Ecology of Chaetognaths (Semi-Gelatinous Zooplankton) in Arctic Waters

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Ecology of Chaetognaths (Semi-Gelatinous Zooplankton) in Arctic Waters Ecology of chaetognaths (semi-gelatinous zooplankton) in Arctic waters Thèse Jordan Grigor Doctorat interuniversitaire en océanographie Philosophiæ doctor (Ph. D.) Québec, Canada © Jordan Grigor, 2017 Ecology of chaetognaths (semi-gelatinous zooplankton) in Arctic waters Thèse Jordan Grigor Sous la direction de : Louis Fortier, directeur de recherche Résumé Les chaetognathes sont d’importants membres des communautés mésozooplanctoniques de l’Arctique en ce qui a trait à l'abondance et à la biomasse. Les chaetognathes de l’Arctique se répartissent en trois espèces principales qui sont considérées comme étant strictement carnivores : Eukrohnia hamata, Parasagitta elegans et Pseudosagitta maxima. Cette étude utilise un ensemble de données de filet planctoniques recueillies sur une période de 5 ans dans les régions européennes, canadiennes et de l'Alaska de l’Arctique (2007, 2008, 2012, 2013, 2014) et comprend un cycle annuel complet dans l'Arctique canadien (2007-2008), le but étant d’améliorer notre compréhension sur les distributions, les cycles de vie et les stratégies d'alimentation du E. hamata et du P. elegans. Dans la présente thèse, les points suivants seront abordés : (1) la stratégie d'alimentation et la maturité du P. elegans dans l'Arctique européen durant la nuit polaire en 2012 et 2013, (2) les cycles de croissance et de reproduction, les stratégies d'alimentation et les distributions verticales du E. hamata et du P. elegans dans l'Arctique canadien de 2007 à 2008, et (3) les différences spatiales dans les stratégies d'alimentation du E. hamata et du P. elegans à l'automne 2014. Afin d’étudier leurs stratégies d'alimentation, des analyses de contenu du tube digestif ainsi que des techniques biochimiques ont été utilisées. Dans l'Arctique canadien, le E. hamata et le P. elegans vivent tous deux pendant environ 2 ans. Le P. elegans colonise principalement les eaux épipélagiques, tandis que le E. hamata colonise principalement les eaux mésopélagiques. Dans cette région, P. elegans se reproduit en continue de l'été au début de l'hiver, dans la période de forte biomasse de copépodes, qui constituent ses proies, dans les eaux proches de la surface, un mode de reproduction basé sur l’apport immédiat d’énergie. Cependant, les résultats ont révélé que E. hamata a engendré des couvées distinctes dont on peut voir l’évolution au cours de fenêtres de reproduction séparées, à la fois durant les périodes de printemps-été et d’automne-hiver, ce qui suggère une reproduction basée sur les réserves. Les taux de prédation quotidiens évalués à partir des analyses du contenu du tube digestif sont généralement restés faibles pour les deux espèces de chaetognathes. Toutefois, pour E. hamata et P. elegans, les taux de prédation inférés en été-automne ont dépassé ceux de l’hiver-printemps. Des études d’alimentation ont révélé que E. hamata consomme de la matière organique particulaire (éventuellement des chutes de neige marine) tout au long de l'année, mais surtout en été, alors que le P. elegans se nourrit différemment. Les deux espèces iii sont caractérisées par une forte croissance estivale. La croissance hivernale du P. elegans était grandement restreinte, tandis que celle du E hamata l’était moindrement. En somme, les différences dans la façon dont les lipides et la neige marine sont utilisés par les deux espèces pourraient expliquer les différences dans leurs cycles de reproduction et leurs patrons de croissance saisonnière. iv Abstract Chaetognaths are important members of Arctic mesozooplankton communities in terms of abundance and biomass. Despite this, the bulk of seasonal studies have focused on grazing copepods. Arctic chaetognaths comprise three major species which are thought to be strict carnivores: Eukrohnia hamata, Parasagitta elegans and Pseudosagitta maxima. This thesis uses datasets collected from plankton net sampling during five years in European, Canadian and Alaskan areas of the Arctic (2007, 2008, 2012, 2013, 2014) and includes a full annual cycle in the Canadian Arctic (2007-2008), the purpose being to improve our understanding of the distributions, life history and feeding strategies of E. hamata and P. elegans. The following topics are addressed: (1) the feeding strategy and maturity of P. elegans in the European Arctic during the polar night in 2012 and 2013; (2) the growth, breeding cycles, feeding strategies and vertical distributions of E. hamata and P. elegans, in the Canadian Arctic from 2007 to 2008; and (3) spatial differences in the feeding strategies of E. hamata and P. elegans in autumn 2014. To investigate feeding strategies, a combination of gut contents and biochemical techniques was used. In the Canadian Arctic, both E. hamata and P. elegans live for around 2 years. P. elegans mainly colonized epi-pelagic waters, whereas E. hamata mainly colonized meso-pelagic waters. In this region, P. elegans reproduced continuously from summer to early winter when copepod prey peak in near-surface waters. This is characteristic of income breeders. However, results for E. hamata revealed that this species spawned distinct and traceable broods during separate reproductive windows in both spring-summer and autumn-winter, suggesting capital breeding. Daily predation rates inferred from gut content analyses appeared to be generally low in the two chaetognath species, though inferred predation rates in summer-autumn exceeded those in winter-spring. Feeding studies revealed that E. hamata consumed particulate organic matter (possibly falling marine snow) throughout the year but especially in the summer, whereas P. elegans did not feed in this way. High summer growth seems to be a characteristic of both these species. Growth during winter was highly restricted in P. elegans, to a lesser extent in E. hamata. In summary, differences in how lipids and marine snow are utilised by the two species could explain differences in their breeding cycles and seasonal growth patterns. v Table of contents Résumé iii Abstract v Acknowledgements xviii Foreword xx 1. Chapter 1 – General Introduction 1 1.1 The Arctic Ocean 1 1.1.1 Physical environment 2 1.1.2 Arctic marine ecosystems 3 1.2 Zooplankton and their polar adaptations 5 1.3 Chaetognaths 8 1.3.1 Arctic species and distributions 9 1.3.2 Lifespans 10 1.3.3 Reproductive strategy 11 1.3.4 Oil vacuoles in Eukrohnia spp. 11 1.3.5 Feeding strategies and trophic importance 12 1.3.6 Fatty acids and stable isotopes 14 1.4 Climate change and other challenges for Arctic marine life 14 1.5 Study areas 17 1.6 Aims and objectives 18 2. Chapter 2 – Polar night ecology of a pelagic predator, the chaetognath Parasagitta elegans 20 2.1 Résumé 20 2.2 Abstract 21 2.3 Introduction 22 2.4 Method 23 2.4.1 Study area 23 2.4.2 Physical and biological environment 24 2.4.3 Zooplankton sampling 24 2.4.4 Sample processing 25 2.4.5 Gut content analyses 26 2.4.6 Food-containing ratio and feeding rate 26 2.4.7 Stable isotope analyses 27 2.4.8 Determination of trophic level 28 2.4.9 Fatty acid analyses 28 2.4.10 Mid-winter maturity status 29 2.5 Results 30 2.5.1 Chaetognath abundance and prey field 30 vi 2.5.2 Gut contents 32 2.5.3 Body composition 34 2.5.4 Mid-winter maturity status 36 2.6 Discussion 36 2.6.1 Studies during the polar night 36 2.6.2 Feeding activity and rates 36 2.6.3 Energetics 38 2.6.4 Lipid profile 38 2.6.5 Reproduction 40 2.7 Concluding remarks 41 3. Chapter 3 – Growth and reproduction of the chaetognaths Eukrohnia hamata and Parasagitta elegans in the Canadian Arctic Ocean: capital breeding versus income breeding 42 3.1 Résumé 42 3.2 Abstract 43 3.3 Introduction 44 3.4 Method 46 3.4.1 Study area 46 3.4.2 Sampling 47 3.4.3 Chaetognath body size and sampler efficiency 48 3.4.4 Hatching and cohort development 49 3.4.5 Estimation of maturity and oil vacuole area 50 3.4.6 Vertical distributions 50 3.5 Results 51 3.5.1 Physical environment and primary production in the Amundsen Gulf 51 3.5.2 Physical environment and primary production in autumn (other sampling locations) 51 3.5.3 Abundances and vertical distributions of chaetognath species 52 3.5.4 Length distributions and sampler efficiency 53 3.5.5 Timing of reproduction 54 3.5.6 Eukrohnia hamata length cohorts and life cycle 55 3.5.7 Parasagitta elegans length cohorts and life cycle 62 3.6 Discussion 67 3.6.1 Chaetognath cohort interpretation and lifespans 67 3.6.2 Resource partitioning in the sympatric Eukrohnia hamata and Parasagitta elegans 67 3.6.3 The potential role of lipid reserves: contrasting growth in the two species 69 3.6.4 Maturation 71 3.6.5 Capital versus income breeding in a warming Arctic 72 3.7 Conclusions 73 4. Chapter 4 – Feeding strategies of arctic chaetognaths: are they really “tigers of the plankton”? 74 vii 4.1 Résumé 74 4.2 Abstract 75 4.3 Introduction 76 4.4 Method 77 4.4.1 Study areas 77 4.4.2 Sampling in the Amundsen Gulf 79 4.4.3 Sampling in the Chukchi Sea and Baffin Bay 80 4.4.4 Abundance of zooplankton 80 4.4.5 Gut contents 81 4.4.6 Fatty acids 82 4.4.7 Carbon and nitrogen 82 4.5 Results 84 4.5.1 Amundsen Gulf 84 4.5.1.1 Phenology of algae blooms 84 4.5.1.2 Zooplankton community 84 4.5.1.3 Visible prey items and predation rates 86 4.5.1.4 Lipid droplets and detritus 87 4.5.1.5 Scanning Electron Microscope observations 89 4.5.2 Chukchi Sea and Baffin Bay 90 4.5.2.1 In-vitro feeding observations 90 4.5.2.2 Lipid amounts 90 4.5.2.3 Fatty acid profiles: species differences 91 4.5.2.4 Fatty acid profiles: station and regional differences in Eukrohnia hamata and Parasagitta elegans 91 4.5.2.5 Carbon and nitrogen isotopes 94 4.6 Discussion 96 4.6.1 Prey items 96 4.6.2 Predation rates 97 4.6.3 Omnivory in arctic chaetognaths 98 4.6.4 Fatty acids and stable isotopes confirm gut contents 99 4.6.4.1 18:1 (n-9)/(n-7) ratios and Calanus copepod FATMs 99 4.6.4.2 Algal FATMs 100 4.6.4.3 δ13C values 100 4.6.4.4 δ15N values and inferred TLs 101 4.6.4.5 C/N ratios 101 4.6.5 Morphological explanations 102 4.7 Concluding remarks and future studies 102 5.
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