released History/Background 2000. after capture. (See also timeline on pages 168-169) • A few adaptive management • Bison probably contracted brucel- Although rare in the United States, humans changes have been made: losis from cattle raised in the park can contract brucellosis through unpasteur- vaccinating bison and cattle, to provide milk and meat for park ized, infected milk products or contact with state-regulated hunting, allowing visitors in the early 1900s. tissue. some bison into small manage- infected birth Brucellosis cannot be • Brucellosis has little impact on the ment areas outside the park dur- contracted by eating cooked meat from an growth of the bison population. ing winter. infected animal. In humans, the disease is • The disease may be contracted by • A few tribes are conducting called undulant fever. With milk pasteuriza- contact with infected tissue and bison hunts north of Yellowstone tion, which is required by U.S. law, people in birth fluids of infectious cattle or according to their 1855 treaties the United States have virtually no risk of bison that are shed at the end of with the United States. pregnancy. contracting the disease. And if they do, they • The human form of the disease, Agencies Involved can be treated with antibiotics. called undulant fever, is no longer National Park Service (NPS)

Brucellosis was discovered in Yellowstone a public health threat in the U.S. Animal Plant Health Inspection bison in 1917. They probably contracted the • A vaccine used in cattle, RB51, is Service (APHIS) disease from domestic cattle raised in the being used for Yellowstone bison. U.S. Forest Service (USFS) park to provide milk and meat for visitors • Bison have not been known to Montana Department of Livestock (DOL) staying at hotels. Now about 50 percent of transmit brucellosis to cattle under natural conditions although Montana Department of Fish, the park's bison test positive for exposure to transmission has occurred in Wildlife & Parks (FWP) the brucella organism. However, testing positive for exposure (seropositive) does not mean the animal is infectious and capable of transmitting brucellosis. (For example, people who received smallpox immunization during their childhood will test positive for smallpox antibodies even though they are not infected with the disease and cannot

transmit it.) Research indicates less than half of seropositive female bison are infectious at the time of testing. Male bison do not transmit the disease to other bison. (Transmission between males and females during reproduction is unlikely because of the female's protective chemistry.) Bison have a very low probability of transmitting Bison outside the North Entrance brucellosis to cattle under natural condi- in Gardiner Montana. Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 tions, in part because management strategies prevent bison from commingling with 167 cattle. « I «

-^J 00 I I T 8 Montana Montana ends hunt Interim 94 bison died in No bison die in manage- receives due to public outcry. Bison management ment actions. brucellosis-free NPS prepares EA Manage- actions. August: Almost 8,000 acres Bison status; begins enabling park staff to ment Plan Draft EIS released. winter wildlife habitat public hunts haze and shoot bison begins. Receives 67,500+ acquired by federal govern- Management for bison. outside the park. public comments. ment or put under ease- ment. December: Federal agencies Montana files lawsuit Almost 600 bison Unusually severe winter. withdraw from agreement against NPS; settlement than bison killed in public More 1,000 shot with Montana to produce requires EIS preparation. or shipped to slaughter. hunt. an EIS.

Park managers face infected with brucellosis, the entire herd is numerous uncer- quarantined and may be slaughtered. tainties about how to Federal and state indemnity funds partially best manage and compensate the livestock producer for this preserve bison while loss. addressing the issue Because of concern over losing brucellosis of brucellosis- class-free status, livestock regulatory agen- infected wildlife in cies recommend an aggressive strategy to Yellowstone achieve the goal of brucellosis eradication. A National Park. In the National Academy of Sciences review panel absence of data to suggested that brucellosis eradication is not describe bison- possible in wildlife with the current tech- brucella interactions, nology. panel managing So far, research The recommended assumptions are based on the best available shows that bison bison and livestock to minimize transmis- information. Studies conducted on cattle calves pose no risk to sion risks. cattle. The risk of and brucella offer clues to how the disease Keeping bison and livestock separated is brucellosis transmis- may function in bison. Current information sion in the wild one part of the current interagency manage- shows both species exhibit very similar clin- occurs only during ment plan (described on pages 169-170). ical signs of brucellosis infection and very the time afterbirth Vaccinating cattle bison is another. similar for disease and and its residue methods transmitting the RB51 is a brucellosis vaccine safe for bison remain on the to other individuals. However, a scientific ground. Bison review of published and unpublished data calves, yearlings, and adult males. Unlike consume most of other vaccines, animals vaccinated indicates bison differ from cattle in their with these materials. with will not test positive for brucello- response to vaccines and possibly to stan- RB51 battery of diagnostic dard testing for the disease. In addition, the sis with the standard Vaccination of Yellowstone majority of elk in the Greater Yellowstone tests. some bison in spring 2004; it is limited to area have a brucellosis exposure rate up to 3 began calves yearlings captured at the bound- percent; but elk that use feed grounds in and Wyoming outside of Yellowstone National ary and then released back into the park. Park show exposure rates up to 35%. This Developing a Bison disease reservoir may be a brucellosis trans- Management Plan mission risk to bison. Studies are being conducted on wild bison to better understand In 1985, the year that Montana received the bison-brucella relationship, and to study brucellosis class-free status, the state initiat- these other questions. ed a public bison hunt along the north boundary near Reese Creek and areas along Cattle-Bison Conflicts the west boundary near West Yellowstone. Federal and state agencies and the livestock During the severe winter of 1988-89, 569 industry have spent much time and money bison were killed. The resultant nationwide to eradicate brucellosis from cattle. States controversy caused the Montana Legis- accomplishing this task receive "brucellosis lature to rescind authorization for the hunt.

class-free" status and can export livestock Beginning in 1990, while Montana and the without restrictions and costly disease test- federal agencies were preparing a long-term ing. Montana attained this status in 1985. plan, Montana needed an interim manage- Yellowstone Resources Brucellosis infections in two Montana cattle ment plan to protect private property, pro- & Issues 2008 herds would downgrade the state's status vide for human safety, and protect the 168 and adversely affect the finances of ranch- state's brucellosis class-free status. NPS ers. When one cow in a cattle herd becomes complied with an environmental assessment f f February: Federal judge FWP & APHIS open quarantine facility; 2 bison killed; no calves 8 orders state & federal several dozen bison calves taken from enter quarantine facility. agencies into mediation Yellowstone for project. DOL & APHIS begin 38 bison killed in the state to work out differences. vaccinating captured bison. bison hunt; 13 killed in the Bison August: Final EIS FWP begins bison hunt on November 15. Nez Perce hunt. released. During years 2-5 of the Management December: Records of Bison Management Plan, Decision signed by 907 bison shipped to slaughter or killed. more than 200 bison are federal and state govern- 87 calves enter quarantine facility. shipped to slaughter or ments. 46 bison killed in bison hunt. killed.

(EA) that provided for limited NPS management of bison through hazing, monitoring, and shooting outside of park boundaries at bcrmLO the request and under the authority of the One Of Americas Last free Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks. In 1992, the state of Montana entered into an agreement with NPS, the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Forest Service (USFS), and the USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) to develop a long-term management plan and environmental impact statement (EIS) for managing bison migrating from Yellowstone into Montana. Developing that plan would take until 2000.

Lawsuit Filed and seronegative pregnant females would be The last public hear- In January 1995, the state of Montana filed a sent to slaughter. Other seronegative bison ing on the draft EIS, held in Minneapolis, lawsuit against NPS and APHIS because it were to be released on public land. At their MN, was preceded by believed the federal agencies were asking discretion, Montana could shoot any a rally organized by the state to implement conflicting manage- untested bison in the West Yellowstone area area tribes. ment actions. NPS wanted more tolerance that they could not capture. for bison on winter range outside the park; This plan began during the winter of 1996- APHIS said if bison from an infected popu- 97, the most severe winter since the 1940s. lation ranged free in Montana, the state Hundreds of bison migrated across the could lose its brucellosis class-free status. In north and west boundaries. By the end of the settlement, APHIS agreed to not down- the winter, 1,084 bison had been shot or sent grade Montana's status if bison migrated to slaughter. Public outcry was much stron- from Yellowstone into Montana as long as ger than in 1989. certain actions were taken, including com- pleting a long-term bison management plan. The EIS & Management Plan The Interim Management Plan A draft long-term bison management plan and EIS was released in 1998. The alterna- The 1996 interim plan called for NPS to tives ranged from capturing all bison leav- build a bison capture facility inside ing the park and sending those that test pos- Yellowstone National Park at Stephens itive to slaughter, to the use of public hunt- Creek, near the northern boundary. All cap- ing to control bison in Montana, to estab- tured bison would be tested for brucellosis; lishing tolerance zones for bison outside seropositive animals would be shipped to park boundaries. The plan received more slaughter. Any bison migrating north of the than 67,500 public comments, the majority park into the Eagle Creek/Bear Creek area favoring an alternative plan that emphasized (east of the Yellowstone River) would be protection of bison. monitored and not captured. The Montana Department of Livestock (which, in 1995, While developing the final EIS, the lead had been given authority to manage bison in agencies reached an impasse and the federal Montana) was to capture all bison migrating agencies withdrew from efforts to jointly Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 out of the park at West Yellowstone and test produce a long-term management plan. them for brucellosis. All seropositive bison After the state filed a lawsuit, the state and 169 boundary or near the north boundary if the late winter or early spring bison population

estimate is above 3,000. Cattle will be vaccinated and monitored in specific areas near Yellowstone National Park. Methods for bison management may include additional monitoring of bison on public lands outside the park, hazing onto appropriate public lands or back into the park in the spring, and control on public lands outside the park through capture and slaughter or agency shooting. The plan includes provisions for continued research to address uncertainties identified during the planning process. l/ltoen b/'son come federal agencies agreed to use a court- c/ose to toe par/c's appointed mediator to help find common Recent Developments northern boundary, ground in managing bison. The resulting NPS rangers and Understanding bison movement Final Environmental Impact Statementfor the other agency person- Observations of bison movement show that nel haze them away Interagency Bison Management Plan for the a large number of the Hayden Valley herd (top, right). Their State of Montana and Yellowstone National migrate to the northern range in winter. In goal is to move the Park was released in August 2000. After a animals deeper into addition, small groups of adult males and public comment period and slight modifica- the park, toward mixed gender groups (led by females) move tions to the plan, the federal government Blacktail Plateau. In to park boundary areas near Gardiner, the photo above, the and the state of Montana released separate Montana, (north) and West Yellowstone, animals are at Lava Records of Decision in December 2000 Montana (west). Up to 200 bison use the Creek, well on their describing the negotiated settlement. way. Eagle Creek/Bear Creek area north of The final management plan uses adaptive Gardiner in some winters. Bison that winter management and progressive steps to phase along the north boundary move back inside in greater tolerance for bison outside the park by calving time. However, bison Yellowstone. Step One limits bison to the remain along the west boundary well into park and one management area outside the birthing season. west boundary (for up to 100 seronegative Research also shows that although bison bison). In the third phase of implementa- travel on groomed roads, they do not select tion, up to 100 untested bison would be tol- these routes for this reason, but because the erated in winter both outside the park routes follow natural travel corridors that boundary near Reese Creek and the west connect patches of habitat. boundary. During all phases of the adaptive management strategy, one management area Winter 2005-2006 outside the north boundary— in the Eagle During August of 2005, close to 5,000 bison Creek/Bear Creek area—would allow lived in the park. In response to winter unlimited number of bison. The Interagency weather conditions, hundreds of bison Yellowstone Resources Bison Management Plan (IBMP) allows & Issues 2008 migrated to winter range along and outside managers to capture and remove all bison, the park's north boundary. More than 800 170 regardless of disease status, outside the west bison were captured and shipped to slaugh- 8 ter. Also, 87 calves were sent to quarantine they were used as a source to establish many (see below). The loss of this many bison, in herds. In addition, Yellowstone bison are addition to those that died from predation, one of only three publicly managed bison Bison accidents, and the harsh weather condi- poulations with no evidence of cattle tions, will not prevent the long term conser- hybridization. Management vation of the bison population. Bison have a Brucellosis near Yellowstone high reproductive rate and their annual The states of Montana, Idaho, and population growth is about 12 percent. NPS objectives Wyoming have found brucellosis-positive in the Final Vaccination cattle within the past four years. Wyoming EIS and Bison State and federal agencies have developed and Idaho lost their brucellosis-free status, Management vaccination programs, which are part of the but regained it. In both states, the source Plan:

bison management plan, to be used at was proven to be elk, and managers have • Maintain genetic boundary capture facilities. The National increased their efforts to keep wildlife and integrity of the Park Service also is undergoing an environ- cattle separate through more aggressive dis- bison population.

mental study to evaluate vaccinating bison ease testing, fencing, and culling of willdife. • Maintain a wild, in the field, using remote delivery methods All three states are developing more popula- free-ranging bison population. that do not require handling individual tion specific management strategies to pre- bison. Because scientists now know more vent their livestock from commingling with • Maintain and preserve the about bison movement patterns, group potentially infected wildlife. ecologicalfunc- dynamics, and habitat distribution, they Outlook tion that bison better understand where and when field provide in the vaccination could succeed. Brucellosis is not a major factor in deter- Yellowstone area, mining herd survival for either elk or bison, such as their role Bison hunt but will remain a cause of concern to the as grassland grazers and as a The state of Montana authorized a bison livestock industry. Cooperation among the source foodfor hunt on public lands outside Yellowstone of state and federal agencies will continue, carnivores. National Park, which began in 2005 and with the Interagency Bison Management • Lower brucel- runs November 15 to February 15. Through Plan as their primary tool. The plan is losis prevalence the hunt, the state hopes to bison manage on implemented to maintain a viable, free- because it is not a low elevation winter ranges and increase ranging population of Yellowstone bison, native organism. public support for expanding bison habitat and is adapted to the latest science as need- • Reduce risk of outside the park. ed. The plan includes actions to reduce the brucellosis transmission from In addition, the Nez Perce and Confeder- risk of brucellosis transmission from bison bison to cattle. ated Salish-Kootenai Tribes are hunting to cattle and to protect private property. The federal Record of bison on public lands outside the park in Five agencies play separate roles in manag- Decision is available accordance with their 1855 treaties with the ing this population on a conservation area at: United States. that now includes about 80,000 acreas of www.planning.nps. habitat in Montana outside Yellowstone gov/document/ Quarantine Park. National yellbisonrod.pdf A bison quarantine feasibility study is being conducted outside the north boundary of Yellowstone National Park by Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks. Bison calves that would otherwise be sent to slaughter are being used to develop and test a protocol to certify disease-free bison. If successful, quarantine could provide a way for Yellowstone bison to be a part of bison conservation in other places.

Genetics

Several studies have reported relatively high genetic variation in Yellowstone bison. This population has made a significant contribution to the overall genetic diversity in Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 publicly-owned bison populations because 171 —

The Issue In the Western United States • This region will warm more than The global climate is changing, and the global average. is already affecting the Greater • Summer temperatures will Yellowstone Ecosystem. increase 5-7°F in 50 years. In recent years, natural events in History • Precipitation will be equal or less Yellowstone associated with weather 1750: The Industrial Revolution is than present day. seemed to come two to three weeks early begins underway; manufacturing • Evaporation will increase, with a including the peak snowmelt. Was this gases such producing greenhouse net decrease in moisture available unusual weather or global climate change? as carbon dioxide and methane. to the ecosystem even if precipita- 1827: Jean-Baptiste Joseph Fourier, To answer this question, you need to under- tion is steady or increased. stand the difference between weather and a scientist in France, describes • Ecosystem changes will be affect- and Earth's atmosphere being like a ed by land forms, microclimates, climate (defined on the next page), you later glass box that traps heat— and other local factors, and will need data spanning several decades, ideally the "greenhouse effect." termed occur in all directions—north, centuries or even millennia. Scientists now 1896: Arrehnius looks at the science, south, lower elevations, higher have that data, which establish our global and perceives a simple cause and elevations. climate is changing rapidly and the change effect: increasing greenhouse • Since the mid 1970s, the wildfire is unprecedented in the last several thou- gases in the atmosphere will season in the western United sands of years. However, understanding cause global warming. has increased by 11 weeks, States global climate change dates to the 1700s. begins 1958: Charles David Keeling with fires lasting an average of 5 measuring atmospheric carbon weeks. Ironically, ice age investigations led directly dioxide from Mauna Loa, Hawaii. • Snowpack is decreasing and melt- to understanding global climate warming. 1957-58: International Geophysical ing 2 to 4 weeks earlier. In the 1700s, scientists began trying to Year In the Greater Yellowstone understand how the ice ages had occurred. 1963: Keeling warns of 10.8°F tem- Ecosystem At the same time, the Industrial Revolution perature rise in next century. • Growing season has increased by began, powered by fossil fuels. 1965: First Global Climate Models two weeks. (GCM) developed. Scientists studying the ice ages developed • Willows are growing three times 1969: Weather satellites begin pro- some of the first climate theories. For exam- the average recorded in the viding weather & atmospheric ple, Jean-Baptiste Joseph Fourier compared 1980s, in part due to longer grow- data. glass box, which ing season. Earth's atmosphere to a 1978: Satellites begin measuring • Alpine habitat will decrease, allows heat in but not out—which later sci- sea ice in both the Arctic and affecting almost all alpine flora entists called "the greenhouse effect." James Antarctic. and fauna. Croll noted that ice and snow reflect heat 1988: The Intergovernmental Panel • Grizzly bear alpine food sources back into the atmosphere—and if the on Climate Change (IPCC) is estab- (whitebark pine, army cutworm lished. amount of heat changed, winds would moths) will decrease. 1995-2006: 11 of these 12 years are change, which would affect ocean currents, • Wolverine may lose habitat and the warmest years on record. which could sustain cold temperatures— denning sites. 1997: The Kyoto Protocol sets man- and thus create a feedback loop. • Pika and lynx may lose their habi- datory targets for greenhouse gas tat in the park. In 1896, a Swedish scientist connected emissions for most industrialized • Sagebrush-steppe conditions, such climate with pollution. Savre Arrehnius nations. as on the northern range, will wanted to know how carbon dioxide (CO2) 2007: IPCC begins its 4th report, increase. affected the ice ages. He calcu- "Warming of the climate system is might have unequivocal." lated the amount of CO2 emitted by industry, then doubled that amount and calculat-

ed it would raise global temperatures 9-ll°F. Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 During the first 50 years of the 20th century, scientists continued to research the ice ages, 172 developing methods and data essential to During the 20th century, scientists refine analysis i „ and dating techniques to study Earth's past, ocean & |—I— atmospheric chemisty and climate systems. 8 I C Scientists win Nobel oo 00 I - J Peace Prize for work on climate change. Climate Arrehnius predicts global warming. Kyoto Protocol sets goals for Change reducing C02 emissions.

Croll identifies Intergovernmental Panel on Climate atmospheric feedback loop. Change forms; includes 2000 scientists.

Global Climate Models are developed. Fourier compares Earth's atmosphere to a greenhouse. International Geophysical Year The Terms of Scientists studying Earth's ice ages. Keeling begins long-term recording of C02 Climate Change Industrial Revolution begins. concentrations in the atmosphere. Weather: the state of the atmosphere future understanding of climate change. For Change (IPCC) in 1988, which is comprised at a given time and example, scientists began studying pollen of 2000 scientists. Based in part upon the place, andfor the found in sediment layers. Based on the types IPCC's work, more than 60 countries con- nextfew days to a of vegetation represented, the scientists vened in 1997 to draft the Kyoto Protocol, month. could assume climate conditions in the past which set mandatory targets for greenhouse Climate: long- would resemble climate conditions where gas emissions for most industrialized term meteorologi- such vegetation is found today. Similarly, nations. In 2007, the IPCC shared the Nobel cal conditions that they developed a method to measure ancient Peace Prize with Al Gore, and published its prevail in a region, ocean temperatures by studying shells of fourth report, which begins with this con- with a decade as plankton laid down over centuries in the sea clusion: "Warming of the climate system is the minimum span bed. By 1955, scientists had ocean tempera- unequivocal." averages. ture records going back 300,000 years. of Climate-Change Science Global Climate In the 1950s, scientific attention began The IPCC, in its 2007 report, explains: Models (aka focusing on Earth's systems. Roger Revelle "Projecting changes in climate due to green- Global found the oceans could not absorb all the house gases 50 years from now is very dif- Circulation CO2 humans were emitting. Knowing that ferent and much more easily solved problem Models): GCMs CO2 emissions would increase as industrial- than forecasting weather patterns just use established ization increased, he wanted to know where weeks from now." Weather systems are physical laws (such the CO2 would go. Revelle hired Charles chaotic and hard to measure and predict; as water expands Keeling to gather baseline data on atmo- longer-term changes, however, can be mea- as it warms) and spheric CO2 from a lab on Mauna Loa, sured and predicted because we have the enormous amounts Hawaii, far from industry. Keeling saw the necessary instruments and understanding. data to show opportunity to begin long-term CO2 analy- of However, when you average weather data, how variables sis, and so began the first data set confirm- "the fact that the globe is warming emerges (such as increases ing atmospheric CO2 was rising far beyond clearly." in carbon dioxide) that caused by any natural mechanisms. (See will climate. chart next page.) Two basic physical factors are at work in affect climate change: water expands when heated; Phenology: Additional research begun during the open water and bare ground absorb thermal Relationship 1957-58 International Geophysical Year energy, thus warming the sea, land, and air. between periodic produced equally interesting results, and biological changes the general public began to take notice. Evidence — like the budding Newspapers began reporting evidence of Since the end of the last glaciations, 13,000 of trees or arrival climate change, such as thinning of the to 14,000 years ago, Earth's snow and ice of migratory birds Arctic sea ice. the During 1960s, the first cover has remained relatively consistent. in the spring— and Global Climate Models (GCMs) were These highly reflective surfaces bounce seasonal changes developed and weather satellites began thermal radiation into the atmosphere, back such as tempera- gathering data about the atmosphere's and as long as this reflection remains steady, ture. chemical composition. so do world temperatures. Satellite and mili- During the ensuing decades, scientists con- tary data during the past few decades show tinued to refine instruments and models, Arctic ice is thinning and melting; and much Yellowstone Resources and to gather data. To assemble and review evidence shows annual snow cover is dimin- & Issues 2008 this data, the United Nations established ishing worldwide, but especially in the the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate northern hemisphere. As snow and ice 173 8 coverage decrease, less thermal radiation is released during combustion are chemically reflected, and more heat is absorbed by the distinguished from carbon released by natu- Climate increasing amounts of open water and bare ral causes, and thus can be measured. land. This increased absorption increases Current Effects Around the World Change surface and air temperatures. Since the 1950s, in most mid- to high- Ocean temperature is measured every day latitude regions, the number of very cold from thousands of ships; this record com- days and nights has decreased; the bined with air temperature records provide extremely hot days and nights have the estimated global average temperature increased; the length of the frost- changes in and Climate each month. As oceans warm, they expand the past were caused, free season has increased. and their levels rise. Data collected since the in part, by changes in In the average temperature in 1990s show oceans are rising 0.12 inches per 2006, mean the Sun's activity. the United States 55 2.2 °F higher year 50 percent due to water expanding was F— Scientists have detect- — than the 20th century mean. ed no such changes from increased temperatures and 50 percent in the Sun during the due to melting ice. This rate of change is The five hottest years on record were: past few decades. unprecedented; the record shows global sea 1998, 2002, 2003, 2004, and 2005. levels had been stable for thousands of years Temperatures in Alaska are rising almost until the 20th century. twice as fast as elsewhere. As scientists predicted in the 1800s, carbon Permafrost is melting across the Arctic dioxide build-up in the atmosphere is caus- regions, reducing habitat for birds, ing this extreme and rapid change in Earth's destroying buildings that used perma- temperature. Ice core records show that frost as a foundation, collapsing roads. after the last glacial period ended, CO2 concentration gradually rose 80 ppm (parts per Glaciers have decreased 95 percent.

million) over 5,000 years. During the past The area of melting Arctic sea ice is 100 years alone, the concentration has risen greater than two Montanas. 79 ppm— an unprecedented rate. The extent of regions affected by More than three-fourths of the CO2 in the droughts has doubled since 1970s. atmosphere comes from burning fossil fuels. Since 1970, category 4 & 5 hurricanes Scientists know this because carbon atoms

The Mauna Loa Record, aka Keeling Curve (begun by Charles Keeling in 1958) This version of the Monthly Carbon Dioxide Concentration Keeling Curve by the C0 Program of the 2 parts per million Scripps Institute of Oceanography, scrippsco2. ucsd. edu 380

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310 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 i i i I I I I I 174 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 8 have increased by about 75 percent. Western United States Much of the western United States will like- Since 1993, worldwide sea level has risen Climate 1.7 inches—twice the rate of the previous ly become more arid according to the 30 years. GCMs. Temperatures could increase 4-13T, Change with the increases higher in the mountains Predictions and greater during winter. The resulting If we continue the current rates of CCh smaller snowpacks will reduce surface and emissions, scientists predict the following: groundwater supplies, affecting all species in the region. As temperatures increase, Global evaporation rates increase. So even if pre- Warming oceans will increase hurricane cipitation remains the same or increases, intensity. less water will be available in the ecosystem.

By 2030, CO2 emissions will grow 40-110 Less water means wildfires will increase in percent. frequency, intensity, and duration in most In this century, sea level will rise 15.8- western regions. In addition, the increasing 27.6 inches. levels of CO2 may change the atmosphere's chemistry so that lightning— a prime cause Increased ocean acidity (from increased of natural wildfire —will increase and thus, CO2) may stop growth of coral reefs. begin fires more frequently. By 2100, global surface temperatures will GCMs cannot account for variations in be from 2.5 to 10.4T higher . topography— a big variable in the western Heat waves and heavy precipitation will United States that affects regional climate, become more frequent. local weather, and ecosystems. Changes

Of the species whose sensitivity to cli- here will occur north and south, east and mate change has been assessed, 20-30 west, from high to low elevations, and with- percent will face greater risk of in small pockets of habitat. extinction. In general, plants are especially vulnerable to rapid climate changes because they change locations by generations — at best. And even then, they face landscapes

Global Mean Temperature IPCC published this graph in their 2007 14.6 report. An industrial- ization boom after 14.4 H World War II contrib- 3 m uted to cooler H 14.2 g> £ temperatures in the => 3 northern hemisphere. S B Carbon dioxide and 14.0 3 g. greenhouse CD Q) other gases are the main J 138 I I cause of warming $ § after the mid-1970s. 13 .6 o cr The steeper slope in O a> recent decades

4 13.4 indicates accelerated warming.

13.2 This and other graphs 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 available at www. ipcc.ch/graphicsl Period Rate Annual mean Years °C per decade gr-ar4-wg1.htm. 25 0.177±0.052 Smoothed series 50 0.128±0.026 5-95% decadal error bars 100 0.074±0.018 150 0.045±0.012 Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 175 8 runoff will disrupt native fish spawning and increase exotic aquatic species expansion. Climate Changes in precipitation and temperature regimes will likely disrupt vegetation s u mm e r- wet/wi nte r-d ry Change growth that in turn would seriously disrupt wildlife migrations, one of the key resources for which Yellowstone National Park is globally treasured. Two climate regimes summer-dry/winter-wet Yellowstone National Park is bisected by two climate regimes that will influence how

and what changes here. (Map, left.) These The boundaries of regimes—summer-wet/winter-dry and sum- Yellowstone's two mer-dry/winter wet are remarkably stable, climate regimes have — remained stable for as shown by pollen records extracted from 14,000 years. lake sediments throughout the region. By painstakingly examining and identifying pollen from these cores, scientists have fragmented by humans and even more by determined that Yellowstone's climate climate change. regimes have retained approximately the adapted to live in cold environments, Plants same boundaries since the end of the last Mountains, often require such as the Rocky glaciation, 13,000 to 14,000 years ago. They example, extreme cold temperatures. For remained steady even when temperatures be exposed to cold young Douglas-fir must increased 12,000 to 6,000 years ago. This while they are for a certain length of time temperature increase equals what we are dormant to promote maximum growth. experiencing now, but over millennia trees and They will face competition from instead of decades. other plants that don't require such chilling The northern part of the park, roughly fol- periods. lowing the southern limit of the northern Spring runoff in the Intermountain West range (see map), is in a summer-wet/winter- in 20th is 20 days earlier than the dry climate regime. Moisture comes in the century. summer via monsoon systems that move By 2050, the Columbia River system- north from the gulfs of Mexico and including the Snake River—will lose California, wrapping around the Absarokas 35 percent of its snow pack. into the northern range; and winter storms come from the Pacific. Sagebrush-steppe In the last 30 years, the wildfire season and grasslands characterize the habitat has increased more than two months, within this regime. Global climate change and individual fires last five times longer. may increase summer precipitation within Coldwater fish habitat will be reduced this area, but this may be offset by more 25-30 percent. rapid evaporation, resulting in a net Aquatic insects and other invertebrates decrease in moisture available to the living in streams will be reduced or ecosystem.

wiped out. The rest of the park is in a summer-dry/ winter-wet regime, influenced by the Pacific Climate Change in Yellowstone sub-tropical high-pressure system in sum- Yellowstone is not considered by many to be mer and westerly storms in winter. Higher "climate change" park that will have obvi- a winter moisture used to translate into high changes in the next few decades. ous snowpack, which provided conditions suit- However, higher temperatures and changes able for forests and their inhabitants. With patterns can greatly change in precipitation climate change comes warmer winters and its ecosystems. The alpine zone, which more rain, which will alter the habitat over begins at feet, will migrate higher, with 9500 time. Yellowstone Resources important species like whitebark pine & Issues 2008 Although the climate regime boundaries almost entirely lost to the ecosystem. might not change, the vegetation within 176 Changes in snowpack and timing of spring a

these regimes will change due to the speed xeric (dry-loving) plants will increase. of change and increasing disturbances such Amphibians will also lose essential habitat, as fire and insect infestations. as will birds dependent on wetlands for safe nesting. Fire Willows, however, seem to be thriving. The general prediction for wildfire in the Their growth since 1995 has been three western United States calls for more intense times the average recorded in the 1980s. In fires, similar to those of 1988. However, the part, this is due to the changes in precipita- charcoal in lake sediment cores is telling a tion, snowmelt, and different story in Yellowstone. These growing season. Change in Other Western records extend back 17,000 years, and were With a longer grow- National Parks taken from Cygnet Lake on the Central ing period to pro- Plateau. Charcoal from 8,000 years ago, Gates of the Arctic and Yukon-Charley: duce energy, willows when temperature increases equal what we Caribou ranges and population size may can meet their essen- are now experiencing, shows more frequent become less predictable, affecting the diet and tial needs earlier in fires than today. Fuels, along with fire culture of native Alaskans who rely on them. the season and thus weather, determine fire size and severity: produce more defen- Katmai: the stand-replacing fires of today open up Ocean warming may drive salmon out sive chemicals earli- of the forests where stands have been burned, southern Alaska and warmer rivers may er. They also now limiting fuels for the next fire. As a result, increase parasites that make salmon have more water ear- areas with frequent fires also tend to have unusable. lier in the year small fires. Whether this holds true for the because snowmelt North Cascades: future remains to be seen. occurs sooner, and Seventy to 90% of the snowpack could disap- Insect infestations rain has increased in pear by the end of this century, threatening winter sports and water supplies. More frequent fires join other climate- May and June. This change disturbances, such as allowing con- moisture increase Olympic: ditions that increase insect infestations of occurs at a time most Warmer winters and more extreme precipita- trees. In the past, insect infestations were beneficial to their tion events could increase winterflood risk. cyclical, following changes in weather. For growth. Yosemite: example, trees defend themselves from pine Wildlife Warming and drought have made wildfire bark beetles by exuding sap that traps or season longer and more damaging, and Climate-change prevents them from lodging in the tree. increased insect damage. effects on large During a drought, a tree cannot produce mammals are harder Sequoia/Kings Canyon: enough sap to defend itself, and so insects to determine than Warmer temperatures will worsen smog; infest it. Once the drought ends, the tree for other animals, increasing wildfires will contribute more resumes defending itself and the infestation and predictions are smoke and airborne particulates. eventually diminishes. In 2000, insect infes- not easy to find. In This information reprinted from Unnatural tations began increasing in Yellowstone. In general, scientists Disaster: Global Warming and Our National Parks 2007, all four pine bark beetles and the seem to think ungu- by the National Parks & Conservation spruce budworm were attacking trees — lates depending on Association. circumstance never seen before. Scientists grasslands will be suspect climate change at work. Climate-Friendly Parks able to find suitable Wetlands habitat. Other In 2002, the Park Service began a Climate- Friendly Parks Program to help parks mea- Wetlands in Yellowstone are few and far species might not be sure and reduce their greenhouse gas emis- between (see Chapter 5), and include small so fortunate. sions, evaluate their vulnerability to climate lakes and kettle ponds, which are already Grizzly bears will change, monitorfor climate change effects, drying up. Scientists don't know how much have less of their and educate visitors. Learn more at www. ground-water recharge they will need to most valuable foods: nps.gov/climatefriendlyparks. recover. However, precipitation and whitebark pine nuts, snowpack will likely continue to decrease, army cutworm which will continue to decrease surface and moths, and cutthroat trout. ground water—and thus the lakes and lynx will face habitat ponds may not recover. Canada and food problems as snow cover decreases in Yellowstone Resources As wetlands diminish, sedges, rushes, and amount and duration. & Issues 2008 other mesic (water-loving) plants will lose Wolverines depend on for dens habitat. In their place, grasses and other deep snow 177 where they find shelter and give birth. — 8

Many scientists believe we have a chance to Climate An ironic twist slow or stop climate change if we stop Yellowstone's thermophilic plants may pro- — increasing CO2 emissions by 2017. Progress Change vide clues to help scientists predict how toward this goal began in 1997, with the plants will respond to global climate Kyoto Protocol, which set mandatory tar- change. These plants are adapted to unusu- gets for greenhouse gas emissions for indus- ally high levels of CO2. Scientists are study- trialized nations. The technology for this ing these "carbon-philic" species to under- the technology to stand how they change exists, as does carbon enter Today about 5.5 billion tons of withstand such high produce climate-safe energy and power. the atmosphere every yearfrom burningfossil amounts of carbon In Yellowstone National Park, employees fuels. In the United States, 99% of the carbon dioxide, and what and residents already are reducing their emitted comesfrom industry (30%), transpor- this could mean for emissions contributions through landmark tation (personal and commercial, 33%), home in the and business energy used to run homes and other plants recycling efforts, using biodiesel and etha- businesses (±35%), and miscellaneous. future. nol in vehicles, and other changes. For example, using alternative fuels reduced the CO2 emissions from vehicles by 575.4 tons in Outlook 2006 alone. At the policy level, park scientists and resource managers are beginning Data from thousands of years to the present discussions with the other National Park and more than 2,000 scientists agree: the Service staff, scientists from the U.S. Earth's climate is warming, and 40 times Geological Survey, and scientists from uni- faster than any other period on the planet's versities to develop a "science agenda" that history. Vegetation cannot keep up with this will build a foundation for understanding rapid rate of change. Many animals will not how the ecological system will change as the be able to either. And the vast majority of climate changes and for developing manage- humans, who live within three meters of sea ment strategies to mitigate the effects of level, now find their homes and livelihoods climate change. at risk in the coming decades.

Phenology Citizen Observations Count

Phenology is the relationship between periodic biological changes — like the budding of trees and arrival of migratory birds in spring—and seasonal changes such as temperature. People who have been tracking such changes informally now possess valuable information that helps scientists track climate change in various regions. You can contribute to this effort.

The National Phenology Network helps professionals, citizen scientists, teachers, and anyone else choose species in their area to monitorfor change and contribute their data to a central website. www.uwm.edu/Deptl Geographylnpnl

Project Budburst provides a website where school groups and citizen scientists can contribute observations aboutflowering plants and other seasonal vegetation changesfrom Yellowstone Resources neighborhoods, windows. & Issues 2008 their own www. ucar.edu/citizen_sciencelbudburstl 178 8

Issues: Northern Range

and that elk did not adversely affect the overall diversity of Some people believe the park has native animals and plants. more ungulates (hoofed mammals) than the northern range can Current Status sustain. They blame elk and bison • In 1998, Congress called for the

for erosion and declines in willows, National Academy of Sciences to aspen, and beaver, ostensibly due to review management of the north- The northern range refers to the broad overgrazing. Other scientists have ern range. Results were released in March 2002. grassland that borders the Yellowstone and found no evidence that the park's grasslands are overgrazed. • Despite scientific conclusions to Lamar rivers in the northern quarter of the the contrary, some people con- park (map next page). This area sustains one History/Background tinue to claim the northern range of the largest and most diverse populations • For decades, the park intensively is overgrazed. of free-roaming large animals seen any- managed elk, bison, and prong- • In response to new controversy horn. where on Earth. Many of the park's ungu- about the impact of wolves on • The park discontinued wildlife lates spend the winter here. Elevations are the elk herds of the northern reductions in 1968 to restore lower and the area receives less snow than range, numerous researchers have natural dynamics and minimize elsewhere in the park. Often the ridge tops been studying this elk population human intervention. hillsides and the impact of wolf restora- and south-facing are clear of snow, • In the 1970s and early 1980s, tion. a result of wind and sun. Animals take scientific and public concerns • Some people are now concerned advantage of this lack of snow, finding easy grew about the increasing popu- because elk counts have declined access to forage. lation of ungulates on the north- approximately 50% since 1994. ern range.

History • In 1986, Congress mandated a The northern range has been the focus of major research initiative to answer these concerns. Results found that one of the most productive, if sometimes the northern range was healthy bitter, dialogues on the management of a wildland ecosystem. For more than 80 years this debate focused on whether there were counts from approximately 12,000 to 4,000 too many elk on the northern range. animals. Although early censuses of the elk in the park, especially on the northern range, are As the result of public pressure and chang- highly questionable, scientists and managing NPS conservation philosophy, park ers in the early 1930s believed that grazing managers ended elk removals in 1969 and and drought in the early part of the century let a combination of weather, predators, had reduced the range's carrying capacity range conditions, and outside-the-park and that twice as many elk were on the hunting and land uses influence elk abun- range in 1932 as in 1914. Due to these con- dance. Without any direct controls inside cerns about over-grazing and overbrowsing, the park, elk counts increased to approxi- park managers removed ungulates—includ- mately 12,000 elk by the mid-1970s, 16,000 ing elk, bison, and pronghorn—from the elk by 1982, and 19,000 elk by 1988. This northern range by shooting or trapping rapid population increase accentuated the from 1935 to 1968. More than 26,000 elk debate regarding elk grazing effects on the were culled or shipped out of the park to northern range. control their numbers and to repopulate The restoration of wolves into Yellowstone areas where over-harvesting or poaching and their rapid increase changed the debate Yellowstone Resources had eliminated elk. Hunting outside the elk to from concerns about "too many" & Issues 2008 park removed another 45,000 elk during speculation about "too few" elk in the this period. These removals reduced the elk future because of wolf predation. Elk are 179 8 the most abundant ungulates on the north- evidence of overgrazing. In 1986, continuing ern range and comprised more than 89 per- concern over the condition of the northern Northern cent of documented wolf kills during win- range prompted Congress to mandate more ters from 1997 to 2005. These data cause studies. This research initiative, one of the Range some people to think wolves are killing off largest in the history of NPS, encompassed elk, despite the fact that elk continue to more than 40 projects by NPS biologists, populate the northern range at relatively university researchers, and scientists from high density compared to areas outside the other federal and state agencies. Results park. found that the northern range was healthy and elk did not adversely affect the overall Another set of statistics also alarm some diversity of native animals and plants. It was hunters, outfitters, and state legislators: also determined that ungulate grazing actu- From 2002 to 2005, elk calf survival (recruit- ally enhances grass production in all but ment) and total number of the northern elk drought years, and grazing also enhances herd declined. Many factors (e.g. predators, protein content of grasses, yearly growth of drought, winterkill, hunting) contributed to big sagebrush, and establishment of sage- the low recruitment and decreased elk brush seedlings. No reductions in root bio- numbers. mass or increase in dead bunchgrass clumps Research Results were observed. However, studies on aspen Studies of the northern range began in the and willows and their relationship to ungu- clear- 1960s and have continued to the present. lates on the northern range are not so These studies reveal some overbrows- cut and are continuing. Despite these ing of riparian plants, but no clear results, the belief that elk grazing is damaging northern range vegetation and that grazing accelerates erosion persists among many people, including some scientists.

Continuing Controversy In 1998, Congress again intervened in the controversy, calling for the National Academy of Sciences to review management of the northern range. The results, published in Ecological Dynamics on Yellowstone's Northern Range (2002), con- cluded that "the best available scientific evidence does not indicate ungulate populations are irreversibly damaging the northern range." Studies investigating the responses of elk populations to wolf restoration continue.

In part, the controversy is likely due to the personal or scientific background of each person. Many urban dwellers live among intensively managed surroundings (community parks and personal gardens and lawns) and are not used to viewing wild, natural ecosystems. Livestock managers and range scientists tend to view the landscape in terms of maximizing the number of animals that a unit of land can sustain. Range science has developed techniques that allow intensive human manipulation of the landscape for this goal, which is often economi- cally based. Many ecologists and wilderness Yellowstone Resources managers, on the other hand, have come to & Issues 2008 180 —

believe that the ecological carrying capacity migrates outside the park during winter and of a landscape is different from the concept limit depredation of crops on private lands. of range or economic carrying capacity. During 1996-2002, approximately 5-19 per- They believe variability and change are the cent (mean -11 percent) of the adult female only constants in a naturally functioning portion of this population was harvested wilderness ecosystem. What may look bad, each year during the late hunt. However, in fact, may not be. antlerless harvest quotas have been reduced ninety-six percent in recent years due to Change on the Northern Range decreased elk During the 1990s, the ecological carrying numbers. capacity of the northern range increased as The complex inter- elk colonized new winter ranges north of dependence of these the park that had been set aside for this pur- relationships results pose. Summers were also wet while winters in fluctuations in the were generally mild. The fires of 1988 also elk population had opened many forest canopies, allowing when there are lots more grasses to grow. of elk, predator num- Many scientists believe that winter is the bers increase, which, major factor influencing elk populations. in part, helps reduce Mild winters allow many more elk to sur- elk numbers and vive until spring, but severe winters result in recruitment. significant levels of winter kill for many ani- National Park mals, not just elk. In severe winters (like the Service policies pro- Some sections of winter of 1988-89 or 1996-97), up to 25 per- the northern range tect native species and the ecological pro- cent of the herd can die. The northern are fenced, as cesses that occur naturally across the land- Yellowstone elk herd demonstrates the eco- shown above, to scape. Whenever possible, human interven- the long-term logical principle of density-dependence: study tion is discouraged. While controversy con- effects of grazing by over-winter mortality of calves, older tinues about the northern range and NPS fencing out large females, and adult bulls all increase with management practices, many research proj- herbivores. The higher elk population densities. results were ects continue in an effort to more accurately complex: Animals Elk are subject to predation by other species describe what is happening on Yellowstone's prune shrubs in the ecosystem, including bears, wolves, northern range. outside the fence coyotes, and mountain lions. Also, the but shrubs stay northern Yellowstone elk population is sub- healthy. Apparently the herds are not ject to four hunts each year. Elk that migrate destroying the out of the park may be legally hunted during unprotected an archery season, early season backcountry vegetation. hunt, general autumn hunt, and the Gardiner late hunt, all of which are managed by the Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks. The primary objective

of the Gardiner late hunt is to regulate the northern Yellowstone elk population that

See Chapter 2 for more about wolves affecting the ecosystem; and "Climate Change" in this

chapter for its effects on this area.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 181 8

Issues: Sustainable & Greening Practices

Participants developed a shared vision The Issue begins testing prototype alterna- for sustaining the park's values and provid- Yellowstone is a leader in dem- tively fueled multi-season vehicles. ing ways to improve environmental quality. onstrating and promoting sound 2004: Park employees begin using environmental stewardship through four donated hybrid vehicles; They considered a wide range of strategies regional and national partnerships. Xanterra employee housing such as developing a regional composting receives LEED designation. facility, operating alternatively fueled vehi- History: 2006: 70% of all garbage in the park cles, replacing toxic solvents, 1995: Biodiesel truck donated to using more is diverted away from a landfill park to test alternative fuel. environmentally-sound products, and mod- through recycling & composting. 1997: Park celebrates 125th anni- ifying the energy infrastructure to make it 2007: Yellowstone completes a versary and "greening" efforts more environmentally friendly. In 2003 and comprehensive greenhouse gas increase. 2007, Yellowstone hosted additional green- inventory. 1998: Old Faithful wood viewing ing conferences that highlighted environ- platform replaced with recycled Annual recycling in the park: mental stewardship and successes in the plastic lumber; employee Ride- newspapers, magazines, office region, and identified future initiatives. Share Program begins. paper: 133 tons These conferences have fostered public and 1999: Yellowstone National Park aluminum/steel: 24 tons private partnerships that promote sound begins using nontoxic cleaning & glass: 192 tons sutainability programs. janitorial supplies; ethanol blend- plastic containers: 22 tons ed fuel offered to visitors. cardboard: 463 tons Walking on Sustainability 2002: The park's diesel fleet converts to biodiesel; the Greater Yellowstone has more than 15 miles of wood In addition, annually in Yellowstone: Yellowstone/Teton Clean Cities boardwalk, most of which are at least 20 • 300 vehicles use more than Coalition receives federal designa- years old. The wood for these boardwalks 167,000 gallons of biodiesel fuel tion. for • 350 vehicles use more than was pressure treated with chemicals 2003: Regional composting facility 212,000 gallons of ethanol preservation. As the walkways deteriorate, opens; park demonstrates the first blended fuel toxic chemicals from the wood leach into fuel cell in a national park; park the ground and water. As recycled plastic lumber replaces the pressure-treated wood, quantities of toxic In 1997, when Yellowstone National Park increasingly smaller chemicals will be released in the park. celebrated its 125th anniversary, one of the questions asked was what can we do to In 1998, Lever Brothers Company donated preserve and protect this national treasure plastic lumber made from recycled plastic for the next 125 years? The result was containers to replace the viewing platform "The Greening of Yellowstone." Some around Old Faithful geyser. The equivalent "green" projects had already begun, such as of three million plastic milk jugs were used demonstrating the cleanliness and efficien- in this lumber. Now visitors receive an edu- cy of biodiesel fuel. Since that time the park cational message about recycling while and various partners have addressed a wide waiting for the world's most famous geyser variety of pollution prevention, waste eruption. Today the park continues to reduction, alternative fuels, and recycling replace old boardwalks with recycled plastic projects. Together they have increased lumber. effective environmental conservation in the park and surrounding communities. Driving Sustainability Yellowstone National Park offers a unique Meeting to "Green" Yellowstone opportunity to demonstrate alternative Yellowstone National Park partnered with fuels in an environmentally sensitive and Yellowstone Resources the states of Montana and Wyoming, the extremely cold area. To do so, the National & Issues 2008 U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), and Park Service partnered with the Montana 182 private groups to host three-day confer- Department of Environmental Quality ences in October 1996 and May 1998. (DEQ), DOE, and the University of Idaho to 8 test a biodiesel fuel made from canola oil • encouraged concessioners to retrofit facili- and ethanol from potato waste. In February ties and ask guests to conserve energy and 1995, Dodge Truck Inc. donated a new water in the hotels and lodges. Sustainable 4x4 pickup to the project. three-quarter ton "Green" Cleaning Products & Greening The truck has been driven more than In August 1998, the U.S. Environmental 195,000 miles on 100 percent biodiesel. It Practices Protection Agency partnered with Yellow- averages about 17 miles per gallon, the same stone National Park to assess the park's as with petroleum-based diesel fuel. cleaning products. They found some prod- Emissions tests showed reductions in included slightly toxic ingredients and smoke, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, and ucts others with potentially significant health carbon monoxide. Tests also showed bears hazards. As a result, the park switched from were not attracted by the sweet odor of more than 130 risky products to less than 10 biodiesel exhaust, which had been a con- safe products. The assessment expanded to cern. In September 1998, the truck's engine include park concessioners, who also was analyzed, revealing very little wear and switched to safer products. This switch to no carbon build-up. Since that time, the safer and environmentally sound park has begun using other alternative fuels more cleaning products has expanded into many and vegetable-based lube and hydraulic oils other national parks. in many of its vehicles.

All diesel-powered vehicles used by park Renewable Energy employees plus many used by concession Yellowstone managers have identified sever- operations use a 20 percent blend of canola al facilities where alternative renewable oil and diesel. Gasoline-powered vehicles in energy sources are economical and efficient. (E-10). This the park use an ethanol blend One of the easiest to see is the solar array is available visitors ser- fuel also to at park installed at the Lamar Buffalo Ranch. It vice stations. provides more than 80 percent of the com- In 2004, the park began using hybrid vehi- plex's energy needs. The Lewis Lake cles, which operate with electricity generat- Contact Station and Ranger residence also ed by the gasoline engine and its braking use solar energy, reducing the use of a system. They conserve gas, reduce emis- polluting propane generator. sions, and run quietly when using electrici- Even more efficient renewable electricity ty. Toyota USA donated four Prius models, may come from fuel cells, which convert which help educate visitors about the envi- hydrogen into power and don't rely on ronmental advantages of hybrid vehicles. sunny weather or battery storage. In 2002, Today the park continues to purchase and park managers demonstrated this new promote hybrid vehicles for its employees.

Building Sustainability LEED Certification The U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC), a Yellowstone's buildings present opportuni- building industry group, developed national ties for incorporating sustainable building standardsfor environmentally-sound build- materials and techniques as they are main- ings. Called LEED (Leadership in Energy tained, remodeled, or replaced. To make the and Environmental Design) Green Building best use of these opportunities, the park Rating System®, these standards have been and its partners have: met in the Yellowstone Park areafor an employee housing project completed in 2004. • drafted an architectural and landscape The National Park Service partnered with design standard based on national green concessioner Xanterra Parks & Resorts to building standards and Yellowstone build two housesfollowing LEED certification Design Guidelines. standards. The project earned LEED certi- • planned the new Old Faithful Visitor fication —thefirst in Montana, and thefirst Education Center to meet LEED certifica- single-family residence in the country. The tion requirements. (See boxes this and next features include:

page.) • Energy efficient design standards

• retrofitted several maintenance facilities • Passive solar gain Yellowstone Resources with sustainable heating systems, insula- • State of the art heating!cooling systems & Issues 2008 tion, and high-efficiency lighting. • Landscaping with Yellowstone-produced compost 183 8 Greening the new Old Faithful Visitor Education Center Sustainable Features include: • a design that & Greening reduces heated space in winter Practices • water-conserving fixtures • displays and programs about sustainable practices • unobtrusive, down-directed The new Old Faithful Visitor Education Center (architect's rendering exterior lighting above) will showcase the park's commitment to environmental practices and

sustainability. The goal is to meet "Gold LEED Certification" (see previous page)— the first visitor center in the National Park System to do so.

technology will work in Yellowstone's Employee Ride-Share Program extreme climate using a fuel cell to pro- by In January 1998, Yellowstone National Park vide electricity to the West Entrance initiated a Ride-Share Program at the sug- Station. gestion of park employees living north of

Yellowstone is also experimenting with pro- the park—many of whom live more than 50

ducing biofuels from food waste. In 2007, it miles away. They were willing to help demonstrated a generator that produced finance the program. Benefits of the pro- electricity using 100 percent vegetable oil. gram include:

Recycling and Composting • reducing fuel consumption and air pollution In 1994, a study was done in Yellowstone • improving safety by decreasing traffic National Park showing 60-75 percent of solid waste (the waste stream) could be • easing parking constraints in the park composted. Large-scale composting • saving employees money

becomes even more economical when com- • improving employee morale, recruitment, pared to hauling the park's solid waste more and retention than 150 miles to landfills. Approximately 45 employees participate in The Southwest Montana Composting the Ride-Share Program, a significant dem- Project — a partnership among area coun- onstration of the National Park Service ties, municipalities, and the National Park commitment to public transportation. Service —built an industrial-grade com- Clean Cities Coalition posting facility near West Yellowstone. It began operating in July 2003 and today The Clean Cities program is a DOE grass- transforms 50 percent of park's solid waste roots effort to address energy security and into valuable soil conditioner. increase the use of alternative, cleaner fuels. The Greater Yellowstone/Teton Clean Cities Another regional partnership, The Coalition comprises public and private Headwaters Cooperative Recycling Project, stakeholders in Yellowstone and Grand which includes Yellowstone National Park, Teton national parks and surrounding gate- is expanding opportunities for recycling in way communities. the park and surrounding communities. For

example, it has placed recycling bins for To receive Clean Cities designation, the glass, plastic, paper, aluminum, and card- coalition had to agree on common goals and board throughout the park. an action plan for reaching those goals. Although the national Clean Cities program In 2005, Yellowstone became the first focuses on alternative fuels in vehicles, the national park to recycle small propane cyl- coalition expanded its scope to include Yellowstone Resources inders, such as those used for lanterns and & Issues 2008 alternative fuel use in buildings and other some camp stoves. Now, more than 10,000 operations. Their goals include: 184 cylinders are crushed and redeemed as steel. 8 • substantially reducing particulate matter prints more than 4.1 million documents entering the atmosphere each year, using 100 percent soy-based ink

• educating and promoting the advancement and paper with high post-consumer content. Sustainable of renewable fuels To clean the presses, the employees use a far less toxic solvent than before. & Greening • reducing dependency on fossil fuels

• setting the example for environmental Xanterra and NPS collaborated on building Practices stewardship two new employee housing units to LEED standards. The homes are constructed to Upon receiving Clean Cities designation in reduce energy consumption (such as R38 vs. 2002, the coalition became eligible for fed- R12 walls, Energy Star appliances, double- eral assistance to implement the various pane windows, solar panels) and water con- plans. Projects underway include: sumption (two-button low-flush toilets, effi- • expanding the use of renewable fuels cient fixtures), and to use post-consumer • developing partnerships to foster content materials. The solar panels produce sustainable efforts 5 million btu in electricity annually. The

• converting all stationary applications houses also serve as examples of the LEED (heating boilers, generators, etc.) to building practice. renewable fuels GreenPath: Delaware North • creating a tour district to promote a shuttle Delaware North, which operates the park's service within the Yellowstone region general stores, calls its EMS "GreenPath." Greening of Concessions Among its goals are reducing waste and Yellowstone National Park's major conces- increasing recycling. Practices include: sioners contribute to environmental sus- • Eliminate the use of hazardous materials tainability beyond the partnerships with the and waste where possible. For example: National Park Service described above. replaced film processing with digital pro- They also made a corporate commitment to cessing, which eliminated hazardous waste an environmental management system and the use of many chemicals. (EMS) that meets international business • When remodeling general stores, use envi- standards for sustainability. ronmentally friendly materials when possi- Ecologix: Xanterra Parks & Resorts ble (e.g. cork flooring, latex paint, energy efficient lighting) while maintaining the Xanterra, which provides lodging in the integrity of historic structures. park, calls its EMS "Ecologix." It includes employee participation to develop and • Operate an aggressive recycling program, implement sustainable practices such as the collecting over 120 tons from over 15 dif- following: ferent types of materials annually.

• Partner with NPS, other concessioners, • Replaced thousands of incandescent bulbs non-profit organizations, and others to with efficient compact fluorescent lighting. improve environmental efforts in the • Replaced two-stroke engines of rental Yellowstone region. boats and snowmobiles with cleaner burn- • Train seasonal associates to carry out the ing and more efficient four-stroke engines. program at each general store. • Recycle all used automotive batteries, anti- freeze, and paint solvents. Outlook

• Use bleach-free paper products containing Yellowstone National Park will continue to 100 percent post consumer content. strive to be a flagship for the National Park

• Serve organic fair-trade coffee (pesticide- Service in advancing sound environmental free, grown and harvested in a manner stewardship practices. Through the creation supporting wildlife and bird habitats, pur- of partnerships, the park has emerged as an chased from local farmers at a fair price). environmental leader, setting examples that foster sustainable programs in the greater • Serve sustainable beef and pork (pigs and Yellowstone region. The collaborative free-range cattle raised without hormones efforts between public and private entities or antibiotics in humane facilities). are the cornerstone for Yellowstone's suc- Yellowstone Resources Even the menus and other printed items are cesses in protecting this national treasure & Issues 2008 produced sustainably. Xanterra's print shop for future generations. 185 8 A wilderness, in contrast with those areas where man and his own

works dominate the landscape, is . . . an area where the earth and its

Issues: community of life are untrammeled by man, where man himself is a Wilderness visitor who does not remain ... an area of undeveloped federal land retaining its primeval character and influence, without permanent

improvements or human habitation, which is protected and managed

so as to preserve its natural condition. . . . The Wilderness Act of 1964

Wilderness in the The Issue Backcountry Statistics • Approximately 1,000 miles of trail. National Park System In 1972, 90% of Yellowstone • 72 trailheads within the park; 20 National Park was recommended Congress specifically included the National trailheads on the boundary. for federal wilderness designation. Park Service in the Wilderness Act and • 301 designated backcountry Congress has not acted on this rec- directed NPS to evaluate all its lands for campsites. ommendation. suitability as wilderness. Lands evaluated • Approximately 13% of back- and categorized as "designated," "recom- History country users travel with boats 1964: Wilderness Act becomes law. mended," "proposed," "suitable," or "study and 17% travel with stock. 1972: National Park Service rec- in • During 2007: 16,360 overnight area" the Wilderness Preservation System 2,016,181 acres in ommends backcountry visitors spent an must be managed in such a way as 1) to not Yellowstone as wilderness average of 2.3 nights in the wil- diminish their suitability as wilderness, and 1994: YNP writes a draft Backcountry derness. 2) apply the concepts of "minimum require- Management Plan (BCMP) and Areas of Concern for Park ments" to all management decisions affect- environmental assessment, which Wilderness ing those lands, regardless of the wilderness is never signed. The BCMP begins • Accommodating established category. to provide management guidance amount of visitor use. even though not official docu- Director's Order 41 • Protecting natural and cultural ment. resources. Director's Order 41, issued in 1999, provides 1999: Director's Order 41 (DO 41) • Managing administrative and accountability, consistency, and continuity issued to guide NPS efforts to scientific use. to the National Park Service's wilderness meet the letter and spirit of the • Monitoring & implementing Limits 1964 Wilderness Act. It states that management program, and guides NPS of Acceptable Change (LAC). recommended wilderness must be efforts to meet the letter and spirit of the • Educating users in Leave No Trace administered to protect wilderness 1964 Wilderness Act. Instructions include: practices. resources and values. • "... all categories of wilderness 2003: NPS Intermountain Region Current Status (designated, recommended, proposed, etc.) implements a Minimum Yellowstone does not yet have a wil- must be administered by NPS to protect Requirement Policy to evaluate derness plan to manage wilderness proposed management actions within the park. wilderness resources and values, i.e., all within proposed wilderness areas. areas must be managed as wilderness."

• "Park superintendents with wilderness resources will prepare and implement a Yellowstone National Park has always man- wilderness management plan or equivalent aged its backcountry to protect natural and integrated into an appropriate planning cultural resources and to provide visitors document. An environmental compliance the opportunity to enjoy a pristine environ- document, in keeping with NEPA requirement within a setting of solitude. Yet none ments, which provides the public with the of the park is designated as federal wilder- opportunity to review and comment on the ness under the Wilderness Act of 1964. park's wilderness management program, In 1972, in accordance with that law, the will accompany the plan." Secretary of the Interior recommended Minimum Requirement Analysis 2,016,181 acres of Yellowstone's The Intermountain Regional Director said backcountry be designated as wilderness. "all management decisions affecting wilder- Although Congress has not acted on this ness consistent with the minimum recommendation, these lands are managed must be requirement concept." This concept allows so as not to preclude wilderness designation managers to assess: in the future. The last Yellowstone wilder- Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 ness recommendation sent to Congress was • if the proposed management action is for 2,032,721 acres. appropriate or necessary for administering 186 the area as wilderness and does not impact 8 wilderness significantly character of the park's backcountry.

• what techniques and type of equipment are • Managing administrative and scientific use needed to minimize wilderness impact. to provide the greatest contribution with Wilderness Superintendents apply the minimum the minimum amount of intrusion in the requirement concept to all administrative wilderness. practices, proposed special uses, scientific • Monitoring Limits of Acceptable Change activities, and equipment use in wilderness. (LAC) to develop and enact long-range They must consider potential disruption of strategies to better protect wilderness wilderness character and resources before, resources and enhance visitor experiences. give significantly than, and more weight • Minimizing visitor wilderness recreation economic efficiency and convenience. If impact by educating users in Leave No wilderness resource or character impact is Trace outdoor skills and ethics that unavoidable, the only acceptable actions are promotes responsible outdoor recreation. those preserving wilderness character or having localized, short-term adverse Outlook impacts. Yellowstone will continue to manage its backcountry to protect park resources and Wilderness Designation and provide a wilderness experience to park Current Practices in Yellowstone visitors. Park managers are developing a wil- As managers develop a wilderness plan for derness plan to best manage and preserve Yellowstone, they must determine how the wilderness character that Yellowstone's current practices in the park will be handled backcountry has to offer. Yellowstone will within the proposed wilderness areas: then wait for the time when Congress will act upon the recommendation to officially • Protecting natural and cultural resources designate Yellowstone's wilderness. while also maintaining the wilderness

Proposed wilderness area, in brown 90% of the park is recommended for federally designated Northeast Entrance / wilderness. Areas near roads, around major visitor areas, around backcountry ranger cabins, and in previously disturbed areas are not included.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 Bechler Rangei ' Station 187 8

Issues: Winter Use

The Issue 2001: NPS settles with snowmobilers' group; agrees to prepare a supple- We have debated appropriate winter mental environmental impact use in Yellowstone for over 75 years. statement (SEIS). Winter Use Goals 2002: Draft SEIS released; >300,000 • Provide a high quality, safe and comments received. educational winter experience. 2003, December 11: Final rule pub- • Provide for visitor and employee lished in Federal Register, allowed health and safety. 950 Best Available Technology • Preserve pristine air quality. (BAT), guided snowmobiles daily. • Preserve natural soundscapes. 2003, December 16: Judge Sullivan • Mitigate impacts to wildlife. directs YNP to phase out recre- Background • Minimize adverse economic ational snowmobile use. Winter use in impacts to gateway communities. Yellowstone has been the 2004, February 10: Judge Brimmer subject of debate for more than 75 years. History: See also timeline issues preliminary injunction At least twelve times since 1930, the 1949: First snowplanes carry visitors against banning snowmobiles. National Park Service (NPS), its interested into Yellowstone. 2004: NPS completes another EA for 1955: Snowcoaches enter the park. Yellowstone & Grand Teton winter observers, and park users have formally

1963: First snowmobiles (six, total) use; 95,000 comments received. debated what Yellowstone should look and enter the park. 2004-2007: Under a temporary plan, be like in winter. 1967: Congressional hearing held limited numbers of snowmobiles Beginning in the early 1930s, communities on winter access to the park. with professional guides allowed around the park began asking NPS to plow 1968: Yellowstone managers decide in the park. Yellowstone's roads year-round so tourist to formalize over-snow use. 2007: Winter Use Plans EIS complet- travel and associated spending in their com- 1971: Managers begin grooming ed; 122,000 comments received; munities would be stimulated. Each time, roads and Yellowstone Park Co. final rule published in December. opens Old Faithful Snowlodge. NPS resisted, citing non-winterized build- Winter Use Beginning 2008 1990: NPS issues first winter ings, harsh weather conditions, and roads • Allow up to 540 guided BAT snow- environmental assessment for too narrow for snow storage. Meanwhile, mobiles and 83 snowcoaches per Yellowstone and Grand Teton. day. snowbound entrepreneurs in West Yellow- 1997: NPS is sued by groups who • Require snowcoaches to meet BAT stone began to experiment with motorized believe bison used groomed roads restrictions by winter 2011-2012. vehicles capable of traveling over snow- to leave the park, which led to • Open Sylvan Pass to oversnow covered roads. In 1949, they drove the first their slaughter. NPS must develop travel when safe; close it when motorized winter visitors into Yellowstone a new winter use plan and envi- avalanche danger exists. in snowplanes, which consisted of passenger ronmental impact statement (EIS). • using Stop explosives for ava- cabs set on skis and blown about (without 1999: Draft EIS released; >48,000 lanche control. public comments received. becoming airborne) with a rear-mounted • Close the Continental Divide 2000: The final EIS released; airplane propeller and engine. In 1955, they Snowmobile Trail in Grand Teton record of decision (ROD) signed; began touring the park on snowcoaches National Park due to low use. would ban snowmobiles from (then called snowmobiles), enclosed over- • Continue research to find out if Yellowstone and Grand Teton in ten groomed roads alter bison distri- snow vehicles capable of carrying about the winter of 2003-04. butions and behavior. people. Finally, in 1963 the first visitors on 2000, December: Snowmobile group Updates: www.nps.gov/yell/planyour modern snowmobiles entered Yellowstone; files suit against the ban. visit/winteruse.htm not long after, snowmobiling became the predominant mode of touring the park in winter.

Still, pressure to plow park roads persisted, Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 and Yellowstone authorities knew that they could not accommodate both snowmobiles 188 and automobiles. The matter culminated in 8 a congressional hearing in Jackson, (143,000 visitors), and shortly thereafter the Wyoming, in 1967. By this time, Yellow- Continental Divide Snowmobile Trail stone's managers realized that if they opened through Grand Teton National Winter plowed, the look and feel of the park's win- Park. According to the 1990 plan, then, NPS Use ter wilderness would be dramatically began a Visitor Use Management analysis, altered. Snowmobiles offered them a way to which included all types of winter recre- accommodate visitor use while preserving a ation on all NPS and U.S. Forest Service park-like atmosphere. Consequently, man- (USFS) lands in the greater Yellowstone agers chose to formalize their oversnow area. Park and forest staff utilized scientific

vehicle program, believing it would preserve studies, visitor surveys, and public com- park resources better than plowing. In 1971, ments to analyze the issues or problems they began grooming snowmobile routes to with winter use. The final report, Winter Use provide smoother, more comfortable tour- Management: A Multi-Agency Assessment, ing, and also opened Old Faithful Snow- published in 1999, made many recommen- lodge, so that visitors could stay overnight at dations to park and forest managers and the famous geyser. summarized the state of knowledge regarding winter use at that time. Throughout the 1970s, 80s, and early 90s, visitation by snowmobile grew consistently. Fund for Animals Lawsuit (Some visitors continued to take snow- During the severe winter of 1996-97, more coaches into the park, but not until recently than 1,000 bison left the park and were shot did snowcoach use substantially grow.) This or shipped to slaughter amid concerns they growth brought unanticipated problems, could transmit brucellosis to cattle in especially air and noise pollution, conflicts Montana. Thinking that groomed roads with other users, and wildlife harassment. allowed bison to leave the park and be In 1990, recognizing that in solving one killed, the Fund for Animals and others problem, others were developing, park man- filed suit in Washington, D.C. Federal agers completed the Winter Use Plan District Court against NPS in May 1997. Environmental Assessment for Yellowstone The lawsuit listed three primary complaints: and Grand Teton national parks and the • NPS had failed to prepare an environmen- John D. Rockefeller, Jr. Memorial Parkway. tal impact statement concerning winter use This plan formalized the park's existing in Yellowstone and Grand Teton national winter use program and included a commit- parks and the Rockefeller Parkway. ment to examine the issue further if winter visitation exceeded certain thresholds. • NPS had failed to consult with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service on the effects of In the winter of 1992-1993, winter use winter use on threatened and endangered exceeded the projection for the year 2000 species.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 189 -

\ c I

I to I I v \ 8 Winter visitation In accordance with the Fund for Animals Draft EIS released in Oct: Final EIS released. exceeds thresh- 1990 plan, a Visitor files lawsuit; August. Nov: Record of old of 140,000 Use Management pro- results in NPS Bluewater Network decision signed. Winter people per year, cess begins to evaluate agreeing to devel- and other organiza- Dec: International which was pro- winter recreation in the op a new winter tions petition to pro- Snowmobile Use jected in a 1990 greater Yellowstone use plan and EI5. hibit trail grooming Manufacturers winter use plan. area. and snowmobile use in Association sues the all national parks. Secretary of the Interior.

Concerns • NPS had failed to evaluate the effects of which determined that past snowmobile use Raised by the road grooming in the parks on wildlife and in the parks impaired the wildlife, air, Public other park resources. soundscape, and certain recreational

overcrowding In October 1997, all parties signed an agree- resources of the three parks. As such, snowmobile use violated the National Park visitor impacts on ment requiring NPS to prepare a new winter Service Organic Act of 1916. The final rule natural resources use plan and corresponding environmental impact statement (EIS), and to consult with was published in the Federal Register on noise & air Service January 22, 2001. The new rules would have pollution the U.S. Fish and Wildlife (FWS) on the effects of winter use on threatened and allowed only snowcoach access, beginning availability of endangered species. with the 2003-04 winter season. facilities and services In August 1999, NPS released the draft EIS Bluewater Network Lawsuit for public comment. Besides addressing the restricting snow- Separately, in January 1999, the Bluewater concerns of the lawsuit, the plan had several mobiles, including Network (a national conservation group) overarching goals, which have remained the requiring guides and 60 other associated organizations had same throughout all subsequent winter restricting snow- petitioned the Department of the Interior planning efforts and are listed in the box on mobiles on side (DOI) to prohibit snowmobile trail groom- roads page 188. ing and use in all national park units. The importance of The EIS alternatives addressed visitor Network's petition helped transform the winter visitation access, sound, emissions, wildlife concerns, winter use issue into a national controversy. to the local and and affordability. The preferred alternative Although DOI did not formally respond to regional economy called for, among other things, plowing the Bluewater Network right away, in April wildlife using road from West Yellowstone to Old Faithful 2000, it and NPS announced an intention to groomed roads and allowing snowmobiles on other park better comply with the laws and executive displacing roads. (Because the plowed road would not wildlife orders on off-road vehicle use on federal have connected with other roads, plowing health & lands. DOI's formal response, which came would not have altered park character in the human safety in 2004, stated a complete ban on snowmo- manner feared by earlier park managers.) biles throughout the park system was The agency received more than 48,000 unnecessary: "We continue to believe that public comments that were fairly evenly each park presents a unique set of environ- split between those favoring snowcoach- mental conditions and uses and, as such, only access and those desiring continued would be better served through individual snowmobile use. analysis and rulemaking as to snowmobile In part because relatively few people management." favored plowing, the final EIS, released in Snowmobile Association Lawsuit October 2000, had a different preferred alternative: using snowcoaches as the only Meanwhile, on December 6, 2000, the mechanized access to the interior of International Snowmobile Manufacturers Yellowstone and banning snowmobiles. Association (ISMA, an industry trade NPS also made this change because the group) and the State of Wyoming filed law- Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) suits in the U.S. District Court for the

designated it as the "environmentally pre- District of Wyoming against NPS challeng- ferred alternative" based on impacts to ing the validity of the decision to phase out human health, air quality, water quality, and snowmobiles. Meanwhile, NPS began visibility. implementing the winter use plan (from the Yellowstone Resources recently-completed EIS), allowing existing & Issues 2008 The NPS Regional Director signed the snowcoach and snowmobile outfitters to record of decision (ROD) on November 22, 190 add snowcoaches to their fleet, and allowing June: Feb: Draft March: Record of Feb 10: Another fed- March: Draft December: Snowmobilers SEIS decision signed. eral judge stops FEIS released; New winter settled, released; phase-out; requires use rules will lawsuit Dec 1 1: Final rule 122,000 com- which requires >300,000 published in Federal temporary rules for ments. begin. NPS to prepare comments Register. rest of winter. Dec: Final rule SEIS. received. Dec 16: Federal Aug: FA for tempo- published in judge directs YNP rary winter plan Federal to begin phasing released. Register. out snowmobiles. Nov: Plan approved.

11 new outfitters to provide snowcoach • NPS would continue to develop a new tours. NPS also partnered with the U.S. generation of snowcoaches. Department of Energy's Idaho National NPS received over 300,000 public comments Engineering and Environmental Laboratory (many of them form letters) on the Draft (INEEL) to develop a more reliable, effi- SEIS. Although about 80 percent of these cient, and quiet snowcoach. Yellowstone comments opposed continued snowmobile National Park also began working with its use in the parks, federal managers partners to develop a marketing strategy for addressed the common concerns about visiting Yellowstone by snowcoach. snowmobile effects on wildlife, sound- In June 2001, the parties to the suit reached scapes, air quality, and visitor experience. an agreement, which required NPS to pre- NPS released the final SEIS in February pare a Supplemental EIS (SEIS) to consider 2003, and the Regional Director signed the new snowmobile technologies and solicit ROD in March. (The final rule on this deci- additional public involvement. The SEIS sion would wait until December 2003.) preferred alternative was a package with A Winter of Crucial Decisions interrelated components: Upset over the proposed return to snow- • To reduce air and noise pollution, all mobiling, the Fund for Animals and the snowmobiles entering Yellowstone would Greater Yellowstone Coalition (GYC) both be Best Available Technology (BAT), quickly filed suits contesting the SEIS and which used four-stroke engines to reduce its new direction for winter use. The Fund hydrocarbon emissions 90 percent and car- for Animals argued road grooming in bon monoxide emissions 70 percent, compared to a standard two-stroke snowmobile. The same technologies reduced sound emissions to 73 decibels or below, when measured at full throttle.

• To address concerns about wildlife and safety, all snowmobilers in Yellowstone would be accompanied by an NPS- approved guide. Eighty percent of those would be commercial guides; 20 percent would be non-commercial group leaders who had attended a detailed training and orientation program.

• No more than 950 snowmobiles per day would be allowed into Yellowstone, with an additional 140 in Grand Teton National Park (such numerical restrictions would also help address wildlife and safety).

• NPS would implement a comprehensive monitoring and adaptive management program to assess the short- and long-term effects of management actions on park resources and values. Adjustments would be made in the management of the parks as Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 a result of the monitoring. 191 Park concessioners and NPS are testing new multi-season vehicles, - such as this bus tested 8 in 2004.

Winter Use

Yellowstone had adversely affected bison Wyoming, issuing a preliminary injunction distribution, abundance, and ecology; the barring NPS from further implementing the group called for an end to all road groom- snowmobile phase-out. the road the ing, with the exception of from Because Brimmer's February injunction South Entrance to Old Faithful, where few came in the middle of Yellowstone's winter bison are located. alleged the change GYC season, he further ordered NPS to issue in snowmobile policy was unnecessary and temporary regulations for the rest of the snowmobile impacts were inconsistent with season that were "fair and equitable to all the mission of Yellowstone. Because the parties." Consequently, Yellowstone and lawsuits had points in common, Judge Grand Teton authorities scrambled again to Sullivan of the U.S. District Court in come up with winter rules. This time, they Washington, D.C. (the same court where the used the authority in 36 CFR 1.5 (known as 1997 suit was filed) considered them jointly. the "superintendent's compendium") to

On December 11, 2003, NPS published the allow continued, managed snowmobile use final rule implementing the SEIS in the in the parks. These temporary rules allowed Federal Register. Five days later—just 13 780 snowmobiles per day in Yellowstone hours before the park was to open under the and 140 per day in Grand Teton for the newly approved rule —Judge Sullivan ruled remainder of that season. All additional in favor of GYC, writing that the March snowmobiles beyond the 493 already per- 2003 decision allowing snowmobiling to mitted daily would have to be BAT machines continue was "arbitrary and capricious," and commercially guided. and a violation of the Administrative Later that year, Judge Brimmer finalized his Procedure Act (APA) because it was a rever- decision, writing that NPS violated the same sal of policy that needed extra justification. two laws that Judge Sullivan said NPS had also wrote that the SEIS violated the He violated: the APA and NEPA. He said NPS National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) had failed to fully analyze the snowcoach- not including a full range of alternatives by only alternative (violating NEPA); failed to (specifically one permitting no road groom- adequately involve the public (violating ing, which would close most of the park), NEPA); and did not provide adequate justi- and that did not adequately explain NPS fication for a reversal of several decades of grooming did or did not affect bison why snowmobile access (violating the APA). populations. He directed Yellowstone the end of that winter, then, two differ- National Park to begin phasing out snow- By struck two different mobiles. The winter began with park ent judges had down decisions, because both violated the authorities allowing only commercially- NPS same laws. guided snowmobiles in the park in groups two of 11 or fewer and no more than machines, The Temporary Plan 493 snowmobiles per day. Snowmobiles Because the agency had no clear rules under would be fully phased out after that winter. which to operate Yellowstone for the winter Anticipating Judge Sullivan's unfavorable of 2004-05, NPS wrote the Temporary ruling, ISMA and the State of Wyoming Winter Use Plans Environmental Assessment reopened their original (2000) lawsuit in in 2004, which reflected experience gained Wyoming District Court, again contesting between 1998 and 2004. For example, by the snowmobile phase-out. On February 10, requiring all visitors to use commercial of the Yellowstone Resources 2004, Judge Clarence Brimmer guides, park managers could best protect & Issues 2008 Wyoming court ruled in favor of ISMA and park resources while offering visitors a 192 8 quality winter experience. As partial be commercially guided; all had to meet evidence, law enforcement incidents were BAT standards; and NPS would prepare a well below historic numbers for the winter new winter EIS. Four lawsuits contested the Winter of 2003-04, even after accounting for EA decision, but NPS prevailed in them. Use reduced visitation. This plan was a balanced approach that The temporary plan was approved in protected park resources, provided visitors November 2004 with a "Finding of No access to the parks, and gave visitors, Significant Impact" (FONSI) and a final rule employees, and residents of the park's gate- published in the Federal Register and imple- way communities the information they mented that winter. (EAs do not require needed to plan in advance. The plan was in RODs.) Key provisions included limiting effect for four winter seasons, through snowmobile entries to 720 per day; all had to 2007-08.

Legal Framework for Snowmobiles in National Parks

National Park Service Organic Act of 1916: 5,000 acres as Class I. Yellowstone and Grand Teton

To conserve the scenery and the natural and historic objects national parks are mandatory Class I. and the wildlife therein and to provide the enjoyment for of Section 169(A) states that "Congress hereby declares as a the same and by such means as will leave them unimpaired national goal the prevention of anyfuture, and the remedy- for the enjoyment future generations. of ing of any existing impairment of visibility in mandatory NPS Management Policies—2006: Impairment is an Class 1 Federal areas which impairment resultsfrom any impact that, in the professional judgment of the responsible manmade air pollution." NPS manager, would harm the integrity of the park Executive Order (E.O.) 11644—2/8/72 (President resources or values, including the opportunities that would Nixon) "Use of Off-Road Vehicles on the Public Lands": otherwise be presentfor the enjoyment those resources of Areas and trails shall be located in areas of the National and values. Park System only if the respective agency head determines General Authorities Act— 1978: The authorization of that off-road vehicle use in such locations will not adversely activities shall be construed and the protection, manage- affect their natural, esthetic or scenic values. ment, and administration these areas shall conducted of be E.O. 11989—5/24/77 (President Carter): The respective in light the high public value and integrity the National of of agency head shall, whenever he determines that the use of Park System and shall not be exercised in derogation the of off-road vehicles will cause or is causing considerable values and purposesfor which these various areas have adverse effects on the soil, vegetation, wildlife, wildlife been established, except as may have been or shall be direct- habitat or cultural or historic resources of the particular ly and specifically providedfor by Congress. areas or trails of the public lands, immediately close such National Parks and Recreation Act— 1978: Directs that areas or trails to the type of off-road vehicle causing such management plans be preparedfor all units of the National effects, until such time as he determines that such adverse Park System that include, but are not limited to: (3) identifi- effects have been eliminated and that measures have been cation of and implementation commitmentsfor visitor implemented to preventfuture recurrences. carrying capacities all areas the unit. for of Departmental Implementation of Executive Order Clean Air Act: Section 160 states one of the purposes of the 11644, as amended by E.O. 11989, pertaining to use of act is "to preserve, protect, and enhance the air quality in off-road vehicles on the public lands (DOIprepared EIS, national parks, national wilderness areas, national 1976): Defines snowmobiles on roads as off-road vehicles. monuments, national seashores, other areas and of special 36 CFR 2.18: Snowmobiles are prohibited, except where national or regional natural, recreational, scenic, or designated and only when their use is consistent with the historic value." park's natural, cultural, scenic, and esthetic values, safety Section 162 mandates designation of national park areas considerations, park management objectives, and will not greater than 6,000 acres and wilderness areas greater than disturb wildlife and damage park resources.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 193 8 The 2007 EIS number of the commentors suggested reducing snowmobile numbers). During the winters governed by the tempo- Winter rary plan, NPS planners developed a third Raise the daily snowcoach limit by 5 to 83 per day. Use EIS. That EIS was informed by information gathered during those winters that showed Require snowcoaches to meet BAT restric- substantial air quality improvement, quieter tions similar to those for snowmobiles by soundscapes, dramatic reduction in wildlife the winter of 2011-2012. (This delay allows problems, and dramatically improved visitor the time necessary to make these changes.) experience. Contributing to these changes These BAT restrictions should further were lower overall visitation, guided snow- improve soundscapes. mobiling, using BAT snowmobiles, a 60 to Reduce risk on Sylvan Pass by using 70 percent increase in snowcoach travel, and remote, automated weather stations and a similar decrease in snowmobile travel. staff expertise to predict avalanche danger.

is safe, it will be This EIS was released in March 2007; When the pass considered travel; it is not 122,000 people filed comments. Planners open to oversnow when it to all travel. To pro- also held over 60 public meetings with the safe, will be closed explosives park's neighbors and partners (including tect staff and park resources, no danger. concessioners, snowmobile and snowcoach will be used to reduce avalanche guides and outfitters, chambers of com- Meet with representatives of the State of merce, businesses, the conservation com- Wyoming, Park County, Wyoming and the munity, and state tourism organizations). town of Cody to further explore reason- NPS released the final EIS in September able avalanche and access mitigation safety 2007 and the ROD in November 2007; the measures and costs. final rule was published in December. Close the Continental Divide Snowmobile Trail in Grand Teton due to low use. The New Winter Rules Visitors using BAT snowmobiles will con- Beginning in the winter of 2008-2009, NPS tinue to have access to Jackson Lake and will: the Grassy Lake Road.

• Allow only 540 snowmobiles in the park Continue to enforce BAT and mandatory per day, to better protect park soundscapes guide restrictions in Yellowstone; adjust and to respond to public opinion (a large the restrictions as needed to better protect park resources.

• Continue research to

determine if groomed roads alter bison distribution and behavior. The research plan includes the option, after five years, of closing the main road from Madison to Norris and Firehole Canyon Drive to study these specific routes.

Thanks to the agency's persistent efforts, a historic turnabout in winter use has occurred in Yellowstone and Grand Teton national parks. Visitors can now enjoy Yellowstone Resources pristine air and quiet soundscapes, and safely view wildlife. Yellowstone and Grand & Issues 2008 Teton national parks and the John D. Rockefeller, Jr. Memorial Parkway remain great 194 places to visit in winter. 8

Issues: Wolf Restoration

The Issue Current Status

The wolf is a major predator that • As of January 2008, 443 wolves

had been missing from the Greater live in 51 packs in the greater Welcoming the wolves on January 12, 1995. Yellowstone Ecosystem for decades Yellowstone area.

until its restoration in 1995. • 171 wolves live in Yellowstone National Park. The gray wolf (Canis lupus) was present in History • The leading natural cause of Yellowstone when the park was established Late 1800s-early 1900s: predators, mortality is wolves killing other in 1872. Predator control, including poison- including wolves, are routinely wolves. killed in Yellowstone. ing, was practiced here in the late 1800s and • Livestock predation was expected 1926: The last wolf pack in early 1900s. Between 1914 and 1926, at least to be 40-50 sheep and 10-12 Yellowstone is killed, although 136 wolves were killed in the park; by the cows per year, but has been much reports of single wolves continue. 1940s, wolf packs were rarely reported. An lower: 256 sheep, 41 cattle during 1974: The gray wolf is listed as intensive survey in 1978 found no evidence 1995-2003. endangered; recovery is mandated • non-profit group, Defenders of a wolf population in Yellowstone, under the Endangered Species A of Wildlife, compensates livestock although an occasional wolf probably wan- Act. owners for livestock proven to dered into the area. A wolf-like canid was 1975: The long process to restore have been killed by wolves. filmed in Hayden Valley in August 1992, and wolves in Yellowstone begins. • Research is underway to deter- a wolf was shot just outside the park's south- 1991: Congress appropriates money mine impact of wolf restoration ern boundary in September 1992. However, for an EIS for wolf recovery. on cougars, coyotes, bears, and 1994: EIS completed for wolf reintro- no verifiable evidence of a breeding pair of elk. duction in Yellowstone and central wolves existed. the 1980s, During wolves • In February 2005, wolf manage- Idaho. More than 160,000 public began to reestablish breeding packs in ment authority transferred from comments received—the largest northwestern Montana; 50-60 wolves the federal government to the number of public comments on inhabited in 1994. states in Idaho and Montana. Montana any federal proposal. • In February 2008, the U.S. Fish 1995 and 1996: 31 gray wolves from Restoration Proposed and Wildlife Service proposed western Canada relocated to delisting the gray wolf NPS policy calls for restoring native species Yellowstone. from the federal endangered species list when: a) sufficient habitat exists to support 1997: U.S. District Court judge orders in the states of Idaho, Montana, a self-perpetuating population, b) manage- the removal of the reintroduced and Wyoming, and in Yellowstone ment can prevent serious threats to outside wolves in Yellowstone, but stays and Grand Teton national parks. interests, c) the restored subspecies most his order, pending appeal. Litigation may delay the delisting nearly resembles the extirpated subspecies, 2000: January, the decision is or management changes related reversed. and d) extirpation resulted from human to the delisting. activities.

The U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service (USFWS) 1987 Northern Rocky Mountain Wolf Recovery Plan proposed reintroduction of an "experimental population" of wolves into Yellowstone. (An experimental population,

under section 10(j) of the Endangered Species Act, is considered nonessential and allows more management flexibility.) Most scientists believed that wolves would not greatly reduce populations of mule deer, pronghorns, bighorn sheep, white-tailed Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 deer, or bison; they might have minor effects 195 8 t 31 wolves from Judge orders The decision is Montana and Idaho wolf As of January, 443 Canada relocated removal of the reversed. management plans wolves live in 51 Wolf to Yellowstone. wolves in approved; day-to-day packs in the greater Yellowstone, wolf management trans- Yellowstone area; EI5 process for wolf States begin but immediate- ferred to these two 171 wolves in 11 Restoration restoration in process to ly stays his states. packs live in the Yellowstone and remove wolves order, pending Population drops by 1/3 park. central Idaho. More from the appeal. to 118 wolves, due most- than 160,000 com- Endangered ly to disease killing 2/3 of ments received. Species List. the pups.

to be separated from the group if necessary

(i.e., for medical treatment). Plywood boxes provided shelter if the wolves desired isolation from each other.

Relocation & Release

In late 1994/early 1995, and again in 1996, USFWS and Canadian wildlife biologists captured wolves in Canada and relocated and released them in both Yellowstone and central Idaho. In mid-January 1995, 14 wolves were temporarily penned in Yellow- stone; the first 8 wolves on January 12 and the second 6 on January 19, 1995. Wolves from one social group were together in each release pen. On January 23, 1996, 11 more wolves were brought to Yellowstone for the second year of wolf restoration. Four days Released from the on grizzly bears and cougars; and their pres- later they were joined by another 6 wolves. cage into the pen ence might cause the decline of coyotes and The wolves ranged from 72 to 130 pounds in increase of red foxes. size and from approximately nine months to In 1991, Congress provided funds to the five years in age. They included wolves USFWS to prepare, in consultation with known to have fed on bison. Groups includ- NPS and the U.S. Forest Service, an envi- ed breeding adults and younger wolves one ronmental impact statement (EIS) on resto- to two years old. ration of wolves. In June 1994, after several Each wolf was radio-collared as it was years and a near-record number of public captured in Canada. While temporarily comments, the Secretary of the Interior penned, the wolves experienced minimal signed the Record of Decision for the final human contact. Approximately twice a EIS for reintroduction of gray wolves to week, they were fed elk, deer, moose, or Yellowstone National Park and central bison that had died in and around the park. Idaho. They were guarded by law enforcement Staff from Yellowstone, the USFWS, and rangers who minimized the amount of visu- participating states prepared for wolf al contact between wolves and humans. The restoration to the park and central Idaho. pen sites and surrounding areas were closed The USFWS prepared special regulations to visitation and marked to prevent unau- outlining how wolves would be managed as thorized entry. Biologists checked on the an experimental population. welfare of wolves twice each week, using

Park staff completed site planning and telemetry or visual observation while plac- archeological and sensitive plant surveys for ing food in the pens. Although five years of the release sites. Each site was approximate- reintroductions were predicted, no trans- ly one acre enclosed with 9-gauge chain-link plants occurred after 1996 because of the fence in 10 x 10 foot panels. The fences had early success of the reintroductions. a two-foot overhang and a four-foot skirt at Some people expressed concern about the bottom to discourage climbing over or wolves becoming habituated to humans Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 digging under the enclosure. Each pen had a while in captivity. However, wolves typically small holding area attached to allow a wolf avoid human contact, and they seldom 196 8 develop habituated behaviors such as scav- where four other large predators (black and enging in garbage. Captivity was also a neg- grizzly bears, coyotes, cougars) prey on ative experience for them and reinforced elk—and people hunt the elk outside the Wolf their dislike of humans. park. Thus, interactions of wolves with elk Restoration and other ungulates has created a new Lawsuits degree of complexity that makes it difficult Several lawsuits were filed to stop the to project long-term population trends. restoration on a variety of grounds. These The effect of wolf recovery on the dynamics suits were consolidated, and in December of northern Yellowstone elk cannot be gen- 1997, the judge found that the wolf reintro- See Chapter 2 for eralized to other elk populations in the duction program in Yellowstone and central more information GYE. The effects depend on a complex of Idaho violated the intent of section 10(j) of on changes to the factors including elk densities, abundance the Endangered Species Act because there ecosystem. of other predators, presence of alternative was a lack of geographic separation between ungulate prey, winter severity, and— outside fully protected wolves already existing in the park— land ownership, human harvest, Montana and the reintroduction areas in livestock depredations, and human-caused which special rules for wolf management wolf deaths. A coalition of natural resource apply. The judge wrote that he had reached professionals and scientists representing his decision "with utmost reluctance." He federal and state agencies, conservation ordered the removal (and specifically not organizations and foundations, academia, the killing) of reintroduced wolves and their and land owners are collaborating on a offspring from the Yellowstone and central comparative research program involving Idaho experimental population areas, but three additional wolf-ungulate systems in immediately stayed his order pending the western portion of the GYE. Results to appeal. The Justice Department appealed date indicate the effects of wolf predation the case, and in January 2000 the decision on elk population dynamics range from sub- was reversed. stantial to quite modest. Results of the Restoration Delisting Preliminary data from studies indicate that The biological requirement for removing wolf recovery will likely lead to greater the wolf from the endangered species list biodiversity throughout the Greater Yellow- has been achieved: Three years of 30 breed- stone Ecosystem (GYE). Wolves have preyed ing pairs across the three recovery areas. primarily on elk and these carcasses have The USFWS also has approved the wolf provided food to a wide variety of other ani- management plans of Idaho, Montana, and mals, especially scavenging species. They Wyoming. As a result, the USFWS has pro- are increasingly preying on bison, especially posed delisting the wolves in these three in late winter. Grizzly bears have usurped states, and in Yellowstone and Grand Teton wolf kills almost at will, contrary to predic- national parks. Several environmental tions and observations from other areas groups plan to sue to stop the delisting, where the two species occur. Wolf kills, which may delay management related to the then, provide an important resource for changed status of the wolf. bears in low food years. Aggression toward coyotes initially decreased the number of coyotes inside wolf territories, which may have benefited other smaller predators, rodents, and birds of prey.

So far, data suggests wolves are contributing to decreased numbers of elk calves surviving to adulthood and decreased survival of adult elk. Wolves may also be affecting where and how elk use the habitat. Some of these effects were predictable, but were based on research in relatively simple systems of one to two predator and prey spe- Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2008 cies. Such is not the case in Yellowstone, 197 8 Aquatic Invaders Yellowstone Lake and its cutthroat trout Herrero, S. et al. 2005. Brown bear in Science and Ecosystem Management habituation to people—safety, risks, Staff reviewer: Todd M. Koel, and benefits. Wildlife Society For More Supervisory Fisheries Biologist in the National Parks. Halvorson, W. L, Bulletin. and G. E. Davis, eds. Tucson: U Arizona 33(1)362-373. www.100thmendian.org Press. Kieter, Robert B. 1991. Observations Information nas.er.usgs.gov Varley, J. D., and P. Schullery, eds. 1995. on the future debate over 'delist- www.sgnis.org The Yellowstone Lake crisis: confronting ing' the grizzly bear in the GYE. The Benhke, R.J. 1992. Native Trout of a lake trout invasion. A report to the Environmental Professional. 13. Western North America. Monograph director of the NPS. Mammoth, WY: Mattson, D.J. etal. 1996. Designing 6. Bethesda, MD: American Fisheries NPS. and managing protected areas for Society. Vincent, E.R. Whirling disease 1996. and grizzly bears: how much is enough? www.nps.gov/yell Crait, J. R. and M. Ben-David. 2006. River wild trout: the Montana experience, In R. G. Wright, ed. National Parks otters in Yellowstone Lake depend on a fisheries 21(6): 32-33. www.greateryellowst.one- and Protected Areas: Their Role in science.org/index.html declining cutthroat trout population. J Environmental Protection. Cambridge: Mammalogy. 87: 485-494. Bear Management Yellowstone Science, free Blackwell Science.

Crait, J. R. etal. 2004. Influence of Staff reviewer: Kerry Gunther, Bear from the Yellowstone Podruzny, S.R. et al. 2002. Grizzly bear biopollution on ecosystem processes: Management Biologist Center for Resources, in denning and potential conflict areas in the impact of introduced lake trout Anderson, C. et al. 2005. Reassessing the Yellowstone Research the GYE. Ursus. 13:19-28. on streams, predators, and forests in Library, or online at methods to estimate population size Yellowstone National Park. Progress Schwartz, C.C. et al. 2002 Distribution of www.nps.gov/yell. and sustainable mortality limits for grizzly bears in the GYE, 1990-2000. report. Environmental Protection the Yellowstone grizzly bear. Report. Yellowstone Today, 203-212. Agency. Interagency Grizzly Bear Study Team. Ursus. 13: distributed at entrance Crait, J. R. and M. Ben-David. 2003. The Bozeman, MT: MT State U. Servheen, C, M. et al. 2004. Yellowstone gates and visitor centers. mortality conflicts reduction. impact of introduced lake trout on river Blanchard, B.M. and R.R. Knight. 1995. and Site Bulletins, published otters in Yellowstone National Park. Biological consequences of relocating Report. Missoula, MT: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. as needed, provide more Progress report. National Park Service. grizzly bears in the Yellowstone ecosys- detailed information Elle, Steven. 1997. Comparative infection tem. Wild Manage. 59:560-565. Varley, N., and K.A. Gunther. 2002. on park topics such as rates of cutthroat and rainbow trout Grizzly bear predation on a bison calf in Cole, G. F. 1974. Management involv- bioprospectmg and wolf YNP. Ursus. 13:377-381. exposed to Myxobolus cerebralis in Big ing grizzly bears and humans in restoration. Free; available Lost River, Idaho during June, July, and Yellowstone National Park, 1970-1973. Wyman, T. 2002. Grizzly bear predation upon request from visitor August. Whirling Disease Symposium, Bioscience 24:6. on a bull bison in YNP. Ursus. 13:375- centers. Logan, UT. 377. Felicetti, LA. et al. 2003. Use of sulfur Gunther, Kerry. Grizzly bears and cut- and nitrogen stable isotopes to deter- throat trout: Potential impact of the mine the importance of whitebark pine Bioprospecting introduction of non-native trout to Staff Mills, nuts to Yellowstone grizzly bears. Can. reviewers: Ann Deutch; Sue Yellowstone Lake. Bear Management Environmental Protection Specialist J. Zool. 81:763-770. Office Information Paper. Number www.nature.nps.gov/benefitssharing BMO-9. Felicetti, L.A. et al. 2004. Use of naturally occurring mercury to determine National Park Service. 2006. Benefits- Koel, Todd et al. Yellowstone Fisheries & the importance of cutthroat trout to Sharing Draft Environmental Impact Aquatic Sciences. Yellowstone National Yellowstone grizzly bears. Can. J. Zool. Statement (DEIS). Washington Office/ Park. Annual. 82(3):493-501. National Park Service. http://parkplan- MacConnell, E. et al. 1997. Susceptibility Gunther, K.A. et al. 2004. Grizzly ning.nps.gov/Plans.cfm of grayling, rainbow, and cutthroat bear-human conflicts in the GYE, trout to whirling disease by natural Bison 1992-2000. Ursus. 15(1): 10-22. Management exposure to Myxobolus cerebralis. Staff reviewer: Rick Wallen, Bison Gunther, K.A., and D.L. Smith. 2004. Whirling Disease Symposium, Logan, Ecology & Management Interactions between wolves and UT. female grizzly bears with cubs in YNP. www.gyibc.com Mahony, D.L. and C.J. Hudson. 2000. Ursus. 15(2):232-238. www.nps.gov/yell Distribution of Myxobolus cerebra- Gunther, K.A. et al. 2004. Management Cheville, N.F. et al. 1998. Brucellosis lis in Yellowstone cutthroat trout of habituated grizzly bears in North in the Greater Yellowstone Area. Oncorhynchus clarki bouvieri in America in: J. Rahm ed., Trans, of Washington, DC: National Academy Yellowstone Lake and its tributaries. the 69th North American Wildlife Press. Whirling Disease Symposium, Coeur Natural Conference. dAlene, Idaho. and Resources Irby, L. and J. Knight, eds. 1998. Washington: Wildlife Management International Symposium on Bison Mattson, D. J., and D. P. Remhart. 1995. Institute. Influences of cutthroat trout on behav- Ecology and Management in North Gunther, K.A. et al. 2002. Probable ior and reproduction of Yellowstone America. Bozeman, MT: MT State U. grizzly bear predation on an American grizzly bears 1975-1989. Can. J. Zool. Meagher, M. and M. E. Meyer. 1995. black bear in Yellowstone National Park. 73:2072-2079. Brucellosis in captive bison. J Wild! Dis. Ursus. 13:372-374. Nickum, D. 1999. Whirling disease in the 31(1):106-110. Haroldson, M.A. et al. 2005. Changing United States: a summary of progress in Meagher, M. and M. E. Meyer. 1994. numbers of spawning cutthroat trout research and management. Arlington, On the origin of brucellosis in bison of in tributary streams of Yellowstone VA: Trout Unlimited. Yellowstone National Park: A review. Lake and estimates of grizzly bears Conserv. Biol. 8(3):645-653. Reinhart, D.P. and D.J. Mattson. 1990. Yellowstone Resources visiting streams from DNA. Ursus. Bear use of cutthroat trout spawning Meyer, M. E. and M. Meagher. 1995. & Issues 2008 16(2):167-180. streams in YNP. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Brucellosis in free-ranging bison (Bison Haroldson, M.A. et al. 2002. Grizzly bear Manage. 8:343-350. bison) in Yellowstone, Grand Teton, and 198 denning chronology and movements in Wood Buffalo National Parks: A Review. Varley, J. D. and P. Schullery. 1996. the GYE. Ursus. 13:29-37. 8 Letter to the Editor in / : Dis. (1052-1062). tion between El Nino and global temperatures? The Science & Environmental 32(4)579-598. Lynch, Heather et al. 2006. Influence of Previous Pine Beetle Activity on the Policy Project. Climate Change For More 1988 Yellowstone Fires. Ecosystems. 9: Stott, Peter et al. 2000. External Control Staff reviewers: Glenn Plumb, Chief, 1318-1327. of 20th Century temerature by natural Information Natural Resources; Roy Renkin, Mattson, David and Matthew Reid. 1991. and anthropogenic forcings. Science. Biologist Conservation of the Yellowstone Grizzly 290(5499): 2133-2137. Bartlein, Patrick and Cathy Whitlock, Bear. Conservation Biology 5:3 (364+) Weart, Spencer. 2003. The Discovery of Sarah Shafer. 1997. Future climate in Meyer, Grant and Jennifer Pierce. 2003. Global Warming. Harvard University the Yellowstone National Park Region Climatic controls on fire-induced sedi- Press/Cambridge, MA. and its potential impact on vegetation. ment pulses in Yellowstone National Westerling, A. L. et al. 2006. Warming Conservation Biology. 11:5 (782-792). Park and central Idaho: a long-term and earlier spring increase western Burns, Catherine and Kevin Johnston, perspective, foresf Ecology and U.S. forest wildlfire activity. Science. Oswald Schmitz. 2007. Global Management. 178: 89-104. 313(5789): 940-943. Climate change and Mammalian Millspaugh, Sarah and Cathy Whitlock, Whitiock, Cathy et al. 2007. A 2650-year- Species Diversity in US National Parks. Patrick Bartlein. 2000. Variations in long record of environmental change Proceedings of the National Academy fire frequency and climate over the from northern Yellowstone National of Sciences of the United States of past 17,000 yr in central YNP. Geology. Park based on a comparison of multiple America. 100:20 (11474-11477). 28(3):211-214 proxy data. Quaternary International National Park Service. 2006. Special Issue. Murphy, Sue Consolo and Kevin (author's proof). Sustainability News. Fall. Schneider. 2002. Reading History — etal. 1995. Stability of Holocene

Cicerone, Ralph. 2005. Climate Change through Crevice Lake sediment records. Climate Regimes in the Yellowstone Research: Science & Recent and Yellowstone Science. 10(1): 2-7. Region Quatenary Research. 43: Upcoming Studies from the National National Academy of Sciences. 2000. 433-436 Academies. Report to Congress. July Ecological Indicators for the Nation: — 1993. Postglacial vegetation and 20&21. Executive Summary. climate of Grand Teton and Southern Climate Change Action Committee. 2007. National Park Service. Climate Friendly Yellowstone national parks Ecological Report. State of Montana. Program, www.nps.gov/climatefriend- Monographs. 63(2): 173-1 98 EPA. 1999. Climate Change and Public lyparks — and Patrick Bartlein. 1993. Spatial Lands: National Parks Risk. at NOAA Magazine. 2007. 2006 warmest Variations of Holocene Climatic Change

Evanoff, Jim. 2006. YNP Environmental year on record for U.S. Jan. 9. in the Yellowstone Region Quatenary Management System Review. Report, 39:231-238 Rennicke, Jeff. 2007. A Climate of Research. draft. Change. National Parks & Conservation Fames, Phillip 2002. Natural Variability Northern Range Association. in annual maximum water level and Staff reviewer: P.J. White, Supervisory Romme, William and Monica Turner. outflow of Yellowstone Lake. In: Wildlife Biologist 1991. Implications of global climate Anderson, R.J. and D. Harmon, eds. change for biogeographic patterns in Houston, D.B. 1982. The Northern Yellowstone Lake: Hotbed of Chaos or the greater Yellowstone ecosystem. Yellowstone Elk: Ecology and Reservoir of Resilience? Proceedings of Conservation Biology. 5:3 (373-386) Management. New York: Macmillan the 6th Biennial Scientific Conference Running, Steven W. 2007. Testimony Publishing Co. on the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. before Congress. November 7. Huff, D. E. and J.D. Varley. 1999. Natural Yellowstone National Park. Saunders, Stephen and Maureen regulation in Yellowstone National Gonzalez, Patrick et al. 2007 Potential Maxwell. 2005. Less Snow, Less Water: Park's Northern Range. Ecol. Appl. impacts of climate change on habitat 9(1):17-29. Climate Disruption in the West. Rocky and conservation of priority areas for Mountain Climate Organization. Krauseman, P. R. 1998. Conflicting views Lynx Canadensis. Report to the Nature September. of ungulate management in North Conservancy. Oct. 7. America's western national parks. Hoffman, Jennie and Eric Mielbrecht. Saunders, Stephen et al. 2006. Losing Wildlife Soc. Bull. 26(3): 369-371. 2007. Unnatural Disaster: Global Ground: Western National Parks National Research Council. 2002. Warming and Our National Parks. Endangered by Climate Disruption. Ecological Dynamics on Yellowstone's National Parks & Conservation Rocky Mountain Climate Organization Association. and NRDC. July. Northern Range. National Academy Press: Washington IPCC. 2007. Climate Change 2007: The Shafer, S. L, P. J. Bartlein, and C. Physical Science Basis (FAQ). Whitlock. 2005. Understanding the Yellowstone National Park 1997. spatial heterogeneity of global environ- Yellowstone's Northern Range: —Summary for Policymakers of the mental change in mountain regions. Complexity and Change in a Wildland Synthesis Report of the IPCC Fourth Pages 21-30. In: U. M. Huber, H. K. M. Ecosystem. NPS/Mammoth, WY. Assessment 16. Report. November Bugmann, and M. A. Reasoner (eds.), www.ipcc.ch/index.htm Global Change and Mountain Regions: Wilderness —Summary for Policymakers. Working Overview of An Current Knowledge. Staff reviewers: Ivan Kowski, Group 1. October. Springer, Dordrecht. Backcountry Manager; Dan Reinhart, —Summary for Policymakers. Working Shafer, Sarah, and Patrick Bartlein, Robert Resource Management Specialist

Group III. Thompson. 2001. Potential Changes www.wilderness.nps.gov in the Distributions of Western North Kilham, Susan et al. 1996. Linking www.wilderness.net Yellowstone Resources America Tree planktonic diatoms and climate change and Shrub Taxa under www.LNT.org & Issues 2008 in the large lakes of the Yellowstone Future Climate Scenarios. Ecosystems. Ecosystem using resource theory. 4:200-215. National Park Service. 1972. Wilderness 199

Limnology and Oceanography. 41:5 Singer, Frances. 1999. Is there a connec- Recommendation: Yellowstone National . 8 Park. Creel, S. et al. 2002. Snowmobile activity Press. and glucocorticoid stress responses in National Park Service. 2003. NPS Annual Ruth, T.K. 2000. Cougar-wolf interac- Wilderness Report 2002-2003. wolves and elk. Cons. Biology. 16(3): tions in Yellowstone National Park: For More 809-814. Competition, demographics, and spatial Wilderness Act of 1964. U.S. Code, 16: Wildlife Conservation Information 1131-1136. Eberhardt, L.L. et al. 2003. Assessing the relationships. impact of wolves on ungulate prey. Society. August:1-28. Wilderness Preservation and 776-783. Management: NPS Reference Manual Ecol. App. 13(3): Smith, D. W. 2005. Meet five, nine, and fourteen: Yellowstone's heroine wolves. 41 . www.nps.gov/policy/DOrders/RM41 Ferguson, Gary. 1996. The Yellowstone Wildlife Conservation. 108(1):28-33. doc Wolves: The First Year. Helena, MT:

Falcon Press. Smith, D.W. 2005. Ten years of Winter Use Yellowstone Wolves. Yellowstone Fischer, Hank. 1995. Wolf Wars. Helena, Staff reviewers: Denise Swanke, MT: Falcon Press. Science. 13(1)7-33. Michael J. Yochim, Outdoor Recreation Fritts, S.H. 2000. Review of Carnivores Smith, D.W. and Gary Ferguson. 2005. Planners in Ecosystems: the Yellowstone Decade of the Wolf: Returning the Wild Aune, K. E. 1981. Impacts of winter Experience. Ecology. 81(8): 2351-2352. to Yellowstone. Guilford, CT: Lyons recreationists on wildlife in a portion of Gunther, K. A. and D.W. Smith. 2004. Smith, Douglas and Michael K. Phillips. Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. Interactions between wolves and 2000. Northern Rocky Mountain wolf in Thesis. Bozeman: MT State U. female grizzly bears with cubs in YNP. Endangered Animals. Greenwood Press. Bishop, G. A. and D. H. Stedman. 1998. Ursus. 15(2):232-238. Smith, Douglas et al. Yellowstone Wolf Preliminary snowmobile emission survey Halfpenny, James C. 2003. Yellowstone Project Annual Report. Annual. in Yellowstone National Park. Final Wolves: In the Wild. Helena, MT: report to Yellowstone National Park. Smith, Douglas et al. 2004. Winter prey Riverbend Press estimation of wolf kill Bjornlie, D.D. and R. A. Garrott. 2001. selection and al. 2007. Landscape Ecological effects of winter road Kauffman, M.J. et rates in YNP. J Wildlife Mgt. 68(1): shapes predation in a grooming on bison in Yellowstone heterogeneity 153-166 newly restored predator-prey system. National Park. J Wildlife Mgt, 65:423- Smith, Douglas et al. 2003. Yellowstone Ecology Letters. 10:1-11. 435. after wolves. Bioscience. April, 53(4):

Borkowski, J.J. et al. 2006. Wildlife Lopez, Barry. 1978. Of Wolves and Men. 330-340 winter recre- York: Scribners. responses to motorized New Smith, Douglas et al. 2001. Killing of a

ation in Yellowstone National Park. Ecol. MacNulty, D.R. and L.D. Mech, D.W. bison calf by a wolf and four coyotes in

App. 16:1911-1925. Smith. 2007. A proposed ethogram YNP Can. Field Nat. 115(2): 343-345. of large-carnivore predatory behavior, Bruggerman, J.E. et al. 2006. Temporal Smith, Douglas et al. 2000. Wolf-bison exemplified by the wolf. J Mammalogy. variability in winter travel patterns of interactions in YNP. J Mammalogy. 88:595-605 Yellowstone bison: the effects of road 81(4): 1128-1135. grooming. Ecol. App. 16:1539-1554. Mclntyre, Rick, ed. 1995. War against Smith, Douglas et al. 1999. Wolves in the

Creel, S. et al. 2002. Snowmobile activ- the Wolf: America's Campaign to GYE: Restoration of a top carnivore in a

ity and glucorticoid stress responses in Exterminate the Wolf. Stillwater, MN: complex management environment in

wolves and elk. Cons Biol. 16:809-814. Voyageur Press. Carnivores in Ecosystems. New Haven:

Yale U. Press. Hardy, A. 2001. Bison and elk responses Mclntyre, Rick. 1993. A Society of

Stahler, Daniel R. et al. 2002. The to winter recreation in Yellowstone Wolves: National Parks and the Battle acceptance of a new breeding male National Park. Thesis, Bozeman: MT over the Wolf. Stillwater, MN: Voyageur into wild wolf pack. Can. J. Zool. State U. Press. a 80:360-365. Ingersoll, G.P. 1999. Effects of snow- McNamee, Thomas. 1997. The Return of chemistry U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1994. Final mobile use on snowpack the Wolf to Yellowstone. New York: Park, 1998. Gray Wolves in Yellowstone National Henry Holt. EIS: The Reproduction of 99- Water-Resources Investigations Rep. to YNP and Central Idaho. MacNulty, D.R. et al. 2001. Grizzly bear 4148. Denver: USGS usurps bison calf captured by wolves in Varley, John D. and Paul Schullery. 1992. Olliff, T. et al, eds. 1999. Effects of winter to YNP. Can. Field Nat. 115:495-498. Wolves for Yellowstone? A Report recreation on wildlife of the greater the United States Congress. Mech, L. David et al. 2001. Winter sever- Yellowstone area: a literature review et al. 2008. The genealo- ity and wolf predation on a formerly VonHoldt, B.M. and assessment. Report to the Greater and genetic viability of reintroduced elk herd. J. Wildlife Mgt. gy Yellowstone Coordinating Committee. wolf-free 65(4):998-1003. Yellowstone grey wolves. Molecular Ecology. 17:252-274. Wolf Restoration Peterson, R.O. et al. 2002. Leadership

dominance and G.J. et al. 2006. Selection Staff reviewer: Douglas W. Smith, Wolf behavior in relation to Wright, in gray wolves, northern Yellowstone elk by Project Leader reproductive status of Cams lupus. Can. J.Zool. 80:1405- gray wolves and hunters. J Wildlife Bangs, E. E., and S. H. Fntts. 1996. 1412. 70:1070-1078. Reintroducing the gray wolf to central Management.

Phillips, Michael K. and Douglas W. Idaho and YNP. Wildlife Soc. Bull. and private 24(3):402-413. Smith. 1998. Gray wolves landowners in the Greater Yellowstone Bangs, Edward et al. 2001. Gray wolf Area. Trans. 63rd North American restoration in the northwestern United Wildlife and Natural Resources States. Endangered Species Update. Conference. Yellowstone Resources 18(4): 147-152. & Issues 2008 Phillips, Michael K. and Douglas Carbyn, Ludwig et al. 1995. Ecology and W. Smith. 1996. The Wolves of Conservation of Wolves in a Changing 200 Yellowstone. Stillwater, MN: Voyageur World. Edmonton: U. Alberta.

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