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The Northern Sea Route The Northern Sea Route The shortest sea route linking East Asia and Europe The Ship and Ocean Foundation About the Bibliography This book is the English-language version of "Hokkyokukai Koro", an instructional report originally written in Japanese about research on the Northern Sea Route. In the Japanese version, an abridged bibliography was provided to avoid burdening the Japanese reader. This English version is faithfully translated from the Japanese and therefore the provided bibliography is not in accordance with prevailing English-language convention. The Northern Sea Route –The shortest sea route linking East Asia and Europe－ Supervised by Hiromitsu Kitagawa Published by Yoshio Kon Printed by Senkosha Copyright © 2001 SHIP & OCEAN FOUNDATION All Right Reserved. ISBN 4-88404-027-9 SHIP & OCEAN FOUNDATION 15-16, Toranomon 1-chome, Minato-ku, Tokyo 105-0001, JAPAN TEL:81-3-3502-1828 FAX:81-3-3502-2033 URL:http://www.sof.or.jp Preface Preface Yohei Sasakawa Chairman of the Steering Committee of Sponsors of International Northern Sea Route Program What images does the phrase “Arctic Ocean” bring to mind? An ocean covered with vast sheets of ice. A vast, white wilderness, whose night sky is often illuminated by the unearthly kaleidoscope of the aurora. Both these images suggest a harsh but ethereal natural beauty, where human activity is but a distant rumor. Viewed from directly above the North Pole, the Arctic Ocean is a closed sea, hemmed in by the great North American and Eurasian continents and the barren island of Greenland. Russia, the United States and Canada face each other around this circle of ice-infested water. For this reason, the Arctic Ocean held a position of crucial strategic importance during the cold war—so much so that the Soviet Union kept its northern coast completely off limits to other countries. The Arctic Ocean was opened to the world in 1987, when the then Secretary General of the Soviet Communist Party, Mikhail Gorbachev, declared the Arctic Ocean an international entity. With this dramatic shift in attitude, the Arctic Ocean was transformed from a barrier between Europe and Asia into the shortest sea lane linking the two great regions. It is now eight years ago that Terje Johhannessen, Norway’s Ambassador to Japan, stated that “Norway would like to conduct joint research with Russia on the possibility of year-round operation of the Northern Sea Route (NSR), and we sincerely hope that Japan will be an equal partner in this program.” Upon listening to the Ambassador’s arguments, I agreed to collaborate in all aspects of the projects, stating that For centuries, most of the myths about sailing conditions along the Northern Sea Route have been grounded on incomplete understanding of the historical route. The wealth of data that Russia has amassed on the natural and social environment in the Arctic Ocean holds out an extraordinary opportunity. By accessing this valuable data and constructing a basis for further survey and research efforts and seconding the necessary personnel, Japan and Russia can seize the chance to promote the cultural exchange between them to develop a timely and historic international project. The three principal cooperative partners, the Fridtjof Nansen Institute (FNI) in Norway, the Central Marine Research and Design Institute (CNIIMF) in Russia and the Ship & Ocean Foundation (SOF) in Japan, formed an international joint project called the International Northern Sea Route Programme (INSROP). The mission of this program was to shatter the myths about the NSR and replace them with scientific knowledge over a six-year period beginning in 1993. The fruits of this six-year labor are prodigious. Some 390 front-line researchers from 14 countries took part, creating a corpus of 167 reports on the natural, social, economic and legal environment of the NSR that was widely hailed as the 20th century’s last great legacy of comprehensive research results. In addition to historical and statistical data, project participants gathered the latest information on the Arctic region at frequent intervals, Preface constructing the world’s foremost geographical information system on the Arctic Ocean. This valuable resource will be used not only for upcoming academic research but as a storehouse of relevant information to guide decision-making on a wide range of social and economic issues. Japan believes that the collaboration will also establish a pattern of private-sector diplomacy that strongly supports diplomacy among the participating governments, deepening the relationship of trust between Japan and Russia across a broad front. Thanks to the results of this research program, it is now clear that it is technologically feasible to keep a northern sea route (NSR) open not only during the summer months, but even in the depth of winter, with the support of icebreakers. Moreover, this research has highlighted the issues that must be addressed in the future to bring the NSR to fruition as a shipping route. At the International NSR Users’ Forum held last year in Norway, Russia declared its intention to take concerted steps to apply this new knowledge. If the NSR becomes a commercial reality, East Asia and Europe will be connected by a sea route that is roughly half as long as the southern route through the Suez Canal. The economic benefits would be huge, and the existence of two routes instead of the sole route currently available will represent a tremendous boost to the security of international shipping. In addition, the Arctic region is rich in natural resources that would contribute handsomely to the world economy if brought to market. This book is a compilation of data focusing on the results of the International Northern Sea Route Programme (INSROP) and on those of the collaborative domestic research project (JANSROP) supported by the Nippon Foundation. Particular attention is focused on the results of an experimental voyage through the NSR aboard the Kandalaksha, a Russian icebreaking cargo vessel. I am confident that this volume will prove useful for students of the NSR as well as for individuals and organizations involved in shipping and trade and for government decision-makers. Finally, I wish to express my most sincere gratitude to a long list of talented individuals. I am grateful for the assistance of the many people in Japan and from numerous countries involved in INSROP. The members of the Japan Northern Sea Route Project Research Committee, and particularly Yuzuru Fujita, Professor Emeritus of University of Tokyo and Chair of the Committee, offered their unstinting advice and cooperation, and I thank them sincerely. This book would also not have been possible without such worthy contributors as Professor Hiromitsu Kitagawa of Hokkaido University. To all of the people mentioned above and numerous others, I extend my most sincere thanks. March 1, 2000 CONTENTS CONTENTS 1. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………….1 2. Background to the NSR………………………………………………………………………………………...5 2.1 Historical Background................................................................................................................................. 5 2.1.1 From ancient times to the voyage of Nordenskjold .............................................................................. 5 2.1.2 From Nordenskjold to the Russian Revolution................................................................................... 10 2.1.3 The Russian Revolution and its aftermath .......................................................................................... 11 2.2 Political and Social Background................................................................................................................ 13 2.3 Economic and Shipping Background......................................................................................................... 14 2.4 Technological background...................................................................................................................... 16 3. Natural Conditions in the NSR………………………………………………………………………………..19 3.1 Natural Conditions in the Arctic ................................................................................................................ 19 3.1.1 Physiography of the Arctic Ocean ................................................................................................... 19 3.1.2 The Midnight Sun and Temperatures in the Arctic Ocean .................................................................. 20 3.1.3 The Aurora Borealis and Magnetic Storms......................................................................................... 21 3.1.4 The Ozone Hole at the North Pole and the Increase in Harmful UV Radiation.................................. 22 3.1.5 The Arctic Air Mass and Tracks of Polar Cyclones ............................................................................ 24 3.1.6 Arctic Stratus (Clouds) and Arctic Haze ............................................................................................. 25 3.1.7 Seasonal Changes in Albedo............................................................................................................... 26 3.1.8 Glacial Periods and Ice Sheets in the Northern Hemisphere............................................................... 27 3.1.9 Permafrost........................................................................................................................................... 28 3.1.10 Subarctic Coniferous Flora ..............................................................................................................
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