participation in guiding research and tion) and a total land of ≈10% of the total Agricultural extension activities was substantial in world area. In particular, MERCOSUR Extension Models some of the countries (demand-driven account for 70% of the total of South model). Vertical integration of farm- American land area, and 58% of South in South America: ers, suppliers, processors, research, America’s gross domestic product and extension in defi ning technologi- [Sawaya et al., 1998; Instituto Intera- A Description of cal problems and fi nding solutions was mericano de Cooperación para la Agri- successfully carried out in some com- cultura (IICA; Interamerican Institute Systems in Use in modities. of Agriculture Cooperation), 2001]. The agrofood sector of MERCOSUR Argentina, Brazil, Introduction to the MERCOSUR is a strategic sector, being responsible Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and for ≈43% (5% from agricultural com- Paraguay, and Uruguay (Fig. 1) signed the Tratado modities and 38% from industrialized Uruguay de Asunción establishing the MERCO- food and drinks) of the total exports SUR in March 1991. Subsequently, in (IICA, 2001). Consequently, the sus- Ouro Preto, Brazil, the Protocolo de tainable development, modernization, Jorge Arboleya1 and Ouro Preto established the institutional and effi ciency of the agricultural sector structure of MERCOSUR in 1994, and in each of the countries are essential. A Ernesto Restaino2 later, Chile and Bolivia became associate key element, in addition to policies and members (MERCOSUR, 2002). The markets, is the structure, organization, growth of national markets through and outreach of the research-technology ADDITIONAL INDEX WORDS. technology this integration has been a fundamental transfer-extension system. transfer, research systems, extension, condition leading to the acceleration of farmer linkages, MERCOSUR economic development in each of the Extension background of SUMMARY. Information is presented member countries. Such changes, how- selected countries of the about the linkages and relationships ever can only be achieved while mak- MERCOSUR between the research and the trans- ing the most effi cient use of available fer of technology-extension systems resources, preserving the environment, Uruguay established within the countries that improving physical links, coordinating compose the Common Market of In 1914, the Instituto Fitotécnico the South [Mercado Común del Sur macroeconomic policies and comple- y Semillero Nacional (National Plant (MERCOSUR)]. A brief description menting the various productive sectors Breeding and Nursery Institute) was about the history of agricultural exten- of the economy. established which was a pioneer ag- sion in each country is included along By the end of 1999, the MERCO- ricultural research organization both with descriptions of the major changes SUR and the associated member coun- in Uruguay and in South America. that have occurred within the last 10 tries (Chile and Bolivia) had reached a However, extension programs based years. This analysis allows a general total domestic market represented by on technical assistance outreach was comparison among the different exten- 223 million people (4% of world popula- not introduced until 1950 (Allegri et sion approaches, and in particular re- garding the institutional development al., 1987; E. Indarte, unpublished). for the system in the four countries of In 1961, the Instituto Fitotécnico y MERCOSUR. Semillero Nacional was reorganized and renamed as the Centro de Inves- tigaciones Agrícolas Alberto Boerger ajor changes occurring in the (CIAAB; Alberto Boerger Agricultural last decade were distinguished Research Center), broadening its goals Mby structural and functional [Allegri et al., 1987; Instituto Nacional institutional changes, with emphasis de Investigación Agropecuarias (INIA; in transferring responsibilities from National Agricultural Research Insti- governmental to nongovernmental tute), 2000a]. organizations. Clientele and stakeholder As described by Restaino (2001), today’s Uruguay has a broad number of We thank Gerardo Bergamin from Universidad Nacio- institutions associated with the research, nal de Cordoba, Carlos Alemany, National Institute of technology transfer and extension Agriculture Technology Estación Agropecuaria Alto Valle, Argentina; Francisco Roberto Caporal Techni- system (Fig. 2). This national system cal Assistantce and Rural Extension Enterprise, Porto may be divided an analyzed into two Alegre; Dilson Bisognin, Universidad Federal de Santa subsystems: 1) the technology genera- María, Brazil; and Douglas Sanders, North Carolina State University, for contributing information or sug- tion subsystem, and 2) the technology gestions and for advice provided in the preparation transfer and extension component (Al- of this paper. legri, 1999). 1Ing. Agr. MS., Dept. of Horticulture, National THE TECHNOLOGY GENERATION SUBSYSTEM. Agriculture Research Institute, URUGUAY, [email protected]. Fig. 1. Map of South America with iden- Four parties represent this technology tifi cation and location of the Common 2Ing. Agr. MS., Technology Transfer, National generation subsystem: INIA, which rep- Agriculture Research Institute, URUGUAY, Market of the South [Mercado Común resents ≈90% of the national investment [email protected]. del Sur (MERCOSUR)] countries. in agricultural research (Allegri, 1999);
14 • January–March 2004 14(1)
Workshop1 14 11/7/03, 9:56:14 AM the University of the Republic, with production system. Moreover, farmers of the Republic (BROU) and individual colleges of agriculture and veterinary contribute to the INIA budget through state governments. medicine; the Ministerio de Ganadería a tax of 0.4% of gross farm sales. The The University of the Republic Agricultura y Pesca (MGAP; Ministry total budget for INIA comes from this (of Uruguay), through its colleges of of Livestock, Agriculture, and Fisheries) tax and from an equal amount of funding agriculture and veterinary medicine, through the Laboratorieos Veterinarios provided by the government. develops independent research and Miguel C. Rubino (Miguel C. Rubino RAC members and INIA’s re- extension programs. Veterinarian Laboratory Research Cen- search staff found the application of Most county government offi ces ter); and the Secretariado Uruguayo RAC highly successful, over the past have established agricultural develop- de la Lana (SUL; Uruguayan Wool ten years, in identifying technological ment agencies in order to promote Secretariat). needs and educational extension activi- the development of specifi c regions or THE TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER AND EXTENSION ties, prioritizing research and extension products. In general those offi ces em- SUBSYSTEM. This subsystem is multi-in- programs, and as an important tool to ploy extension agents who help farmers stitutional and may be grouped into establish linkages with stakeholders within the county boundaries. four clusters. (Restaino, 2003). 4) Nonprofi t private organizations. The 1) Public organization or programs man- IPA is one of the most important technical assistance that is organized, aged by the MGAP. This group includes institutions working in extension. It provided, and fi nanced by the private few activities that are directed to small works cooperatively with INIA and also sector has grown considerably in recent farmers, such as horticulture and fruit uses other sources of information and years and has become a very important production, which occur under the technology in developing its extension mechanism for technology transfer. It auspices of the Junta Nacional de la programs (IPA, 2000). has proven to be dynamic and highly Granja (JUNAGRA; National Fruit and INASE, another public nongov- successful. The most important partici- Horticulture Council,) (JUNAGRA, ernmental organization, is a further pants in this segment are: 2000; MGAP, 2000). This practice is example of moving responsibility from The cooperative movement has a consistent with the government strategy the government to a nongovernmental long history in Uruguay (Ferrin, 1991). of transferring fi nancial responsibility organization. Its principal goals are to Today, ≈60 agricultural cooperatives of extension activities to the private or promote the production and the use Fig. 2. The linkages and organization semi-private sectors. of high-quality seed of known origin of the multiple national system of 2) Public organizations associated with (INASE, 2002). generation–technology transfer–ex- the MGAP. In this case, the public and SUL, focused mainly on the gen- tension in Uruguay. BROU = Bank private sectors share the management eration and transfer of technologies for of the Uruguayan Republic; CREA and control of these organizations. the sheep breeders and wool industry = Regional Councils of Agricultural Examples of this cluster are INIA, since 1966, providing training, guid- Experimentation; INASE = National the Instituto Plan Agropecuario (IPA; ance and information, insuring quality Seed Institute; INIA = National Agri- Plan Farming Institute), the Instituto control of wool and meat production culture Research Institute; IPA = Plan Nacional de Semillas (INASE; National processes, as well as providing overseas Agropecuario Institute; JUNAGRA Seed Institute), and SUL. INIA and consultancy services (SUL, 2000). = National Fruit and Horticulture Council; MGAP-DILAVE = Miguel SUL also have research responsibilities; 3) Public organizations that are not as- C. Rubino Veterinarian Laboratory IPA’s responsibility is extension. sociated with the MGAP. This segment Research Center; MGAP = Ministry INIA was created in 1989 by of public organizations includes the of Livestock, Agriculture, and Fisher- congressional law and has two major University of the Republic, the Bank ies of Uruguay. objectives. The fi rst is to promote and implement agricultural research activi- ties in order to contribute to sustainable development within the agricultural sec- tor. The second is to achieve effective transfer of the generated technology through effective interaction with the technical assistance and extension or- ganizations that belongs to either the public or the private systems (INIA, 2000b). One of the most important statutory changes regarding INIA was the inclusion of regional advisory councils (RACs) in its mandate. These advisory councils are comprised of farm- ers, professionals, and representatives from the main professional association and their main roles are to provide ad- vice on technological problems and to contribute to priority setting (Restaino, 1998). There are also working groups (WGs) for each commodity and/or
• January–March 2004 14(1) 15
Workshop1 15 11/7/03, 9:56:15 AM serve a large number of farmers. They a result of a shift in the macro politics Similarly in 1976, the Empresa Brasilera specifi cally serve small and medium- of the country (Alemany, 2002). The de Asistencia Tecnica y Extensao Rural sized enterprises. The most important shift was away from a focus on social and (EMBRATER; Technical Assistance and roles of these cooperatives are related human factors toward a new emphasis Rural Extension Enterprise) was created to supplying basic agriculture inputs, promoting the adoption of modern to develop extension programs and co- providing sales and managerial opera- technologies and crop varieties with ordinate extension services within the tions, and farm advice directly to the a particular focus on medium-sized country, in agreement with EMBRAPA associated farmers. growers. Small growers and small (Caporal 2001; Marques and Goes de 5) Consejos Regionales de Experimen- farmsteads were not included in the Oliveira, 1987). tación Agropecuaria (CREA; Regional new approach. Councils of Agricultural Experimen- In the mid 1980s, the institu- Paraguay tation Groups). These councils are tion was again reorganized into what In 1923, the División de Agri- self-managed groups that work and was called INTA II. This reform gave cultura y Defensa Agropecuaria was meet periodically to share farming ex- an important role to regional areas formed with the objective of promot- periences, to analyze problems and to through the formation of Consejos ing the production of cotton (Gossypium search for solutions using participatory de Centro Regionales (Centers of Re- spp.), tobacco (Nicotiana glauca) and approaches. gional Councils). In this way all those other commodities important for the 6) Private entities. The activities of involved could interact to establish economy in Paraguay (Beintema et al., the private sector are important in the their own objectives, to propose the 2000). In 1943, agronomists from Para- technology-transfer-extension process. specifi c strategies and to support each guay and the U.S. created, the Instituto This group includes the food-process- other. The INTA’s Regional Councils, Agronómico Nacional (IAN; National ing sector, input suppliers, and private as compared to the INIA Uruguay, also Agriculture Institute) in Caacupé, 50 consultants. The development of this have responsibilities regarding budget km (31.1 miles) from Asunción and the segment has recently become very allocation at the regional level as well Barreiro Research Station in Caapucú, important in Uruguay. Private consul- as being as policy makers for the region 150 km (93.2 miles) south of Asunción. tants such as agronomists, veterinarians, (Restaino, 2003). Another research station, in Capitán Mi- and technical experts are important in randa, was established in 1953, which facilitating extension and technology Brazil was converted to the Centro Regional transfer activities. The extension system in Brazil was de Investigación Agrícola (CRIA; Re- begun in the 1950s and was based on gional Center of Agriculture Research) Argentina the model used in the U.S. (i.e., teach- in 1970. Its research focused on fruit, The Instituto Nacional de Tec- ing, research, and extension) and was soybean (Glycine max), corn (Zea mays), nología Agropecuaria (INTA; National focused largely in the state of Sao Paulo cotton, and wheat (Triticum aestivum). Institute of Agricultural Technology), (Caporal, 2001; Oliveira, 1999). Later, Separately in 1966, the Ministry of Ag- was created in 1956 to encourage and rural extension was begun as the Aso- riculture was reorganized and the Di- advance the development of research ciación de Crédito y Asistencia Técnica rección de Investigación Agropecuaria and extension, and to improve the (Technical Assistance and Loan Associa- y Extension Rural (National Direction profi tability of agriculture businesses tion). Extension was also implemented of Research and Rural Extension) was and the quality of rural life (Alemany, in the northern region of the country formed. 2002). The origin of extension in INTA using the three components of the U.S. In addition, in 1972, the Centro was based on a requirement of the model where it was supported by Banco Experimental Agropecuario de Para- Ministry of Agriculture to disseminate do Nordeste (Northeastern Bank), Ban- guay (Research Agriculture Center of information throughout the country- co do Brasil (Brazilian Bank), Universi- Paraguay) was created (Beintema et al., side through the Agencias de Extensión dade Rural (Rural University), and other 2000). In 1988, it became the Centro Rural (Extension Service Agencies). organizations. The association typically Tecnológico Agropecuario de Paraguay There were more than 200 such agen- employed extension agents, agriculture (CETAPAR; Agricultural Technology cies in the country. Each agency had one specialists, and social specialists. Center of Paraguay)]. Its objectives agronomist or veterinary doctor (as the From 1950–60 the goal of the are to develop research and extension director of the agency), one counselor rural extension in Brazil was to im- for tomato (Lycopersicum esculetum), who specialized in economics, and one prove agricultural production and soybean, wheat, cattle, and grass pro- technician who worked with young rural family income, and focused in duction, which are the most important people in the agriculture community. small rural families. From 1960, the crops for Japanese growers, an impor- The result of their work was excellent rural extension changed to support tant immigrant community in Paraguay. and INTA became recognized in the medium to big-grower enterprises to CETAPAR has been under the auspices rural areas, not only from an agricultural export agriculture products, and in the of Japan International Cooperation standpoint, but also for the social com- 1970s changed back the attention small Agency (JICA) since 1985. ponent promoted. The development rural families. Major research and extension and education of local leaders was one The Empresa Brasilera de Pes- development occurred in the last approach used to facilitate the transfer quisa Agropecuaria (EMBRAPA; decade. of technology and to infl uence change Agricultural Research Enterprise) was One of the most dynamics changes in grower’s attitudes. founded in 1973 to promote, to en- occurring in the MERCOSUR countries During the 1970s, the objective courage, to coordinate, and to execute during the last decade has been the insti- of extension within INTA changed as agricultural research activities in Brazil. tutional restructure and reorganization
16 • January–March 2004 14(1)
Workshop1 16 11/7/03, 9:56:16 AM of the research and extension agencies. mainly for assisting the immigrants Japa- before. Furthermore, more individu- For instance, in 1990 in Brazil, EM- nese growers established in this country. als (extension agents, consultants, and BRAPA was eliminated and each state For example, CETAPAR introduced growers) have had access to email and becomes responsible for their exten- higher-yielding soybean varieties culti- to the Internet, which has improved sion programs following state policies vated by 45% of the Japanese growers. and facilitated communication. [Caporal, 2001; Empresa de Asistencia The cooperation between CETAPAR Weather forecasting became an Tecnica y Extensao (EMATER; Rural and DIA is active and effective. important tool during this period allow- Technical Assistance and Rural Exten- In Uruguay, INIA, JUNAGRA, ing consultants, extension agents, and sion Enterprise), 2002). For example in IPA, and INASE were all developed growers to improve fi eld management the state of Santa Catarina, the Empresa during the last 10 years. The latest decisions. This capability has been most de Pesquisa Agropecuaria y Extensao reorganization of the research system important in Brazil [Instituto Nacio- Rural de Santa Catarina (EPAGRI; Re- (INIA) incorporated a modern concept nal de Pesquisas Espaciales (INPE); search and Extension Enterprise of Santa where research programs are directed National Institute for Space Research, Catarina) was formed as the institution by farmers and by the needs of the 2002], less important in Argentina responsible for research and extension various agricultural industries. This (INTA, 2003d), and least important in that region (EPAGRI, 2002). change was one of the most important in Uruguay (INIA, 2000c). Argentina created an extension of the last decade (i.e., the inclusion of Several changes have taken place program named Cambio Rural (Rural a demand-driven model). The shift of during the past 10 years in relation Change) in 1993 (INTA, 2003a), to responsibilities from government to the to educational activities that involved support the development of medium- nongovernmental, nonprofi t organiza- extension professionals, consultants, sized agricultural enterprises. This pro- tion of technology transfer-extension and growers. These activities included gram is under the combined supervision (IPA) has led to a dynamic and modern organizing fi eld days, demonstrations of INTA, the National Agriculture and organization that meets the needs of in situ, workshops, videos, radio in- Food Secretary, state governments and today’s farmers terviews, stakeholders’ educational agricultural enterprises. It objectives is Some organizations such as INIA, meetings, and grower roundtables. In to encourage and to strengthen the work IPA, and INASE, function with a board Uruguay, the grower roundtables are or- of grower groups that are developing of directors, which includes represen- ganized as self-directed groups working various forms of organizations, and to tatives from the principal farmers’ to identify solutions to production and promote the development of individual associations, a very important and processing problems. The groups are growers. Each grower group has a des- modern concept. As principal custom- composed of specialists from INIA, the ignated extension agent who provides ers, farmers are directly involved in the Laboratorio Tecnológico del Uruguay training and who is directed by project decisions and responsibilities of those (LATU; Technological Laboratory of directors who are in permanent contact organizations which ensures very strong Uruguay), the College of Agronomy with INTA researchers and extension demand-driven model practices and par- from the University of the Republic agents. Through the extension agents, ticipatory involvement (Allegri, 1999). of Uruguay, and representatives from growers are provided with information However, recent evaluations indicate the food-processing sector. Currently about crop management, agriculture the need for improving communication in Uruguay there are barley (Hordeum business administration, organization, and accountability to stakeholders and vulgare), wheat, rice (Oriza sativa), marketing, etc. Argentina also created clientele (Restaino, 2003). garlic (Allium sativum ) and onion an additional extension program, food Diversity is one of the main char- (Allium cepa), tomato, citrus (Citrus security program for poor people, acteristics of the multiple technology spp.), and forestry roundtables working entitled PRO-HUERTA, having the transfer-extension system in Uruguay. in this manner. objective of increasing the production Farmers have the advantage of access to INTA La Consulta in Mendoza, of vegetables for self-consumption many sources of information and several Argentina, has been organizing garlic throughout the poorest segments of institutions that can respond to the ag- workshops every 2 years (Burba, 1992, the rural communities (INTA, 2003b). ricultural sector’s problems. However, 1993, 1995, 1997, 1999, 2001). Up- This program is also governed by INTA, this complex multi-institutional system dated research and extension results but was founded by the Environmen- leads to duplication and competition are presented at these meetings. Re- tal and Social Development Ministry. among institutions working who are searchers, extension agents, growers, A program named Minifundio (INTA, working for the same customers even and industry representatives discuss 2003c) was also developed to improve though the institutions have different the problems of production, technol- income and life quality of smallholding perspectives. The establishment of ogy transfer, and commercialization growers. future partnerships (strategic alliances, of garlic. In Paraguay, the Dirección de networking, social capital, etc.) to pro- The MERCOSUR onion council Investigación Agropecuaria (DIA; mote more effi cient development and was established in 1996 in Ituporanga, Institute of Agriculture Research) was to optimize resources should become Santa Catarina, Brazil. The council met created as one of the three branches of priorities for resolving these issues (Al- in Bahia Blanca, Argentina in 1997; in the Ministry of Agriculture in coopera- legri, 1999; Restaino 2003). Salto, Uruguay in 1999; and in Brazil tion with the Department of Transfer Over the last decade, Argentina, in 2001 (Arboleya et al., 1999). Onion of Technology Paraguay (Beintema et Brazil, and Uruguay have produced a research results and extension activities al., 2000). As described previously, greater number of extension bulletins are updated and coordinated at these CETAPAR is responsible for research, and videos for disseminating crop tech- meetings and growers have the oppor- extension, and transfer of technology nical management knowledge than ever tunity to interact and to interchange
• January–March 2004 14(1) 17
Workshop1 17 11/7/03, 9:56:18 AM information about production areas and productivity. Production prob- lems, production areas, defi ning the best time for each country to export onions to other members of MERCO- SUR are discussed. Production areas and research centers are visited during these meetings which provides better means for understand the differences and advantages of each country in regard to onion production. Group technical assistance is in- creasing in the MERCOSUR countries especially in Uruguay and Argentina such as the CREA groups. The CREA experience with it participative method- Fig. 3. Identifi cation and magnitude of the main technological information ology has been well received, not only sources for growers in Argentina (arrow size denotes relative importance of in the development of productive and the channel). Cambio Rural = Rural Change National Institute of Agricultu- technological solutions, but also in aid- eTechnology; Prohuerta = Food security program for poor people; Minifundio ing farmers and their families to become
= Program created to improve income and life quality of small growers; INTA = managers of their own enterprises. Tech- National Institute of Agriculture Technology. nical assistance to individual farmers is provided mainly through individual advisors from nonprofi t organizations (e.g., cooperatives) or through private participants. As described, the information sources for growers arise from exten- sion and research institutions, as well as from consultants and suppliers in Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay (Fig. 3, 4, and 5). The relative size of each arrow represents its importance. It is clear that universities in MERCOSUR countries contribute much less to ex- tension than do U.S. universities. The extension system in the U.S is organized through the university whereas in the MERCOSUR countries it is not. Fig. 4. Identifi cation and magnitude of the main technological information sources for growers in Brazil (arrow size denotes relative importance of the chan- Globalization and competitive nel). EMATER = Technical Assistance and Rural Extension Enterprise; EPAGRI markets demand innovation and high- = Research and Extension Enterprise of the State of Santa Catarina; EMBRAPA ly effi cient production from farmers. = National Agriculture Research Enterprise of Brazil. Therefore, it is necessary to increase the rate and effectiveness of technol- ogy transfer in order to optimize orga- nizational effort, decrease overlapping effect and competition, and to support farmers in their efforts to respond to these diffi cult challenges.
Literature cited Alemany, C. 2002. Los cambios de la extensión del Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropec- uaria (INTA) y su relación con los paradigmas del desarrollo, p. 137–172. In: R. Thornton and G. Cimadevilla (eds.). La extensión rural en debate: concepciones, retrospectivas, cambios y estratégias para el Mercosur. Ediciones Libros INTA. Buenos Aires, Argentina. Fig. 5. Identifi cation and magnitude of the main technological information Allegri, M., B. Andre, and M.Villagran. 1987. sources for growers in Uruguay (arrow size denotes relative importance of the Sistemas de transferencia de tecnología y ex- channel). JUNAGRA = National Fruit and Horticulture Council; INIA = Na- tensión en el Uruguay, p. 97–106. In: J.M. tional Agriculture Research Institute of Uruguay; IPA = Plan Farming Institute. Molestina (ed.). Dialogo XVII, Transferencia
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Workshop1 18 11/7/03, 9:56:19 AM de tecnología agropecuaria en el Cono Sur. in USA” hacia el paradigma agroecológico. Instituto Plan Agropecuario (IPA). 2000. Convenio Instituto Interamericano de Coop- Proceeedings of Foro Internacional para Editorial. IPA. 17 Oct. 2003.
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Workshop1 19 11/7/03, 9:56:20 AM