ROMANIA NATIONAL DEFENCE UNIVERSITY “CAROL I” CENTRE FOR DEFENCE AND SECURITY STRATEGIC STUDIES

No. 2 [39]/2011

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NATIONAL DEFENCE UNIVERSITY “CAROL I” PRINTING HOUSE BUCHAREST, ROMANIA The Centre for Defence and Security Strategic Studies’ scientific quarterly magazine is acknowledged by the National Council for Scientific Research in Higher Education as a B+ magazine

Editorial Board: Teodor Frunzeti, Professor, Ph.D., chairman Marius Hanganu, Professor, Ph.D. Constantin Moştoflei, Senior Researcher, Ph.D. Hervé Coutau-Bégarie, director, Ph.D. (Institute for Compared Strategy, Paris, France) John L. Clarke, Professor, Ph.D. (European Centre for Security Studies “George C. Marshall”) Adrian Gheorghe, Professor Eng., Ph.D. (Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia, USA) Libor Frank, Ph.D. (Institute for Strategic Studies, Defence University, Brno, Czech Republic) Dario Matika, Ph.D. (Institute for Research and Development of Defence Systems, Zagreb, Croatia) Ilias Iliopoulos, Professor, Ph.D. (Baltic Defence College, Tartu, Estonia) Eng. Pavel Necas, Ph.D. (Armed Forces Academy, Liptovsky Mikulas, Slovacia)

Scientific Board: Mihai Velea, Professor, Ph.D. Petre Duţu, Senior Researcher, Ph.D. Alexandra Sarcinschi, Senior Researcher, Ph.D. Cristian Băhnăreanu, Senior Researcher, Ph.D. Nicolae Dolghin, Ph.D. Grigore Alexandrescu, Ph.D. Richard Stojar, Ph.D. Andryi Volosyn

Editors: Constantin Moştoflei, Senior Researcher, Ph.D., editor-in-chief Cristina Bogzeanu, Research Assistant, deputy editor-in-chief Daniela Răpan George Răduică, Ph.D.

The authors are responsible for their articles’ content, respecting the provisions of the Law no. 206 from the 27th of May, 2004, regarding the conduct in scientific research.

ISSN 1842-9904 (online edition) STRATEGIC IMPACT

CONTENTS

Globalisation or regionalisation? Teodor FRUNZETI, PhD...... 5 Security complex and regional concepts. The Wider Black Sea Region. Institutional integration and administrative capacity as solutions of regional security Iulian CHIFU, PhD...... 14 Regional cross-border cooperation in the area of information systems Constantin MINCU, PhD...... 23 Regional cooperation models. Case study – Kosovo Tiberiu TĂNASE, PhD, Oana-Maria ŞTEFAN...... 29 The impact of cross-border regional cooperation on national and European security Petre DUŢU, PhD, Ioana Valeria ALEXE...... 40 Romania’s cooperation with the countries in the Wider Black Sea Region. Romania-Bulgaria relation in the context of regional cooperation Eleonora-Alice STOIAN...... 48 Reviews of the national and international cooperation in combating and preventing cross- border crime Valentin GIUPANĂ...... 55 Bilateral cooperation between Romania and Hungary in case of accidental pollution. Two study cases Francisc TOBĂ, PhD...... 60 Cooperation in the areas of energy, environment and national security Florin JIANU, Irina TĂTARU...... 67 The European Union – from regional cooperation to unitary actor in International Relations Dorel BUŞE, PhD...... 71 The EU role in crisis management in the Southern and Eastern Neighbourhood – motivations and limits Agnes NICOLESCU...... 76 Prospects of the Western Balkans development in terms of security and economic cooperation Cristina GĂLUŞCĂ...... 80

POINTS OF VIEW

Technological gap. Forms and influences on economical development. Implications for the contemporary military phenomenon Virgil BĂLĂCEANU, PhD...... 93 Libya and NATO’s operations: The Return from voluntarism to the classical rules of international law Iulian CHIFU, PhD...... 101 Barack H. Obama’s view on global security: a shift in the US foreign and security policy? Pavel NEČAS, PhD, Blažej LIPPAY, Stanislav SZABO, PhD...... 113

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011  STRATEGIC IMPACT NATO’s energy security: Post-Lisbon Challenges Gabriela TRANCIUC, Costinel ANUŢA...... 119

CDSSS’ AGENDA

The activities of the Centre for Defence and Security Strategic Studies, April - June 2011 Irina TĂTARU...... 127

Instructions for authors...... 128

 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION GLOBALISATION OR REGIONALISATION?

Teodor FRUNZETI, PhD*

Globalisation and regionalisation represent of H1N1 pandemic during the war in Libya and two of the key-concepts marking the analysis on popular revolts in North Africa and the Middle the strategic and security environment as well as East from the beginning of 2011 and, last but not international relations evolution. Globalisation least, increased energy crisis – all these elements and regionalisation are current processes whose compete for a new order, a new rearrangement of complexity gave birth to multiple controversies the international system. and dilemmas, being seen by specialists in the Schools, currents and opinions clearly field as either contrary or compatible. This article outlined by some analysts, diplomats and approaches theories on the two concepts as well politicians continue to be on one part or another as the relation between them. of the characteristics prevalent in the strategic The analysis of the implications that the most and security environment and in the international recent world events have on the evolution of relations development: the globalisation and regionalisation processes - cooperation and competition; represents the key point of this article. - unipolarity and multipolarity; Key-words: globalisation; regionalisation; - unilaterality and multilaterality; paradigms; perspectives; economic and financial - centralisation and decentralisation; crisis; security; economy. - integration and disintegration, division; - unification and fragmentation; In the past decade, increasingly dynamic - military and non-military; and complex events, phenomena and changes - state and non-state; accelerated the process of redesigning the world. - uniformisation and differentiation; The terrorist attacks on the U.S. on September - protectionism and liberalisation; 11, 2001 and those in Madrid (2004) and - dependence, interdependence and independ- London (2005), the Iraq war in 2003, the Russo- ence. Georgian war in the summer of 2008, NATO All these tendencies, at first glance and EU enlargement to the East, the EU reform antagonistic, are in one form or another subsumed by adopting the Lisbon treaty in December 2009 to major trends manifesting in the international and that of NATO by adopting the New Strategic environment: globalisation and regionalisation. Concept in November 2010, the rise of China, The two processes give birth to a series of global warming, nuclear threat, the emergence controversies and dilemmas. On the one hand,

* Lieutenant-general university professor PhD. Teodor FRUNZETI ([email protected]) is the commandant and rector of “Carol I” National Defence University. A scholar with a PhD in military sciences and a PhD in political sciences, he authored and co-authored a series of military, security and defence books and over 100 specialised articles and scientific communications.

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011  CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION many argue that there are two contrary processes, attitudes similar towards third parties, common regionalism being seen as a lever used against political institutions, as an expression of political states that are not part of a group or another. On interdependence, a certain degree of economic the other hand, they are considered compatible, interdependence; common behaviour criteria, such economic and commercial regional blocs being as identifying the rules on conflict management and a limited form of globalisation and a means of resolution. Under these conditions, regionalisation establishing a multilateral global system. The refers mainly to increased connections and global economic and financial crisis, which interdependencies that develop between countries started in the second half of 2008, brings attention within a specific region, such as North America, to an older issue regarding the national benefits Europe, East Asia, etc. Regionalisation can be related to globalisation and regionalization. The understood as an increase in societal integration state remains, in terms of economy, society and in a given region, including undirected processes culture as the main actor of globalisation and of of social and economic interaction between units regionalisation, its position being more and more (such as nation-states)2. As a dynamic process, it loaded with interdependent processes that enable may be best explained as a continuous formation it to achieve its goals only through cooperation process of regions as geopolitical units, as an with other countries. organised political cooperation within a group of states or as regional communities, such as Globalisation versus regionalisation pluralistic security communities3. Regionalisation is expressed in particular in economic and security We will not insist on defining the two processes, fields, including motivations converging towards because the meanings and interpretations are both forms of integration: political/security and different and deal with one or more aspects of economic. this very complex problem. Moreover, without a In recent years, globalisation of world rigorous definition, globalisation tends to become economy has increased the intensity and speed a cliché, a grand idea to include absolutely with which external shocks are propagated in everything that happens around us and can not be the sense that events produced in various places explained coherently, or the cause of all problems around the world come to affect directly or that the world economy and contemporary indirectly, sometimes immediately, economic and society is facing1. Globalisation could mean the social developments in different countries and dominance of ideas, products, of powers etc., regions. A major trend in current times is either but it is neither equal nor universal. Inequalities the interpenetration, in some cases, or the state of still exist and moreover, they are widening. conflict, in other cases, between globalisation and Globalisation unites and divides, brings near and regionalization. In fact, there are three possible separates, homogenises and diversifies, coalesces variants regarding the relations between the two and crumbles, increases wealth, but also extends processes, particularly in economy: regionalisation poverty. Consequently, the process of globalisation as a component of globalisation (converging affects not only institutions, countries or regions, tendencies); regionalisation as a challenge or as but rather the individual as the subject of all social a response to globalisation (divergent trends), relations. regionalisation and globalisation as parallel One of the biggest difficulties in regional processes (overlapping tendencies)4. issues is the precise demarcation of the special Regionalisation as a component of borders of a region. Although many regions are globalization indicated by clear geographical and cultural The emergence of regionalism is more boundaries - geographical contiguity, interaction obvious at present, acting as a powerful force and subjective perception of belonging to a in the globalisation processes. If globalisation is distinct community with a regional collective considered a compression of temporal and spatial identity – there are always some arbitrary aspects of social relations, then regionalisation can criteria in their definition. Thus, we can take into be understood as a component of globalisation5. account other characteristics, such as a degree Regional integration, by supporting national of social and cultural homogeneity, political economies to become more competitive on the

 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION world market, will lead to the development of economic and financial crisis has added new multilateral cooperation on a global scale, the elements of uncertainty regarding the future of adoption of liberal principles of cooperation and the two processes. However, we can appreciate openness of local economies. Thus, regional that a number of factors and ways through which integration can be interpreted as part of the globalisation stimulates regionalisation or acts international economic order (or global) at the against it can or increase or decrease in intensity, beginning of the twenty-first century. Moreover, such as: globalisation takes place in rather uneven dynamic Globalisation fosters regionalization patterns, rather than uniform, which reveals the − further integration creates problems that processes that are less global in purpose in terms require a collective management, which imposes of geography. Therefore, globalisation can be the development of institutions that are more expressed through regionalisation. viable regionally than globally. Cultural and Regionalisation as a challenge or response to historical community, social systems and values globalisation homogeneity, the convergence of political and May regionalisation lead to something security interests and the unifying nature of different from globalisation? May regionalisation domestic coalitions, facilitate to a great extent the lead to a more pluralistic world order, populated identification of appropriate forms of management, by diverse and distinct patterns of socio- both in drafting legislation, and especially in its economic organisations6? Unlike the first implementation; version, the tendency towards regionalisation − the global nature of many problems is often could be the result of a reaction and challenge to exaggerated. Although there are truly global the globalisation rules, inexorable and without issues (nuclear weapons, pollution, climate substance. This reaction may be motivated by any change or biodiversity) and other issues of global nationalistic tendencies / mercantilist or pluralist / significance, their effects are felt more directly in humanistic, and in some cases, even both. First, by the regions. Therefore, it is more useful to operate creating trading blocs and integration frameworks regionally than globally, because the balance of based on the principles of mercantilism, interests and facilities at regional level exercise a regionalisation opposes neoliberal vision of the more effective pressure on states to find a political “harmony of interests” in the global economy, response in question; favouring national and regional frameworks and − regionalisation is the most viable model that interests. Instead, the tendency towards regions involves reconciling the integrated market and formation may be motivated by non-acceptance of technological pressures towards globalisation and a universal culture and ideology and by promoting integration on the one hand and the visible trend at a regional level some alternative or pluralistic of fragmentation on the other hand; forms of social and political organisations, other − global integration can act as a powerful than nation-states. stimulus to economic regionalisation by increasing Regionalisation and globalisation as parallel economic competition. Changes in technology, processes communications, the functioning of global When we refer to the global economy, it markets and the development of global systems encompasses both regionalisation tendencies of production have had a profound impact on how - for instance, dividing international economy governments have defined the two fundamental in the mega-regions of North America (or foreign policy objectives - economic development the two Americas), Europe and Eastern Asia and political autonomy - and establishing a - and globalisation tendencies. Within the relationship between them. international security environment it is more Globalisation encroaches upon regionalisa- difficult to assess the existence and coexistence tion of security communities and complexes without − globalisation is often associated with a complete picture of global security. Therefore, the “end of political geography", which leads regionalisation and globalisation could act as two to diminishing the role of regionalisation by processes that are parallel or overlap regarding eliminating boundaries between countries and economic and security issues7. The recent regional blocs;

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011  CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION

− the increasing degree of economic these two issues. Therefore, these two concepts interdependence, along with some global associate some of the most important scientific approaches (such as environmental degradation, paradigm - functionalist, interpretive, radical refugees, disaster response) creates a strong humanism and radical structuralism9 - based on demand for an approach that is not on a regional different assumptions about the nature of social basis for aspects specific to international science and society. institutions designed to solve common problems The functionalist paradigm assumes that and manage new sources of friction posed by society has a concrete existence and follows interdependence; a precise sequence, thus providing a rational − the expanding economic interdependence explanation for social reality. It emphasizes the and the development of political economic importance of understanding order, equilibrium and security cooperation within institutional and social stability. structures such as G7, G20, World Bank (WB), From this perspective, the relationship between International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Trade globalisation and regionalisation can be analysed Organization (WTO), Organization for Economic based on the idea of ​​regional arrangement, based Cooperation and Development (OECD), etc. on theories such as the customs union, as the main created strong elements for the West rather than element of the common market. The theoretical specific regional cohesion. Taken together, these analysis included later the idea of economies of organizations represent an important constraint on scale because there were created larger regional the development of coherent regional groupings. integrated markets. Recently, new theoretical Also, regionalisation can promote the process insights derived from the theory of imperfect of globalisation not only by removing barriers competition and growth theory, which bring to intra-regional economic activity but also by into question the benefits of their obligations to stimulating internal competition by increasing participants as a result of economic integration business efficiency, by reducing power of different in general and regional economic integration in national interest groups, by stimulating domestic particular. legislative reforms needed in global economy. The For example, in all OECD Member States, harmonisation of regional economic policies to as a form of regionalism, economic policies attract foreign investment and new technologies have favoured market mechanisms, mostly is a step of globalisation. On the one hand, it is based on deregulation, privatisation, tax reform much easier to undertake liberalization, in a and downsizing the dimension of the public first stage, of regional trade, given the smaller sector and improving its efficiency. Outside the number of countries in the region compared OECD area, many countries have abandoned to the 150 WTO member countries8. Common the idea of a centralised economy based on state interests facilitate regional free trade agreements ownership, have completed essential steps in at regional level between countries. On the other the implementation of free trade and investment hand, the nature of competition is pressing for the regimes and joined the global economy. formation of “units” for both greater economic The functionalist perspective analysis believes efficiency and political power necessary to ensure that these developments have paved the way for the application of rules and institutions governing greater global economic integration through trade the creation of the world economy. Therefore, and cross border investment flows to and from all liberal market policy and the proliferation of countries10. The process involves new and enhanced regional agreements lead to the overall objective regional integration agreements, which can be of liberalising international trade. classified in two main categories: on the one hand, the two main blocs, the European Union and the Paradigms on the relationship between North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), globalisation and regionalisation and on the other hand smaller agreements, such as the Southern Common Market (Mercosur) and the Any adequate analysis of the relationship US-Canada Free Trade Agreement. U.S. and EU between globalisation and regionalisation requires are considered to have the greatest influence on the above all an understanding of existing views on evolution of global system of trade and investment

 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION as they are the most important commercial the global economy can sustain a minimum entities in the world. However, their decisions multilateralism as the most advantageous form of are influenced by other national governments and networking in support of economic stability. The commercial operators. A recent example is that three components of the triad are similar: North of intensification of interventionist elements and America is represented by NAFTA, which in turn tendencies for both international actors, given is dominated by U.S.; EU, representing Europe the consequences of sustained economic growth as the most ambitious multilateral economic of East Asian countries, particularly China, as relations is the key component; the Eastern Asian well as increasing participation in their consistent bloc is represented by China and Japan, which are international trade. Corroborating this trend with nation-states. the difficulty of overcoming the global financial Unfortunately, especially nowadays, affected and economic crisis, we can say that it is possible by the economic and financial crisis, EU is that both the U.S. and EU to stop expanding liberal facing problems in managing the consensus on trade regimes that have dominated the last half macroeconomic policy at supranational level. century, which would affect the balance between Comprising 27 national entities, it encounters liberalism and interventionism worldwide11. the greatest difficulties in reconciling divergent The multilateral trade and investment system - interests. The main actors of the political international economic integration - is dependent, foundations for building consensus on tax, primarily, not on the extent of regional integration regulatory and industry policies of the Union arrangements, but on the extent to which liberal are still only a few nation-states belonging to the influences or, conversely, interventionist policies organisation. Also, the EU has not yet solved the affect international economic setting of the main problem of balance of power in Europe between commercial actors, in particular U.S. and EU. organisation, nations and regions. The Union is This balance is reflected in regional agreements, unlikely to become a unified continental state such but it is not affected neither nationally nor as a federal state. In all likelihood, the power and globally. Thus, regionalisation can be compatible capacities of the EU will continue to be based on and can become an expression of liberalism when treaties among nation-states and on the decision- it is based on the general acceptance of liberal making process in which the latter play a leading principles in international economic relations. role14. From this perspective, it appears that the Whether regional agreements comply with these evolution of the EU plays a crucial role in forming principles or not, it depends on the internal actions a multilateralist structure in the international of key commercial state and non-state actors12. economy as a whole. Analysing the relationship between Another perspective from which the relationship globalisation and regionalisation from another between globalisation and regionalisation can be perspective, that of the interpretive paradigm, it is analysed is the paradigm of radical humanism. It clear that the world economy is far from achieving criticises the status quo and promotes the concept a truly global level13. Currently, trade flows and of the sociology of radical change. Society is financial investment are concentrated in the triad defined as anti-human and the creation of reality of North America - Europe - East Asia, a situation as self-generating. Theorists of this paradigm that is likely to continue for a long time now. The assert that social change is possible only through principle of interpretive paradigm is the basis a change in human consciousness. of these assumptions according to which social According to the vision of radical humanism, reality is the result of subjective interpretations of regionalisation and globalisation are linked human individuals. dialectically within the broader process of global From this perspective, trade blocks are vital structural change. The result is a new world economic institutions positioned between the order that depends on the relative strength of global economy (WTO) and national economies. antagonistic social forces involved in the two Currently, the triad of North America - Europe dynamic processes and can not be extrapolated - East Asia dominates the world economy and is or predicted. In this context, the concept of able to manage its development. A strengthened globalism is seen as a programmatic globalisation. relationship between these three actors in Joseph Nye argues that globalism refers to any

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011  CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION description and explanation of a world that regionalism is a more comprehensive and is characterised by networks of connections multidimensional process (trade and economics, that cross multi-continental distances, while environment, social policy, security, legitimacy, globalisation refers to increasing or decreasing etc..) the degree of globalism15. Globalism may be - old regionalism was based only on formal defined in opposition to individualism, populism, relations of sovereign nation-states, while the new nationalism, internationalism and regionalism. regionalism is partly based on non-state actors that From the perspective of the same paradigm, play important roles at various levels of the global regionalisation is a different process. In response system located in a structural transformation to globalisation, regionalisation varies by time and process18. cultural areas in which it occurs. It homogenises Analysing the characteristics of old and regional space and reduces the sovereignty of new regionalisation, it is clear that they coexist nation-states, transforming their role, while in time. The world system structure enables globalisation homogenises the global space16. at present regional actors to act globally, Globalisation brings global awareness regionalisation causing a global structural change including also negative impressions and reactions towards multipolarity. The current stage of the vis-à-vis this process of creating a contrary regionalisation process is a reflection of the decline process of globalisation. In this context, the of a hegemonic world. Within inter-regional so-called new regionalism allows control of relations, the behaviour of a region affects and is the political and territorial point of view on the affected by the behaviour of other regions. In this process of globalisation. New regionalism is context, radical humanist theorists state that the much better explained by appealing to the world process of regionalisation is a step towards a new order, because any process of regionalisation has type of multilateralism and acts as a barrier to a repercussions both for the region itself and on potential war between civilisations19. other regions of the world17. Bringing into question Finally, the radical structuralist paradigm the concept of new regionalism, it is obvious that argues that reality is objective and concrete. The it must be explained primarily in relation to the notion of crisis is important in this paradigm. old regionalism. According to radical humanism Social structures are characterised by conflicting vision, there are five main differences between and antagonistic relationships which at some point them: in time, reach a level that can not be controlled, - old regionalism was created in the bipolar triggering a crisis. The resulting political or world of the Cold War, while the new regionalism economic crisis indicates the transformation of is created in a multipolar world. Even if the the whole system, i.e. replacing a set of structures former superpowers still hold military superiority, with another one, fundamentally different. they are becoming regional powers competing Thus, under this paradigm, European economic with other emerging regional powers. Radical integration is a consequence of capitalist humanism asserts that organising the world in concentration worldwide. Capitalism reconciles superpowers led to a premature globalisation, elements that seem to be completely different: on and thus the decline of the superpowers has led to the one hand, the increase of production forces and deglobalisation; of the degree of industry concentration, and on the - old regionalism was created top-down by other hand, the survival of the nation-state. It is the superpowers, and the new regionalism is obvious that the growth of productive forces has created bottom-up by states and other actors in exceeded the boundaries of nation-states in Europe. the region; International cartels and holding companies have - old regionalism was oriented inward extended their control over a significant part of and protectionist, new regionalism is open the European economy. In many cases, various and compatible with a world economy in an industries have had to extend beyond the state to interdependent world, even if there are preferential survive. Depending on the political and military economic relations within the region; relations in the world, this expansionism takes - old regionalism had specific objectives either the violent, military form of the two World regarding economy and security, but the new Wars, or the peaceful, trade form after the Second

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World War20. While European economic integration freedom) in a wide variety of European models. is a product of the concentration of capital, it acts Also, the EU integration model, unchallenged for as a force that produces, in turn, concentrated many years, is under careful review following the capital in Europe and worldwide. Regionalisation crisis and raises questions about the whole process becomes thus a product of the natural tendency of of regional integration. capital accumulation, concentration, competition Also, currently a number of parallel processes and expansion. of integration of socio-economic systems of the It is noted that each of these four paradigms world are developing. Internet has become a global provides a coherent logic, the two processes being and international trading system and networks conceptualised and studied in different ways, stretched to the farthest corners of the world. generating distinct visions on regionalisation and Financial markets and capital flows are more and globalisation. more global. The best example is the decline of the phenomenon by which businessmen will invest Perspectives of globalisation more likely in their home countries, despite the and regionalisation fact that higher investment opportunities exist in other parts of the world. Relationships producer- The disastrous effects of the recent global intermediary-consumer and energy flows have financial crisis and economic recession that expanded globally. However, we have witnessed followed raised a pertinent question: what process the failure of the homogeneity regions of the world will prevail in the next period and what will be by capitalism, probably due to the “rush” of the big the balance of power between globalisation and transnational corporations for profit and the lack regionalisation? According to some opinions, this of full complying with comprehensive historical, is the first systemic crisis with strong national- cultural, geographical or environmental differences scale crisis of neoliberal globalisation21. We among regions. Activities of national economies believe though that we will have to wait for the in some parts of the world are developing more clarification of the situation in the global economy and more obvious on a regional basis, as in the in order to clearly detect future developments. case of North America, Eastern Europe or Eastern However, the unique nature of economic and Asia, while less developed countries in Africa financial crisis in late 2008 leads us to rethink or South America are increasingly dependent on the issues related to globalisation. Features of other regions. This economic regionalisation is globalisation today are different in many respects accompanied by a social and cultural one, and from those of the late nineteenth century, when the proof lies in the trends of migration towards the internationalisation of world economy started. developed regions. The context has changed dramatically as a result Within the political environment and within of the emergence of Brazil, Russia, India and state functions large or small shocks occur on a China (BRIC) - which had a share in global GDP regular basis, tending to separate more clearly the of 38.64% in 2010 compared to 11.77% in 199222 levels of organisation: national, supranational, - and other economic growth “engines” in the sub-regional, regional, supra-regional, sub-global, South. In addition, the cleavages between North global. This is a shock reaction in any system and South, between the EU and North America powerful enough, as the recent economic and are growing more visible as a result of differences financial crisis. in development priorities. The South as a whole In the current perspective, it seems that there tries to participate in free trade, but it also faces are two possible sources of these shocks at a global protectionist practices of the developed world level24. First, the internal stability of the socio- in the North in some sectors of the economy, economic developing global system is in danger especially agriculture. In addition, problems that because some companies have been integrated triggered the recent crisis came from the North, in the global system: economic integration is far which led to numerous questions on the Anglo- ahead of cultural integration. This leads to a certain American economic system and generated a degree of local socio-cultural instability, especially debate on alternative models of capitalism, from in the case of a perceived or real danger to the the Beijing Consensus23 (economic not political identity which forces local cultures to “defend”

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 11 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION themselves against the emergence of global economic system can not be developed at once, culture. Widespread anti-globalisation movements as some interim steps need to be taken. It takes and the revival of religious fanaticism are all an ever closer economic cooperation between signs of this problem and fundamentalist Islamic a large number of countries, an open process of terrorism, one of the many symptoms, extremely regionalisation, oriented towards exterior, towards dangerous. Secondly, finding a sustainable way to achieving global free trade which would prepare co-exist with the biological environment will be state actors for a world without barriers and a key challenge, which could be perceived as an economic restrictions. Less developed countries external shock. A global super-system is going to will have to meet certain structural adjustments be developed, which includes the global society and economic reforms, while the more developed and global ecosystem (biosphere). This bio-social ones will have to face the rising social costs. global system will consist of a set of feedback Whatever the pros and cons of a process mechanisms, most of which are far from being or other are, we must not ignore the fact that operational. both regionalisation and globalisation promote Perhaps, in the coming years, globalisation integration of societies and economies. Both will not be accepted as easily as in the pre- processes have a number of advantages for the crisis period and will require some remodelling contemporary world in a number of crucial areas, of capitalism and of this process. Strengthening such as: regional cooperation and the growing importance • economy: allows companies to operate at of regional solutions to local problems will most a higher level than national, thereby increasing likely be the key to sustainable development in the competition, access to new markets and brings coming years. States will engage themselves in new opportunities for economic growth. As a increasingly close relations with their neighbours, result, we are witnessing the gradual liberalisation leading to increased regional interdependences. of trade and opening of national economies; Providing and receiving assistance to / from other • technology: regionalisation and globalisation regional entities in special circumstances - natural have led to the development of technology and disasters, economic problems, energy crisis etc. - communications, so that a product, gadget or should be carried out without any moral issue, but software program is more and more seldom looking for long term solutions. Also, new forms available only in a particular country or region; of capitalism, corporate forces and nationalist, • society: cooperation in the political and populist impulses should always be kept in balance economic fields leads to better relations between to achieve a certain harmony between regions. states and their citizens, reduces the possibility Moving from a world of nations to a world of of conflicts and strengthens diplomacy and regional interests requires complying with certain cooperation.Also, the prevalence of communication rules of inter-regional cooperation that respect technologies (Internet) and free movement of regional differences in history and culture, but also people allow much closer relationships among geographic, natural and environmental resources, individuals from all over the world; facilitate the peaceful resolution of conflicts and • democracy: democracy has emerged as the enable mutual assistance when problems arise that dominant ideology after the Cold War and the can not be solved by one region alone. In time, regionalisation and globalisation have reinforced it will come to regional geographical and socio- this position. Intergovernmental organisations political units viable and modern within a world like UN and EU promote human rights and system of regions formed on the basis of respect fundamental freedoms while freedom of speech, for the rights of other regions. ideas and religion is expanding more and more, even in countries where not long ago they were Conclusions repressed; • security: the integration process of societies Regional economic integration is a key factor and economies has led to increased interest from in the process of globalisation, creating the states in terms of security allies. Terrorist attacks appropriate institutional and political liberalisation and other threats of the current era will be answered of international trade and economy. A global unilaterally by the regional or international

12 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION community through organisations like NATO and Nationalism: Convergent, Divergent, or Overlapping?, the UN Security Council. Moreover, genocides, Working Paper, no. 262, December 1998. human rights abuses and civil wars will be less 5������ Idem. and less tolerated by an increasingly integrated 6������ Idem. world; 7������������������������������������������� Arie M. KACOWICZ, op. cit., December 1998. 8 World Trade Organization, Members and • support: in an increasingly integrated world, Observers, ww.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_ countries are more likely to come to the aid of a e/org6_e.htm#members. country affected by a disaster. Technology and 9���������������������������������� Kavous��������������������������������� ARDALAN, �����������������Globalization and modern communications spread real-time images Regionalization: Four Paradigmatic Views, in „Journal of disaster throughout the world, encouraging of International Business”, Vol. 9, No. 1/January 2010. people and governments to act; 10������ Idem. • ecology: environmental issues such as global 11������ Idem. warming and climate changes affect all countries 12������ Idem. and their populations and, therefore, policy 13������ Idem. responses and counter-measures must be instituted 14������ Idem. 15�������������������������������������������� Joseph NYE, Globalism Versus Globalization, both regionally, and especially internationally. April 15, 2002, www.theglobalist.com/StoryId. aspx?StoryId=2392 NOTES: 16�������������������������������� �������������������������������Kavous ARDALAN, op. cit., 2010. 17��������������������������������������� Scott�������������������������������������� L. BAIER, Jeffrey H. BERGSTRAND, 1 Roxana��������������������������������� CIURCANU, Economia mondială î �ntre���� Peter EGGER, The New Regionalism: Causes and globalizare şi regionalizare, in scientific archives of Consequences, în �������������������������������“The New Regionalism: Progress, “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University in Iaşi, Economic Setbacks, and Challenges”, February 9-10, 2006.� Sciences, Volume L/LI, 2004/2005, p. 85. 18�������������������������������� �������������������������������Kavous ARDALAN, op. cit., 2010. 2 ������������������������������������������Andrew HURRELL, Regionalism in Theoretical 19������ Idem. Perspective, în Louise FAWCETT and Andrew 20������ Idem. HURRELL (eds.), Regionalism in World Politics, 21��������������������������������������� Ziya ONIS, Ali Burak GUVEN, The Global Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995, p. 39. Economic Crisis and the Future of Neoliberal 3�������������������������������� Van R. WHITING,������������������������ ���������������The Dynamics of Globalization: Rupture versus Continuity, Glodem Regionalization: Road Map to an Open Future?, in Working Paper Series, No. 1, 2010, p. 7. Peter H. SMITH (ed.), The Challenge of Integration: 22�������������������������������������������� International������������������������������������������� Monetary Fund, World Economic Europe and the Americas, Miami, FL: North-South Outlook Database, April 2011. Center, ������������1993, p. ���19. 23������������������������������������ See����������������������������������� Joshua COOPER RAMO, The Beijing 4���������������������������������������� James H. MITTELMAN���������������������������������������������������, Rethinking the “New Consensus, The Foreign Policy Center, London, 2004, Regionalism” in the Context of Globalization, Global http://fpc.org.uk/fsblob/244.pdf. Governance 2, ������������������������������1996, pp.��������������������� 189–213 apud Arie M. 24��������������������������������������������� NIC�������������������������������������������� Europe Group Driver Paper, Globalisation KACOWICZ, Regionalization, Globalization, and or Regionalization?, Budapest, April 28-30, 2004, p. 3.

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 13 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION SECURITY COMPLEX AND REGIONAL CONCEPTS. THE WIDER BLACK SEA REGION. INSTITUTIONAL INTEGRATION AND ADMINISTRATIVE CAPACITY AS SOLUTIONS OF REGIONAL SECURITY

Iulian CHIFU, PhD*

The present article presents the relevance of relevance, effectiveness and competitive over- the security studies with a regional touch for the institutionalisation in the area. actors without global ambitions or capabilities, Key-words: security complex; security the impact of the structure and design of the concepts; Wider Black Sea Region; national international system on regional policies and interest; liberal paradygm; cognitive-institutional regional security. As a direct option, the article approach. chooses and motivates the option to discuss about regional security complex, with a direct impact The study of security has evolved, after the on the Black Sea Region, to underline afterwards Second World War, mainly due to military and the effort of identifying the elements of cohesion, political necessities, but also under the influences convergence and identity in order to realise the of the ongoing debates and research in social construct and the consecration of the Wider Black sciences1. This train of thought started from Sea Region (WBSR) as a security concept, an effort various interpretations of the nature of security developped in the framework of the US-Romania and national interest, combining interdisciplinary Strategic Partnership. Finally, the thesis of the insertions with unique perspectives. They led to whole article underlines the institutionalizing and the emergence of new ideas and concepts which consistency of the relations at a regional level, expanded the field of Security Studies2. good governance and functional institutions Older analytical models, from the fields of as a main motivation for promoting the liberal International Relations, Geopolitics, Strategic cognitive-institutional approach related to Studies, failed explaining the motives behind the regional security, with the particular exemple of actions of small states which are separated from the the Wider Black Sea Region and the fight between bipolar logic3 and who lack a global behaviour, in

* Iulian CHIFU ([email protected]), PhD, is an associate professor at the National School for Political and Administrative Studies Bucharest, specialised in Conflict Analysis and Decision Making in Crisis, Director of the Centre for Conflict Prevention and Early Warning and the Dean of the Faculty for Political and Social Sciences of the “Titu Maiorescu” University, Bucharest.

14 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION the way regionalism, and, especially, the regional post-modern European Union, for example), logic of decision-making. makes simplifying theoretical models a grave Even if the US had a global outreach, there error, determining false judgements by ignoring were still areas where its influence and its interests the intricate inner complexities. had not articulated clear policies, where America Theoretically and academically, national and the Soviet Union played second fiddle to interest is not a constant in international regional politics. Even where America plays relations, even if an actor’s relations with third a substantial role and has direct interests, the parties are constant over a given period of time. rationality of regional actors may not necessarily A state’s national interest is determined by reflect the power balance or their relations to the the result of internal debates, the international US – for example, Romania signed a strategic context and the foreign policy conducted by it7, partnership with America in 1997, allowed the even if, on a political level, one can imagine a use of its airspace in the 1999 NATO campaign in definition of security calibrated exclusively on Kosovo, but never recognised the independence a national interest, defined by internal debates, of Kosovo. combined with a perception of risks, threats and For the US or the USSR – now Russia – vulnerabilities. Furthermore, making a fetish out international politics remain a global affair, while of the national interest excludes the possibility of other countries maintain a regional influence, mutual interactions and influences, a perspective constrained by their lack of capacities and foreign which denies the very fabric of international policy options4. Still, some states have proved relations8. Therefore, contextualising, examining their ability to project power and exert influence the historical depths, and maintaining a regional out-of-area – the case of Romania in the mediation perspective are paramount in the understanding of of Chinese-American relations, the Vietnamese- International Relations (IR). American relations or in the Middle East; establishing the CSCE and the Helsinki Accords5. Explaining the concept of regional security. This, however, does not prove that smaller states The complex of security can rightfully demand a global influence, but that they merely define their interests in a regional During the Cold War, the logic of the power way. Their foreign policy claims are often limited balance being dominant, the concept of regional to local undertakings and strategies6. security was undermined, almost completely, by From this point of view, the post-1989 formula political and ideological constraints, and studied of the international system – globalized, yet in connection to the global reasoning of the two overlapping, with several global actors acting superpowers and the way states adhered to them, at once, with globalized reach, interests and the thus ignoring its own logic and rationalities. capability to project power, and, at the same time, At some extent, in that arrangement, the pre- with local powers who can only influence their own eminence of bipolarism was evident, with the region; with recognised but unsubstantiated states; global system playing a major role in this type with sub-state actors, tribal and family customs, of construction. Still, multiple singularities were all of these being part of the same arrangement determined by: a) policies and standpoints prior to – is shaped by diverse and heterogeneous the bipolar system, or b) as a result of exploiting rules of integration, depending on the power the new rules of the game in order to gain the upper plays and the degree of internal development hand in regional conflicts and further extend one’s and institutionalization of administration and area of influence. governance. The upsurge of integrative formulas after the In the age of globalisation and interdependency, Cold War, under the pull of globalisation, but the behaviour of states can no longer be reduced also out of the necessity to undermine regional (or limited) solely to matters of national interest. pre-existing conflicts by adhering to a regional The increasingly diverse nature of actors playing security system, based on global and regional on the world stage, especially in areas with a strong actors coming together to prevent those conflicts establishment and a high level of integration, in from spilling over, determined a new IR debate, in which multiple political dimensions coexist (the the form of regional studies and rational choice,

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 15 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION in connection to the newly set-up institutions. reality, the closer we came to the abrupt end of the This step forward bore the marks left by the Cold War, the more singularities began to emerge. former bipolar design, especially in the buffer This needed a whole new explanatory toolkit21. states between the two blocs, marred by war and The interest for subordinated systems was conflict, where the policies of the bipolar logic spread unevenly, depending on the geographical prevented reconciliation. And that reconciliation zone in question. The Middle East took centre was impossible without holding up to one’s past stage, while Africa fell into the background. errors and decisions that affected nations and Lacking a theoretical explanation, interest – and peoples, and without a certain type of symbolic therefore the very existence of the subordinated redemption on the part of the aggressor, in order system – was determined not by the number of to mend fences and rebuild trust between former interactions occurring between various states enemies. belonging to one particular region, but by its There are three main approaches in the question level of cohesion and its interactions with the of regional formulas9: dominant system, the international system. This - The subsystem approach, determined by phenomenon turned subordinated systems from historical sociology10. Subsystems can be analytical theory to reality, as rationalities stemming from instruments, archetypes, theoretical models. analyses based on this approach started making - Subordinated systems approach, derived headway to the upper levels of government. from general systems theory11, which involves Furthermore, the fundamental observation models based on the facts of the global order, not solely on theory and axioms12. derived from this analysis was that subordinated - The security complex approach, of a systems are not necessarily identical. One reason 22 much recent date, tries to accommodate the two for these variations (postulated in the mid 1950s ) theoretical tendencies. was that that the newly instated bipolar system A regional subsystem13 shall be loosely has not yet had the time to force this reality and defined as a pattern of relations among basic to imprint itself on a rational level multiplying units in world politics which exhibits a particular the same type of pattern. This explanation was degree of regularity and intensity of relations intended to contradict the traditional Marxist as well as awareness of interdependence among perspective, which pleaded for multiplying the the participating units14. Such a definition covers ideological conflict and exporting revolutionary alliances, international organisations, regional instincts – and therefore local reflexes – evenly integration, security communities15, social and throughout the world. revolutionary movements16, regional integration17 But perhaps the most interesting explanation is or societal interactions in the form of trade or linked to a state’s geographical position, in and flow of men which occur without institutional around the spheres of influence, and by the interests accompaniments18. of the major players in the system. As a region The regional subsystem is a label, a common finds itself more within the interest and sphere of denominator, relevant to uphold the idea of the influence, the more the global pattern reproduces existence of a single, global international system the rules of the global system, especially if there placed above the regional one19. Interactions is a high level of integration. One can assume can come on intergovernmental, societal, trans- (and easily verify) that political interest and national or integrated levels. The security spheres geographical proximity have a stimulating effect of actors are intertwined, especially regionally20. over a region’s level of integration23. The subordinated system emphasizes the re- This approach underlines the fact that the lation between the international system – seen as foreign and security policies of a state are primarily dominant – and its regional subunits, as opposed influenced by the regional context. If you take into to the traditional perspective of states and their account only the rationalities and the pattern of interactions on a local level. Originally, the domi- the system as a whole, regional anomalies appear, nant system building the rationalities is the bipo- and thus the model fails to explain the singularities lar world order. This system replicated the ideo- and the trends, finally altering the analysis24. logical conflict, using it to explain all the actions Moreover, the theory of subordinated systems of the various actors, all around the world. But, in does not take into account the different perception

16 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION of states in connection to the problems, concepts or of the bipolar era in the form of the Russian- strategies of regional security. The cognitive revo- Turkish thawing – indeed, this organisation lution in psychology is used as the main analytical brought together, from day one, NATO and EU instrument after the generalisation of worldwide countries, by the inclusion of Greece. phenomena such as the global live news channel The OSCE Summit from Istanbul enforced, CNN, imposing a new approach in order to justify in its final declaration, the revision of the Treaty this correlation and the way collective perceptions on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe to are constructed based on individual perceptions. include the withdrawal of Russian troops still Barry Buzan postulates, in the 1980s, the deployed in Moldova (Transnistria) and Georgia. concept of security complex, which focuses on This was a turning point in establishing a set groups of states with interconnected security of comprehensive security accords, with the preoccupations, in such a way that it impacts the involvement of the global actor – America – but analysis of national security problems25. This is with a regional impact, especially set against the called the Regional Security Complex Theory, backdrop of frozen conflicts, legacies of the fall used primarily in the Anglo-Saxon world, where of the USSR. interdependencies were already evaluated, prior to This is where our discussion about the this, by connecting security to five levels (political, fundamentals of a security complex in the Black military, social, economic, environment) and three Sea begins, by referring to the documents that objects of securitization (the individual, society, insist on the interdependent security of all the and the state)26. states belonging to a region, and where clear The concept, definition and model were widely military agreements exist. embraced in the mid-1990s, after the adoption by As a region, the Black Sea has always been NATO (The Rome Strategic Concept, 1991) of The disputed, due to its dual nature of bridge or Copenhagen European Security School’s defini- border. The sheer size of the Black Sea, the fact tion as the official definition of security. By then, that it is an inland sea, with only one crossable the theoretical model employed took into account strait controlled by one state – Turkey, plus the a regional perspective, placed in between the state significant increase in the capabilities to project level and the international one (a double rethinking power, weakened the original idea of placing of Waltz’s model which considers only the individ- one’s border on the Black Sea. ual, the state and international levels27). Apart from In addition, the strategic relevance held by the these, the model was empirically enforced by the region greatly increased. America and all other processes of decolonisation and globalisation28. major players became interested in the Middle From an epistemological point of view, the East, the Caucasus, and Central Asia, because model exhibits several unresolved features, like of the tremendous impact of energy security, the size and the area covered by a region and the especially after the energy crises, the wars in criteria of interdependency. All these elements Afghanistan, Iraq and the question of a nuclear point to expanding the concept of identity to Iran (2005-2009). include, apart from a societal, national and trans- The star player of the region is the post- national level, a regional one.29. modernistic entity which is the European Union. As of the 1st of January 2007, with the accession The Black Sea, from security complex of Romania and Bulgaria to the EU, the strategic to the theorization of regional identity space of the Black Sea became a buffer zone where all the major players involved intersected. The fact that the Black Sea became a security The Black Sea has always been a meeting complex after 1999 is obvious due to the point. This time, after 2007, Russia, NATO, EU complexities in the ever evolving relations of the and Turkey were all present here. Furthermore, the post-bipolar era. As a result, an inclusive regional Black Sea became the main transit hub between organisation was founded (BSEC-OCEMN) in EU/NATO and the Caucasus/Central Asia, where 1992, proposed by Turkey and upheld by Russia, all the newly independent oil-and-gas-rich ex- as an expression of the new post Cold War affairs, soviet states were. This route bypassed not only bridging the ideological gap between the powers Russia, but also Turkey.

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The Black Sea provides transit to and from the the Black Sea strategic concept31. We pitched in conflict zones of 2001 (Afghanistan), 2003 (Iraq), with our own contributions which were promoted but also to potential future conflict zones (Iran). throughout the region32. Turkey’s presence was a major stabilising factor for the Wider Middle East, and its continual growth Institutional integration and administrative in form and strategic weight influenced even the capacity as solutions of regional security Wider Black Sea Region. Turkey thus played a counterbalancing role in the Wider Middle East The shared identity of the Wider Black Sea by pushing its own agenda following the former Region was closely linked to the level of cohesion borders of the Ottoman Empire. and the policies of all the member states. Up until Of more relevance to our study is the temptation the 2003 Putin Doctrine, and the reshaping of to transform a security complex into a security Russia’s security system, Yeltsin followed the same concept dedicated to the region in question. The moral value system shared by the Euro-Atlantic first effort in this direction was the shaping of train of thought. But this path was reversed, and the Wider Middle East. Following this pattern, I the security formula envisioned for the Black Sea co-authored, and even tried to extend this euro- was transformed in order to accommodate a Black Atlantic concept of security to the Wider Black Sea-Russia binomial, which could handle both Sea Region. These efforts stem from the Strategic expansionistic tendencies and dimensions of the Partnership between Romania and America, Russian Federation, by mimicking the EU-Russia signed in 1997. The theoretical basis for this and NATO-Russia dialogue. concept was disseminated in the melting pot of the NATO’s interest for the region waned, starting joint thinking of the CSIS in Washington DC and in 2005, following Turkey’s wishes not to extend the Romanian Academic Society. Initially, they Operation Active Endeavour in the Black Sea. tried to find a coherent approach to determine the Considering NATO’s own principle of the region’s identity, which at that time had neither indivisible nature of security, Romania pushed for name nor was it based on the concept of security. such an option; we asked for Article 5 to be used, The first breakthrough was done by Serghey especially since the mission was already stationed Konoplyvov – the head of the Black Sea Program in the Mediterranean Sea. Turkey invoked the of Harvard’s Kennedy School of Governance – Montreux Convention of 1936, which limits the and by Ronald Asmus, the director of the German entrance of naval forces through straits belonging Marshall Fund in Brussels. Their combined work to a country’s shoreline. Having failed to eliminate led to the concept of the Wider Black Sea Region, this argument and to promote an interpretation which included nine states from the region: three by which a country’s rights deriving from its euro-Atlantic states (Romania, Bulgaria, and shoreline extend to the whole of NATO/EU, and Turkey), three Caucasian (Georgia, Armenia, after the NATO Summit in Bucharest (where the Azerbaijan) and three from the “New Eastern WBSR was pushed in the limelight, alongside the Europe” (Moldova, Ukraine, Russia). The format issue of energy security), NATO drove the region was based on earlier relations between these into the background. The European Union thusly countries and NATO, in the form of Partnerships became the sole arbiter. for Peace, individual Partnerships, Intensified We must also mention the multiple Dialogue, Membership Accession Plan (MAP) or initiatives launched in the Black Sea by the full membership of the Alliance. Forum for Partnership and Development, with This effort was strengthened by Bruce governmental, non-governmental and a business Jackson30, who combined his project dedicated related dimension. The initiative has never got to fledgling democracies and USA Council for to a second round, even though it brought about NATO with a neo-conservative vision of the relevant changes in the fields of environment and Frontiers of freedom – a fully integrated Europe, civil protection. The most important development from the Baltic Sea to the Caspian Sea. Alongside came in the form of the Black Sea Trust of the Stephen Larabee (of RAND) and the members German Marshall Fund office in Bucharest, which of the National Strategic Studies Institute of the invested heavily in enhancing the projects of the National Defence University (USA), he elaborated civil society.

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The EU’s involvement determined new way to go in the Wider Black Sea Region as a prospects of regional cooperation and integration. solution to regional security. The more relations Three months after joining the EU, in March are institutionalised, with their own regulations 2007, we were already discussing the possibility and framework, impacting directly on the internal of a Black Sea Synergy, an initiative launched situation of member states and their administrative by a Romanian rapporteur, Roberta Anastase. capacities, the higher the degree of regional Furthermore, the current form of the Black security is. Sea Strategy was also the brainchild of another Unfortunately, the Black Sea Region was Romanian rapporteur, Traian Radu Ungureanu. a place of singularities in this matter. CIS, the But perhaps the most important development came intergovernmental formula which replaced the in the form of EU’s soft power, which shaped the Soviet Union, was famous for its institutional theoretical debate and led to the creation of a new inefficiency brought upon by the large number of security complex: the Wider Black Sea Region. rules and accords which were either never ratified, The European Union has the capacity to or were partially ratified, working only for the internalize concepts and theories with the help benefit of the Russian Federation, the would- of its bureaucracy, which are later included in be creator of the system, and its ambitions for the decision making process via its congested imitating the European Union, but with antipodal institutional framework. The Eastern European results. Stability Pact was created under the paradigm of In this region, BSEC-OCEMN, an organisation the common project, by which two former enemies with modest gains and showing the same realise they could gain more by cooperating under inefficiency as CIS, played the part of Turkey’s the same banner rather than harbouring war. Thus, „chair of the chef d’orchestre” of the collaboration they are more interested in working together for a at the level of the Black Sea, following a project common purpose, rebuilding personal ties and trust of Turkey, supported by Russia, for blocking any and finally arriving at the phase of reconciliation. alternative. Unfortunately, this design was possible under This could also account for the lack of interest the Thessaloniki Initiative, which stated that all shown in the case of The Black Sea Forum and the countries of the Western Balkans will eventually failure of the Black Sea Synergy – lacking funds gain full membership in the EU, a stipulation and the political will to engage, based on EU- later endorsed at the European Council in Greece. BSEC relation, and not EU-regional actors. Therefore, it cannot be applied on other issues. This state of affairs, far from being a counter- As for the Eastern Region, the paradigm which example, does not oppose the ideas of the shaped the Neighbourhood Policy was derived out constructivist approach of norms and institutions. of Barry Buzan’s theory of the compatibility�������������������� at the We could say it bears a slight resemblance to border. In a nutshell, it states that the greater the Maiorescu’s theory of forms without substance. normative and insitutional disparity, the greater On the contrary, this shows the distance between the difference in living standards are and the quantitative and qualitative relations, between higher the risk of conflict is. The EU’s policy their depth and nature, the integrative forces which focused on resolving these disparities, by giving give cohesion to a region and ensure the common selective access to the Common Market and the identity by giving substance to a security concept European common tariff system. This policy elaborated on these grounds. regarded the states comprised in the EU space, The open scenario of a Regional Security applied excepting Turkey (candidate country) and Russia to the Wider Black Sea Region is based on the (which is the subject of a special relation with the principles of institutionalization. Combining the EU). Romania and Bulgaria, being full members, school of Maiorescu, of forms without substance, were not involved in this mechanism – EU-Black with neo-institutionalism and constructivism, Sea, minus Russia. we reach a point where institutions, which were In this debate, the liberal cognitive- once hollow, gain substance only by increasing institutional paradigm is of great relevance: administrative capacity, thus becoming the increasing interactions, institutional integration foundation of trust building, regional cooperation and administrative capacity seemed to be the and, of course, regional security.

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In order to go beyond the „taken seat” scenario, International System in World History, Oxford of over-normalization and over-institutionalising, University Press, Oxford, 2000. a phenomenon noticed by many regional observers, 9. Barry BUZAN, Ole WAEVER, Regions and it is necessary to change the angle of approach, Powers: The Structure of International Security, taking into account the proposed functionalities Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2003. and the administrative capacities of institutions and 10. Barry ������������������������������BUZAN, People, State and Fear: projects. These should be based on the power of The National Security Problem in International the local government in accordance to its citizens, Relations, University of North Carolina Press, to follow a vision and lead without having your Chapel Hill, 1983. mind set on opinion polls and publicity stunts. 11. Barry BUZAN et alt., Regions and Powers: What counts are sobriety, quality and efficiency of the Structure of International Security, Cambridge relations, and not their quantity. Regional security University Press, Cambridge, 1998. is therefore based on organising and enhancing 12. Ronald D. ASMUS and Bruce P. JACKSON, the administrative capacities of a new framework, The Black Sea and the Frontiers of Freedom in and not on the pre-eminence of a certain project A new Euro-Atlantic Strategy for the Black Sea proposed by local actors. Region, Romanian Institute for International Studies „Nicolae Titulescu”, Bucharest, 2004. BIBLIOGRAPHY: 13. Iulian CHIFU, Spaţiul post sovietic: În căutarea Identităţii (ediţie bilingvă), Bucureşti, 1. A Euro-Atlantic Strategy fot the Black Sea Editura Politeia SNSPA, 2005. Region, Institute for National Stratagic Studies, 14. Iulian CHIFU, Threats from WMD in National Defense University, 27 January 2006, Strengthening Black Sea Security, Sofia, NATO INSS Staff Analysis; also in Policy Revue, June Information Centre, 2005. 2004. 15. Iulian CHIFU (Ю.Кифу, Румыния), 2. Ronald ASMUS, Konstantin DIMITROV, Большое Причерноморье в поисках концепции Joerg FORBRIG ed., O nouă Strategie Euro- стратегической безопасности, în Институт Atlantică pentru Regiunea Mării Negre, Editura Европы РАН, Институт стратегических Institutului român pentru Studii Internaţionale оценок и анализа, СРЕДИЗЕМНОМОРЬЕ Nicolae Titulescu, Bucureşti, 2004. –ЧЕРНОМОРЬЕ – КАСПИЙ: между Большой 3. Ronald D. ASMUS Ed., Next Steps in forging Европой и Большим Ближним Востоком, Изда. a Euroatlantic Strategy for the Wider Black Sea тельский дом «Граница, Москва–2006. Region, GMF, Washington DC, Slovakia, 2006. 16. Iulian CHIFU, Wider Black Sea Region 4. Daniel HAMILTON, Gerhard MANGOTT Looking for a Strategic Security Concept in The Ed., The Wider Black Sea Region in the 21st Proceedings of the International Conference Century. Strategic, Economic and Energy on ‘THE BLACK SEA SECURITY IN THE Perspectives, Center for Transatlantic Relations, AFTERMATH OF 9/11: Changing Parameters and John Hopkins University/ Austrian Institue for New Approaches’, 9 October 2006, Cultural and international Affairs, Washington DC – Vienna, Convention Centre, METU-ANKARA, pp. 78-99. 2008. 17. Iulian CHIFU, NATO and the New Strategic 5. Detlef PUHL, What Strategy for the Black Concept. Romania’s priorities, Editura Curtea Sea Area in Strategic Monitor, nr. 3-4/2005, Veche, Bucureşti, 2009. Institute for Political and Defense Studies and 18. Iulian CHIFU, Adriana SAULIUC, Bogdan Military History. NEDEA, Energy Security in the Wider Black Sea 6. Luciana Alexandra GHICA, Marian Region, Editura Curtea Veche, Bucureşti, 2010. ZULEAN, Politica de Securitate Naţională. 19. Iulian CHIFU, The NATO Summit, Concepte, instituţii, procese, Iaşi, Editura Polirom, Bucharest 2008 and the Black Sea Region, în 2007. Melanie SULLY Ed., Black Sea Calling, Diplomatic 7. Joseph NYE, Peace in Parts: Integration and Academy Vienna, 2009. Conflict in regional Organization, Little Brown, 20. Iulian CHIFU, The Black Sea Forum Boston, 1971. Initiatives and the Integrative Processes in the 8. Barry BUZAN,���������������������� Richard LITTLE, Wider Black Sea Area in The Black Sea Region: a

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Security Minefield or a partnership road?, Editura Law, World Politics, Vol. XIV, 1961, no. 1, pp. 205- Cartier, Chişinău, 2009. 237. 11���������������������������������������� Ludwig von BERTALANFFY, General Systems NOTES: Theory, UCLA, Los Angeles, University of Michigan, 1956, Ann ARBOR, pp. 1-10. 1������������������������������������������� Joseph NYE, Sean LYNN-JONES, International 12��������������������������������������� Morton KAPLAN, System and Processes in Security Studies: A Report of a Conference on the State International Relations, Wiley, New York, 1957; of the Field, International Security, vol. XII, 1988, David J. SINGER, The Level of Analysis Problem in nr. 4, pp. 5-27; Richard LEBOW, Interdisciplinary International Relations, World Politics, vol. XIV, 1961, research and the Future of Peace and Security Studies, nr. 1, pp. 77-92; David EASTON, A Framework for Political Psychology, vol. IX, 1988, nr. 3, pp. 507-543; Political Analysis, Patience-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, Stephen WALT, The Renaissance of Security Studies, 1965. International Studies Quarterly, vol. XXXV, nr. 2, 1991, 13������������������������������������������� Karl KAISER, The interactional of Regional pp. 211-239; Keith KRAUSE, Williams MICHAEL, Subsystems: Some Preliminary Notes on Recurrent Broadening the Agenda of Security Studies: Politics and Patterns and the Role of Superpowers, World Politics, Methods, Mershon International Studies Review, vol. vol. XXI, 1968, nr. 1, p. 86. XL, 1996, nr. 2, pp. 229-254; Keith KRAUSE, Williams 14����������������������������������������� Michael BRECHER, International relations MICHAEL, Critical Security Studies: Concepts and and Asian Studies: The Subordinate State System of Cases, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, Southern Africa, World Politics, Vol. XV, 1963, nr. 2, 1997. p. 220. 2������������������������������������������� Joseph NYE, Sean LYNN-JONES, International 15 Emmanuel ADLER, Michael BARNETT, Security Security Studies: A Report of a Conference on the State Communities, Cambridge University Press, 1998. of the Field, International Security, vol. XII, nr. 4, pp. 16����������������������������������� Weston AGOR and Andres SUAREZ, The 5-27. Emerging Latin American Political Subsystem, 3������������������������������������� Leonard BINDER, The Middle East as a proceedings of the Academy of Political Sciences, vol. Subordinate International System, World Politics, Vol. XXX, 1972, nr. 4, pp. 153-166. X, 1958, nr. 3, pp. 408-429. 17�������������������������������������������� Karl DEUTSCH et al, Political Community and 4�������������������������������������������� Ole WAEVER, Aberystwyth, Paris, Copenhagen: North Atlantic Area: International Organization in the New „Schools” in Security Theory and their Origins light of Historical Experience, Princetown University between Core and Periphery, International Studies Press, Princetown, 1957; Ernst HAAS, The Study Association, Montreal, 2004, p.1 8. of regional Integration: Reflections on the Joy and 5���������������������������������������������� Larry WATTS, Fereşte-mă, Doamne, de prieteni. Anguish of Pretheorizing, International Organizations, Războiul Clandestin al Blocului Sovietic cu România, vol. XXIV, 1970, vol. 4, pp. 607-646; Joseph NYE, RAO, Publishinghouse Bucharest, 2011. Peace in Parts: Integration and Conflict in Regional 6���������������������������������������� Luciana Alexandra GHICA, Marian ZULEAN, Organization, Little Brown, Boston, 1971. Politica de Securitate Naţională. Concepte, instituţii, 18������������������������������������������� Karl KAISER, The interactional of Regional procese, Iaşi, Editura Polirom, 2007, pp. 99-116. Subsystems: Some Preliminary Notes on Recurrent 7������������������������������������� Friedrich KRATOCHWILL, On the notion Patterns and the Role of Superpowers, World Politics, of Interest in International Relations, International vol. XXI, 1968, nr. 1, p. 86, Ernst HAAS, The Obsolesce Organization, vol. XXXVI, 1982, nr. 1, pp. 1-30; Martha of regional integration Theory, University of California FINNEMORE, National Interests in International Press, Berkley, 1975. Society, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, 19������������������������������������������� Barry BUZAN, Richard LITTLE, International 1996. System in World History, Oxford university Press, 8���������������������������������������� Luciana Alexandra GHICA, Marian ZULEAN, Oxford, 2000, Barry BUZAN, Ole WAEVER, Regions Politica de Securitate Naţională. Concepte, instituţii, and Powers: The Structure of International Security, procese, Iaşi, Polirom Publishinghouse, 2007, pp. 99- Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2003. 116. 20������������������������������������������ Richard FALK, Regionalism and world order 9�������������������� Clasificare preluată din��������������������� Luciana Alexandra after the cold War, in Bjorn HETTNE, Andras INOTAI, GHICA, Marian ZULEAN, Politica de Securitate Osvaldo SUNKEL ed, Globalism and the New Naţională. Concepte, instituţii, procese, Iaşi, Polirom Regionalism, MacMillian, Basingstoke, 1999, pp. 280- Publishinghouse, 2007, pp. 99-116. 250. 10����������������������������������������������� Raymond ARON, Paix et guerre entre les nations, 21����������������������������������������� Michael BRECHER, International relations Calman Levy, Paris, 1962; Stanley HOFFMANN, and Asian Studies: The Subordinate State System of International Relations: The long Road to Theory, Southern Africa, World Politics, Vol. XV, 1963, nr. 2, World Politics, vol. XI, 1959, nr. 3, pp. 346-377, Stanley p. 220. HOFFMANN, International Systems and International 22��������������������������������������� Nathaniel PEFFER, Regional Security in

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Southeast Asia, International Organization, Vol. VIII, 31������������������������������������������� A Euro-Atlantic Strategy for the Black Sea 1954, nr. 3, pp. 311-315. Region, Institute for National Strategic Studies, 23����������������������������������������� Michael BRECHER, International relations National Defense University, 27 January 2006, INSS and Asian Studies: The Subordinate State System of Staff Analysis; also in Policy Revue, June 2004; see also Southern Africa, World Politics, Vol. XV, 1963, nr. 2, Detlef PUHL, What Strategy for the Black Sea Area in p. 138. Strategic Monitor, no. 3-4/2005, Institute for Political 24����������������������������������������� Michael BRECHER, International relations and Defense Studies and Military History. and Asian Studies: The Subordinate State System of 32������������������������������������������������� Iulian CHIFU, Spaţiul post sovietic: În căutarea Southern Africa, World Politics, Vol. XV, 1963, nr. 2, Identităţii (bilingual edition), Bucharest, Politeia p. 213. Publishinghouse, SNSPA, 2005; Iulian CHIFU, Threats 25����������������������������������������� Barry BUZAN, People, State and Fear: The from WMD in Strengthening Black Sea Security, National Security Problem in International Relations, Sofia, NATO Information Centre, 2005; Iulian CHIFU University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 1983, (Ю.Кифу, Румыния). Большое Причерноморье в p. 163. поисках концепции стратегической безопасности, 26����������������������������������������� Barry BUZAN, People, State and Fear: The în Институт Европы РАН, Институт стратегических National Security Problem in International Relations, оценок и анализа, СРЕДИЗЕМНОМОРЬЕ – University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 1983, ЧЕРНОМОРЬЕ – КАСПИЙ: между Большой Barry BUZAN, Ole WAEVER, Regions and Powers: Европой и Большим Ближним Востоком, Изда. The Structure of International Security, Cambridge тельский дом «Граница, Москва–2006, pp.51-60; University Press, Cambridge, 2003. Iulian CHIFU, Wider Black Sea Region Looking 27��������������������������������������� Kenneth WALTZ, Theory of International for a Strategic Security Concept in The Proceedings Politics, Addison-Wesley, Reading, 1979. of the International Conference on ‘THE BLACK 28������������������������������������� Barry BUZAN, Ole WAEVER, Regions and SEA SECURITY IN THE AFTERMATH OF 9/11: Powers: The Structure of International Security, Changing Parameters and New Approaches’, 9 Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2003. October 2006, Cultural and Convention Centre, 29������������������������������������������������ WAEVER et alt., Identity, Migration and the New METU-ANKARA, pp. 78-99; Iulian CHIFU, NATO Security Agenda in Europe, Pinter and Center for Peace and the New Strategic Concept. Romania’s priorities, and Conflict Research, Copenhagen, London, 1993, Curtea Veche Publishinghouse, Bucharest, 2009; Iulian Ole WAEVER, European Security Identities, Journal of CHIFU, Adriana SAULIUC, Bogdan NEDEA, Energy Common Market Studies, Vol. XXXIV, 1996, nr. 1, pp. Security in the Wider Black Sea Region, Curtea Veche 103-132; Barry BUZAN et alt., Regions and Powers: Publishinghouse, Bucharest, 2010; Iulian CHIFU, the Structure of International Security, Cambridge The NATO summit, Bucharest 2008 and the Black University Press, Cambridge, 1998. Sea Region, in Melanie Sully Ed., Black Sea Calling, 30������������������������������������������ Ronald D. ASMUS and Bruce P. JACKSON, The Diplomatic Academy Vienna, 2009; Iulian CHIFU, Black Sea and the Frontiers of Freedom in A new Euro- The Black Sea Forum Initiatives and the Integrative Atlantic Strategy for the Black Sea Region, Romanian Processes in the Wider Black Sea Area in The Black Institute for International Studies “Nicolae Titulescu”, Sea Region: a Security Minefield or a partnership Bucharest, 2004. road?, Cartier Publishinghouse, Chişinău, 2009.

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REGIONAL CROSS-BORDER COOPERATION IN THE AREA OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Constantin MINCU, PhD*

The article presents a few considerations and, then, shortly, the communication at distance, on the development of communications at using electrical power, at the beginning, by the wire distance, especially in the last 30 years and this and, then, by the propagation of electromagnetic phenomenon’s effects on all social life’s dimensions waves, generated by electronic devices, which, at of the entire humankind. the beginning were simple and, then, increasingly In this context, it is underlined the role of complicated. these systems and networks in Romania and in So, in 1837, appeared the telegraphic the neighboring countries in the intensification of transmission by wire, invented by Morse, and, in cross-border cooperation in political, economic, 1854, Graham Bell’s telegraph. financial and security issues. In the very next period, the progresses are Key-words: communications; Internet; IT&C; spectacular and rapid, with direct consequences cooperation; Arpanet. on social and economic live for wide masses of individuals, mainly, in the European countries and 1. Introduction even in the North-American continent. The new inventions and technological achievements were Individuals’ will to communicate at distance is quickly introduced into the armies of powerful old and constant along the ages. There are books states making possible the command and control of and evidences regarding the use of some means troops on large areas and with extraordinary effects of communication by couriers, fires on highlands, for their owners. Many military commanders pigeons, and other signals, for hundreds of years understood the importance of communication B.C. technology development by electronic means and These means of communication had often put pressure to generate funds for their quicker been used to warn about the enemies attacks or to development. Nowadays, this phenomenon still announce a victory. exists and regards communication thorough These empirical means have manifested and various media: satellite, optical fiber, radio and maintained until the progresses registered at radio-relay, laser etc. the beginning of the 18th century, when famous We shouldn’t forget the first “Internet” nucleus inventors, especially from the USA and Europe, appeared as a result of USA Army researches, discovered electric power, electric conductors concretized in the creation of ARPANET network,

* Major General (r.) Professor, Adviser Constantin MINCU ([email protected]), PhD, is titular member of the Academy of Romanian Scientists, Bucharest. He is also member in the Honorary Council.

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 23 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION in 1967, and, in the next 25 years (1992), one could • 1982 – in the world there are already 5.5 speak about its globalization, as it was present in millions PCs (in only one year); over 100 countries all over the continents. • 1983 – appears the friendly and irreplaceable These rapid and consistent scientific and Mouse; technologic developments influenced and still • 1985 – Microsoft Company launches the first influence billions of peoples’ lives and, of course, complex program of operation – WINDOWS 1.0; in a very real sense, the lives of the Europeans as • 1991 – in Romania – are made the first well, Romanians included. Internet connections at some universities; The study on the previously mentioned • 1992 – there are 65 millions PCs in the evolutions shows the countries from the South- world; Eastern Europe contributed to the research and • 1992 – Internet is used globally being present development of the communications systems at in over 100 countries on all the continents; distance and implemented technical solutions and • 2000 – there are 100 million systems of systems quickly enough for public use but also in calculation in Internet global network, 250 million the administration and military field. peoples connected; Largely, all this evolutions have had positive • 2007 – We speak about an informational effects on the cross-border pulling together and society wherein the Internet and other cooperation among the countries in the area and communication systems entered into all human with other European countries, mainly with the life fields: politics, businesses, finances, defence, great powers of the time. security etc. Today’s world couldn’t be even conceived without capabilities of communication 2. Some historical milestones of the in real time extended to the entire planet; development of the communications • 2007 – Popular sites appear and develop at distance rapidly: My Space, Facebook, You Tube etc. These sites ease the communication between persons from For the interested ones, we could mention different countries and cultures having positive that the evolutions were continuous, every year but unfortunately, also negative impact (as it can appearing new devices and technologies in the be seen in the case of international terrorism, drug most dynamic sector of development, after 1967 and persons traffic phenomena etc.). (ARPANET) until today. • 2010 – December – for a world population We will refer below to the most significant estimated at 6.93 billion of peoples, there were elements which influenced the development in the registered 2.095 Internet users (the range of world and in our geographical area: penetration being about 30.2%).

• 1968 – it is created „INTEL”, a company 3. Cross-border regional cooperation producing micro-processors; in the information systems field • 1969 – it is carried out the first phase of the in South-Eastern Europe precursor of Internet, which is called by the USA Army ARPANET; There wasn’t any doubt that the progresses • 1970 – the banal disk is created; registered globally related to the distance electronic • 1971 – it is launched the first „chip” processor communications won’t produce immediate effects – INTEL; on both Romania and its neighbors. • 1972 – email is introduced in ARPANET Following the evolutions we have already network; showed briefly in the previous part of our paper, • 1972 – it is done the first Local Area Network we can remind the apparition of the first global (LAN) – called ETHERNET; organization – called today “The International • 1973 – is the year when we can speak about the Telecommunication Union” (ITU), in 1866, apparition of Internet, following the performances which became, in 1947, the specialized UN body, of the American researchers, Cerf and Khan; including today 192 member countries. • 1981 – The American Company IBM launches We shall mention that Romania is founder the first personal computer “PC”; member (1866) and, also, some of our neighbors

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Population – millions Penetration ratio COUNTRY Internet users – millions of inhabitants % Romania 21.959 7.786 35.5% Serbia 7.344 4.107 55.9% Hungary 9.992 6.176 61.8% Ukraine 45.415 15.3 33.7% Albania 2.986 1.3 43.5% Croatia 4.486 2.244 50.0% Republic of 4.317 1.295 30.0% Moldova

Table no. 1 Internet users in Romania and the neighboring countries (31.12.2010) became ITU members; among them, we shall satellite connections with similar networks from number the following: Ukraine (1947), Hungary the neighboring countries, as well as with other (1866), Bulgaria (1880), Serbia (2001), the countries from Europe and from the world. Republic of Moldova (1992), participating at the Here, we can remember: developments in technologies, rules and operation a. The National Network of optical fiber of procedures which are accepted globally. S.N. Romtelecom S.A. (Figure no. 1); In time (especially in the last 60 years), in b. The Radio-Relays Network of S.N. Romania and in the neighboring countries, were Radiocomunicaţii S.A. (Figure no. 2); developed national, departmental, military and c. The Telecommunication Network of S.C. private communication systems and, logically, Electrica S.A. (Figure no. 3); they were interconnected, no matter if they d. The optical fiber network of S.C. were military systems or of a different nature, Telecomunicaţii SNCFR S.A. (Figure no. 4). by cable, optical fiber, radio, radio-relay or by Special telecommunications are under the communication satellites. responsibility of Special Telecommunications These connections, which presently have a Service (STS), of the military services of special development, facilitated and continue to the Ministry of National Defence and of the facilitate cross-border communications between Ministry of Interior (including the one of General the political, economic, financial, banking, military Inspectorate for Emergency Situations) and have etc. organizations as well as between citizens, by strong connections with the organizations in all known means: voice, data, videoconference, which Romania is part (EU, NATO) and with all Internet, television, using global, regional and the neighboring countries in order to fulfill the national networks on the basis of protocols and obligations resulted from the multilateral and agreements settled among the parties. bilateral treaties, protocols and agreements. All these communications contribute essentially Under the Ministry of Communications and to the promotion of neighbor countries’ good Information Technology, all the organizations relations, to the development of businesses and owing radio-electronic communications participate trade of goods and services, to citizens’ movement, at the harmonization of the use of frequency to border monitoring and areas with ecological and specter in the border areas, in the South-Eastern environmental risks (the Black Sea, the Danube, Europe area, Europe and globally. nuclear and industrial installations etc.). We shouldn’t forget the mobile telephony Nowadays, in Romania, there are many networks’ development in the last 20 years which national networks, part of the patrimony of accelerated cross-border communication under the some commercial organizations and societies, conditions of an increased mobility of subscribers which all have land, radio, radio-relay and by offering voice, data and video services for

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 25 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION

Figure no. 1

Figure no. 2

26 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION

Figure no. 3

Figure no. 4

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 27 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION reasonable prices and with a special quality. We directly to the enhancement of the state of security can also realize a presentation of Internet’s current in the area and to the defence of citizens’ goods development stage in our area and to appreciate and lives. the speed of penetration after 1991, as in Table no. 1. BIBLIOGRAPHY: This evolution led to a high democratization of the access to communication with effects, which 1. *** Constitution of the International are generally positive, for the cooperation between Telecommunication Union (ITU), Ed. 1992. organizations and between citizens. 2. *** http://www.internetworldstats.com 3. *** http://www.mcsi.com 4. Some conclusions 4. *** http://www.romtelecom.com 5. *** http://www.internetworldstats.com In our geographical area, evolutions in IT&C 6. *** http://www.vodafone.com follow closely the global trend, being in line with 7. BĂDĂLAN Eugen, UDRESCU Mircea, the actual context of globalization. MINCU Constantin, Condiţionări Logistice în Real time communications – by various Epoca Globalizării, the Publishinghouse of the media and in the forms known today (voice, data, Academy of Romanian Scientists, Bucharest, videoconference etc.) – ease cross-border and 2010 (see the bibliographical notes of the book). global affairs, being a catalyst and a technological 8. BĂDĂLAN Eugen, FRUNZETI Teodor, support for the movement of goods and services, Forţe şi tendinţe în mediul de securitate european, for money and values transfer, for creating A.F.T. Publishinghouse, Bucharest, 2003. connections between citizens from different 9. CERĂCEANU Ion, Comandamentul cultures and countries. Comunicaţiilor şi Informaticii – 65 de ani de Last but not least, we could say the military istorie, C.T.E.A. Publishinghouse, Bucharest, and special communication systems contribute 2007.

28 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION REGIONAL COOPERATION MODELS. CASE STUDY - KOSOVO

Tiberiu TĂNASE, PhD* Oana-Maria ŞTEFAN**

The text approaches various forms of field which seems to have its sources frequently international cooperation that one can find within in ethnic conflicts. After the end of the Cold War, the wide historical borders of the Kosovo situation. The International Community has engaged itself Consequently, we will focus on the history of the in a range of several visible actions of regional province as well as the contemporary developments cooperation efforts, in managing armed crisis and that have occurred in the post-conflict timeframe. stabilisation of post-war areas within the states that By doing this, we will manage to identify numerous are threatened by crises, a result of confronting forms of international cooperation within the with security risks that usually appeared as province, while assessing, at the same time, by punctual events within sovereign entities. employing statistic data, the different rates of Regional Cooperation is one of the key-factors success of each form of cooperation. Without that sustain the social, political and economic a doubt, discussions about the economic and post-conflict recovery of the states because the political situation of Kosovo will weigh heavily conflict phase undermines the legitimacy, the within the text. authority and the effectiveness of the state which Key-words: Kosovo; international cooperation; confronts itself with a situation of this type.1 economy; post-conflict recovery; security. That is why the authority can be recovered by establishing a social contract (which imposes a 1. Introduction mutual relation between state an citizen: the state ensures the security of the citizens, the justice and Within an international environment that is economic opportunities in return of recognition in more and more interlinked due to the globalisation terms of authority) and by regaining the capacity process, security challenges tend to spread a lot of introducing and implementing the policies for faster and to affect a wider set of international the proper functioning of the regime and for the actors, whether they are initially part of crisis fast establishment of the individual and collective or not. The countries in which one may identify security. Post-conflict recovery is a complex armed conflicts are especially sovereign entities process with several phases and its period differs which risk a regional destabilisation of the security from case to case because of problems that can

* Tiberiu TĂNASE ([email protected]), PhD in History, university lecturer (2004-2009), specialist in Secret Service History, and in Security Culture within the Intelligence National Academy “Mihai Viteazul”, specialist in intelligence management, author and coauthor of numerous studies and articles regarding the fields of intelligence, history and security. ** Oana-Maria ŞTEFAN ( [email protected]) has a Bachelor degree in Political science at the Faculty of Political Science, the University of Bucharest and is also a member of “Hans J. Mor- genthau” Center for Strategic Studies, Applied Geopolitics and Security Studies (CeSSGASS ). Her interest areas are international relations, ethnic conflicts regarding separatist issues and European studies.

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 29 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION occur during it. The absence of collective security during the conflict can become a weigh for the 2. A short history of Kosovo recovery process, especially for the economic development. That is why insuring security for all Kosovo has been under UN administration citizens and the implementing the “rule of law” from 1999, when Serbian authorities were forced operation are two priorities of the post-conflict to leave the province, as a result of NATO attacks; recovery process.. Concerning the legitimacy, it from that moment, the impossibility of Serbia to is also important to reestablish the representative maintain control over the province was obvious. institutions of the regime in order to prevent the Through the 1244 Resolution of the UN Security risk of the conflict recurrence , maintained by Council, the sovereignty prerogatives of Serbia political exclusion and by socio-economical and over Kosovo were maintained. According to inter-ethnic inequalities.2 the principles of the Public International Law “Material resources acquire a special and also the fact that in both Yugoslavia and significance for human action only through Kosovo these were initially breached (bombing the knowledge structures largely shared”3. Serbia and Kosovo without a resolution of Starting with this aspect, we tried to outline the SC of the UN), now we are witnessing a new historical-geographic borders of Kosovo in order practice in International law: maintaining the to understand the implications that underline the appearances of legality and legitimacy, while risks in relating with neighbouring states. Taking skilfully, by tacit acceptance and implementing a look over the geographic position of the state we solutions under less concrete or resonant ways, can understand its importance on the international combined with a decisive pressing from the arena; situated in Central Europe, Kosovo and important economical and military members of the Western Balkans states have around them the international community, the map of the world territories of the most important and powerful and the international arena are redesigned. The organisations in the world. From here comes the unilateral declaration of independence of Kosovo, desire of reestablishing peace and order in this on February 17, 2008, wasn’t a surprise: ever area. Obviously, the discussion about the resources since the NATO bombings, Serbia’s province of Kosovo can generate a total image over the was under international protectorate, with a quasi sustainability of forming a new state. Taking into independent status. NATO’s proposed solution account the classical realistic paradigm, we can for Kosovo, through the Special Envoy Martti understand the diplomatic positioning of Kosovo Ahtisaari, faced Russia and Serbia’s opposition, in the international arena. For the classical the latter being placed in the position to accept realistic theory, resources of a state are important, the loss of Kosovo through a paper which was not just as the territory, population or the quality of explicitly providing this, but which was expressing governance that can offer real information about this through its prerogatives, from which benefited its power and sustainability, but the quality of the province which was about to become a state the diplomatic apparatus represents that essential with an independence apparently protected by the element which organises all these indicators international community. of power together, placing a certain state in the The blocking maintained by the different hierarchy of International Relations.4 For an actor positions of the parties, Russia’s right of veto aspiring for the sovereign title, the quality of the in the UN SC and acceptance Ahtisaari’s plan diplomatic apparatus is essential because this of as a solution for the Kosovar problem by the can lead to its recognition among states actors of majority of world’s states and especially by the the international arena. We intend to continue on most important military powers and democracies isolating a sort of regional cooperation forms that were forecasting in a certain way a unilateral can be essential for the Kosovo situation from the initiative of the Kosovar side, which was about moment of the occidental intervention in 1999 to be sustained by recognition by these, after till nowadays, following the important regional proclaiming the independence. cooperation episodes, as the internal civil conflict, Analysing the origins of the Serbian-Kosovar the uncertain economic situation and the internal conflict, we can observe that “the conflict corruption. attraction’s subject and that of rejecting the

30 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION political, economic and ideological foreign especially the atrocities or crime-wars committed influence was a constant element in the Balkans’ by Serbs against Kosovar Albanians during the history”5, and that the foreign elements in the Milosevic regime, the Committee on Legal Affairs Balkan area were accepted and modified based and Human Rights, outlines in a recent report the on national tradition and prejudices of each state. fact that Albanians from Kosovo also had the “The essential element of the Balkans’ life has tendency to apply inhuman treatments and made its origins in the historical experience and in the illicit trafficking in human organs in special bases echo of the reactions appeared after the foreign organised in Albanian sovereign space.9 invasion of the vulnerable peninsula.”6 As many Following the history of Kosovo, one observes other Europeans, a great part of the people that how Tito preferred maintaining Kosovo as a part lived on the territories of ex-Yugoslavia: Serbs, of Serbia, without having the status of a province Croatians, Slovenians, people from Montenegro, with its own autonomy and without recognition Macedonians, Albanians, Muslims slavs from for the Albanian minority, position which was Bosnia and Herzegovina or Kosovo, as any other enforced by the Constitution in 1946. The Tito- possible combination among all these have seen Stalin conflict in 1948 imposed limits between and still tend to see the world in general and Yugoslavia and Albania10, considered to be people through their ethnic identity; they even Moscow’s ally. Through the 1963 Constitution, the define themselves through cultural and economic little autonomy of Kosovo was reduced even more, differences, through their heritage and religious culminating with the subordination of the province traditions, the hate and envy for one another to Serbia more than to Federal Yugoslavia. In 1967 and not through accomplishments or remarkable Tito visited Kosovo for the first time, gaining events. This vision is largely used by actors in the sympathy of the Albanian people by simply order to play with the international realities and removing from Kosovo governance, Alexander to achieve their goals. The situation is not hard Ranković, a Serbian leader known for brutal to discover among the multicoloured international punishments towards the Albanian separatists’ territories, from ethnic perspective. actions. Other concessions in the benefit of the “Not so far in history, Yugoslavia, as many other Albanian people were about language, education European countries, appeared from the Second and culture, having as a predictable result a real World War’s ruins. Western republics - Slovenia, explosion of Albanian nationalism. One of the Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, together with a immediate consequences was a massive wave great part of present Serbia - were some time parts of Albanians immigrants from South, in contrast of the Habsburg Empire. The Eastern republics with a huge emigration of the Serbs from this - Montenegro, Macedonia and the South-Eastern area, so that, sustained by the ascendant birth rate, part of Serbia, including Kosovo - were under the Albanian people rate increased in short time from power of the Ottoman Empire; a strange mixture 67% to 74% from the entire Kosovar number11. of people, languages and religions, under the Kosovo’s autonomy is considerably administration of a single and powerful sultan”.7 strengthened only through the 1974 Constitution, The demand for Kosovo territory by Serbs when the province becomes one of the 8 divisions and Albanians is a controversial subject. For the of the federation, with a constitution, a government, Christian-orthodox Serbs, Kosovo is both spiritual a territorial defence force and the right of veto at and religious cradle, but also the space where they federal level12. had decisive battles. Albanians, in addition to Although, far from being a republic13, the numeric advantage inside the province, also Kosovo gains equal authority with that of Serbia. have as a solid argument the tradition and the fact Celebrating a century from the first Prizren that they are descendants of the Illyrian tribes, Convention generated a powerful reactivation of inhabitants of the Western Balkans area lots of Albanian nationalism, this time, with a reduced centuries before Slavs.8 loyalty for Federal Yugoslavia, burdened by social As we will see, the atrocities committed by obligations imposed by the Albanian people, in a both Serbs and Albanians in Kosovo have known continuous growth14. a recurrence in the contemporary period. Even In short time after Tito’s death (the 4th of if general public discussions tend to outline May, 1980), social movements without precedent

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 31 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION seized Kosovo. Revolts organised by students of within the Yugoslav Federation. Serbia dissolves the University in Priştina (28% from the number the parliament and takes the executive control. of the province’s people) spread all over Kosovo. The last strike is in September 1990, when, by Serbs and Montenegrins were victims of the modifying the Constitution of Serbia, Kosovo is Albanians, as they were setting fire and robbing proclaimed region of Serbia under the National their properties. The whole Kosovar education Serbian Parliament’s control18. In December 1992 system and especially Priştina University became elections are held in Yugoslavia, but Albanians in Serbs’ opinion, the cradle of the Albanians’ refuse to participate, following the advice of the nationalism. Among other destabilising effects unrecognised Republic of Kosovo’s parliament. for the whole federation, Albanians saw in Tito’s The Serbian President, Slobodan Miloşević, death the loss of a powerful ally, a defender of intensifies pressings in Kosovo and till 1993, their rights. As a result, the number of nationalist almost 400 000 Albanians leave Kosovo because of actions of Serbs, Montenegrins and Macedonian the socio-economic decline. The Dayton Accord, in territory intensified15. in 1995, which outlined the end of the Bosnia-Serb Regarding the social world as a result of the conflict, did not bring either the recognition of the international actors’ interaction, the social context independence demands’ legitimacy of Kosovar that we studied allowed us to analyse the immediate Albanians19. consequences of the facts, but also to imagine some The USA is trying to find a solution for future scripts that will have as a reference moment the problem (which had already forced a great the independence of Kosovo. “Kosovo always had number of people to search refuge in neighbouring a special place in Serbs’ hearts and history, thus countries), through the Rambouillet Accord, they consider it as their own. For the Albanian in February 1999, proposing an autonomous majority in Kosovo, the independence is equal with status of 3 years for Kosovo, in exchange for the straightening a historical evil. If Kosovo is Serbs’ demilitarisation of the Kosovo Liberation Army heart, Albanians conclude: Serbia’s heart beats in (KLA) and of the extraterritoriality right of NATO a foreign body”16. We should also add the fact that, in Serbia and Montenegro. KLA signs the accord, maintaining proportions, the inclusion problem in taking into account the stubbornness of the Serbian Kosovo resonates with the argument according representatives, who refused to agree20. The Serbian to which “One man’s terrorist is another man’s President, Slobodan Milošević, accused USA of de freedom’s fighter.”17 In other words, Kosovo’s favouring the Albanians during the negotiations, situation is in a certain way irreconcilable, similar refusing a last proposal of the American special to the terrorist one, regarding from the ethnic- envoy, Richard Holdbrooke, of solutioning the religious cleavage points of view. conflict peacefully. Consequently, on March 26, 1999, NATO has authorised the launching of the 3. Regional cooperation for the removal air-attacks over Serbia, having as declared goal the of Milosević stopping of the genocide and crimes committed by the Serbian Government against Albanians from After Tito’s death, Ivan Stambolić becomes Kosovo21. The decision takes place in the same prime-minister of Serbia. Along with Slobodan day when Evgheni Primakov was expected to Milosević, his protected, Stambolić claims his Washington, after Madeleine Albright and Albert intention of transforming Serbia in a central power Gore made pressures, without the consensus of of the federation, cancelling at the same time the UNO, because of the opposition of Russia and autonomy of Kosovo. In March 1989 Yugoslavia’s China22. Constitution is emendated and Serbia has direct USA’s position was outlined by President Bill control over Kosovo. The situation is getting Clinton, who addressed in June 1999 the KFOR’s worse and movements are violently repressed troupes in Macedonia. His declaration, known as by authorities; Serbia, is taking the direct “Clinton Doctrine”, sustains the intervention’s control over Kosovo. In July 1990, the Serbian legitimacy, by invoking the humanitarian Government prevents the Kosovar Parliament’s regulations. The Foreign Secretary of the United session. In return, the Albanian parliamentarians Kingdom of Great Britain, Robin Cook, expressed proclaim the sovereignty of Republic of Kosovo his confidence in NATO’s action, concluding that

32 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION the lack of involvement would lead to results with of citizens in Kosovo, and not as a victory of the severe implications than those of actions, namely Kosovar justice apparatus. We can argue the fact transforming into accomplices to the atrocities23. that, taking into account a small demographic Wanting to avoid an even grater tragedy, Western index, there is a great possibility for the statistics policy makers decided to develop a core of regarding average corruption to be smaller than states which, through regional cooperation, were the European average for the simple fact that the to prevent a double threat - what was called European average of the corruption’s rate is made genocide at that time and the threat that Milosevic out on a greater demographic sample than that of represented and that was a security risk in the Kosovo. region. Even if most public speeches describe the atrocities committed by Serbs against Albanians 4. Corruption and war crimes in Kosovo, in Kosovo, we want to observe, in the following, important economic factors the fact that this is not necessarily true. To this extent, we shall pay attention to a document The corruption did not pass unobserved on emitted by the Council of Europe, which debunks the international arena, as it overlapped over the to a certain extent the position of incontestable legislative void inside the new state. One of the victim of people in Kosovo. We decided to do so most popular disputes nowadays in Kosovo is that in order to offer an impartiality and objectivity of the property over terrains and buildings, this note to our study. In other words, as long as being the triggering factor of the violent conflicts there are official sources which reveal inhuman over the past years. Justice functionaries have the treatments committed by Albanians and Kosovar reputation of corrupt people, invoking the lack of Albanians to Serbs, there is no pertinent reason to legislation for properties on litigation. Frequently, pass over them. The Committee of Human Rights bribery, threats, violence and blackmail are ways of the Council of Europe emitted on the 12th of of solving litigations over properties. The majority December, 2010 the report “Inhuman treatment of Serbian people, ex-land owners or properties- of people and illicit trafficking in human organs owners of the houses taken by Albanians after in Kosovo”, observing that “Serbs and Kosovar the end of the war are having difficulties in Albanians were held in detention in secret places regaining the title of property or give up under from North Albania, submitted to inhuman violent pressures, being discouraged by the lack treatments before their complete disappearance. of Kosovar institutions’ interest. These centres were under KLA’s control26.” “The real implementing of a legislative system Although the number of victims is not estimated is difficult because of the conflict which created in the mentioned document, it was discovered over the years tensions between social groups and that different factions of KLA organised with which affects the entire activity of the government Albania’s support a number of detention centres apparatus of fighting with old economic and and trafficking systems that had a main activity: socio-cultural method of the repression period24.” narcotics traffic and human organs traffic27. Far On the other hand, one can say that the reputation from being a type of combating the Serbian of Kosovo as an impossible to govern and corrupt threat, the unofficial policy of KLA had as goal country is exaggerated because the criminality rate to obtain financial resources vitals for its guerrilla is low, way bellow the average of EU countries, activities. The most worrying fact is that all these while the inter-ethnic conflicts are dropping, illicit and injurious activities for human integrity without representing a general state of unsafety for and security continued as well after the end of the the minority of Serbs. The lack of the efficiency of war in 1999, especially the problem regarding the justice system is however more visible in the the human organs trafficking. Although military Northern side of the Ibar river, an area controlled hostilities came to an end, KLA continues to by Serbian authorities. The Serbian courts of function in a double sense. On the one hand a justice refuse to cooperate with the Albanian ones number of ex KLA members will activate in the or with the police units from the rest of Kosovo25. political circle of Kosovo after the declaration Corruption rates, bellow European average, can of independence. On the other hand, the same be regarded as a consequence of the small number political actors maintain a powerful control

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 33 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION over the profitable illicit activities of KLA. For Taking into account the lack of a governmental example “in confidential reports realised in a apparatus that can promote policies meant to decade, agencies involved in combating drugs encourage foreign investments, the economic trafficking from 5 states, identified Hashim Thaqi status of Kosovo is quite poor. For 2008, CIA as being the only one to exert violent control over was observing that the GDP was at about the narcotics contraband28.” 5.300.000.000 $. For 2009, the World Bank was Intelligent services from Germany, Greece, mentioning a GDP at about 5.387.332.993 $. Italy and England found Thaqi as being “the most The growth is not significant especially when dangerous head of illicit affairs and organised we take into account that numbers given by CIA crime from KLA”29. Despite his political presence are usually estimates. In other words, Kosovo’s in Kosovo, Thaqui had a tumultuous guerrilla past GDP did not grow considerably during one year. when he was calling himself “The Snake” because If we take into account the GDP in 2009 and the of his well-known capacity of avoiding capture30. population mentioned by CIA and World Bank (1.800.000), we can observe that GDP per capita 5. The economy of the new state Kosovo31 is placed somewhere around 2.968 $. Kosovo exported goods, products and services evaluated Beginning with 1999, the economy of Kosovo at about 527.000.000 $ in 2010 and imported has severely dropped, in the same time with the products at about 2, 6 billion $. These numbers loss of the export markets and the collapse of have certain relevance if we decide to put them in its own enterprises. Poor economic policies, a proper context, taking into account the poverty international sanctions, bankruptcy and foreign rate in Kosovo. According to the World Bank, investors’ deterrence on the internal market had in 2006 the percentage of people who lived in feed the decline of the industrialising process. poverty was at about 45, 1% from population. The extractive industry, energy and agriculture- In 2009 we observe a minimal positive change; the principal fallen pillar of Kosovo ex-economy it seems that 43, 5% from population lives in complete the deplorable economic situation32. poverty. CIA estimates, in an optimist manner we From the economic point of view, the situation would add, that in 2010 the percentage will drop of the new state is unclear. Till the moment when to 30%. Even if the percentage of those who live the International Court of Justice issued the verdict in poverty conditions is a high one, CIA finds an referring to the legality of the accomplished fact, index of inequality in fortunes’ distribution (GINI) it was said that the deplorable state of the Kosovar of just 30 (0,3), which places Kosovo on the 115th economy is a consequence of its inexact status, place in the world. Taking into account the GDP, reason for which foreign investments were deterred. Kosovo is in 2010, as CIA confirmed, on the 158 th Anyway, it was expected that the declaring of place in the world, under Somalia, Montenegro or independence, the positive consultative advice of the Republic of Moldova. Obviously, all of these the Court and its recognition (74 states recognized countries have a larger population than Kosovo the independence of Kosovo so far) will open the and that is why we can understand at a theoretical way for new foreign investments. This did not stage the dropped level of Kosovo’s GDP. The happen. The Director of the Institute for Advanced explanation is not sufficient, taking into account Studies in Kosovo, Shpend Ahmeti expressed his that Somalia is not totally governable and that worries, in a public analyse of the imports (1, the Somalia government can’t extend its control 3 billion euros) and that of exports (130 billion on more than over a small area of the state. More euros). He stated that the massive reserves of than that, we can’t expect a growth of the Kosovo lignite and minerals are the unique resources population because facing poverty perspectives, that feed the utopist image of a rich Kosovo. The a lot of young people will decide to leave their independence did not modify the situation of the country, which will bring a great negative impact internal market in any single way, moreover, the on the national economy of the state. Furthermore, taxes, higher that those in the area impose barriers placing Kosovo after Somalia does not represent to investors. The solution could come in the a personal endeavour of discrediting a new state, same time with the lowering of tax levels and the but the way of observing that at European stage, development of business33. the economy of a state is weaker than the one of a

34 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION non-European state, which is a good illustration of Assistance for Reconstruction, Development failed state. For reasons that concern the surface, and Stabilisation). International consistent the demography, the European crisis context, in the aid was offered for houses reconstruction and past - ethnical internal conflicts, the dependence infrastructure (roads network, schools and medical of foreign aid, Kosovo does not seem to have the centres) and social aid (82% of Albanians and capacity to improve by itself its own economic Kosovo ethnics received aids, comparing to that capacities, on a medium or long term. of 14% of the Serbs in the area, an action which The First Report of Human Development can feed the internal ethnic cleavage). What was launched by United Nations Development the result of this synchronised effort? Between Programme in 1990 introduced a new key 2005-2008, the GDP developed to 4% and even 5, concept: “people are the real fortune of the states. 4 % annual average in 2008, say UNDP experts. Progress can be achieved only by offering an equal Accelerating the process of privatisation in 2005 opportunity for everyone and by cumulating their has led to a growth of the investments’ level (local efforts and energies. It doesn’t matter how much and foreign) and to an improvement of exports35. the national economy can develop, states remain Any way, the economic crisis did not pass over poor from the material and spiritual point of view Kosovo, affecting its economic area which if every member of the society does not receive seemed to become more stabile, and that because equal chances34.” The challenge for Kosovo is of the decline of the exports and that of foreign that of discovering a new strategy for regaining investments. „Exports have registered a dropped the hidden potential of this small, but important of 18 percentages (from 198, 5 billion euros in side of Europe. The economic development, 2008 to 162, 6 billion euros in 2009). According although necessary and expected, is not the key to CBK, in 2009, direct foreign investments have in the process of stabilisation of the new state on dropped with 20, 5% (from 366 billion euros in the international arena, concludes UNDP. The 2008 to 291 billion euros in 2009)”36. For 2010, citizens of the former republics of Serbia must Kosovo received only from UN, through The work together to apply a sustainable solution, no Development Program of the United Nations matter ethnic or religious roots. It is difficult to Organization more than 8 billion euros. Among the believe that this thing will happen in the closer most important donors that brought their support future, when the conflict between the two ethnic over the time for the improvement of the situation structures brings together hate and envy one for of Kosovo we may find USA, UN through The another, feelings with strong historical roots in United Nations Development Program and as the past. A given solution like this, which can states implicated in Regional Cooperation for attack internal tensions and can bring the hope of Kosovo, Italy, Greece (that built a series of an economic development excludes the fact that housing facilities for free in Kosovo in 199937), political actors in Kosovo do not have sufficient Finland, Holland and Germany38. resources to generate an economic sustainable Unfortunately, this optimist explanation of growth, even when they are in front of a low- the economic phenomenon of Kosovo is one probable internal ethnic peace situation. that tends to deform a sad reality. We mustn’t let ourselves delusioned by the minimal economic 6. Donors for Kosovo. Why does the West victory obtained by Kosovo, inclusively through want to stop donations? the financial contribution of the states elements engaged in regional cooperation because all these, In front of discouraging economic perspectives, donations made by the international environment political leaders from the Occident have engaged were not sufficient. In the crisis context these themselves in a new form of regional cooperation dropped because great donors have redirected the for sustaining the new state through donations. financial means in the direction of the recovery of International donor community played an important their own economy39. Also, the African experience role for Kosovo. Between 1999-2003, Kosovo tends to demonstrate the fact that cash donations, received 1, 96 billion euros. Only EU offered 1 although blur a series of problems, do not treat the billion euros for reconstruction and stabilisation major issue. Donations made in the sovereign, not of the new program CARDS (Community stabile (from the economic and security point of

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 35 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION view) spaces did not realise anything but to create mission ever launched under CSDP’s (Common a dependence of the local governments which, Security and Defence Policy) aegis. The central counting on the international bank of donors proposed objective is that of offering support became players in a game of dependency towards and assistance to the authorities of Kosovo in the financial resources that are not in a real way domains of police, justice and customs area, not sustainable products of their own environment. with a governing role, but with that of monitoring, Despite its light temporary improvement of guiding and advising, while maintaining in the the economic index, Kosovo continues to be same time a limited number of capacities of an extremely poorly managed state from the execution. EULEX is acting in conformity with economic point of view, taking into account that the general framework of the UN 1244 Resolution the percentage of exports represents just 10 % from and has a command chain in Bruxelles. There are that of imports40. A state dependent on foreign aid 3000 officers, of which 2000 are foreign citizens43. will delay investments of sustainable development Romania participates with important effectives because a considerable number of voices from of experts in police, custom area, justice, and a the international community, including important unit of special interventions, virtue to the same donors for Kosovo, such as Italy, request the partnership, but excludes any type of official immediate need of internal reforms and legal particular relations with the Republic of Kosovo. stabile law projects that can sustain from inside From Romanian point of view, Kosovo is part the economic phenomenon, intending at the of Serbia, temporary administrated and assisted same time to drop the amounts of investments in by UN, due to 1244 Resolution and EU mission Kosovo41. In the lack of internal reforms, harsh EULEX44. (“The decision of not recognising the enough but also sufficiently adapted to Kosovo’s independence of the province is based on the very specific needs, the new state risks becoming a Romanian conviction that this independence, tick-state, problem that all those states cooperating proclaimed in a unilateral way, did not respect the at regional level for sustaining Kosovo are trying rules and principles of the International applicable to bypass. Law. Romania’s advocacies to the International Court of Justice were concentrated only on the 7. EULEX Mission law elements, political approaches or factual interpretations being excluded”45.) Another form of regional cooperation for The CSDP mission assists the judiciary authorities sustaining Kosovo is the one realised through and the law enforcement agencies in Kosovo, in their EULEX Mission. Lluis Maria de Puig, the former progress for a durable and responsible development, president of the �����������������������������Parliamentary Assembly of The through the consolidation of independent, multi- Council of Europe (PACE) ����������������������stated that “no matter ethnic systems of police, justice and customs, its status, Kosovo should be a safe area for its assuring their independence from any political citizens, whatever their ethnic origins, in which intervention and their accession to international tolerance, multiculturalism and the democratic recognised standards through best practices46. values should be shared by population and After more than two years from the moment of institutions42.” What is the solution that will declaring its independence, Kosovo is confronting includes all these prerogatives? In February 2008, major disequilibrium in the legislative area and an EU decided to launch the “Rule of Law (EULEX) unsatisfying justice system, disappointing for its mission”, its direct coordinator in Kosovo, being citizens. Police officers, magistrates and judges Yves de Kermabon. The principal objective is that prove to be inefficient, rather subordinated to of sustaining the authorities in Kosovo through the political class, usually committing abuses in monitoring, guiding and advising in the incident virtue of their functions. Organised crime and domains of the Rule of Law (police, justice and corruption, largely spread in Kosovo, are far from frontier). The priorities of the mission are considered being kept under control, although the government to be the immediate concerns regarding minorities had recently some notable interventions, demitting protection, corruption and fight against organised a series of high-rank officers, announcing in this crime. An example of regional cooperation, the EU way the desire of taking reforming measures of Mission, Rule of Law (EULEX) is the biggest civil the government apparatus on a long term47.

36 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION

The general impression among citizens is activities of supporting the economic situation, that their state is led by corrupt political elite through donations. manipulating the entire society. The “Rule of Despite a great regional cooperation effort Law” Mission, EULEX, investigates corruption for the stabilisation of the right trajectory of among officials, finding major errors in the state the young state, up to now, the efforts of the institutions’ functioning. In fact, this situation international community seem not to be sufficient discourages foreign investments in a country for improving the situation in Kosovo, especially overwhelmed by poverty. when we pay attention to the economy. Obviously, The EULEX mission is cautious for the in the future, European countries and international moment with sending police officers and officers organisations could support Kosovo, not through on the Northern frontier. Some of the existing cash aids tending to transform Pristine in a tick attempts of controlling the public order and collect capital, but through a greater effort of expertise customs duties for the budget of Kosovo in North in order to transform the process of implementing ended with violent conflicts and victims among reforms in an easier and long-lasting one. Such a international forces and also with the tensioning strategy could consolidate Kosovo at the level of of the diplomatic-relation between Serbs and its political actions, proving, on the long term, its Albanians, via EULEX48. political maturity. Law enforcement and combating poverty in Kosovo are scarce, compared to other ex-members BIBLIOGRAPHY: of the Yugoslav Federation, the principal obstacle in shuttering reforms being the lack of experience 1. Council of Europe, Committee on Legal Af- of the Kosovo’s governors. The single notable fairs and Human Rights, Inhuman treatment of achievement of Hashim Thaçi’s cabinet was people and illicit trafficking in human organs in the peaceful transition to an independent state, Kosovo, http://assembly.coe.int/ASP/APFeatures- without violent conflicts and human losses. A Manager/defaultArtSiteView.asp?ID=964. report of the European Commission in November 2. European Commission, Kosovo under 2009 characterises the justice system of Kosovo UNSCR, 1244/99 2009 Progress Report. as being “underperforming, under political control 3. Kosovo Human Development Report 2010, and inefficient49”. Social inclusion, http://www.undp.org/cpr/. 4. The Rule of Law in Independent Kosovo, 8. Conclusions Crisis Group, Europe Report N°204, 19 May 2010,http://www.crisisgroup.org/en/regions/ In Kosovo, there can be identified four cases of europe/balkans/kosovo/204-the-rule-of-law-in- regional cooperation aimed at two specific areas independent-kosovo.aspx. of interest. We can identify one form of regional 5. United Nations Development Programme, cooperation for the removal of Milosevic by the Bureau for Crisis Prevention and Recovery, Crisis occidentals. This model of regional cooperation Prevention and Recovery Report 2008, Post- can be placed in the area of managing conflict in Conflict Economic Recovery. order to find a solution. Later, there were engaged 6. Barbara JELAVICH, The history of the forms of regional cooperation that seek to address Balkans, the 18th and 19th centuries, vol.I, trad. post-conflict stabilisation. The first is that of Mihai-Eugen Avădanei, European Institute, Iaşi, governing the Province of Kosovo through the 2000. international community’s support (UN, EU). 7. Barry BUZAN and Ole WAEVER, Regions While and after declaring the independence, and Powers-The structure of International Security, another regional cooperation form conducted Cambridge University Press, 2003. by the international community was that of 8. Carla del PONTE, Confrontations with normalising the mechanism of maintaining peace Humanity’s Worst Criminals and the Culture of and promoting the internal spirit of law through Impunity, Other Press, New York, 2000. EULEX means. That is why the Occidental 9. Daniel H. JOYNER, The Kosovo Intervention: states are engaging themselves in an active Legal Analysis and a More Persuasive Paradigm. way, unfortunately for Kosovo, less and less, in 10 G. Richard JANSEN, Albanians and Serbs

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 37 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION in Kosovo: An Abbreviated History. An Opening nations, the fight for power and the fight for peace, for the The Islamic Jihad in Europe, Colorado Polirom, Iaşi, 2007, p.179. State University, Fort Collins, 1999/ 2008. 5 Barbara JELAVICH, the History of Balkans th th 11. Hans J. MORGENTHAU, Politics among the 18 and 19 centuries, vol.I, trad. Mihai-Eugen nations, the struggle for power and the struggle for Avădanei, the European Institute, Iaşi, 2000, p. 11. 6 Ibidem p.12. peace, Polirom, Iaşi, 2007. 7 Carla Del PONTE, Confrontations with Humanity’s 12. Robert BIDELEUX and Ian JEFFERIES, Worst Criminals and the Culture of Impunity, Other The Balkans. A post-communist history, Routledge Press, New York, 2000, p. 42. Taylor & Francis Group, New York, 2007. 8 Robert BIDELEUX and Ian JEFFERIES, the 13. Stefano BIANCHINI, The Yugoslav Problem, Balkans. A post-communist history, Routledge Taylor trad. Luminiţa Cosma, All Publishinghouse, & Francis Group, New York, 2007, p. 513. Bucureşti, 2003. 9 Council of Europe, Committee on Legal Affairs 14. Tim JUDAH, Kosovo, what everyone needs and Human Rights, Inhuman treatment of people to know, Oxford University Press, New York, and illicit trafficking in human organs in Kosovo, 2008. Alin. 3, consulted at http://assembly.coe.int/ASP/ APFeaturesManager/ defaultArtSiteView.asp?ID=964 15. Albert J. BERGESEN, Omar LIZARDO, on 06.01.2011. International Terrorism and the World-System. 10 Thousands of Albanians, considered Stalinists Sociological Theory, Vol. 22, No. 1, Theories of were arrested. The 1953 Constitution reduced Kosovo’s Terrorism: A Symposium. (Mar. 2004). autonomy, Albanians being victims of the Yugoslav 16. Ion M. IONIŢĂ, The Kosovo Experiment in government repression. The same government ordered Foreign Policy Romania, no.14, January/February searches for weapons confiscation, causing recurrence 2010. of the Albanian nationalist movement. See Robert 17. Richard CAPLAN, International Diplomacy BIDELEUX and January Jefferies, The Balkans. A and the Crisis in Kosovo, The Royal Institute of post-communist history, Routledge Taylor & Francis International Affairs, vol.74, no.4, October 1989. Group, New York, 2007. 11 G. Richard JANSEN, Albanians and Serbs in 18. Fatos Bytyci, West wants Kosovo to stop th Kosovo: An Abbreviated History. An Opening for the relying on donors, Reuters, 16 of February 2010, Islamic Jihad in Europe, Colorado State University, http://www.reuters.com/article/2010/02/16/us- Fort Collins, 1999/ 2008, pp. 38-54. kosovo-aid-idUSTRE61F1WO20100216. 12 Stefano BIANCHINI, the Yugoslav problem, 19. Jane PERLEZ, “Step by Step: How the U.S. trad. Luminiţa Cosma, Ed. All, Bucureşti, 2003, pp. Decided to Attack”, New York Times, 26 March, 127-128. 1999. 13 Richard Caplan has made the distinction between 20. http://data.worldbank.org/country/kosovo. republic and autonomous province (Kosovo and 21. http://www.eulex-kosovo.eu/?id=2,. Vojvodina case, autonomous provinces of Serbia until 22. http://www.ks.undp.org/?cid=2,106. 1989). The entire discussion is centered around the constitution of the Yugoslav federal system 1943, which 23. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/ stated that the status of a republic should be reserved the-world-factbookfie. for the nation whose historic cradle is Yugoslavia and 24. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_ not nationalities whose roots are outside Yugoslavia, profiles/3524092.stm. in Albania. See Richard CAPLAN, International Diplomacy and the Crisis in Kosovo, The Royal Institute NOTES: of International Affairs, vol.74, no. 4, October 1989. 14�������������������������������������������� Until 1981, 100.0000 Serbs had left Kosovo, 1���������������������������������������������� ���������������������������������������������United Nations Developement Programme, Bureau the Albanian population being at around 77%. The for Crisis Prevention and Recovery, Crisis Prevention social unrest is becoming more and more violent in and Recovery Report 2008, Post-Conflict Economic this period due to the fact that the Serbian elite had Recovery, p.23. left the area, being replaced with Albanian immigrants 2������ Idem. without necessary training for the development and 3 Barry BUZAN and Ole WAEVER, Regions modernisation of the economy. and Powers-The structure of International Security, 15����������������������������������������� Stefano BIANCHINI, The Yugoslav Problem, Cambridge University Press, 2003, p. 137, in reference trad. Luminiţa Cosma, Ed. All, Bucureşti, 2003, pp. to Wendt, 1995, p. 73. 129-131. 4 Hans J. MORGENTHAU, Politics between 16 Tim JUDAH, Kosovo, what everyone needs to

38 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION know, Oxford University Press, New York, 2008, p. 4. http://data.worldbank.org/country/ Kosovo. 17 Albert J. BERGESEN, Omar LIZARDO, 32�������������������������������������� Kosovo Human Development Report 2010, International Terrorism and the World-System. Social inclusion, p. 32, http://www.undp.org/cpr/ Sociological Theory, Vol. 22, No. 1, Theories of 33��������������������������������������� Tim JUDAH, Kosovo, what everyone needs Terrorism: A Symposium. (Mar., 2004), pp.38-52, p. to know, Oxford University Press, New York, 2008, 45. pp.148 – 149. 18���������������������������������������� Robert BIDELEUX and Ian JEFFERIES , The 34�������������������������������������� Kosovo Human Development Report 2010, Balkans. A post-communist history, Routledge Taylor Social inclusion, p. 5, http://www.undp.org/cpr/ & Francis Group, New York, 2007, pp. 550 - 532. 35������������� Idem, p. 34. 19��������������������� Ibidem, pp. 533-537. 36������ �����Idem. 20����������������������������������������� Stefano BIANCHINI, The Yugoslav Problem, 37 Fatos BYTYCI, West wants Kosovo to stop trad. Luminiţa Cosma, Ed. All, Bucureşti, 2003, p. relying on donors, Reuters, the 16th of February 2010, 176. http://www.reuters.com/article/2010/02/16/us-kosovo- 21������������������������������������������ G. Richard JANSEN, Albanians and Serbs in aid-idUSTRE61F1WO20100216 Kosovo: An Abbreviated History. An Opening for the 38 http://www.ks.undp.org/?cid=2,106. The Islamic Jihad in Europe, Colorado State University, 39 Fatos BYTYCI, West wants Kosovo to stop Fort Collins, 1999/ 2008, pp. 15-17. relying on donors, Reuters, the 16th of February 2010, 22���������������������������������������� Jane PERLEZ, Step by Step: How the U.S. http://www.reuters.com/article/2010/02/16/us-kosovo- Decided to Attack, New York Times, 26 March, 1999. aid-idUSTRE61F1WO20100216. 23 Daniel H. JOYNER, The Kosovo Intervention: 40������ �����Idem. Legal Analysis and a More Persuasive Paradigm, 41������ �����Idem. EJIL 13, pp. 598-600. 42������ Idem. 24�������������������������������������� Kosovo Human Development Report 2010, 43 Ion M. IONIŢĂ, The Kosovo Experiment in Social inclusion, p.7, http://www.undp.org/cpr/ Foreign Policy Romania, January/February 2010, p. 25���������������������� Ibidem, pp.150 – 151. 62. 26���������������������������������������������� Council of Europe, Committee on Legal Affairs 44 EULEX – on 9 December 2008, EU establishes and Human Rights, Inhuman treatment of people and a supporting mission on law, police and customs – illicit trafficking in human organs in Kosovo, Alin. EULEX – EU states together with Turkey, Croatia (EU 3 accessed online on http://assembly.coe.int/ASP/ candidate states), USA and Canada. APFeaturesManager/defaultArtSiteView.asp?ID=964 45����������������������������������������������� Declaration of State Secretary Bogdan Aurescu, la data de 06.01.2011. Ion M. IONIŢĂ, Kosovo Experiment in Foreign Policy 27������ Idem. Romania, no.14, January/February 2010, p.63. 28��������������� Ibid. Alin.66. 46 http://www.eulex-kosovo.eu/?id=2, accessed on 29���������������������������������������������� Council of Europe, Committee on Legal Affairs 15.01.2010. and Human Rights, Inhuman treatment of people and 47��������������������������������������� Tim JUDAH, Kosovo, What everyone needs illicit trafficking in human organs in Kosovo, Alin. to know, Oxford University Press, New York, 2008, 6, accessed online at http://assembly.coe.int/ASP/ pp.148 – 149. APFeaturesManager/defaultArtSiteView.asp?ID=964, 48���������������������������������������������� The Rule of Law in Independent Kosovo, Crisis on 06.01.2011. Group, Europe Report N°204, 19 May 2010, taken from 30 http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_ http://www.crisisgroup.org/en/regions/europe/balkans/ profiles/3524092.stm, accessed on the 6th of January kosovo/204-the-rule-of-law-in-independent-kosovo. 2011. aspx, accesed on 21.05.2010. 31����������������������������������������������� Statistics on Kosovo economy research for this 49����������������������������������������� European Commission, Kosovo under UNSCR, chapter were taken either from https://www.cia.gov/ 1244/99 2009 Progress Report, p. 12. library/publications/the-world-factbookfie or from

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 39 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION THE IMPACT OF CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION ON NATIONAL AND EUROPEAN SECURITY

Petre DUŢU, PhD* Ioana Valeria ALEXE**

Regional cooperation is a phenomenon would allow him to identify easier with the great spread around the whole world. Its effects reflect Europe. Additionally, the regional fact corresponds on national and European security because it to a will to democratize the European construction: increases the mutual trust between the involved be closer to the citizen in a great entirety and to actors. Trans-border regional cooperation is one make each one of them to understand that Europe of its forms of manifestation which has known a is being constructed by actual projects. Presently, pronounced development lately. there are made efforts to make the regions acquire The European Union supports and encourages more importance and to prove their added value to regional cooperation, inclusively its version multi-level governance and to subsidiarity. known as trans-border regional cooperation. Nowadays, regional cooperation is an Romania is an active and responsible undeniable reality in the space encompassed participant in trans-border regional cooperation between the EU’s borders. There are many euro- with the neighboring states, both EU and non-EU regions constituted within the EU. The relations member states. between the euro-regions and the states in which Key-words: regional cooperation; trans- their components are included are quite complex border regional cooperation; the European and they may trigger consequences for the states Union; national security. and the population from this space and even for the EU’s future. 1. EU’s conception on regional cooperation Towards a correct understanding of the meaning of the terms region, euro-region, regionalization, Europe needs regions1. They are not only one regionalism and regional cooperation, we shall of the engines of the European construction (actual continue by defining these notions. examples of their realization may be found in the By region, one usually understands, from a regions which are members of the European Re- geographical perspective, an area which presents gional Assembly – ERA), but they also represent a some common characteristics which it synthesizes closer level to the European citizen, the one which but which lack administrative or government

* Petre DUŢU ([email protected]), PhD, senior scientific researcher at the Centre for Defence and Security Strategic Studies from “Carol I” National Defence University, author of numerous articles, studies and specialty paperwork on security issues. ** Ioana Valeria ALEXE ([email protected]) is a PhD candidate in Military Sciences and Information at “Carol I” National Defence University; she is also university lecturer at the Faculty of Political Sciences, Sociology and International Relations from Hyperion University, Bucharest.

40 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION structures. At the same time, the term “region” sociating public and private facilities and services is used at supra-national level to describe some on the both sides of the frontier; regions in the world, such as Europe or Australia.  The management of some problems imply- In the EU parlance, the term frequently refers to a ing common responsibility, coordination and ac- statistic classification which has no relation with tion: the protection of the environment, decreas- an infra-national government structure, such as ing the vulnerabilities to natural or man-made NUTS classification (Nomenclature of Territorial hazards etc.; Units for Statistics). None of these definitions  The coordination of the policies which reflects what ERA understands by “region”. ERA’s are of common interest, such as the ones from the declaration on regionalism defines theeuro-region areas of regional planning, urban and rural devel- as “the territorial public entity corresponding to opment, flood protection; the level which is situated immediately below the  The establishment of trans-border coopera- state’s level and having an administration with its tion organisms so that trans-border relation would own political power” (Article 1.1.)2. Accordingly be supported and enhanced. to this definition, the European regions are not at Regionalization is the process consisting in all a homogenous entity, but they vary depending the creation of sub-unities within the state and on their size, population, institutional structures, in transferring some of the central government’s their financial competencies and powers. On the powers to these sub-unities. The latter represent one hand, there are federal structures similar an intermediate level of governance between the to the ones from Germany, Austria, Belgium, national state and municipalities. Switzerland, which have legislative power in Regionalism is a political notion which a wide range of areas. On the other hand, there favors the regionalization process. It is generally are regions situated in relatively centralized considered that it implies some efforts of the countries, such as France, which have less power regions to obtain a certain degree of political and operate in an extremely restrictive national autonomy. Nonetheless, regionalism shouldn’t be framework. Nevertheless, all the regions have the confounded with separatism which refers to the same fundamental objective: to elaborate politics separation of a certain region from the national in a democratic way and to provide services to the state in order to create another individual state or citizens at a level sufficiently low in order to be to join a neighbor country. Regionalism is also as close as possible to their needs and sufficiently different from federalism, although the latter high in order to offer significant economies. may represent a sub-category of regionalism. In In fact, euro-regions are formed by sub- a federal system, sovereignty is shared between regional cooperation, which contributes to the the central authority and constitutive political development of the economic and social cohesion units; but, this isn’t necessarily the case for other of some trans-border geographical spaces which forms of regionalism. Federalism emerges either include administrative and territorial unit from because some entities confederate, ceding a part neighboring countries which may be or not of their sovereignty to a central authority, or members of the EU3. because the central authority cedes some powers Cooperation within this framework consists in to the constitutive parts. creating direct and permanent connection between Regionalism concept has its roots in the principle regions and communities situated on the both of subsidiarity. This principle implies the fact that sides of national frontiers on the basis of local the decisions should be made at the level which authorities’ competencies and in conformity with is the closest one to the citizens. “Subsidiarity” the national law. The promotion of trans-border term supposes that the central authority should cooperation by euro-regions is based on: have a subsidiary function and it executes only  The increase of trust and tolerance, of good the tasks that can not be ensured sufficiently at understanding and good neighborhood relations, the inferior management levels. The treaty of especially in the border areas which usually are Lisbon defines subsidiarity as follows: “under the inhabited by minorities; principle of subsidiarity, in areas which do not  The improvement of the efficiency and fall within its exclusive competence, the Union capacity to provide services to the citizens by as- shall act only if and in so far as the objectives

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 41 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION of the proposed action cannot be sufficiently The European Community launched, in 1975, achieved by the Member States, either at central two regional policy instruments, a financial and a level or at regional and local level, but can rather, political one: The European Fund for Economic by reason of the scale or effects of the proposed and Regional Development (EFRD) and the action, be better achieved at Union level”. The Committee of Regional Policy (CRP). EU institutions apply the principle of subsidiarity These instruments have and essentially according to the protocol on the application of economic view as their objective is to support the principles of subsidiarity and proportionality. the regions placed below the communitarian National parliaments oversee the compliance development average. with the principle of subsidiarity according to At its turn, the Treaty of Lisbon has an the procedure provided by this protocol (the new important contribution to the consolidation of Article 3b, inserted in the Treaty of Lisbon), which regional cooperation in Europe, as it establishes is meant to get the decision-making authorities the territorial dimension in all the processes of closer to the ones affected by the decisions and, European integration. Plus, the Treaty of Lisbon, therefore, increases its efficacy. among other important changes, consolidates the When observing the regionalization processes, mechanisms of multi-level government. Thus, one could note the existence of numerous common there are three main areas on which the Treaty of characteristics. If, on the one hand, regionalism’s Lisbon has implications for the local and regional assertion follows each state’s logics, there are levels of government: many repeating catalyst external factors (the new 1) It recognizes and establishes for the first exigencies of the European construction, the need time the local and regional autonomy within the to extend the territory, the need to implement EU member states. This issue is important because democracy in a more efficient way) and require it demonstrates that the member states have to an intermediate level, known under the name of recognize the autonomy they authorize to some of region. This is even more obvious if the region’s their regional entities. evolution is compared with the other local powers 2) Reaffirms the principle of subsidiarity which which assert themselves in hundreds of years has implications for the assertion of regional, while the region has a very rapid development. national and local competencies when a certain Indeed, there are necessary only fifty years for measure or decision is more efficient if it is made a region to reach the level of other government at this level (local or regional) and not at the EU’s echelons, covering the gap between particular and level. Thus, the Treaty confers more importance general interests which have to be guaranteed by a to the local and regional authorities accordingly central government. to the principle of subsidiarity. There is a diversity of regionalism’s forms of 3) It gives an increased role to national manifestation in Europe. The issues which are parliaments by Protocol no. 2 on the application of worth being fathomed in most of the countries the principles of subsidiarity and proportionality. concern regional political and institutional This protocol encourages an increased enhancement as well as an adequate financial participation of the national parliaments to the support in order to cope with its various tasks. EU’s activities. Thus, they are supported in On the basis of the origination, existence, or- enhancing their capacity to express their points of ganization and functioning of the various regional view on the draft legislative acts. forms of cooperation in the EU, there are a range Moreover, national and regional parliaments of fundamental documents4. The Council of Eu- have, hence, the possibility to closer overview rope, by the documents issued in the area of trans- the European legislation, due to the mechanism of border cooperation, as well as by the activity of rapid warning in case the principle of subsidiarity the Conference of Local and Regional Authorities wouldn’t be respected. of Europe (which took place for the first time in This obviously implies a higher participation 1975 and, in 1994, its name was changed, becom- of regional parliaments which have, in conformity ing the Congress of Local and Regional Authori- with the competencies they were attributed, ties) played an essential role in supporting the ini- a higher authority on deciding within their tiatives of constituting the euro-regions. competencies.

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1) “Carpatica” Euro-Region: was established 2. Romania – a participant at trans-border at Debreţen (14th of February 1993), during a regional cooperation meeting of the foreign affairs ministers and of the representatives of the local administrations The cooperation within the euro-regions from Poland, Ukraine and Hungary. Romania consists in creating direct connection between has been participating since 29th of April 1997, regions and communities situated on the both in this euro-region being included the counties of sides of national frontiers on the basis of local Bihor, Botoşani, Maramaureş, Satu Mare, Sălaj, authorities’ competencies, as they are defined Suceava and Harghita. Slovakia became member within the national law5. In Western Europe, they of this euro-region on 25th of November 1999. function efficiently and the advantages of such “Carpatica” Euro-Region covers 161,192 km2; forms of cooperation are undeniable: the increase its population exceeds 16 million inhabitants of the dynamism of economic and commercial and encompasses five Hungarian counties, relations between the members; encouraging nine Slovakian counties, four Polish ones, four cultural, artistic, scientific exchanges, the contacts Ukrainian regions (Cernăuţi included) and seven between individuals and human communities; Romanian counties. cooperation in environment protection; ensuring 2) “Dunăre-Criş-Mureş-Tisa” Euro- rapid and efficient systems of communication and Region/DCMT. The cooperation under this transport; development of trans-boundary relations format originates in the Bilateral Cooperation in various areas. A catalyst role in euro-regions’ Agreement between Timiş county (Romania) development is played by the EU or by other and Csongrad (Hungary), the Protocol on the international financial institutions which consists Regional Cooperation Dunăre-Criş-Mureş-Tisa in granting financial assistance for encouraging being signed in 1997. Parteners in this format investments and cooperation programs in the are four Romanian counties (Timiş, Arad, Caraş- euro-regions. Severin, Hunedoara), four counties in Hungary Romania’s Government Emergency Order (Czongrad, Bekes, Jacz Nagykun Szolnok, Bacs- no. 120/1998 for the ratification by Romania of Kiskun Kiskun) and Voivodina region in Serbia the European framework-convention on trans- and Montenegro. border cooperation of collectivities and territorial This cooperation’s aim is to develop and extend authorities, adopted at Madrid, on 21st of May the relations between the local communities and 1980, constitutes the legislative framework authorities in the areas of economy, education, in which trans-border cooperation actions are culture, health, science and sport as well as the undertaken by local authorities and communities cooperation from the perspective of european in our country6. At the same time, Romania is part integration. in the European Chart of Local Autonomy, adopted 3) “Danube 21” Euro-Region. The foundation at Strasbourg, on 15th of October 1985, and ratified documents of “Danube 21” trans-border by our country by the Law no. 199/1997. cooperation association were signed at Vidin, on Accordingly to the provisions of the Convention 18th of January 2002, by the mayors of the cities of Madrid, trans-border regional cooperation of Calafat, Vidin and Zaicear. This euro-region regards the enhancement and development of the encompasses urban and rural euro-regions from neighborhood relations between collectivities and the riverain areas of the Danube, from Romania territorial authorities depending on two or more (Calafat, the townships of Poiana Mare, Desa, contracting-parties, as well as the conclusion of Cetate and Ciupercenii Noi), from Bulgaria agreements and understanding which may be (Vidin and Rujiniţi, Macriş, Belogradcic, Lom, useful for this aim. Kula, Dimovo and Novo Selo) and Serbia and The collectivities, authorities or organisms Montenegro (Zaicear and Sokobania, Kladovo, designed to exert regional functions are, according Bolivat, Kniajevat, Bor, Negotin and Madanpec). to the Romanian law, county’s councils and local The association’s activity takes place within councils. some work groups constituted on the areas of the After the effective legislation, Romania Euro-region’s strategic development: culture and participates in the following euro-regions: education; economic development; sport, tourism

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 43 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION and youth; environment protection; agriculture; 8) “Upper Prut” Euro-Region. The idea health and social protection. of creating this euro-region was registered, at The aim of the cooperation under this format Romania’s initiative, in the Treaty on Good is to solve some common issues which these areas Neighborhood Relations and Cooperation situated at a large distance from the administration between Romania and Ukraine, signed on 2nd of centers have to cope with. Additionally, the June 1997. “Upper Prut” encompasses the counties seriousness of these problems is increased by of Botoşani and Suceava from Romania and the fact that those localities lack the economic Bălţi and Edineţ from the Republic of Moldova and transport infrastructures, are dependent on and Cernăuţi region from Ukraine. On 22nd of agriculture and have a low economic development September 2000, was signed the Agreement of level and a high unemployment rate. establishment of “Upper Prut” Euro-region. 4) “Giurgiu-Ruse” Euro-Region was 9) “Siret-Prut-Nistru” Euro-Region. As a established by the Convention signed by the result of a joint initiative of the county councils mayors of the municipalities of Giurgiu and of Romania and the Republic of Moldova, the Ruse, at Giurgiu, on 23rd of April 2001, registered Protocol on trans-border cooperation of the subsequently at the Council of Europe and “Siret-Prut-Nistru” Euro-Region was signed encompassed the mayor’s offices of Giurgiu, Ruse at Iaşi, on 18th September 2002; this euro-region and the non-governmental organization Ruse includes the counties of Iaşi, Vaslui and Neamţ Municipal Energetic Agency. (Romania) and Chişinău, Ungheni, Lăpuşna This euro-region has a common office and a (the Republic of Moldova). Within this euro- commission for the environment protection and region, there is given a special attention to the health, which meets quarterly and analyses the cooperation at a local administrative level in the problems related to the environment protection, areas of economy, culture, education and children human and animal health, proposing their solutions protection. to the two municipalities’ local administrations. At Ungheni, on 4th of December 2002, took 5) “Southern Danube” Euro-Region was place the Meeting of the Presidents Forum and, created in March 2001 and encompasses trans- with this occasion, was signed the Functioning border cooperation associations from Romania Status of “Siret-Prut-Nistru” Euro-region. and Bulgaria. On behalf of Romania, there 10) “Middle Danube – Iron Gates” Euro- participate the following entities: Southern Danube Region. Following a joint initiative of the Association, composed of the local councils of the concerned counties from Romania, Bulgaria, municipalities of Alexandria, Turnu Măgurele, Serbia and Montenegro, at Vidin, on 6th of October Roşiorii de Vede and Zimnicea (Teleorman 2005, were signed the Agreement of Association county) and, on behalf of Bulgaria, participates and the Status of the “Middle Danube – Iron the Association “Evroregion Dunav Jug”. This Gates” Euro-Region, which includes the counties euro-region is based in Sviştov (Bulgaria). Its of Mehedinţi (Romania), Vidin (Bulgaria) activity is low. and Kladovo city and Bor District (Serbia and 6) “Danubius” Euro-Region was created Montenegro). At the same time, there is also in 2002, at the initiative of the County council a colaboration at the level of the mayories of of Giurgiu and of Ruse mayor’s office and is an Drobeta-Turnu Severin, Orşova and Vidin, as well association comprising Ruse county (Bulgaria) as between the Serb and Romanian management and Giurgiu county (Romania). The activity of “Iron Gates” National Park, which Bulgaria within this euro-region hasn’t known substantial intends to join in the following period of time, evolutions. when it would present an environment project for 7) “Lower Danube” Euro-Region is the the National Park. result of the intercessions of the local and regional 11) “Inferior Danube” Euro-Region. At authorities in Romania, Republic of Moldova Călăraşi, on 15th of November, there was concluded and Ukraine and of the positive evolution of the the Agreement on the establishment of “Inferior relations between the three states. This Euro- Danube” Euro-Region, which encompasses parts Region was established at Romania’s initiative, at of the counties of Călăraşi, Ialomiţa and Constanţa the beginning of 1997. (Romania) and Silistra and Dobric (Bulgaria).

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importance to a mere administrative frontier”8. 3. Possible effects of trans-border regional This objective has triggered enormous political, cooperation on national and european security geopolitical and social consequences for the entire Europe, especially, since the ‘90s, when Central In our opinion, both national and European European countries which were on the verge to security, as intentional, sentient and responsible begin their EU integration process, were getting out constructs of national state’s institutions and of their Communist regimes. ARFE’s trans-border of the EU’s institutions, of the European and cooperation chart, elaborated in 2000, underlines national citizens, of national and european civil the extent of this policy in Europe9. In order to society, are affected by regional trans-border achieve a clear vision on these types of euro- cooperation. The latter has various effects on regions, the chart, referring to the territories around national and European security. Thus, some trans- Germany, is remarkable. Among others, it shows border regional cooperation’s sequels may have that the euro-regions created along the German- a positive influence on national and European Polish, respectively, German-Czech frontiers security and others may trigger negative effects. partially overlap on the German territories before We reckon that, among the favorable effects 1945. It may be useful to emphasize that the euro- of trans-border regional cooperation in matters regions along the Czech frontier correspond to the of national and European security, there are the territory of the former Sudetenland, inhabited by following: a German population banished in 1945-1946, as a  A better mutual acquaintanceship between result of Benes’ decrees. the populations living in the areas involved in the  Determines the diminishing of national state’ cooperation process; role, by creating other decision-making structures  The economic development of the regions in territories belonging to the former. Thus, as realizing trans-border regional cooperation; a result of trans-border regional cooperation,  The establishment of inter-state relations we witness a dissolution of the frontiers which of collaboration and cooperation in the social, triggers two consequences10. Firstly, due to the political, cultural, scientific and educational recognition of the ethnic-linguistic phenomenon domains in the border areas, where the euro- within the EU’s instances (the chart of regional regions are created; or minority languages, the framework convention  The decision-making process gets closer to for the protection of minorities, the chart of the citizen in the areas which he might be directly fundamental rights), ethnic groups wouldn’t have interested in; to be divided because of an immovable national  Trans-border regional cooperation turns up frontier. Secondly, on the grounds of the wish to to be a way to bind the populations on their birth create an unique economic market, the decrease places and, therefore, to reduce the migration of of the national borders’ role allows to fathom the 7 employable population ; economic, technologic or transport exchanges, but  The increase of mutual trust between also favors the administrative and fiscal leveling the actors involved in trans-border regional (for instance, Alsace) and facilitates the creation cooperation. of Strasbourg/Kehl district, as ARFE states in In our opinion, among the effects of trans- the report named “Fundamental principles of a border regional cooperation with a negative regional framework-operation by INTERREG influence on national and European security, there IIIC”11; are the following:  Trans-border regional cooperation de-  The efforts to hide some tensed relations termines the progressive disappearance of the between some EU member states, as a result of administrative or legislative problems. Trans-bor- the territorial consequence of the Second World der regional cooperation projects develop around War. Thus, the aim of the creation of trans-border three main axes: regional framework-operation, regional cooperation is, according to the official target-project and network12. In other words, the texts, the following: “giving up obstacles and policy of regionalization aims at the progressive distortion factors in these regions as well as growing disappearance of the national frontier in the ad- out of the frontier or, at least, the reduction of its vantage of a flexible administrative frontier;

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 45 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION

 The growth of the regions’ power as they novembre 1981, modifiée le 1er décembre 1995�. achieve a political authority and are led by a 2. Cooperarea transfrontalieră sub forma president with a considerable degree of authority, euroregiunilor, http://www.mae.ro/node/1513. similarly to the governors of the American states, 3. Jean COUSSY, Causes��������������������� économiques et but relating more with Bruxelles, a supra-national imaginaires économiques de la régionalisation, authority, and not with the national authorities; the http://conflits.revues.org/index247.html. possibility of regrouping the regions according to 4. Grundzüge einer INTERREG IIIC Regionalen economic and/or ethnic criteria13. Rahmenoperation (RRO), Editions l’ARFE, mars 2002. Conclusions 5. Euroregiuni în care România este partener, http:// www.mae.ro, Direcţia Balcanii de Vest şi Trans-border regional cooperation is a reality Cooperare Regională. of our present lives. In the European Union, the 6. L’état de la régionalisation en Europe, enhanced cooperation among the member states, http://www.aer.eu/fileadmin/user_upload/Main on the one hand, and the non-member states and Issues/Regional_Democracy/AER_Regionalism_ the candidate countries, on the other, is encouraged Report/.dam/l10n/fr/FR-First-Part-DEF1.pdf.� by the Treaty of Lisbon14. Thus, the willing states may develop an enhanced cooperation among 7. Lege privind modificarea art. 2 din them. This form of cooperation aims at promoting Ordonanţa Guvernului nr. 120/1998 pentru the interests of the EU and of the member states. ratificarea de către România a Convenţiei–cadru The decision on the enhanced regional cooperation europene privind cooperarea ���������������transfrontalieră � a is made by the EU Council, by the vote of the colectivităţilor sau autorităţilor teritoriale, adoptată member states which participate in a certain la Madrid la 21 mai 1980, http://www.cdep.ro/������������������� form of cooperation. On the other hand, the acts proiecte/2003/100/00/0/leg_pl100_03.pdf. adopted within an enhanced regional cooperation 8. Régions frontalières européennes 2000, determine obligations and rights only for the http://www.diploweb.com/cartes/regionsarfe.pdf. participant member states. 9. Traités����������������������������� consolidés����������������������������,������������������ Charte de droits Trans-border regional cooperation’s fondamentaux, http://www.eurosfaire.prd.fr/7pc/ consequences are both positive and negative in doc/1282827143_qc3209190frc_002.pdf. report to the European and national security. National security is an intentional, sentient and NOTES: responsible construct of the state’s institutions with competencies in this domain, of non- 1 L’état��������������������������������������������������� de la régionalisation en Europe, http://www.����������� aer.eu/fileadmin/user_upload/MainIssues/Regional_ governmental organizations with security vocation Democracy/ AER_Regionalism_Report/.dam/l10n/fr/ and of the state’s citizens. On the other hand, FR-First-Part-DEF1.pdf, p. 14 national security is a component of the European 2���������������������������������������������������L’état de la régionalisation en Europe, �����������http://www. security. At its turn, European security is shared aer.eu/fileadmin/user_upload/MainIssues/Regional_ by all the EU’s member states. Democracy/ AER_Regionalism_Report/.dam/l10n/fr/ Romania is an active and responsible participant FR-First-Part-DEF1.pdf, p. 17. at the process of euro-regions’ assertion, by the 3 Cooperarea transfrontalieră sub forma euroregiunilor, relations established in this area with neighbor http://www.mae.ro/node/1513. countries, EU members of non-members. 4 Cooperarea transfrontalieră sub forma euroregiunilor, Thus, Romania is part in eleven euro-regions, http://www.mae.ro/node/1513, p. 1. 5 �����������Euroregiuni �î�������������������������������������n care România��������������������������� este partener, http://������� whose activity is significant for the sustainable www.mae.ro, Direcţia�������������������������������������� Balcanii de Vest şi Cooperare development of the areas included in this space Regională. and for the national security. 6���������������������������������������������� Lege privind modificarea art. 2 din Ordonanţa Guvernului nr. 120/1998 pentru ratificarea de către BIBLIOGRAPHY: România a Convenţiei–cadru europene privind cooperarea ���������������transfrontalieră ���������������������� a colectivităţilor sau 1. Charte européenne des régions frontalières autorităţilor ��������������������teritoriale, adoptată ��������������������la Madrid, la 21 mai et transfrontalières, Gronau, Editions ARFE, 20 1980, http://www.cdep.ro/proiecte/2003/100/00/0/leg_����������������������������������������������

46 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION pl100_03.pdf. 10 Pierre HILLARD, art.cit. p. 2. 7 Jean COUSSY, Causes économiques et imaginaires 11 Grundzüge einer INTERREG IIIC Regionalen économiques de la régionalisation, http://conflits. Rahmenoperation (RRO), Editions l’ARFE, mars revues.org/index247.html. p. 2. 2002. 8 Jean COUSSY, Causes économiques et imaginaires 12 Pierre HILLARD, art.cit., p. 3. économiques de la régionalisation, http://conflits. 13 Pierre HILLARD, art.cit., p. 7. revues.org/index247.html. p. 2. 14 Traité���������������������������������������������s�������������������������������������� consolidés��������������������������������������,���������������������������� Charte de droits fondamentaux, 9 Régions frontalières européennes 2000, http://������� http://www.eurosfaire.prd.fr/7pc/doc/1282827143_ www.diploweb.com/cartes/regionsarfe.pdf.� qc3209190frc_002.pdf.

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 47 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION ROMANIA’S COOPERATION WITH THE COUNTRIES IN THE WIDER BLACK SEA REGION. ROMANIA-BULGARIA RELATION IN THE CONTEXT OF REGIONAL COOPERATION

Eleonora-Alice STOIAN*

The article present an assessment of the key Key-words: cooperation; the Wider Black Sea challenges and opportunities for cooperation Area; Bulgaria; organizations; maritime security; between Romania and the countries of the Wider bilateral; multilateral; regional. Black Sea Area, highlighting some prospects to strengthening it. Regional cooperation is an important The geostrategic space in which Romania component of Romanian diplomacy, which is placed offers plenty of opportunities for contributes to strengthening the political dialogue, cooperation and for the development of concrete to the development of regional projects and has projects, in the political, economic, cultural and proved to be complementary to the European and energy fields. However, to ensure the stability and Euro-Atlantic integration processes. security needed by everyday life, it is important Romania and Bulgaria cooperate in most Wid- to increase confidence among the countries in er Black Sea Area (WBSA) organizations, which the region. To this end, focusing on Bulgaria, I they consider helpful in achieving their national analyze Romania’s political-military relations objectives. A priority of Romania is the trans- with the countries in the region, both in large formation of the WBSA into a space defined by formats, within international organizations and in cooperation, security and stability. This is achiev- bilateral formats, in order to identify those areas able through developing two major components: of interest that could provide mutual benefits. Given the financial and economic crisis that 1. Cooperation in extended formats affect the defence budgets of all countries in the (multilateral, trilateral and cross-border), region, some models of cooperation based on namely: the principle of “pooling and sharing” might be • the increase of the efficiency of the Black considered for their economic efficiency. Sea Economic Cooperation Organization (BSEC),

* Eleonora Alice STOIAN (�������������������������������������������������������������nora_stoian��������������������������������������������������@�������������������������������������������������yahoo.com)���������������������������������������� works as adviser at the Department for Policy of Defence and Planning, from the Ministry of National Defence, Bucharest.

48 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION the Black Sea Naval Cooperation Task Group the principles agreed upon by the participating (Blackseafor), the Operation Black Sea Harmony countries. The objectives, areas of cooperation, (OBSH); mechanisms, legal frameworks and the degree of • increased involvement of the EU in the institutionalization are different, in accordance region, through the initiation and launching of with the interests and practices of the member projects within the Black Sea Synergy initiative; states. • development of the Black Sea Euro-region; Romania - Bulgaria - Turkey and Romania • revival of the Black Sea Forum for Dialogue - Bulgaria - Greece trilaterals have contributed, and Partnership and proper functioning of the at the time of their creation (1995-1997), to the Black Sea Trust (BST)1. stabilization of the Central-Southern areas of Europe and of the Balkans. These areas faced 2. Bilateral cooperation with countries in major crises and devastating conflicts caused the region by the disintegration of former Yugoslavia. It 1. Cooperation in extended formats was important, at that time, that the conditions, 1.1. Cooperation in multilateral, trilateral mechanisms and institutions were put in place in and cross-border cooperation order to prevent similar crises and provide lasting Cooperation in these formats, under the form solutions. of euro-regions, provides a framework for the The two trilaterals have several dimensions, development of various types of projects. as follows: Conversely to the past decade, when the - political dimension – the three countries have benefits of regional cooperation were especially convergent fundamental interests and a common measured in political terms and in rebuilding will to contribute to the development, good mutual trust between the region’s countries, the neighborliness and democracy in the region; challenge of the present days is the identification - security dimension – they are willing to and backing of specific projects that will lead to cooperate in combating organized crime, illegal the transformation and development of the region trafficking of weapons, drugs, persons etc.; as a whole and of each and every state alike, so - economic dimension – they focus on that the living standards of their population would enhancing cooperation in transport and energy improve. infrastructure, in economic exchanges and trade The dynamics of the cooperation in the region relations, in tourism and development. is demonstrated by the attention given to the Black The most recent Romania - Bulgaria - Greece Sea Economic Cooperation Organization (BSEC2– meeting was held at Foreign Ministers’ level, an initiative mainly aimed at fostering economic in Bucharest, on the 21st of May 2010. A joint cooperation and implementing reforms required declaration on the Western Balkans, an area of by the transition to market economy); naval interest for all three states, was issued. cooperation, aimed at ensuring security of the sea Trilaterals proved beneficial in strengthening and enhance mutual trust (Blackseafor, Operation the support provided by Turkey and Greece (NATO Black Sea Harmony3) and the EU initiatives, such members), in achieving the strategic objective of as the Black Sea Synergy. The latter is a regional Romania and Bulgaria: joining NATO. dimension of the European Neighborhood Policy (ENP), aiming at completing the Eastern 1.3. Cross-border cooperation Partnership, boosting the existing cooperation During 2007-2013, Romania will be granted processes, opening space for cooperation with EU financial assistance to develop programs and Russia, Turkey and the EU’s eastern neighbors, projects in European territorial cooperation (cross- creating a favorable climate to settle the protracted border, transnational and interregional) aimed at regional “frozen” conflicts in the region4. creating a balanced development of the EU area, by encouraging cooperation and exchanges of best 1.2. Trilateral formats of cooperation practices among the EU regions. Romania and Trilateral format cooperation (trilaterals) Bulgaria cooperate within the framework of the represents flexible form of sub-regional Border Cooperation Program, which was officially cooperation, which works in accordance with launched on February 15, 2008, in Călăraşi.

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The initiation of Black Sea Euro-region, Relations have stalled in early 2010, after the in 2006, was aimed at contributing to the installation of the new Ukrainian administration, development of cross-border cooperation led by Viktor Yanukovych. The main issues which between local authorities, to good governance and continue to be at stake refer to: implementation of the rule of law. • the so-called Romanian claims to a part of Bukovina (Cernăuţi) and Southern Bessarabia 2. Bilateral cooperation with the countries (Odessa region); in the region • the Romanian identity of the Romanian 2.1. Challenges and opportunities of minority in Ukraine; cooperation with the states of the Wider Black • the construction of the Bâstroe channel by Sea Area Ukraine; Located at the south-eastern border of the • the so-called amendment of border line, by European Union and NATO, the Wider Black the inclusion of the Maican Island in the Romanian Sea Area is both a scene of confrontation in the area (due to the changes of the Danube riverbed); political, economic and military field between • the espionage affair in 2009, which ended key international actors, and a bridge connecting up with the expulsion of both Romanian and the Caucasus - Central Asia with South-Eastern Ukrainian defence attachés; and Western Europe. WBSA is regarded by the • the issue of recovering the Romanian international community5 as a distinct area, investments in the Krivoi Rog steel mill6 etc. consisting of nine states, each of them with a The relations between Romania and the different view on security issues: Russian Federation are marked by the different • Six littoral states – Romania, Bulgaria, approaches to historical, economic and cultural Ukraine, Russian Federation, Georgia and issues. Last year, Russian rhetoric against Turkey; Romania has intensified following: the Romanian • Three states in the close proximity of the agreements with the US on the deployment of littoral area – Armenia, Azerbaijan, Moldova. anti-missile system elements; different views on Given the diversity in terms of ethnic, political resolving the conflict in Transnistria; Romanian and cultural values, the divergent interests and support for Moldova's integration into the the countries’ membership in various international European community; Romania’s approaches to organizations (NATO, EU, OSCE, CIS, GUAM, find an alternative supply of natural gas; Romanian CSTO), the WBSA has not reached a common proposals to grant an international status to the approach to security risks, nor did it generate a Black Sea Area and its vision on the wide range constant concern from the Western states. of security challenges in the Wider Black Sea Area; Romanian opposition to the Russian Black 2.2. Present situation Sea Fleet stationing in Ukraine, as well as well The political and diplomatic relations between as to the extension of its term of presence, its Romania and Ukraine were relatively tense during modernization and equipping. the entire existence of Ukraine as an independent The relationship between Romania and the state, including the “orange” period. At that time, Republic of Moldova has been characterized there were decided the re-deployment of military by normalization. Romania supports Moldova's units to the south-west border of Ukraine (with European course, decided by the present Romania) and the continuation of the Bâstroe Moldavian leadership who placed the European Channel. Anti-Romanian rhetoric has become integration goal at the forefront of its foreign increasingly high, especially after Ukraine losing policy. On the political level, the main measures the process at the International Court of Justice in taken by the Romanian government were: the The Hague on the delimitation of the continental elimination of visa requirements – established by shelf and in the context of the recent presidential the former communist government, the increase elections. During the campaign, Romania has of Romanian investments in Moldova, opening become a favorite target of politicians and of Romanian consulates in Bălţi and Cahul, “analysts”, who stated that it represents the most providing Romanian citizenship to Moldovan important external threat. citizens, signing the agreement on local border

50 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION traffic – that allows Moldovans who live at a (EUMM), which aims to stabilize the situation distance of 50 kilometers from the border with in the conflict area. Romania is interested in Romania to travel freely to Romania. developing a good relation with Georgia due Although, in Moldova, the intense debate to common interests – particularly, in energy continues about the precise political orientation of security8, maintaining Georgia in the Caspian this country and a large segment of the Moldovan energy transit, ensuring energy supplies to the society does not want to “upset” Moscow, the Black Sea Area states. early parliamentary elections in 2010 and the new political configuration in 2011 – when the 2.1.2. Political-military perspective Alliance for European Integration was able to On short time, the threats to Romania's national form the government give us hope for a fruitful security will remain low. Neither Russia nor cooperation in the future. Ukraine nor any other state takes into consideration The peaceful settlement of the conflict in a military confrontation with a NATO member. Transnistria is a political priority for Romania. We The major challenges to international security support the resumption of the formal negotiations, and to Romania will continue to be the hot spots without preconditions, in the established format and protracted regional (“frozen”) conflicts of the of “5+2”7, the observance of the sovereignty and former Soviet Union area. territorial integrity of Moldova, of the international Romania will continue to cooperate with rules and commitments of replacing the Russian- Ukraine on the basis of good neighborhood. A led peacekeeping troops with a multinational democratic, prosperous Ukrainian state, based on civilian mission. the rule of law, is of a vital interest for Romania. Romania has strong commercial ties with However, we are concerned because of the Turkey, a common view on certain energy projects Ukrainian foreign policy shift towards the Russian such as Nabucco/the EU Southern Corridor or the Federation, which turns Ukraine into a supporter interconnection of the energy supply lines through of Moscow's interests in the region. Nevertheless, a submarine cable. Turkey's support for Romania's we shall express our concern that any Romanian integration into NATO and Romania’s support for or Moldavian regional security initiative, which Turkey’s EU membership are important facets would be contrary to the interests of Moscow of this relationship. Romania and Turkey work (collaboration in political, military, economic together in regional initiatives to prevent and formats, the problem of Transnistria and the combat threats to maritime security. The main request to withdraw the Russian forces from the issues at stake are related to the ways of ensuring Republic of Moldova, the European orientation of security and the role of the regional security Chisinau’s foreign policy, the planned installation structures – Blackseafor and Operation Black Sea of anti-missile shield in Romania) will be Harmony. Turkey, together with Russia, supports considered inappropriate by Kiev, and this the the principle of regional ownership (according to reason for which the dialogue with Ukraine will this, the security of the sea should be provided by remain difficult. the riparian states) and blocks any attempt to open/ A potential conflict area perpetuates close to internationalize the Black Sea Area. On the alleged the territory of Romania – in Transnistria, as a reason of concern for the increased maritime result of the existing Russian military presence activity in the Bosphorus and Dardanelles Straits, and increased military activities in the region. Turkey promotes the ad litteram observance of the The installation of a new political power in Montreux Convention (1936) principles, referring Chisinau, which advocates for the development of to the Turkish management of the Straits. the relation between Romania and the Republic of Relations with Georgia are defined by Moldova, has led to the intensification of Russian- Romania’s support for the territorial integrity of Ukrainian joint rhetoric, these two states trying to this country, for the return of the two breakaway assert their “great power” ambitions in the area. republics (Abkhazia and South Ossetia) under the Turkey will continue to take advantage of its authority of Tbilisi, for stepping up efforts for geopolitical position as transit zone for energy Georgia’s getting NATO membership. Romania corridors and will use this advantage in the participates in the EU Monitoring Mission negotiations for accession to the European Union

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 51 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION and for the development of a special relation with cooperation and good neighborly relations, signed Russia. in Sofia, on February 27, 1992. Romania's relations with Georgia will continue The Romanian communities in Bulgaria and to be based on common political and economic the Bulgarian ones in Romania help strengthening interests. the existing historical ties. According to the 2001 In the recent years, the relation with Azerbaijan census, 10,556 Macedonian Romanians and has developed and continues to register an upward 1088 Romanian were registered in Bulgaria. But trend. Consequently, opportunities for Romania's the figures are debatable, as the president of the economy and energy sector are created, and this Association of Romanian Ethnics in Bulgaria, can be useful for the development of AGRI. Ivo Gheorgiev estimated the number of ethnic Romania has the opportunity to strengthen its Romanians to 150,00012 (the second, after the important position as a bridge between the Central Turkish minority), while recognizing that the Asia, Caucasus and the EU. As a NATO Contact villages are deserted over 60%. Romanians in Point Embassy (CPE) in Azerbaijan, from January Bulgaria can be found in the Danube area, the 1, 2009 to December 31, 2012, Romania will Timok Valley, within the country, the Balkan benefit from economic opportunities and enhanced Mountains and the Dobrogea area. diplomatic contacts. In the past ten years, bilateral trade increased Relations with Armenia ought to be developed steadily, and there is a positive trade balance for in a more dynamic way, as up to now they were Romania. modest due to Romania’s policy of supporting Romania cooperates with Bulgaria on bilateral the integrity and sovereignty of Azerbaijan9, with level and within the regional maritime security whom Armenia has a protracted regional conflict mechanisms. over the enclave of Nagorno-Karabakh. 2.2.1. Military bilateral cooperation between 2.2. Romanian-Bulgarian cooperation10 Romania and Bulgaria Throughout the earlier or later history, relations The bilateral military cooperation has been with the countries of the WBSA were sometimes developed in areas such as: defence and security tense because of different sensitivities of the policy, planning, programming and budgeting, political class. But in the recent years, especially monitoring and evaluation of the armed forces, after going past the “syndrome” of competition strategic planning, leadership, military, air defence for NATO or EU membership, Romania’s relation and airspace management, education and training with Bulgaria was at high levels. of troops, military police, communications and Whether taking steps “in tandem” for integration information technology, military law, human into NATO or EU, participating in ISAF11 or other resource management, public relations, military theaters of operations (KFOR, EUFOR-Althea or education, technical-military etc. Annual EULEX) or later, preparing to join the Schengen meetings of experts in airspace management aim area, Romania and Bulgaria have made a united at optimizing the air traffic flow, implementing pledge to convince the international community NATO standard procedures and improving flight that they deserve to be included and taken into safety. From 1994 to 2010, ten bilateral defence account in the Euro-Atlantic or European high agreements have been signed. level decision-making forums. Key instruments through which we carry out cooperation are from 2.2.2. The cooperation between Romania and the diplomatic, political, economic, military Bulgaria within regional formats and maritime domains. security mechanisms In September 2009, 130 years of diplomatic In the format of regional maritime security relations between Romania and Bulgaria were mechanisms, the cooperation between the two celebrated. A regular intense political and states materializes in the South Eastern Defence diplomatic dialogue and a dynamic cooperation Ministerial Meetings Process (SEDM), South- across sectors is in place. Eastern European Brigade (SEEBRIG), Black The cooperation between the two countries Sea Naval Cooperation Group (Blackseafor), the takes place under the Treaty of friendship, Black Sea Border Coordination and Information

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Center from Burgas (BSBCIC), the Center for within the Nordic Cooperation Group. Britain and Combating Organized Crime of the Southeast France have started an unprecedented military co- European Cooperative Initiative (SECI) and the operation to include joint expeditionary forces and EU regional initiatives such as the Black Sea the mutual use of the two countries’ facilities. An- Synergy, Danube Strategy etc. other visible trend in recent years is Germany go- Romania supports Bulgaria in developing ing closer to the Russian Federation, particularly SEDM projects, especially during July 2009-July in the political, economic and military field. 2011, when Bulgaria holds the presidency of the All these developments suggest that a teaming- structure. up of states might be possible in the South-Eastern Cooperation within Blackseafor (BSF) aims at Europe too. We may consider, also, the Visegrad14 + increasing interoperability, carrying out research Ukraine model, by which the member states proposed and rescue operations (SAR), soft security, to add a military dimension to the arrangement that humanitarian, environmental protection and, existed before their integration into NATO. more recently (after 9/11/2001), preventing and A greater cooperation and policy coordination combating terrorism. of Romania with Bulgaria and Turkey (all of them Romania wants to maintain the current format NATO members) is feasible. Additionally, we of the BSF and avoid its transformation into a can think about getting closer to the Republic of permanent force, so that the BSF would continue Moldova, a neutral state, if it shows interest in to carry out its traditional missions. We appreciate cooperation with these states or the Alliance. that the main operational tool in preventing and Actually, a teaming-up of Romania and Turkey combating terrorism in the Black Sea should be is suggested also by the political-military analyst the Operation Black Sea Harmony (OBSH). George Friedman15, founder of STRATFOR. OBSH is an initiative of Turkey, launched Noting with some surprise the good relations in 2004. Its mission is combating terrorism and of the Romanians with the heirs of the Ottoman asymmetric threats. The initiative is similar to NATO Empire, the above-mentioned author suggests operation “Active Endeavour” in the Mediterranean the deepening of these relations. Of course, it Sea. While, initially, Bulgaria has not supported is Bulgaria that offers the contiguous space to the initiative, it has recently declared the intention Turkey. The resulted area of cooperation would to conclude a Memorandum of Understanding with make sense, from the perspective of the USA and Turkey to participate in OBSH. EU, too. Obviously, such cooperation would be Romania is in favor of a “labor division” beneficial for Turkey too, in its efforts to move between Blackseafor and OBSH and is closer to the European Union. concerned that the transformation of Blackseafor As a reasoning, the well-known analyst points into a permanent structure will not allow the out that Romania should not take NATO and EU participation of non-littoral states and will prevent membership for granted, seeking its “redemption” the opening and internationalization of the Black in the belongingness to these organizations or Sea Area. Bulgaria, however, sees Blackseafor relaxing at the thought that the USA or NATO will as a permanent force, mandated to carry out immediately “jump” to its rescue. missions of preventing terrorism and proliferation In the same idea, we consider that Romania of weapons of mass destruction13. must move beyond a kind of „psychological comfort” and develop regional cooperation, in its Conclusions capacity of sovereign state, which has as primary responsibility the commitment to manage its Against the background of the economic cri- future and ensure the safety of its citizens. sis and the reduction of defence budgets, we no- tice the growing interest of NATO or EU member BIBLIOGRAPHY: states to find cooperation partners outside or inside the Euro-Atlantic area or community. Thus, the 1 Ronald D. ASMUS; Bruce P. JACKSON, The five Nordic countries (Norway, Sweden, Finland, Black Sea and the Frontiers of Freedom, Policy Denmark, Iceland), some of them only NATO Review, iunie 2004. members, the others only EU members, cooperate 2 Zeyno BARAN, The Islamization of Turkey,

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15 June 2010, http://www.meforum.org/2682/ tive_ale_securitatii_si_apararii_in_Europa_vol4. islamization-of-turkey. pdf. 3 Paul CIOCOIU, Analyst says missile shield decision boosts Romania’s regional position, NOTES: Southeast European Times in Bucharest, 17.05.2011. 1���������������������������������������������� Initiative�������������������������������������������� of the German Marshall Fund of the 4 Dmitry GORENBURG, Ten Years of USA. BlackSeaFor: A Partial Assessment, May 11, 2011, 2����������������������������������������������� The BSEC organization rotational���������������� presidency is http://russiamil.wordpress.com/2011/05/11/ten- held by Romania, during the first semester of 2011. 3 Will be discussed further in the article. years-of-blackseafor-a-partial-assessment/. 4����������������������������������������������� Black Sea Synergy – The Commission’s answer to 5 Ognyan MINCHEV, Major interests and Romania’s wishes, April 12, 2007, ��������������������http://www.euractiv. strategies for the Black Sea Region, Framework ro/uniunea-europeana/articles|displayArticle/articleID_ Analytical Review, September 2006, Sofia. 9936/Sinergia-Marea-Neagra-raspunsul-Comisiei-la- 6 Dorinel MOLDOVAN, Plamen PANTEV, dorintele-Romaniei.html. Matthew RHODES, Joint Task Force East and 5������������������������������������������� WBSR is a concept defined by R.D. ASMUS and Shared Military Basing in Romania and Bulgaria, Bruce JACKSON, in The Black Sea and the Frontiers Occasional Paper Series, George C. Marshall of Freedom published in „Policy Review”, June 2004. Center for Security Studies, no. 21, 2009. 6��������������������������������������� Romanian and Ukrainian media excerpts. 7 Report Calls for Common Nordic Task Force, 7��������������������������������������������� The Republic of Moldova, the Self Proclaimed Transnistria Republic, the Russian Federation, OSCE, 02/09/2009, http://www.spiegel.de/international/ Ukraine, as well as the USA and EU as observers. europe/0,1518,606505,00.html. 8����������������������������������������������� The signing of the Memorandum of Understanding 8 mae.ro. between Azerbaijan-Georgia-Romania (and later 9 ziare.ro. Hungary) on the construction of a Liquefied Natural Gas 10 stratfor.com. Pipeline (AGRI) from the Caspian area to the European 11 jamestown.org. markets is an important step towards that goal. 12 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Sea_ 9���������������������������������������� Romanian ������������������������������Foreign Minister and President Forum_for_Partnership_and_Dialogue. Declarations. 13 http://www.novinite.com/view_news. 10������������������������������������������������ This article mainly refers to security aspects. php?id=117747. 11������������������������������������������������ ISAF-International Security and Assistance Force in Afghanistan, where Bulgaria has about 600 personnel 14 http://www.iris-g.org/files/Black%20Sea% and Romania over 1700. 20Framework%20Analytical%20Review.pdf. 12�������������������������������������������� Ivo GHEORGIEV, Romanian traces in Bulgaria, 15 http://old.mae.ro/index.php?unde=doc&id= 2010, Formula As. 7281&idlnk=1&cat=3. 13����������������������������������������������� ����������������������������������������������http://russiamil.wordpress.com/2011/05/11/ten- 16 http://www.adevarul.ro/international/ years-of-blackseafor-a-partial-assessment/. Armenia-suparata_pe_presedintele_roman_0_ 14������� Visegr������á�d������������������������������������ Group or sau V4 is an organization 466753905.html. formed in �������������������������������������������February 1991,����������������������������� by 4 central-european states 17 http://cssas.unap.ro/ro/pdf_carti/securitate_ (Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland and Slovakia). stabilitate_bazinul_marii_negre2005.pdf. 15�������������������������������������������� �������������������������������������������George FRIEDMAN, Geopolitical Journey, Part 18 http://cssas.unap.ro/ro/pdf_carti/Perspec- 3: Romania, November 16, 2010, STRATFOR.

54 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION REVIEWS ON THE NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION IN PREVENTING AND COMBATING CROSS-BORDER CRIME

Valentin GIUPANĂ*

Organised crime in the context of globalisation The concept of cross-border organized crime became a cross-border phenomenon, so that its is thus determined by the connection of organized effective control can be achieved only through crime with transnational crime. Basically, the global, regional and subregional integrated criminal activity of this kind of network receives systems. Moreover, national and international an international character, being used regional, instruments to combat cross-border organized continental and intercontinental circuits. crime must provide real-time operating solutions, Being aware of the extremely high danger posed as cross-border criminal acts are conducted by organized crime offences in the field, Romania very fast, and the coordinators of these networks adopted a special law governing this very sensitive succeed in placing the illegal product of crime area. Defining a criminal organisation group, Law in the legal circuit, and thus sanctioning is much no. 39 of 21 January 2003 on preventing and more difficult and it is almost impossible to remove combating organized crime, stipulates that it is “a all the consequences. structured group, formed of three or more persons, Keywords: cross-border crime, globalisation, exists for a period of time and acts in a coordinated threats, evolution, interdependency, cooperation manner in order to commit one or more serious crimes, to obtain directly or indirectly a financial Recognizing the phenomenon of cross-border or other kind of material benefit. 3” organized crime as the main threat to security1 National legislation provides for the situation must generate from the responsible factors a in which an occasionally organized criminal group major reaction, a conjugation of efforts to counter is not subject to the law preventing and combating the very serious effects that may occur in society organized crime, even if it was created in order to as a whole, but also regionally and globally. commit a crime. Thereby, “an organized criminal According to Romanian Language Explanatory group is not a group formed occasionally in the Dictionary (DEX)2, the term “international immediate purpose of committing one or more crime” is “a very serious offence against war crimes and which has no continuity or an pre- laws and customs, as well as against international determined structure or roles for its members ...”. peace and human-kind”. According to the same Romanian law on preventing and combating bibliographical source, the term “criminality” organized crime also establishes crimes covered shall include “all crimes committed in a given by this normative act. Among these we mention: territory in a given period”; in our view, this is the murder, aggravated murder, slavery, blackmail, best to name the criminal phenomenon. illegal deprivation of liberty, counterfeiting

* Colonel������������������� Valentin GIUPANĂ ([email protected])����������������� is a lecturer at �“����������������Nicolae Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy in Sibiu, PhD candidate at “Carol I” National Defence University in Bucharest, and an officer within R.I.S.

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 55 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION currency and other valuables, drugs or precursors ties of other states are manifested at the individual trafficking, money-laundering, etc. It thus appears level, represented by the official responsible for that serious social danger, along with the aspects investigating offences, up to the level of authority, listed above represent a condition for a criminal such as law enforcement authorities (ministries, action to be placed in the category of organised judicial and police structures and sub-structures, crime. etc.). The phenomenon of cross-border organised Romania’s accession to the European Union crime has emerged and is expanding with the has meant in terms of preventing and combating development of globalisation, the influences cross-border organized crime harmonisation of of economic, finance and banking activities, legislation, but also creating necessary structures, transport and particularly leading technology according to the recommendations and best and communications, causing its consolidation, practices of the European Union. especially that harmonisation of national Romania is still in the process of adapting to legislation in the field of countering cross-border European standards, as the dynamics of cross- organised crime is still to be accomplished. border crime requires the authorities to adopt The main areas of intervention specific to this new laws and to create flexible structures whose strategic objective are: ensuring a coherent and target is fighting against new crime manifestation effective policy for combating illegal migration; forms. preventing and combating trafficking in human Moreover, in view of accession to the Schengen beings and eliminating the negative effects it has Area, Romania will have to be able to ensure the on individuals and on society; combating drug security of a large part of the European Union’s trafficking and consumption and also improving external border. In this respect, the institutional support services for victims; prevention and and legal framework must meet EU requirements combating the cyber-crime phenomenon and last and be perfectly compatible with those of the but not least fighting against money laundering European partners. and against financing criminal activities including Securing the state frontier requires the terrorism. effective participation of all state structures and Romania is party to all international organisations with responsibilities on the border conventions on combating cross-border organized in pursuit of an integrated border management crime, having concluded regional and bilateral compatible with EU practices; this translates agreements and arrangements and participates b��������������������������������������������y������������������������������������������� “a complex system of measures, actions and effectively and actively in activities that are activities developed at central and territorial level organized internationally to prevent and combat that ensure border security, maintaining normality, this criminal phenomenon. deploying a safe and smooth control at the border In this respect, on a national level, preventing as well as protecting the Romanian state’s interests and combating cross-border organised crime in relations with neighbouring states4”. is carried out in accordance with the provisions As a complex task, cooperation should cover undertaken by ratifying international conventions on the one hand internal relations among law to which Romania is party and in compliance with enforcement authorities, between them, NGOs international regulations and domestic law in the and civil society organizations and on the other field. hand external relations between law enforcement The international community and especially authorities in partner countries, bilateral or the European one encourages and supports multilateral agreement between them and international cooperation, considered by specialists international cooperation bodies or organisations. as a way to effectively fight against cross-border Also, cooperation should aim mainly to prevent, organised crime. achieved largely through the contribution of The available tools are very diverse, ranging civil society and to combat, which is solely the from legislation, best practices and recommenda- responsibility of law enforcement authorities. tions to institutional tools, represented by organi- The international community perceives sations and international cooperation bodies. Fur- international cooperation as an important key to thermore, the need for cooperation with authori- counter cross-border organized crime, even as a

56 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION precondition for making this multidimensional on the promotion and observance of legality in fight more effective.5 all spheres (social, economic, political, ethnic, However, there must be made a difference religious, cultural etc.). between judicial and police cooperation, terms • prevention through promoting social justice. that circumscribe to two main fields: justice and Each institution engaged in combating security. Although they go hand in hand, both are unconventional threats to security must keep determined to one another and ensure each other.6 order in its structure. The government must The exchange of information covers generally know what each of these institutions does and the first phase of documenting criminal activities, how cooperation is realised among parts of the gathering information necessary to knowing system. A failure in this area may have important the mode of action of criminal groups and their implications internationally. members, but also the procedures for recovery We believe that, in accordance with the of income from cross-border illegal activities. evolution of the cross-border crime phenomenon, Our opinion is that the activity of international bilateral or regional cooperation, at least in Europe, cooperation should focus on: exchange of data and will become increasingly necessary. Therefore, information relating to individuals, organisations, emphasis should be made on widening regional networks, means of transport and goods connected organizations work on a continental scale, by the with an investigated criminal activity; operational efforts of Member States to harmonize legislation activities, legal and information assistance to and procedures. This is due to the mode of action of implement, national and international legislation cross-border criminal groups, which are currently and regulations in the field of police and expanding their activities in several regions and customs;����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� insurance of mutual technical assistance even continents. by exchange of expertise, knowledge and The necessity for international cooperation is professional, scientific and technical resources; given on the one hand, by the need of authorities personnel comprehensive training in various areas to benefit from the support of experienced staff of law enforcement. and on the other hand, by the need for dismantling At the basis of measures for preventing and all segments of trans-national organized criminal combating cross-border organized crime are certain groups. modes of action such as finding and eradicating Not only in Romania, but also in other the main causes favouring their emergence and countries’ legislation, international comity manifestation. and reciprocity have been established. Thus, if According to specialists, prevention is achieved there is no international convention on judicial by several ways: cooperation, states may request assistance under • prevention through law enforcement, which international comity, based on a request sent mainly involves finding and suppressing offences, through diplomatic channels by the requesting is a post-factum intervention having a warning state and with a written assurance of reciprocity role for future breaches; from the competent authority of that state. • prevention by establishing actions and Moreover, lack of reciprocity is not a consistent measures that can hinder criminal activity, a key reason to refuse the request for assistance provided matter for the appropriate conceptual component that: the required assistance should prove of preventing and combating, effectively adapted necessary due to the nature of the crime or the need to determine the directions and timing of the crime to fight against certain forms of serious crime; the manifestations; request should contribute to the improvement of • prevention through preparing the victim / the defendant or convict situation or to his social target for self-defence - by victim understanding reintegration; it should serve to clarify the legal both an individual or the community, as well as situation of a citizen of the requested state. intrinsic values ​​- institutions, goals or goods for In a bid to broaden the scope of cooperation and which preventive concepts and procedures are due to the fact that not every request for assistance prepared and applied; meets the requirements of judicial cooperation in • prevention through measures of improving criminal matters aimed at preventing, detecting, the democratic relations of the community, based investigating and bringing to justice cross-border

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 57 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION crimes perpetrators, states have provided legal Organised crime in the context of globalisation and institutional instruments through which the has become a cross-border phenomenon and thus, exchange of data and information can be achieved. its combat can no more be achieved by nation Generally, this activity is about transmitting upon states, but within integrated global, regional and request or on its own initiative information with sub-regional organisations. Moreover, national operational value, on persons or criminal actions and international instruments to combat cross- that are not criminally investigated, as required border organised crime must provide real-time for the request of judicial assistance in criminal operating solutions, as cross-border criminal acts matters. Due to the trans-boundary nature and are conducted very quickly, and the coordinators its specific ways of manifestation, organised of these networks succeed in placing the illegal crime cannot be investigated by law enforcement product of crimes in the legal circuit, thus making authorities only at national level, without it more difficult to apply sanctions and almost requiring cooperation and support of international impossible to remove all the consequences. community. With this brief presentation we tried to The combat against cross-border organised emphasize that both the regulatory and the actional crime is getting a more and more visible global framework of combating cross-border organised character, and this approach will significantly crime at national, regional and international influence political developments in certain geo- level must continuously improve as a solution to graphical areas and, overall, those in the inter- respond to the ongoing transformation of threats national arena, being capable to lead to isolating generated by this phenomenon. some regimes, reconfiguration of power relations In conclusion, efficient cooperation at national, in specific geopolitical spaces, and, to a certain international and inter-departmental level is extent, to expedite the process of reforming the the main determining element in the activity of UN, an organization which should more decisive- prevention and combating cross-border crime. ly assume finding practical, efficient solutions to the challenges which world security is facing. BIBLIOGRAPHY: The continuous development of national and international legal framework demonstrates 1. ***, Strategia de Securitate Naţională a Romania’s and Euro-Atlantic states’ concern României, Bucharest, 2007. towards the threat of cross-border organised 2. ***, Strategia naţională de apărare a ţării, crime, being the grounding of concrete plans Bucharest, 2010. and action programs and changing, by the effects 3. ***, Strategia naţională de ordine publică of their application, the security environment 2010-2013, aprobată prin H.G. nr. 1040 din 13 architecture. Any pertinent analysis of the current octombrie 2010. security environment cannot exclude the presence 4. ***, Legea nr. 39/2003 privind prevenirea şi of new non-state factors, represented by terrorist combaterea criminalităţii organizate. and cross-border organised crime groups and 5. ***,Dicţionarul Explicativ al Limbii organisations. Romania is party to international Române, Univers Enciclopedic Publishinghouse, conventions on combating cross-border organised Bucharest, 1998. crime, having concluded a series of agreements 6. BALOI, Aurel; CORCIU, Eugen, Instituţii and arrangements on a bilateral and regional level de cooperare poliţienească internaţională, M.A.I and participates effectively in activities that are Publishinghouse, 2006. organized internationally to prevent and combat 7. FRUNZETI, Teodor; ZODIAN, Vladimir, this phenomenon. Lumea 2009, Enciclopedie politică şi militară, In this respect, on a national level, preventing C.T.E.A. Publishinghouse, Bucharest, 2009. and combating cross-border organised crime 8. HEDEŞIU, Emil; TOMA, Gheorghe, is carried out in accordance with the provisions Contracararea crimei organizate tranfrontaliere, undertaken by ratifying international conventions U.N.Ap. Publishinghouse,���������������������������������� Bucharest�������� , 2005. to which Romania is party and in compliance with 9. ZIEGLER, Jean; Seniorii crimei - international regulations and domestic law in the organizatiile secrete contra democratiei, Antet field. Publishinghouse.,������������������� Bucharest, 1998.

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10. http://www.coe.int. 3�������������������������������������������������� Legea nr.39/2003 privind prevenirea şi combaterea 11. http:/�������������������/www.infoeuropa.ro. criminalităţii organizate, Art. 2, Lit. a. 12. http://www.presidency.ro. 4��������������������������������� Strategia de Securitate Naţională a����������� României, Bucharest, 2007. NOTES: 5���������������������������������������� HEDEŞIU, Emil; TOMA, Gheorghe, Contracararea crimei organizate tranfrontaliere, “Carol I” National Defence University Publishinghouse, Bucharest, 2005, 1������������������� Strategia Naţională ����������������������������de Apărare, Bucharest, 2010, p. 213. p. 13. 6����������������������������������������� Aurel BĂLOI; Eugen CORCIU, Instituţii de 2������������������������������������������������� Dicţionarul Explicativ al Limbii Române, Univers cooperare poliţienească internaţională, Ministry of Enciclopedic Publishinghouse, Bucharest, 1998, p. Administration and Interior Publishinghouse, 2006, p. 239. 24.

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 59 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION BILATERAL COOPERATION BETWEEN ROMANIA AND HUNGARY IN CASE OF ACCIDENTAL POLLUTION. TWO STUDY CASES

Francisc TOBĂ, PhD

International cooperation in environment security field, particularly with regard to the Introduction environment incidents, in cross-border basins, is one of the priorities of the institutions and In a globalising world, environment security countries in the region, including Romania, becomes more and more a priority on the agenda Hungary and Ukraine. A problem of utmost of local and world decision makers. In our opinion, importance is the mining leases and the derelict environment security refers to both security of the ponds with a high pollution potential for public bios (which also includes the human being) and of and environment security. Accidental pollutions natural resources, but, above all, to maintaining a caused by environment incidents, such as Baia balance between human civilisation and evolution, Mare and Baia Borşa (Romania) and Ajka on the one hand, and the natural environment (Hungary), cases which are the subject-matter potential to sustain it, on the other. of the present survey, highlight that Europe One can identify conditional relations between and, particularly, ex-communist countries are national security and environment security confronted with the issue of the preserved, resulting from the very role played by the natural abandoned or still operational decantation ponds. environment as a main supplier of security Pollution potential management is one of the resources. Environment incidents, of natural or greatest challenges for the environment security in human activity causes, have increasingly become the hydrographic basins in the territory of several factors of vulnerability for a nation security European countries. potential. Environment security is pre-eminently a Key-words: environment security; accidental cross-border issue where cooperation in prevention pollution; hydrographic basins; decantation and management of certain incidents constitutes a ponds. primary condition. Chernobyl atomic disaster in

* Francisc TOBĂ ([email protected]), Ph.D., is Retired military engineer; until 1990, he worked in the defence industry and, after 1990, was a member of the Romanian Parliament (1992-1996), Diplomatic Adviser to the OSCE (1996-1997), personal advisor of former Prime Min- ister Adrian Nă�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������stase (1997-2001), CEO of Romaero Aviation S.A. (2001-200�3�������������������) and CEO of NITRA- MONIA S.A. (2003-2004). Currently he is the personal advisor of the General Commissioner of the National Environment Guard. He has a doctorate in Military Sciences (2001) and is lecturer at the Faculty of International Relations and European Studies, from the University “Spiru Haret”. He is the author of various scientific paper works, amongst which we shall mention“ Political and security decision-nation” and “High-tech espionage business”.

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1986 is perhaps the most serious warning in this aspects regarding environment regulations, sense. technologies and security. The accidental pollution phenomenon with The consequences could have been of a higher a cross-border impact is a real challenge for magnitude as 120 tons of cyanide and 20.000 tons specialists in environment sciences as well as for of heavy metal sediments were discharged in the authorities, communities or citizens. The existence environment. There were no deaths or serious of certain hydrographic basins on the territory mass illnesses. The factors which limited the of several neighbouring countries imposes an negative consequences were, on the one hand, integrating approach in the case of significant the ice layer that covered the waters on a 200 pollution, a regional cooperation which would km distance downstream Baia Mare and, on the enable the identification of the main pollution other hand, the floods (the most serious in the last sources at national level, including management 100 years) which carried and dispersed the heavy methods for the serious incidents resulting from metals and thus reduced the concentration level in cross-border pollution sources. the hydrographic and water meadow system. In this sense, bilateral cooperation between Similar situations are present in other locations Romania and Hungary in case of accidental as well, hence the real potential for this kind of pollutions is an eloquent example and the two accidents to occur again. The requirement is presented cases, which occurred at a decade time therefore to produce a risk evaluation map and interval, will point out the particularities of this a set of actions that would enable an adequate cooperation. management. The authors of the report consider it opportune to issue a “Guide for Industry” to clarify Case 1 –Accidents occured at Baia Mare the mining industry regulations for the extractive and Baia Borşa and ore processing industry, in accordance with This case survey is based on the report EU documents. The guide would also enable an issued by the international commission for the integrating approach of the industries’ obligations assessment of the accident which occurred at Baia and the awareness at the public opinion level, Mare, in accordance with the tasks imposed by regarding the amount of insecurity that may be commissionaire Margot Wallström and supported provided by this field of activity and the manner in by the environment ministers of Hungary and which responsibilities should be assigned in these Romania, in connection with the accidents that cases, including civil emergencies management. occurred at Baia Mare and Baia Borşa, in January and March 2000. 1. What happened? The following set of questions was imposed: On 30th of January 2000, in the evening, in 1. What happened and why did it happen? the proximity of Baia Mare town, a dam of the 2. What are the damages caused? decantation pond from an old store mining 3. What other dangerous locations remained in sterile installation burst. As a result of this Tisa hydrographic basin? accidental pollution, 100.000 m3 of waste water 4. What are the recommendations in order to which contained about 120 tons of cyanides and minimise the risks of similar accidents to occur? heavy metals were discharged in Lăpuş River The report was issued following thorough and, subsequently, in Someş and Tisa rivers. documentation achieved both in the area where Through Hungary, the pollution factor reached the accidents occurred and in the affected areas, by the Danube. taking into account the opinions of local authorities, On 10th of March 2000, another mining sterile of NGO’s, and of the citizens. The governments dam burst at Baia Borşa, in a region near the of Hungary, Romania and Yugoslavia made border with Ukraine. As a result, 20.000 tons of available the results of their own investigations. sediments were discharged in Novăţ River, an Access to the investigations conducted by UNEP affluent of the Vişeu and Tisa rivers. and EEC and to those conducted by the German The Table no. 2 summarises the reasons that and Dutch agencies and WWF was also possible. led to the two accidental pollutions. Independent investigations were also ordered to Considering the assumptions, it becomes enable the understanding of certain particular obvious that there is a real potential to further

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Baia Mare Baia Borşa

Design errors - Use of a closed circuit installation without Design errors explicit provisions for water excess overflow -Use of an installation without explicit /store capacity; provision for water excess overflow; -Inappropriate dam wall because of the lack of - Non-functional pumps; homogeneity of the sterile; - Inadequate design of precipitation drain. - Non-functional hydro-cyclones at very low temperatures.

Authorisation Deficiencies - Errors in the initial study regarding the impact on the environment; - Errors in the evaluation of the weather Authorisation Deficiencies conditions impact on the respective mining - The installation was operated without location design; environment protection authorisation. - There is no clear responsibility regarding the process security in the actions taken for the authorisation purpose which is solid and diffuse; - Inadequate monitoring requirements.

Operation Deficiencies Operation Deficiencies - Non-compliance with the design - Inadequate maintenance of the pipes and requirements as concerns the dam wall pumps. construction elements. - Lack of a plan for emergency situations.

Weather conditions Weather conditions A combination of extreme, but not A combination of extreme, but not unprecedented weather conditions. unprecedented weather conditions.

Table no. 1 generate accidental pollution and the weather cyanide quantities were left in the river or on the conditions have done nothing but favouring the banks. two accidents. The pollution case of Baia Borşa was totally different since the whole quantity of mud and water 2. The Impact of accidental pollutions with a high content of mud and heavy metals was The pollution accident of Baia Mare caused discharged in Novăţ River. The largest quantity of the overflow of a noxious mixture of cyanide and mud was left in the pond area while the polluted copper initially in Tisa River and then, through the water was discharged in Vişeu River bed and then Danube, in the Black Sea. This accidental pollution in the upper stream of Tisa River. The majority of had a major impact on the existing ecosystems of the heavy metals contained by the water made a the affected hydrographic area but, because the deposit on the upper stream of Tisa. Significant pollution was made of dissolved materials, no floods occurred at a short time after this accidental pollutant deposits were found. Actually, after the pollution as a result of rapid heating. This produced passing of this noxious material, no significant a new driving and a dispersion of the heavy metals.

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The impact on the community’s health on a short that must be settled: 1) those which concern the term was not significant, as there was no record technologies in use and 2) those which concern the of deaths or mass illnesses. The actions taken legal matrix. quickly and efficiently by the authorities regarding Analyses have been performed in possible potable water supply had any risk in this respect alternative technologies which exclude the use of eliminated. cyanides for the mineral residues processing and On a long term, the impact on Tisa River’s in using a less toxic separation agent. Specialists in ecosystems can be assessed only by an adequate the industrial field who use this technology claim follow-up process. that, at this moment, there is no other better solution in terms of cost efficiency and less toxicity. 3. Communication A solution would be the development of The adequate management of the civil fundamental research in this field and the emergency situations such as accidental pollutions identification of new technological solutions. assumes a performance management in the area If cyanide technology cannot be replaced, the of communication between institutions and with report authors’ recommendation is that no new people. People, if warned and if they have similar processing installation which uses cyanide should information, can become active factors in solving then store cyanide water in open ponds exposed to the emergency situation. the various weather conditions. Cyanide must be Commissionaire Margot Wallström’s visit, ac- removed from the mixture in the installation so that companied by the Romanian and Hungarian min- toxic substances should not be discharged in the isters of environment, created favourable premises ponds any longer. The solution is viable both from for calming down public opinion and increasing a technological and an economical point of view. A people’s trust in the state institutions’ potential to rapid evaluation of all the processing installations solve the situation rapidly and efficiently. is therefore required in order to implement the The analysis of this subject has highlighted that technological process modifications that would the citizens of the three countries, Romania, Hun- allow us to obtain this result. gary and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, have Regarding the legal framework to be considered, a different information culture concurrently with the mining companies, including the managers the relatively different interest of the officials rela- and all the workers, must focus on developing and tive to the citizens’ sensitivity for information of observing a real security culture. The awareness the kind. A version of the PNUM/OCHA Report of dangers will allow their adequate management. was published for the people’s access, in four lan- The ISO 9000 (quality management), ISO 14.000 guages, through the Regional Environment Centre (environment management) standards or the EU of Szentendre (Hungary) and was disseminated via EAMS Scheme will be applied. the Non-Governmental Organizations. As concerns the regulation framework, we These cases have pointed out that, in the should take into consideration the following trans-border cooperation for the achievement of fields: an increased European security, the International • design and approval; Commission for the Danube Protection must identify • operation; and develop performance capabilities in the public • waste management; relations field, providing in the shortest possible • close down; time the required information on the environment • abandoned location. security incidents. The cases have demonstrated One of the issues of utmost importance concerns the action potential of the interpersonal relations the abandoned mining locations and ponds with a of specialists, which potentates the process of high impact on public and environment security. implementation of bilateral agreements between A list including a number of 23 dangerous mining Hungary and Romania. and ore processing locations was drawn up in September 2000 and the Romanian, Hungarian and 4. Regulation Framework Slovakian governments assumed the responsibility Regarding the possible solutions to avoid to monitor them and to take all the actions regarding accidental pollutions, there are two major fields the necessary corrections. This list does not include

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 63 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION the abandoned locations. These represent a high countries involved in Tisa Basin management potential risk of discharging the toxic substances to request the experts’ list containing the high and heavy metals in the natural environment. The risk mining locations. This approach was the abandoned mining locations are a pan-European result of close cooperation with the International problem that requires a continental approach. Commission for the Danube Protection and was One of the European approaches represents completed on 25th of August 2000. the firm obligation in the authorisation content to Sustainable development in this hydrographic close down the new mining workings. An example area must have as a starting point the reduction in this respect is the ore processing installation at of the number of environment incidents and Lisheen (Ireland) which has a yearly production this objective can be attained only by adopting of 1.500.000 tons of ore. The authorisation issued an integrated regional program developed in in 1997 requires explicitly the implementation, accordance with the EU Water Framework up-dating and revision of an Environment Quality Directives which refer to cross-border waters’ System which includes A Mine Close Down Plan management under regional cooperation. The and a Permanent Protection Plan. As a guarantee, correction for the polluting locations of Tisa basin the holder of the authorisation was compelled to was achieved by setting up a joint commission of deposit the amount of € 12.2 million to finance the experts from Romania, Hungary, Slovakia and Close Down Plan and the amount of €1.7 million Ukraine which had the first round of discussions in to finance the Permanent Protection Plan. January 2001 in order to establish a set of proposals One of the biggest problems refers to the min- regarding the Environment Joint Program for Tisa ing locations that ceased their activity but were Basin. closed down inadequately. A classification of these The general objective of this program is to mining locations includes the locations without an improve the quality of life for the inhabitants owner, those whose owner cannot be identified or of Tisa Basin, to increase the environment those whose owner is insolvent and is unable to fi- security, to protect natural and environment nance the close down. Identification of the financ- values by developing a sustainable water quality ing solutions and the development of an adequate management and reducing the pollution risks. legal framework are necessary in these cases. The abandoned locations’ issue should be 6. Conclusions and recommendations solved by the identification, in a first stage, of a The authors of the report have reached the list including the priorities in terms of the risks conclusion that these accidental pollutions were for each mining location based on a jointly possible due to the following: agreed methodology of risk evaluation. The • inadequate decantation ponds; study regarding the Tisa basin drawn up by • Romanian Authorities validation of insecure the International Commission for the Danube designs; Protection, in the summer of the year 2000, • Incorrect follow-up of project achievement should be extended in the second stage. The third and dam operation; stage must cover the completion of the Romanian • Significant, but not decisive role of severe authorities’ inventory regarding the abandoned weather conditions. and dangerous ponds and the issue of a joint list The consequences of these accidental pollutions of pollution sources in Tisa basin, as identified were: on 5th of October 2000, by a group of Romanian, • insignificant for public health; Hungarian, Slovak and Ukrainian experts. The • significant for natural and economic EU Commission involvement is required in order environment – the recovery speed of Tisa River to speed up the completion of this process and to was impressive; obtain a single approach. • the increased importance of abandoned ponds in terms of environment security risks. 5. Tisa Basin from the perspective of sustainable development Regarding the Regulation framework, the The accidental pollution case at Baia Borşa recommendations can be distinguished as determined the decision-making factors of the follows:

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• interdiction of closed circuit process toxic residues that have been accumulated since technological solutions unless they include feasible 1945. This quantity is 10 times larger than the excess water overflow and storage solutions; one discharged on 4th of October 2010. A massive • technological solutions must provide the discharge would jeopardise all the potable water removal of cyanides and of other dangerous reserves of Hungary. substances before the sterile is stored in the On the occasion of the visit in Budapest and decantation ponds; at Ajka, on 28th of October 2010, the Minister of • review of the European legislation on mining Environment and Forests, Laszlo Borbely, proposed and ore processing; to set up a joint Romanian-Hungarian commission • promoting a security culture in the industrial for the management of the ecologic disasters. The units in this field; minister’s proposal also referred to the creation of • compulsory actions regarding the closing a fund at the EU level which would serve for the down and the permanent protection of mines and removal of the effects produced by the accidental decantation ponds. pollutions and for the reconsideration of the actions to be taken at the EU level, in such situations. Case 2 – The Ajka disaster Romanian and Hungarian parties have agreed An accidental pollution occurred on 4th of October to set up a Joint Institute of Research for Tisa 2010 at the bauxite-aluminum plants in Ajka, Basin, the Interregional Development Project for which were under the ownership of the Hungarian South Tisa and also the Joint management of the MAL Company and located west Hungary, at 160 National Parks Cefa and Koros-Maros. km distance from the capital, Budapest. This is The environment ministers attending the UNEP considered the most serious industrial accident in meeting, held in Nairobi, agreed on the idea of the history of the neighbour country. rewriting certain smaller projects between Hungary A tank cracked and 700.000 m3 of toxic slime and Romania (the Ministry for Development) so was discharged on an area of 40 km2, the most that they should become master projects in the affected place being Kolontar. The arsenic, cross-border cooperation. One of the objectives is aluminium and organic carbon concentration to create a joint training centre at Oradea or Arad exceeded the acceptable limits at the level of with the participation of specialists not only from Torna Brook, seriously affecting the ecosystems Hungary and Romania, but also from Ukraine, of the Torna and Marca Brooks. The sludge, to a Moldavia or Belarus. large extent diluted, reached Raba River, a direct On the 12th of October 2010, the famous affluent of the Danube and then the river. newspaper Washington Post noted that the in the The situation determined the involvement of majority of ex-communist countries, abandoned the Hungarian Authority for the Management of mines and tanks for toxic substances constitute Disasters. Veszprem, Gyor-Moson-Sopron and a real danger, a time bomb, for the environment Vas regions were the regions for which a state of security. emergency was declared. The state of emergency The water contaminated with heavy metals was subsequently extended until31st of March from the abandoned mines is discharged in the 2011. ground water layer and in the rivers. Washington Greenpeace stated that after the tank breaking in Post sustains that, in Hungary, a chemical plant October 2010, MAL ran out of sufficient tanks for complex produces over 100.000 tons of toxic the storage of toxic substances and uses an illegal substances yearly and the soil of eastern Slovakia is drain system of natural water. Ecologists consider contaminated with biphenyl poly-chlorates which this accident more serious than the accident which may cause cancer. In Bulgaria, the most serious occurred in 2000 at Baia Mare. At Baia Mare and accidental pollution occurred in 1996 when the Baia Borşa, the accident did not produce any walls of a residue tank from the copper processing human victims whereas the environment incident works at Zgoringrad gave way. The accident in Hungary caused the death of 11 people. caused the death of 448 people and a whole area Hungarian ecologists pointed out that the became improper for human activities. seven tanks located at only 100 km distance on the An aspect that should be always taken into north-west of Budapest, contain 12 million tons of consideration is the fact that in the majority of

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 65 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION cases, inspections are carried out only on the technologies that enable an increased security of operational tanks. the installations and the implementation of certain The ecologic incident from Ajka is considered early alert actions; the second in magnitude at the 2010 level, after • the identification of the most efficient the explosion of the Deepwater Horizon oil rig methods of communication between the national platform in the Gulf of Mexico. entities at the cross-border level, especially in The discharge of crude oil in the waters of the those water basins that pass the territory of several Gulf of Mexico could be stopped only two months countries, and acting based on joint intervention after the explosion. The losses estimated, at the procedures. level of November 2010, amount to 40 billion There are solutions for accidental pollution dollars only for British Petroleum. The impact on most often in a responsible approach from those local economy and on associated ecosystems is who design and manufacture these installations, difficult to be estimated and specialists consider as well as from those in charge of monitoring the effects will be felt for at least a decade. and taking actions in this sensitive field and the European principle of prevention must become Conclusions a reference system for all actions related to the Global processes have created the premises for environment. the cross-border economic development based on BIBLIOGRAPHY: still imperfect regulations and have imposed the reconsideration of the concepts regarding cross- 1. Apele Române S.A., Accident produs la border or regional cooperation. iazul de decantare al S.C. AURUL S.A .Baia If the globalisation process evolution over the Mare, march 2000. years in the economic and financial fields proves 2. Apele Române S.A., Accident produs la that the gap between the very rich and the very iazul de decantare Novăţ, sucursala minieră Baia poor has deepened, the globalisation dividends Borşa, May 2000. are assumed only by certain people and the costs 3. BRAUNS, J., Accident with Tailings are paid by the others, as far as the environment Disposal Facilities – A Comment, August 2000. security is concerned, the reality cruelly proves 4. FARAGO, T.; KOCSIS-KUPPER, Z, that we are all on the same side of the barricade. Acciental transboundary water pollution: The quality of the environment, its potential to principles and provisions of multilateral legal support the evolution of our civilisation on Earth instruments, report elaborated by World Wilde and the direction in which the inhabitants of “the Foundation, June 2000. global village” are “riding” becomes everybody’s 5. Ministerul Apelor, Pădurilor şi Protecţiei problem, the environment security being the field Mediului, Poluarea accidentală cu cinauri a in which all of us MUST become beneficiaries râurilor Lăpuş, Someş, Tisa şi Dunăre: Evaluarea and suppliers of security. Global and local preliminară, 29th of February 2000. decision makers tend to focus more and more on 6. UNDAC, Mining waste spll from the environment incidents’ issue as a result of high Baia Borsa processing complex in Romania: recovery costs and, especially, as a result of their Assessment Mission to Hungary and Romania, cross-border character and of the real difficulties in March 2000. managing possible material and human damages. 7. PNUM/OCHA Evaluation Mission, Environment incidents referred to in this study Deversarea de cianură la Baia Mare România, highlight the necessity to approach the problem March 2000. from the following points of view: 8. WWF, Ecological Effects of the Baia Mare/ • the development of a national “map” Baia Borşa Mine Tailings Spills (Romania), containing all the objectives and environment risk October 2000. evaluation; 9. InfoMEDIU Europa, no. 3(64), 25th March- • the implementation of an environment 25th April 2011, p. 11, www.infomediu.eu. security culture depending on the real status 10.http://www.green-report.ro/stiri/ parameters; washington-post-rdquomostenirea-toxica- • the simultaneous development of solution comunismului-europa-de-estrdquo.

66 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION COOPERATION IN THE AREAS OF ENERGY, ENVIRONMENT AND NATIONAL SECURITY

Florin JIANU* Irina TĂTARU**

The problem of resources of all kinds is an contributor to global warming, particularly urgent topic at the moment, and it is being more because of pollution resulting from burning fossil and more frequently discussed lately in academia, fuels. politics and media. Everyone is seeking solutions In March 2007, during the Spring European for energy, food and water supplies. Uncontrolled Council, Heads of State and Government of exploitation of soil and subsoil of the earth led Member States have adopted a Joint Action Plan ultimately, among other things, in addition to soil of the European Union’s energy / climate change, degradation, to significant climate change, with for the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and important implications on national security. The the increase of energy sources with a low carbon issue of energy resources will be solved by using dioxide. There have been validated the targets of alternative resources. The national security, the the Plan predicting that by 2020, the Union must resources and the environment are interrelated, reduce by 20% the greenhouse gas emissions, as they are essential tool for life and develop to reach a level of 20% renewable energy in only together. The solution to these problems is total energy consumption, to decrease energy regional cooperation. consumption by 20% and to reach a level of 10% Key-words: security; resources; environment; biofuels out of the total fuel quantity. energy potential; cooperation. On 23 January 2008, the European Commission presented a package of draft legislation needed Lately, energy and climate change are to define sharing between Member States of the addressed complementarily in the EU in the objectives agreed at Community level in the fields context of a renewed vision for the European and of energy / climate change. world economic development. Common approach On 13-14 March 2008 European Council of these two policies has become a strategic welcomed the Commission’s proposals, stressing option, given the major impact that the climate the need to take into account the division between change phenomenon generates on the economy the Member States of targets for reducing and society. There are also considered the effects emissions of greenhouse gases, of the potential, of the activity in the energy sector as the main the circumstances and specificity of national

* Colonel Florin JIANU ([email protected]), head of office within the Finance and Accounting Department, is a doctoral candidate in Military Sciences at “Carol I” National Defence University, Bucharest. ** Irina TĂTARU ([email protected]) is an expert at the Centre for Defence and Security Strategic Studies within “Carol I” National Defence University, Bucharest.

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 67 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION economies, and the need to ensure sustainable energy compared to products or services; economic growth throughout the Union. increasing the share of electricity produced from Romania voiced its support for strengthening renewable resources in total consumption and the EU’s role as world leader in combating in electricity production; using rationally and climate change through the commitment to reduce efficiently primary non-renewable resources emissions of greenhouse gases by 20% at EU level and progressively decreasing their share in by 20201. final consumption; promoting the production of In June 2008, the Ministry of Environment and electricity and heat in high efficiency cogeneration Sustainable Development of Romania proposed a plants; using secondary energy resources; draft on The National Sustainable Development supporting research, development and innovation Strategy of Romania. Horizons 2013-2020-20302 in the energy sector, focusing on increasing eco- (SDS). The proposed strategic objectives on short, efficiency; reducing the negative impact of energy medium and long term are: sector on the environment and complying with • Horizon 2013: incorporating the principles obligations in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and practices of sustainable development, and other pollutants; according to EU requirements in all programs and • Competitiveness: further developing and policies of Romania; improving competitive electricity markets, natural • Horizon 2020: reaching the current average gas, oil, uranium, coal, green certificates, energy level (with reference to the figures of 2006) EU- services in the context of regional integration; 27, according to basic indicators of sustainable increasing participation in the EU emission development; allowance trading greenhouse gas emissions; • Horizon 2030: getting significantly closer liberalisation of energy transit and insuring to the average that year of EU Member States in constant and non-discriminatory access of market terms of sustainable development indicators. participants to the transmission, distribution Among the supplements to these objectives and international interconnections; developing can also be found the use of the best available energy infrastructure, further restructuring and technologies, from economically and privatisation in the fields of electricity, heat and environmentally point of view, for the investment gas; continuing the process of restructuring the decisions of public funds at national, regional and extraction and use of lignite in order to increase local level and in order to stimulate such decisions profitability and capital market access; setting up by private capital; firmly introducing eco- a regional energy exchange and the continuing efficiency criteria in all production and service Romania’s participation in the process of activities. strengthening the European energy markets. In the SDS of Romania, the main strategic • In order to limit the impact of energy sector directions of the energy policy, in accordance with on climate change, greenhouse gas emissions the objectives and policies agreed at EU level will be reduced by 10% in 2013 compared with are: base year 1989. Romania will participate actively, • Energy security: maintaining national within the EU framework, in agreeing targets for sovereignty over primary energy resources and the second implementation period, post-2012, respecting the national energy options; increasing of the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations security of energy supply and maintaining import Framework Convention on Climate Change and dependency at an acceptable level by diversifying the negotiation of comprehensive international import sources, own energy resources, national agreements. Primary energy intensity will decrease and regional routes and transport networks; in 2013 to 0.34 tons of oil equivalent (toe) per developing regional cooperation to protect critical 1000 EUR - 2005 (versus 0.511 toe/1.000 EUR - energy infrastructure; 2006), and final energy intensity to 0.23 toe/1.000 • The improvement of energy efficiency EUR - 2005. According to the National Strategy throughout the chain resources- production on energy efficiency, energy intensity will be transport-distribution-final consumption by reduced at the end of 2015, with a percentage optimising production and distribution processes between 50% (optimistic scenario) and 30% and reducing overall consumption of primary (pessimistic scenario) compared to 2005 figures,

68 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION in the context of an estimated GDP dynamics of Budapest (1954), which carries out its work under 5.4% in the period 2003-20153. the Convention on the navigation regime on the On the other hand, at present, the overall Danube, signed on 18 August 1948 in Belgrade. objective of SDS / EU is to ensure that transport On June 29, 1994, 11 of the States in the systems must meet the needs of economic, social Danube Basin (Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech and environmental aspects of society, reducing Republic, Germany, Hungary, Moldova, Romania, at the same time to a minimum the undesirable Slovak Republic, Slovenia and Ukraine) and the impact on the economy, society and environment. European Commission signed in Sofia (Bulgaria), Development, specialisation and improved the Convention on Cooperation for the Protection quality of services is not an end in itself, but a and Sustainable Use of the River Danube, specific instrument for increasing efficiency of bringing to public attention the need to protect modern economies and competitiveness in all this river. Subsequently, the Convention was other economic and social sectors. The contribu- signed by Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia. tion brought by the research-development-inno- These countries are parties to the Convention on vation services, information technologies, trans- Cooperation for the Protection and Sustainable port and communications, training and continuous Use of the River Danube4. improvement of workforce, financial intermedia- International Commission for the Protection tion, far from inhibiting the development of di- of the River Danube (ICPDR), based in Vienna rectly productive sectors (industry, construction, (Austria), coordinates all activities in the agriculture, forestry, fishing and fish farming), Convention on Cooperation for the Protection highlights the potential of modernisation and ef- and Sustainable Use of the River Danube. Its ficiency of resource use. mission is to promote and coordinate sustainable The Danube has great energy potential, both and equitable management of water, including hydrological and wind, which are clean and conservation, improvement and rational use of inexhaustible sources. The Danube region has a water for the benefit of the Danube River Basin great capacity in terms of renewable energy. The countries and their inhabitants. exploitation of wind energy is in a pioneering ICPDR is composed of national delegations of phase, but this region has considerable potential. the States Parties to the Convention on Cooperation Unfortunately, in Romania, obtaining electricity for the Protection and Sustainable Use of the River from clean sources has a very small percentage, Danube. These delegations are made up of senior only 11% in 2010 and is expected to increase up government officials, experts, representatives of to 11.2% in 2015. civil society and scientific community. In the Strategy for the Danube region, Romania became a member of the International promoting sustainable energy resources and Commission for the Protection of the River Danube better coordination of environmental policy in 1995, with ratification by Law no. 14/1995, of are a priority, along with modernisation of the the Convention on Cooperation for the Protection energy, implementation of the European Energy and Sustainable Use of the River Danube 5. Program, and strengthening the Trans-European Lower Danube Green Corridor Declaration, Transport (TEN-T), which could bring substantial signed in 2000 by environment ministers from improvements for the region. Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine and Moldova aimed This year marks the 155th anniversary of the to protect 775,000 ha of existing protected areas Peace Treaty of Paris (March 30, 1856), after and to designate new protected areas on an area the Crimean War (1853-1856), a treaty which of 160,000 ha along the 1000 km - the corridor’s included provisions for the internationalisation of length6. the Danube, the set up of the Danube Commission, Danube Cooperation Process (CAP) was and proclaiming neutrality of the Black Sea. officially launched in Vienna on 27 May 2002, The European Danube Commission was the following a joint initiative of Romania, Austria, first international organisation - in the context of European Commission and the Stability Pact for the nineteenth century - dedicated to the Danube South-Eastern Europe7. cooperation. Danube Commission (DC) is an inter- Danube Cooperation Process stipulates the governmental international organisation based in improvement of cooperation among states in the

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 69 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION region at political level and also in the sphere of • Cleaner water, protection of biodiversity, economy, sustainable development, transport, fight against pollution and reduce of flood risk at shipping, tourism, culture and sub-regions. the border; The pillars underpinning the Danube Strategy • Improvement of administrative capacity, are8: fostering cultural exchanges and “people to • Interconnection of the Danube region people” contacts. (for example, improving mobility, promoting Since they are essential to life and they a sustainable energy policy, of culture and develop only together, national security, resources tourism); and environment are interrelated. Without a • Environmental Protection in the Danube healthy environment there can be no economic region (for example, restoring water quality, development, and without the latter, security environmental risk management and biodiversity can’t be provided neither at national level, nor conservation); at European level. Danube is a cohesion factor • Increasing prosperity in the Danube region among these elements. (for example, developing the research capacity, education and information technology, the support NOTES: of business competitiveness and investment in people skills); 1����������� Romania, 2nd place in the EU in decreasing • Strengthening the Danube region (for example emissions of greenhouse gases, http://www.stopco2. improving institutional capacity and enhancing ro/2010/04/01/romania-locul-2-in-ue-la-scaderea- cooperation in order to combat organised crime). emisiilor-de-gaze-cu-efect-de-sera/. 2���������������������������������������������� The��������������������������������������������� National Sustainable Development Strategy The strategy will focus on specific areas for of Romania.,���������������������������� http://strategia.ncsd.ro/. priority action, such as improving navigability, 3���������������������������������������������� * * * The��������������������������������������� Sustainable Development Strategy of water quality, the development of cooperation in Romania.,������������������������� Bucharest, 2008, p. 42. the field of security and improving the tourism 4�������������������������������������������� http://www.mmediu.ro/vechi/departament_ape/ potential. fluviul_dunarea/documentar_ziua_dunarii2008.doc. Romania’s participation in the EU Strategy for 5http://www.scribd.com/doc/54254621/25/�������������������������������������� the Danube region brings many advantages, not Comisia-Interna%C5%A3ional%C4%83-pentru- only to our country but also across Europe: Protec%C5%A3ia-Fluviului-Dun%C4%83rea. • A dynamic Danube region, competitive and 6������������������������������������������������� http://www.stopco2.ro/2010/02/18/s-au-sarbatorit- prosperous; 10-ani-de-cooperare-internationala-in-bazinul-dunarii/. 7��������������������������������������������� http://old.mae.ro/index.php?unde=doc&id=7271 • Development of integrated transport systems &idlnk=1&cat=3. and environmental monitoring based on new 8������������������������������������������http://danubeedu.org/2011/02/03/strategia- technologies; dunarii-coordonatori-de-domenii-prioritare/.

70 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION THE EUROPEAN UNION – FROM REGIONAL COOPERATION TO UNITARY ACTOR IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

Dorel BUŞE, PhD*

In the era of globalization, the evolution (1952), France (1952), Germany (1952), Italy of the international system has led to major (1952), Luxembourg (1952), Netherlands (1952), reconfigurations of Europe at the beginning of the Denmark (1973), Ireland (1973), United Kingdom millennium, and under these circumstances, the (1973), Greece (1981), Portugal (1986), Spain question is what role would the EU play and what (1986), Austria (1995), Finland (1995), Sweden kind of power would it be in a multipolar world. (1995), Cyprus (2004), Estonia (2004), Latvia A multinational union is fundamentally different (2004), Lithuania (2004), Malta (2004), Poland from other great powers, and its success depends (2004), Czech Republic (2004), Slovakia (2004), on internal and external actions and on the will Slovenia (2004), Hungary (2004), Bulgaria (2007) of other major powers. It is clear that the country and Romania (2007). If from the demographic which will win the economic race in which most (492.387.344 people in the present form), cultural countries are involved today (US, Europe, China and economic point of view European Union and Japan being the most important economic overtakes the United States, by cumulating the superpower), will also rule the world. gross national income from all member state (14.9 Key-words: multinational union; global player; trillions $ in the new form), in order to become a unitary actor; super-state; multilateralism; world power, the EU should be strengthening itself European Security Strategy. (by solving the difficult issue achieving a common position of its member states and a unification in According to some political analysts, the their actions, the oscillation of the UK between the European Union represents the most probable EU and USA – it continues to stay out of the Euro competitor regarding the assumption and the are –, the absence of an unique European army, as administration of global businesses. EU represents well as the low economic level, and not only, of the a particular case when we analyze the international ex-communist states) and fortify its institutions, organizations, due to the centripetal evolution to use a single currency (fact which has already process; from a treaty to another, it can be noticed happened) and to build a common diplomacy and an incessant coagulation, tending to form a defence. All these goals are about to become true unitary actor. At present, after six enlargement, in the very next future, even if some politicians the EU comprises 27 member states: Belgium (e.g. Charles de Gaulle and Margaret Thatcher)

* Major, lecturer Dorel BUŞE ([email protected]) works for the Joint Operations, Strategic Studies and Security Department, is head of the Didactic Board on Geopolitics, Geostrategy and International Relations within “Carol I” National Defence University, Bucharest, Romania.

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 71 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION consider that the appearance of an European super- may have a negative impact on the security of the state could generate a more dangerous word, with EU’s member states; the second section identifies blocks of power in competition1. three major strategic objectives for the EU and the A first step made by the EU to become an third one marks out EU’s political implications. important political power in the international After the risk models identified by NATO system was the decision of enlargement from Strategic Concept and USA National Security Helsinki. In this way, the EU ensures its Strategy, ESS finds five majors challenges, which supereminence in the international system. The are interconnected: terrorism – Europe being adhesion of the Baltic States regards limiting an important target and a base for the afferent Russia’s access at the Baltic Sea; the adherence of organizations; the proliferation of weapons of Romania and Bulgaria sights out limiting Russia’s mass destruction; regional conflicts taking place access at the Black Sea. The adherence of Malta, in the entire world or in the EU’s neighborhood, a situated between Sicily and the African shore, fact that can lead to extremism, terrorism or failed offers the EU the advantage to have the upper hand states, which can undermine global governance of the Mediterranean Sea and to exert its influence and contribute to regional instability and which on the African Continent. The adhesion of Cyprus, may also be related to obvious threats, such as located in the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea, organized crime and terrorism; the organized close to Turkey, between Europe, Asia Minor and crime, which may be associated with terrorism North Africa, confers control not only on Africa, and weak states. but also in Asia Minor. Candidate countries, such ESS admits that the EU can use military as Turkey, can grant EU an easier connection with force to deter the fabrication of weapons of mass Asia and Middle East, through the Bosporus and destruction and affirms its support in regard to Dardanelles straights. If we are taking into account preemptive attacks. Relating to these instruments Simion Mehedinti’s statement, which says that: of countering these risks, after 9/11, nobody can „nation’s power increases and decreases depend doubt the self-defense right stipulated, in article on the variations of their populations’ number”, 51 of the Charter of the United Nations. If, for the the decision of territorial enlargement has another Americans, the legal self-defense right becomes a justification. The European Union’s power will permanent right, some kind of moral necessity due increase not only due to the enlarged population to a certain situation (USA receives this special number, but as a result of the included territories regulation de facto, in the name of democracy’s (Ray Cline’s formula is well known: the perceived self-defense, which is above the international power is offered by both the population and the law, because they don’t need the UN resolution territory, not only by the economic and military for self-defense), ESS asks for a mandate from power, planning and will2). the UN Security Council, before launching any The European security strategy (ESS), realized action. From the European point of view, applying as a result of the EU misunderstandings over the force and unilateralism in international relations Iraq intervention, and adopted in December 2003, are concepts difficult to accept. Nowadays, no at the European Council in Rome, represents an country can approach all the complex problems attempt to establish a common European view, independently. In a world of global menaces, regarding the new international security challenges global security and prosperity depend on the and marks an important step forward through a existence of a multifunctional system. better coordination of the Common Foreign and To defend and promote the interests and the Security Policy. European security strategy, named values of the EU, ESS settles the next strategic “A secure Europe in a better world”3, involves objectives: an important change of paradigm: the European • Addressing the threats – by establishing Union considers itself a global actor, prepared measures to stop terrorist financing; a USA to assume its role in global security issues. agreement regarding the mutual assistance, ESS consists in three sections, the first of them politics referring to non-proliferation; implication presenting an European analysis of the present in regional conflict management, especially in security context (poverty, diseases, competition the Balkans, Afghanistan and the Democratic for limited resources and global warming, which Republic of Congo;

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• Reinforcing security in the neighborhood, in which the Union may use civilian and mili- which means promoting a ring of states, well tary tools, which can contribute to the efforts to governed in the East and on the borders of the counter terrorism, including the support for the Mediterranean; third countries in combating terrorism on their • To set up an international order based on territories. In addition, member states that meet an efficient multilateralism – ESS emphasizes the highest military capacities and which have the importance of transatlantic connections and subscribed to more binding commitments, in or- the need for the USA and the EU act like equal der to fulfill the most demanding missions shall partners. The EU has to be more active, more establish permanent structured cooperation within capable and more coherent in order to be able the Union8. The also Treaty introduces the initial to use effectively all its instruments and to make fund for the management of operations and im- progresses in creating a coherent foreign and crises proves the support capacity of the European De- management policy. European defence advances fense Agency9. Moreover, the Treaty of Lisbon at rapid strides, often due to the international introduces in this field a mutual defence clause10, events which determine the European leaders according to which, if a member state is a victim to consolidate their cooperation. Regarding of an armed aggression on its territory, the other the development of the European Security and member states shall provide assistance and sup- Defense Policy, there are different points of view. port by all means available, in accordance with On the one hand, there is an opinion according to the Article 51 of the UN Charter. This does not which this european policy is a step forward in prejudice the specific character of the security and the european integration process, as the creation defense policy of member states. No matter how of an European force capable to act independently will it evolve, CFSP will play an important role will give the EU a certain hard power to support in the European security and will affect the trans- the Common Foreign and Security Policy and to atlantic relations. However, it is excluded for the develop common military forces to lead a series EU to become a competitor for NATO in terms of of operations, without NATO and USA assistance. missions, purpose and size or to develop military On the other hand, there is a conception according capabilities comparable to those of the US. to which an institution including an assurance of Through the Common Foreign and Security mutual security is not tempting. Policy and the European Security and Defence The engagement regarding the collective Policy/ Common Security and Defense Policy, the defence of member states is also stipulated in European Union adds a political dimension to its the Treaty of Lisbon. It is considered that the role as economic and commercial power, but there Union’s competences contains all the foreign are still many steps to do in order to achieve a policy’s fields, including all the items that refer global involvement in solving conflicts, because to the Union’s security and a gradual definition its “hard power” deficit will significantly limit the of the common security policy, which may lead potential of “soft power”. If, for example, another to a common defence4. This policy is built on the tsunami devastated the South Pacific again, the basis of mutual solidarity development of member absence of the expeditionary capacities (strategic states, by identifying general interest issues and transport) would block the EU to become a relevant accomplishing a higher level of convergence of actor. In the case of Iran’s becoming a nuclear member states’ actions, establishing the obligation power, Brussels would not own a pressure capital to respect Union’s action in this area as an upshot of capable of intimidating Teheran or determining the unconditioned and active support of Common regional policy changes. As far as peace agreement Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) 5. An important between Israel and Palestine is concerned, neither role inside of CFSP will be played by the two high side would like the EU to be the only mediator or positions in the European institutional structure: guarantor of peace agreement and, on the account the President of the European Council and the of such disability, the more powerful neighbors EU High Representative for foreign affairs and will seek to manipulate for their own benefit the security policy6. cleavages of such a construction11. The Treaty of Lisbon brings new regulations The development of the EU system security regarding the increase of the missions’ number7, represents one of the most important problems

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 73 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION of this organization: Will the EU turn into a competences in a series of communitarian fields, defensive alliance? Military analysts consider including energy policy, security, public health, that for the success of the building process climate change, territorial cohesion, humanitarian of European defence, we need a division of aid, research, space etc.; the establishment of two capacities and responsibilities of procurement in new high-level positions within Union – President Europe and after that each country, depending of the European Union, elected for a period of 2.5 on traditions and skills, would produce only one years and the High Representative of European specialized component of the defence system. For Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy. example, the German could produce armor-clad, The latter, unlike the old law, will have a triple the British – aircrafts and missiles, the French role: firstly, he/she represents the EU in CFSP and Italian – telecommunication devices and matters; secondly he/she chairs the Council of radars, the Dutch – individual equipment etc. In Foreign Affairs, contributes to the elaboration this context, the experts of the main European and implementation of CFSP; thirdly, he/she structures call into question some issues: What plays the role of the Commission Vice-president, else does the European Union need to meet the cumulating, therefore, three functions related with defining elements of an alliance, after having the foreign relations12. agreed the establishment of a common Major Staff Therefore, the Treaty represents the evolution of of the EU, which will have an operational force of a half century integrating process, which requires, approximately 60,000 troops? Are the European as effect of entrainment, new political formula states disposed to ensure their security conjointly with more effective and stronger institutions. with the US or not? If the answer of this question Time will show if this treaty is only a reforming is positive, what form will the European security treaty of EU’s institutions, which takes small steps structure have at the begging of the 21st century, towards a political union, or will make us the so as to avoid doubling or discharging the US aid? witnesses of the disintegration of sovereign states How will the transatlantic relationships look in into a federalist union. In conclusion, we can say the next 10 or 20 years? that considering all the above and starting from But implementing the Treaty of Lisbon, with the question of the foreign minister of France, all its innovations, redefines the EU’s role in a Jean François Poncet, about the future of Europe: globalized world and, thus, the Union will better ”economic space or world power”13, it seems assert itself at the international level. Hereby, the that by the new steps made, The Union wants to Treaty of Lisbon, officially called The Treaty of accomplish both and the EU will keep its place in Lisbon amending the Treaty on European Union the race for achieving the status of world power and The European Community, was signed on in the 21st century if its succeeds in managing 13 December 2007, in the capital of Portugal. as efficiently as possible the enlargement, the Moreover, the treaty does not replace (as would market places, raw materials imports and high have happened in case of the adoption of the technology products exports, the elimination of Constitution), it only amends other existing treaties, economic disparities between member countries providing to the EU the legal frameworks and tools and institutional reform will depend its staying on necessary to streamline the European decision- the race to win the world power supremacy for the making and to deal with the new international twenty-first century. challenges. Among the main institutional changes American experts consider the implications of the new treaty are: granting legal personality of such a complex process, such as the creation to the European Union and the possibility for a of European security, unparalleled in the whole member state to withdraw from the Union (which history. Never since the formation of modern was not provided before); the efficiency of the states, can be found a voluntary integration at all decision making within the EU’s Council; greater levels of certain state entities, as the present of legislative powers for the European Parliament in the EU reflects. But, the European Union does not adopting EU’s budget, agricultural policy, justice fully represent geographical Europe. etc.; delegation of power to the national parliaments Thus, the international political and military and European citizens. Citizens get the right of organizations should consider the following legislative initiative. The treaty extends the EU issues:

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• What will be the role of the Council of eu/lisbon_treaty/library/index_ro.htm, accessed on Europe, when the Union will adopt the Charter of 23.02.2011. Fundamental Rights for its Member States? 5 Ibidem, Art. 24, p. 3. • What role will OSCE have in the moment 6 For details see the Lisbon Treaty, available when the EU will cover all the European states, from http://www.euractiv.ro/uniunea-europeana/ articles|displayArticle/articleID_12996/Tratatul-de-la- which are currently members of OSCE? Lisabona.html, accesed on 28.01.2011. • Will OSCE remain the only regional forum 7 For details see the European Union Treaty art. 43, for dialogue with Russia? available from http://europa.eu/lisbon_treaty/library/ • Will the ex-soviet states, excepting the Baltic index_ro.htm, accesed on 14.12.2010. States, remain the only European countries outside 8 Ibidem art. 42, p. 6, art. 46 (Protocol no.1 0 of the EU? regarding the structered cooperation settled by art. 42 • Which will be the terms of cooperation from the European Union Treaty) between the EU and Russia, plus former Soviet 9 Ibidem art. 42, p. 3, art. 45. Countries? 10 Ibidem art. 42, p. 7. 11 Accordingly to http://www.revista22.ro/ue- in-geopolitica-secolului-xxi-5415.html, accesed on NOTES: 02.05.2011. 12 The Lisbon Treaty amending the Treaty on 1 Accordingly to http://www.scritube.com/ European Union and the Treaty establishing the European stiinta/stiinte-politice/decizia-de-extindere-catre- Community, Lisabona,2007, pg.202, available from est15111242122.php, accessed on 09.02.2011. http://europa.eu/lisbon_treaty/library/index_ro.htm, 2 Ibidem. accesed on 02.05.2011. 3 A European Strategic Concept - defence aspect, 13 Accordingly to http://www.scritube.com/ p. 10. stiinta/stiinte-politice/decizia-de-extindere-catre- 4 European Union Treaty, art. 24, at http://europa. est15111242122.php, accesed on 04.05.2011.

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 75 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION THE EU ROLE IN CRISIS MANAGEMENT IN THE SOUTHERN AND EASTERN NEIGHBOURHOOD – MOTIVATIONS AND LIMITS

Agnes NICOLESCU*

In spite of the geographical proximity to the the issue of regime transformation in Northern Middle East and Africa, the EU has not formulated Africa. On the other hand, new regional actors, over the years a coherent strategy towards these such as Turkey, are striving to shape the balance regions that are vital for securing Europe’s energy of the region in their favour, serving at the same supplies. More than that, the EU has relied almost time as role models and catalysts of change. In exclusively on the US to cope with the conflicts an international context that is increasingly which have become a constant in its Southern multipolar, the action of non-state organisations, neighbourhood, although these have given enough like Hamas and Hezbollah, which are acting as reasons of concern to European leaders. Both the self-established actors in the Middle East, should EU and the US have continued to offer financial not be overlooked. support to the regimes in Northern Africa, without At the same time, the initiatives undertaken making funding dependent on the implementation by Brussels with regard to the countries in its of political reforms in these countries. As regards Southern neighbourhood have had more impact on EU’s role in the efforts aiming to bring to a solution their socio-economic development than a political the conflicts in the Caucasus, it is strongly limited influence on the developments in the region1. by the action of prominent actors in the region, On the other hand, Turkey’s importance for the such as Russia. EU in the Middle East area has increased. Ankara’s Key-words: European Neighbourhood Policy; ties with its Muslim neighbours are strong, being Turkey; non-state actors; indirect instruments of religious, economic, cultural and historical. In this crisis management. context, the question arises as to which extent the EU’s policy in the Middle East is convergent with The EU role in crisis management in North that of Turkey, as long as the latter aims to become Africa and Middle East an independent actor in the area. Turkey is in favour of a peaceful Middle East area, insisting, The popular uprisings of Tunisia, Egypt and for instance, on a negotiated solution in the case Libya have brought to the attention of the EU of Iran, as the sanctions demanded to be imposed

* Agnes NICOLESCU ([email protected]) is coordinator of the Studies and Analyses unit, with the European Institute of Romania. She holds a BA in Political Science and an MA in Interna- tional relations from the Faculty of Political Sciences (University of Bucharest). Her research areas include the European Neighbourhood Policy, the enlargement of the European Union, NATO - Rus- sia relations, the European Security and Defence Policy, the Arab-Israeli conflict.

76 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION on the latter would only lead to instability and the framework of the European Neighbourhood strained relations with Tehran. Policy was not discussed with the main political From this perspective, it can be asserted that actors and representatives of the civil society, but Turkey is drifting to a certain extent from the with a few high-level political leaders5. policies promoted by Brussels in the region. More than that, although political reforms have Ever since its coming into power, AKP party not continued in Egypt, Western governments has focused on consolidating relations with continued to give economic support to the ruling the Muslim neighbours, promoting a message regime, without posing any conditions in this centred around the idea of a particularly special regard. Despite an accentuated authoritarianism, contribution of Turkey in this area. Ankara’s the EU has increased the funds allocated to Egypt foreign policy priority seems increasingly to be as part of the European Neighbourhood and that of achieving a regional power status rather Partnership Instrument for the period 2011-2013, than seeking the harmonisation with the EU’s reducing at the same time the funding destined for objectives2. The affirmation of the regional power promoting and protecting human rights6. status may even come into opposition with the As regards Palestine, the main issue which con- Europeans’ expectations in terms of security and cerns the public opinion is auto-determination and, foreign policy in the area. to a very little extent, the state of democracy. It is not surprising that during the Turkish In the case of Northern Africa crises, the EU - Arabian Cooperation forum, held in 2010, the has resorted so far to indirect crisis management Foreign Affairs minister Davutoğlu announced instruments, by providing financial and diplomatic a plan aiming at the creation of a free trade area support, through the United Nations and the which would entail Turkey, Jordan, Syria and African Union. Since the EU repetitively expressed Lebanon. This entity would supposedly constitute support for UN and OSCE missions in regions with the basis for a unique political and economic block conflict potential, these efforts must be taken into reuniting Muslim states from the Middle East and consideration when evaluating EU’s contribution Northern Africa3. to crisis management in its proximity. Egypt and Tunisia represent two states in Member states such as France and Germany transition towards democracy, in which the play an essential role in defining the policy and plurality of political systems is still weak. In governance in the field of crisis management in Egypt’s case, both the EU and the US have been the EU and NATO, but their capacity is drastically very cautious in supporting the implementation limited at the level of the United Nations of political reforms in Egypt, for fear this may Organisation. The European Commission in destabilize the regime and, consequently, their particular played an important role in sponsoring own interests in the area (Durac, 2009). peace missions initiated by the African Union. The action plan for Egypt elaborated in the These operations represent an important but framework of the Neighbourhood European often neglected aspect of the European capacities. Policy has put into discussion only the necessity Except for Afghanistan, European efforts in the to consolidate participation to the political life crisis management field focus on preventing and elections or the exchange of experience conflicts, ensuring post-conflict reconstruction in the electoral field and the support for the in the Balkans. In what concerns the European strengthening of state capacities4. The ambiguous presence in Iraq, EU’ police mission has had nature of the EU and the US has also manifested in a rather low impact on the long-term stability. relation to the forces of the Opposition in Egypt, European involvement in Afghanistan highlights most probably out of fear for the consequences the problems associated with long - term peace of a potential revival of the Islamist movements consolidation efforts. Under these conditions, (Balfour & Cugusi, 2010; Droz-Vincent, 2010). in the future, it is expected that EU states will Both the US and the EU preferred holding continue to resort to indirect action instruments in talks with representatives of the power, without the fragile neighbouring states, through the UN, making extended efforts to consolidate relations NATO, OSCE or the African Union. with non-state representatives. As opposed to its In order to provide an overview of EU’s efforts Eastern neighbours, the action plan elaborated in regarding crisis management in 2010, it should

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 77 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION be mentioned that operations in Afghanistan, the an agreement with Russia, which aimed to ensure Balkan area and more recently, in Libya, raised a refraining on both parties from a unilateral use significant questions about Europe’s future of force. capacities in crisis situations. As the authors of the The EU would also want to play a more study “European Foreign Policy Scorecard 20107” significant role in speeding up a solution to the draw attention, many of the recent challenges faced Nagorno Karabah conflict, but its capacity to by Member States in the field of crisis management influence the behaviour of the main actors in are the result of EU’s inability to draw lessons the region is very limited. The EU would like to from the mistakes of the past decades. negotiate a stop to the conflict between Azerbaijan West Africa represented a major concern for and Armenia by assuming a more important role the EU in 2010. Some member states continue to in the Minsk group of OSCE. The EU is one of be preoccupied with their former colonies. It is the the co-presidents of the Minsk group, alongside case of France – focusing on the Ivory Coast or with Russia and the United States of America, that of Great Britain’s relation with Sierra Leone. being permanently represented by France, a Of all these, Maghreb region faces increased state preoccupied with having closer relations Al Qaeda activity and intense drug traffic. An to Russia. Although member states support this alarming aspect is that the Common security and objective, the EU has less negotiating capacity in defence policy has experienced a decline when the Nagorno Karabah than any other actor involved. European Council’s proposal to send a mission to Brussels can only limit itself to making statements support the government in states affected by Al- regarding the tense situation in the region. Qaeda was rejected. Russia remains the main mediator in the On the Ivory Coast, French troops refrained conflict in Nagorno Karabah, given its military and from intervening and main efforts to resolve the political potential. In the context of the latest high crisis involved the USA, African Union and the level reunions and agreements between Russia Economic Community of West African States8. and Armenia, especially a military collaboration The EU has more negotiating capacity in Western agreement signed by the two states, Azerbaijan Africa than on the rest of the continent and French has the impression that Moscow favours Yerevan. interventions in Mali and Mauritania are valuable The EU is increasingly dependent on cooperation contributions to the international fight against Al- with Azerbaijan in what concerns energy supply. Qaeda. Consequently, the former has tempered its discourse regarding human rights and democratic EU’s Role in Crisis Management principles, in its dialogue with Azerbaijan and in the Caucasus region Armenia. In 2010, Brussels initiated negotiations on an EU has also set itself the goal to contribute to Association agreement with Baku and Yerevan, easing Georgian- Abkhazian relations as well as without imposing a condition on the progress with South Ossetia and to avoid confrontations made in the Nagorno conflict. A negative aspect between Tbilisi and Moscow. This would threaten is that the EU did not manage to Turkey, a major the stability of the whole region. At the same time, actor in the region, in the negotiation process. EU’s cautious approach on this issue is justified by the desire for tighter relations with Russia. Conclusions Regarding success in achieving the objectives mentioned above, no important progress was made A rethinking of the mechanisms and policies in 2010. EU managed to keep negotiations going used by the EU in its Southern and Eastern between Georgia and Russia, during discussions neighbourhood is necessary, so that its efforts sponsored by OSCE and the UN, without for the respect of human rights and the rule of significant results however. Humanitarian issues law are better compensated. In this regard, it about the refugees were not tackled accordingly, would be beneficial to elaborate and implement with representatives of Abkhazia and South Ossetia innovative ways of cooperating with Turkey, in threatening to leave the negotiations. Since then, view of holding training programmes or common Georgia has tried to have the initiative, proposing civil crisis management missions, with countries

78 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION in Northern Africa as beneficiaries. A question Africa: Diverging or Converging Dynamics. arises as whether the model set by Turkey, a state London: Routledge. combining Islamism and a functional democratic 5. PACIELLO, Maria Cristina, Thinking regime, could be applied to the rest of the Middle Ahead for the Mediterranean, Egypt: Changes East. If in Turkey’s case, the secular nature of the and Challenges of Political Transition, MEDPRO state is enshrined in the Constitution and there is a Technical report no. 4/ May 2011, WP2. series of facilitating factors, such as membership in 6. TORUN, Zerrin, Change in the Middle East the Council of Europe and NATO, these elements and North Africa: A Turkish Perspective, ISS are clearly missing in Maghreb countries. Opinion, February 2011. At the same time, it is necessary to reconsider 7. VAÏSSE, Justin and KUNDNANI, Hans the existing security paradigm in the North Africa with BECHEV, Dimitar; GODEMENT, Francois; and Middle East area, which is very difficult to GOWAN Richard; KOBZOVA, Jana; LEONARD, achieve without finding a solution to the Arab- Mark; Parello – Plesner, JONAS; RICHARD, Israeli conflict. For a start, the EU and the US Alice and WILSON, Andrew, European Foreign may try to work together reasonable solutions to Policy Scorecard 2010, European Council on important issues such as shared governance of Foreign Relations, 2011. Palestine and the status of Hamas9. 8. EU/Egypt Action Plan, pp. 5-6, http:// ec.europa.eu/world/enp/documents_en.htm, NOTE: The opinions expressed in the accessed on 26 May 2011. current article do not represent the position of 9. European Commission, European the European Institute of Romania. Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument Egypt and Egypt Country Strategy Paper. BIBLIOGRAPHY: NOTES: 1. BALFOUR, R. and B. Cugusi (2010), EU policy and Islamist movements: Constructive 1 �������������������������������������������Timo BEHR (editor), Hard Choices – The EU’s ambiguities or alibis? in CESPI, IDEA and IAI, Options in a Changing Middle East, FIIA report 28, p. Islamist Mass Movements, External Actors and 7. Political Change in the Arab World (http://www. 2���������������������������������������������� Gareth EVANS, Turkey and the EU in the Middle East, p. 16. idea.int/publications/islamist_mass_movements/ 3����������������� Ibidem 1, p. 18. upload/Islamist_mass_low_inlay.pdf, last 4������������������������������� EU/Egypt Action Plan, pp. 5-6, http://ec.europa. accessed on 25 May 2011). eu/world/enp/documents_en.htm, accessed on 26 May 2. BEHR, Timo (editor), Hard Choices – The 2011. EU’s Options in a Changing Middle East, FIIA 5�������������������������������������������� Maria Cristina PACIELLO, Thinking Ahead for report 28. the Mediterranean, Egypt: Changes and Challenges of 3. DROZ – Vincent, P. (2010), Learning by Political Transition, MEDPRO Technical report no. 4/ doing: US Policies towards the Islamist movements May 2011, WP2, p.����� 8. in Morocco, Egypt and Lebanon, in CESPI, IDEA 6 European Commission, European Neighbourhood and IAI, Islamist Mass Movements, External and Partnership Instrument Egypt and Egypt Country Strategy Paper. Actors and Political Change in the Arab World 7�������������������������������������� Justin VAÏSSE and Hans KUNDNANI, with (http://www.idea.int/publications/islamist_mass_ Dimitar BECHEV, Fracois GODEMENT, Richard movements/upload/Islamist_mass_low_inlay.pdf, GOWAN, Jana KOBZOVA, Mark LEONARD, Jonas accessed on 24 May 2011). PARELLO-PLESNER, Alice RICHARD and Andrew 4. DURAC, V. (2009), The Impact of External WILSON, European Foreign Policy Scorecard 2010, Actors on the Distribution of Power in the Middle European Council on Foreign Relations, 2011, p. 96. East: the Case of Egypt in: CAVATORTA, F. and 8������������������ Ibidem 4, p. 101. DURAC, V. (eds). The Foreign Policies of the 9�������������������������������������������� Zerrin������������������������������������������� TORUN, Change in the Middle East and European Union and the United States in North North Africa: A Turkish Perspective, ISS Opinion, February 2011.

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 79 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION PROSPECTS OF THE WESTERN BALKANS DEVELOPMENT IN TERMS OF SECURITY AND ECONOMIC COOPERATION

Cristina GĂLUŞCĂ*

The profound economic crisis requires the Introduction reevaluation of the usefulness of EU’s policy instruments. It is said that structural and cohesion For most of the Balkan countries, the transition funds must be used more to counteract the to market economy has opened a new era of recession’s effects and for fiscal consolidation in economic cooperation and mutually beneficial the euro area countries. relations between them. For their neighbors, this The current challenges to peace and security has contributed to the restoration of the historical require a global response based on cooperation relations, economic and trade relations with and an effective multilateral system. At the these countries, which, in post-war period, have level of the financial-economic system, in the been a significant contraction in relative terms. component states of the former Federal Republic Although armed conflicts, political differences, of Yugoslavia, we can speak of a differential and internal economic imbalances do not allow evolution, driven by specific national policies. All the development of economic relations with all countries need to focus on good governance, rule neighboring countries, there have established of law and the acceleration of economic reform. ties in trade, investment, labor mobility and Western Balkan countries are surrounded on technological cooperation. Return of peace in all sides by EU Member States. The prospect former Yugoslavia has also led to a significant of membership encouraged them to prioritize increase of the economic cooperation with these their objectives that they share with the EU. countries. Cooperation between NATO and the EU in the The international crisis pointed out and Balkans provided the best example of what the accentuated divisions within the European two organizations can do together. Union. The term „variable geometry” pulls back Key-words: regional cooperation; membership the crisis with years. We talk here about the perspectives; economic system. scarcity of economic convergence, tensions in the

* Cristina GĂLUŞCĂ ([email protected]) is a PhD candidate at “Carol I “ National Defence University. She works as Diplomatic Attaché at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, currently, consul at the Consulate General of Romania in Bălţi, Republic of Moldova. She graduated from the Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest, Faculty of Cybernetics, Statistics and Economic Informatics. Then, she specialized in European relations and international law, following the courses of two master programs at the Academy of Economic Studies, Faculty of International Relations and one in France, University of Orléans.

80 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION mechanisms of decision, failure of EU policies. for example, is still very low on the absorption of Variable geometry dimensions can be dangerous these European funds. if we examine the situation in terms of the The world food crisis highlights an extremely economies of EU countries. Sovereign debt crisis valuable asset of our country: the land of good divided the euro zone into two areas: one that has quality. Agricultural land in Romania is an asset to emerged from recession and has not had to resort be capably capitalized for obtaining EU funds for to austerity measures (fiscal consolidation) and a modernizing rural areas, the Common Agricultural southern flank (plus Ireland), which is threatened Policy (CAP) reform. We can observe that EU by the dynamics of vicious circles. membership, even the euro area membership The Balkans are particularly vulnerable in this doesn’t a country exempt anymore from being area by the lack of automatic stabilization and lack forced to assume a multilateral engagement with of social protection systems and by the lack of an international donors (IMF, WB, and EBRD). easier access to finance and support mechanisms Romania should carefully consider the proposals in the euro area. In the broader European context, for reform of EU economic governance. We need the crisis has had at least three negative effects on to: the Balkans: - have fiscal consolidation in order to not - Primarily, concerned with economic issues, have the chances of sustainable growth reduced the EU put the enlargement on a second place on by decreasing public investment in critical the agenda. thresholds; - Secondly, the fight against the crisis of - have multi-annual budgetary resources uses most of the resources of Balkan programming in accordance with EU policy governments and as well as the attention to the coordination; reforms required for accession. - fight against corruption in the public - Thirdly, because the EU requires the creation sector. of a new regime of economic governance, beyond Romania ranks first in the European Union if any doubt, there will be put more emphasis on we take into account the increase of consumer economic and financial policies of candidate prices in January 2011: 7%, compared with the countries. Perhaps the EU will seek to prevent first month of last year, while the EU inflation directly or indirectly to accession of the countries stood at 2.7%, accordingly to the data provided which are generally perceived as economically by Eurostat. In the last month of 2010, consumer weak and unable to comply with stricter rules. prices in Romania rose at an annual rate 7.9%, which was also the highest in the EU. In the EU, The Western Balkans region – the economic the indicator was placed at 2.7%. On top of the situation and the impact of the financial crisis highest inflation since January 2011, Romania is followed by Estonia (5.1%) and Greece (4.9%). Countries outside the euro area are divided The lowest annual rates are observed in Ireland into several categories, depending on: the size of (0.2%) and Sweden (1.4%). In Hungary, consumer the imbalances in the phase of fiscal consolidation prices have raised at an annual rate of 4% and, in which they are (where major adjustments were in Bulgaria, it grew with 4.3%. In Germany, necessary), monetary policy rules and exchange France and Britain, inflation stood at 2%, 1.9%, rate if they appeal to external financial assistance, respectively 4%. Compared with December 2010, whether they are in the Schengen area or not. If the annual inflation accelerated in 15 member states EU doesn’t create effective policies to stimulate and decreased other countries. National Institute economic convergence, simple mechanisms at of Statistics announced in February that annual the national level will not be able to counter the inflation has dropped from 7.96%, in December economic trends of fragmentation. The profound 2010, to 6.99%, in January 2011, after the monthly crisis requires reconsideration and usefulness of rate increased to 0.77%, mainly due to higher policy instruments at the EU level. Some argue prices of vegetables, fruit, fuel, heat, books, that structural and cohesion funds must be used magazines and newspapers. more to counteract the recession’s effects of fiscal For Romania, stabilization and growth are consolidation in the euro area countries. Romania, expected. Although GDP declined in the last

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 81 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION quarter of 2010, indicators are expected to resume and Herzegovina has undergone and continues to growth in 2011. Growth is expected to be of 1- pass through a transitional period. Growth trends 1.5%, in 2011, after having reached 2%, in 2010. in economic indicators have been felt by the Inflation is projected at just over 8% at the end population only in recent years. Internally, trade of this year, 2011, following the VAT increase. practices and unsubstantiated dumping prices may Improving absorption of EU structural funds is lead to the collapse of the system. critical to ensure the necessary investments in the The desire to join the European Union has strict budgetary constraints. The banking system meant progress for Croatia superior to those made was affected by the crisis, but remains well by the other ex-Yugoslav states. Legislation has capitalized and has cash flow. Non-performing been amended in line with EU directives: thus, loans (NPL) are likely to continue to grow until when joining the European Community, Croatian mid-2011, due to weak economic activity. Capital insurers will be able to market insurance products reserves remain large. Balance of payments in the EU states, as EU insurers will be able to remains largely unchanged. The current account operate in Croatia. From an economic perspective, deficit remains at about 5.5% of GDP and is tourism is the basic economic branch in Croatia, the estimated to grow by 6% by 2012. number of tourists is 10 million per year. Tourism Imposed reforms and measures that were taken provides one fifth of the country's total gross can be very easily integrated in the countries of domestic product. In the view of some analysts, Western Balkans region. Towards the removal the economy is based too much on tourism, which of authoritarian regimes, recent developments is vulnerable to global economic development and in some countries in the region demonstrate the international policies. However, despite the crisis, universality of democratic values ​​and human tourism has dropped less significantly than other rights. One cannot make progress in peace and sectors of Croatian economy. For 2011, local development if it ignores human rights and authorities seek to maintain the unemployment democracy. The current challenges to peace and rate registered at the end of 2010 parameters, and security requires a global response based on the same in the case of shared income. cooperation and an effective multilateral system. Kosovo is a former Yugoslav republic with a Regarding the financial-economic system of special status. By October 2010, 71 UN member component states of the former Federal Republic states, 22 of the 27 European Union member states of Yugoslavia, we can speak about a differential and 24 of the 28 NATO member states recognized evolution, driven by specific national policies1. its independence. Romania did not recognize Croatia has attracted massive foreign investment Kosovo's independence because it doesn’t in all sectors of the economy. Despite its size, in support unilateral separatism, which is contrary Montenegro, the rapid adoption of the euro as its to international law. Kosovo became a member currency exchange and strong reforms, initiated of the IMF and World Bank under the name of after the detachment from Serbia, boosted and Republic of Kosovo. The domestic market is still increased the domestic market. For Serbia and very young. Bosnia and Herzegovina, political barriers have FYROM has been destabilized by the war in hindered the advance of reforms, and in the case Kosovo in 1999, when about 360,000 Kosovo of the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Albanians fled to its territory. In terms of (Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia – domestic market, a general legislative framework FYROM), the small size of the market, reported has been prepared in accordance with European to the potential they offer, is too low. Union directives. In recent years, the economy Because of constitutional constraints, Bosnia has registered an upward trend, with significant and Herzegovina (BiH) has a complex legal and increases. institutional framework. This country's economy An important branch of the Montenegrin and infrastructure were virtually “swept” during economy is the tourism. It is part of a comprehensive the armed conflicts of the ‘90s; this is reflected in long-term development project. Investments made the “picture” of the internal market. There have in recent years have resulted in obtaining one been huge damage to the national level, but after a of the largest dynamics in the world. Currently, difficult period dedicated losses’ recovery, Bosnia Montenegro is under a continuous process of

82 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION liberalization, privatization and restructuring of accelerating economic reform and improving economic sectors. The main purpose is joining the their capacity to adopt and implement the acquis European Union and NATO. Maturity in economic communautaire. This leaves open some bilateral policy has been established by Montenegrins issues and regional cooperation is hampered by since 2002, by adopting the euro as their currency. differences over Kosovo’s status. Enlargement However, the Government of Montenegro has serves the interests of both the Union and the developed a comprehensive development program, countries wishing to join. EU enlargement4 headed in two directions, one leading to growth of contributes not only to the stability of Europe tourism sector, the other aiming at privatization but also to its citizens’ the security and welfare. and attracting foreign investors; the final target is to Countries involved in the accession process try develop infrastructure and, consequently, creating to reach European standards in all areas of EU new jobs. Negative influences of institutional and treaties. This would support the Union in achieving legal framework are visible and are in accordance its own objectives. Currently, one of the most with EU Directives. important objectives is finding a solution to the In terms of regulation, the internal market in economic crisis, restore growth, and create jobs Serbia undergone great changes in 2004, when laws through 2020 reform strategy and strengthening were amended in accordance with EU Directives, security in the EU. and thus introduced new solvency standards and The European Commission's program for the National Bank was appointed supervisor. In 2011 is to intensify the economic dialogue with order to protect and ensure investors, following countries involved in the accession process, which the implementation of these laws, the National will allow concentrating efforts to overcome the Bank revoked licenses of several companies crisis and create jobs. This is demonstrated by that did not meet the criteria set by law. This past experience – in 1998-2008, trade between has resulted in increased transparency across old and new Member States has tripled, from markets. To create a mature and competitive 150 billion to 450 billion Euros. EU enlargement market, as the basic segment of the financial process provided financial resources to intervene, system, some actions are required. Among these, along with international financial institutions, to we shall mention: focus on players from various maintain economic stability in times of crisis. areas of corporate governance, improving risk In Croatia, the coming to power of Ivo management procedures and techniques for Josipovic, in early 2010, changed the position of assessing the investment, increase transparency in Croatia towards Serbia. The two countries have the relationship with customers. concluded that only diplomatic means can solve As regards the Croatia’s EU accession2 the problem of repatriation of refugees from negotiations, this country has reached the Croatia, the border dispute between Serbia and final phase, showing all the countries involved Croatia, the issues of missing persons, minorities in this process that adherence can become a and their rights. Even if they tried to solve their reality. Serbia has submitted its application for disputes at the International Court of Justice, the membership. Reports on applications for accession two countries consider that extra-judicial solution of Montenegro and Albania were published in is the most convenient. Croatia's EU accession late 2010. There has been significant progress in in 2012 can also be used by Serbia; Croatia the liberalization of visas for the Western Balkan may become, from a rival, supporter of Serbia's countries, in solving the long-lasting settlement of accession to the EU. bilateral disputes between Slovenia and Croatia a Croatia’s Europeanization is in the interest dialogue between Serbia and Kosovo3 is, currently, of all the Balkan countries. This spirit of mutual under process of being prepared. However, many support in the EU accession process is the new challenges persist. Due to the global financial regional policy. On January 19, 2011, the European crisis, the pace of reform has slowed. Parliament approved the Stability and Association The Euro-Atlantic integration is required Agreement (SAA) with Serbia. It marks the to accelerate reforms and involvement of all European Union free trade with Belgrade. To stakeholders for better governance, there must take effect, the agreement should be ratified by be insisted on strengthening the rule of law, each EU member state. As a condition for EU

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 83 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION accession, the agreement emphasizes the need for undermine the application of Dayton Agreement. Serbian authorities' cooperation with International Romanian Foreign Minister supported the Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia in effective coordination of EU Peace Implementation The Hague. Belgrade signed the beginning of the Council (PIC) in order to create a common EU association process in April 2008 and, so far, approach according to which the decoupling of only 11 Member States initiated the process of the mandates of the EU Special Representative/ ratification of the SAA, which began in 2010. High Representative (EUSR/HR) is a preliminary The European representatives also requested phase in a process which ends with the closure of Belgrade to start dialogue with Kosovo, under the the OHR. Also, the future EU Strategy for BiH supervision of the EU, because the commitment should include a wider range of economic issues, and willingness to reach an understanding between political and legal integration, addressed in an the two sides will lead to increased stability in the integrated manner, allowing this country to reach region. European Parliament (EP) urges Belgrade the stage where it is invited to start EU accession to dismantle the parallel structures of the Serbian negotiations in the shortest possible time. province of Kosovo, which “undermines the Countries with greater financial and economic process of decentralization” and “prevent the full integration began to suffer from aversion to integration of ethnic Serbs” in Kosovo institutions. global risks and the lack of cash flow, because Regarding the liberalization of visas for Serbian of the economic slowdown at EU’s level. In citizens, the European Parliament suggested the the last quarter of 2009, the global crisis has Belgrade authorities to take appropriate measures affected the Western Balkans in the financial and to limit violations of the law relating to identity economic area, mainly because of the reduction documents. of external demand, lowering of foreign direct Thus, the Serbs must be informed that investment and capital inflows and slower following the grant of visa-free travel regime, growth. Notwithstanding the prospects for a slight they will have not only rights but also obligations. recovery in 2010 and 2011, the crisis’ effects are According to reports, Serbia is the country with the visible on long-term and will be evident in the near largest number of refugees and displaced persons future; the access to foreign capital and foreign in Europe. The European Parliament adopted direct investment could remain limited for some a resolution on Serbia's European integration time in the Western Balkans. Even though foreign process and asked the adopted legislative measures direct investment may resume once the crisis is to combat discrimination. The new measures will overcome, international flows of remittances ensure equal treatment of all citizens of Serbia, may slow down in the meantime, foreign capital regardless of ethnicity. In this context, the main is unlikely to be available, thus having higher objective for Serbia in 2011 is to obtain candidate rates. This will require an adjustment of external status for EU membership, stressing that they imbalances, supported by a more prudent policy hoped the negotiations to begin in spring 2012. mix. At the end of February 2011, in Brussels, took The passage of time has shown that, especially place the works of Foreign Affairs Committee in former communist countries, the transition (FAC). An important topic on the agenda of to market economy has long prevented a rapid this Council was the situation in Bosnia and alignment to the EU requirements, although the Herzegovina. The objective of the discussions was common purpose was – the integration into the to formulate new strategic directions for the EU to European Union. For each country in the former ensure the implementation of the state transition Yugoslav Federal Republic, the major changes from post-Dayton phase to the preparatory stage resulted from the creation of new legal regulations for EU accession negotiations begin. The main and from the foster of competitive markets having elements upon which the discussions were focused replaced the previous monopoly, had different were to identify the prospect of ending the mandate results. Due to political and armed conflicts, the of the Office of High Representative (OHR) and crisis has affected economies during the reform the adoption of a set of restrictive measures (the process and hence the domestic market. regime of movement and personal wealth), which The economic crisis has affected all the can be applied to individuals BiH which would countries involved in the accession process. The

84 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION impact of the crisis was different, depending on cornerstone of EU policy in the Western Balkans the economic structure. Albania, Kosovo and the – the Stabilization and Association Process, which Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia were the gives the countries in the region the right to become least affected, because their economy depends on EU members. Western Balkan countries have a lesser extent by exports and domestic markets realized that they have certain responsibilities to faced their crisis. Croatia, Serbia and Turkey, each other and that they share many challenges, which have a more integrated global market, have some regarding trans-border cooperation. They been badly affected. Because of its dependence on see now the considerable benefits of regional external financing and having a small number of cooperation – political understanding, economic active sectors, Montenegro has received a heavy and social prosperity. blow. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, the impact was This approach to resolve certain issues through exacerbated by pro-cyclical fiscal policies, with cooperation clearly reflected in concrete progress a budget with a high percentage of subsidies and achieved on the ground. It is very encouraging social transfers in the budget. that the areas of trade, energy and transport are During 2010, in the Western Balkan countries among the ones in which regional cooperation is have been weak signs of recovery. Now, domestic most visible. Economic development in the region demand remains low, reflecting tighter lending is crucial to produce the necessary jobs. Further conditions and persisting unemployment. EU, efforts are needed to increase trust and cooperation together with international financial institutions, among peoples and countries. In the field of justice provided support for the attenuation of the crisis’ and home affairs, countries should make increased impact. Achieving sustainable growth rates and efforts to enhance regional cooperation and real convergence will require further structural achieve results. Expanding regional cooperation reforms and prudent fiscal policies. Internal sources in Southeast Europe is essential, regardless of of growth should be exploited more effectively in the different stages of Euro-Atlantic integration, order to improve production capacity and create of each country. It is also an important criterion jobs. for the European course of the Western Balkan An acceleration of structural reforms in labor countries. Stability, prosperity and security in and product markets and improving the quality of the region are of great interest to the EU. The public spending would increase the capacity of European Union will continue to encourage all Western Balkan economies to compete with other efforts to promote regional cooperation. emerging markets in attracting foreign investment Many of the challenges faced by the Western in the recovery phase, which remains the key factor Balkan countries are not only common, but they for economic growth region. In such a framework, also have a regional dimension and involve regional given the overlapping of the economic crisis neighbors. From the enlargement on 1st May 2004, with the political difficulties, which were faced the EU and the Western Balkans have become in the process of regional cooperation regarding closer, as the situation in Western Balkan countries, Kosovo’s independence and by some countries in their progress towards European integration the region, the European Commission stressed the and future relations with the EU are indeed of need for the Western Balkans to remain engaged immediate interest for the European Union. Since in regional cooperation. Bulgaria and Romania joined the EU, the entire region is surrounded by EU Member States. This Regional trans-border cooperation has important repercussions for both countries in the region and the EU in several areas, notably The development of regional cooperation is in the free movement of goods, services and people. the interests of all Western Balkan countries. This These challenges must be addressed in the broader is a key factor in establishing a stable political region of southeast Europe. The political, economic climate, security and economic prosperity. and security reasons for which regional cooperation Regional cooperation is also a necessary is essential in the Western Balkans are closely requirement of stabilization and association interlinked – so, regional stability and security are agreements, which are already underway in the necessary for economic development, and this, in region. In this context, regional cooperation is a turn, promotes stability and security in region.

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Regional cooperation has an essential role total funding of € 1.2 billion for 2007-2013. CBC in addressing security challenges, because more regions lies on the both sides of the EU borders urgent problems, such as organized crime and and have a total population of approximately corruption, or the integrated management of 257.5 million people – of which 45% live in the borders line and illegal migration, can be efficiently northern and eastern borders and 55% in southern solved only by a trans-border approach. Regional border areas – 49% EU border regions and 51% in cooperation can lead to tangible results in security the partner countries' border regions. and justice, for the freedom of people living in the The nature of funding allocated by the CBC region. Efforts to address the factors which could program emphasizes long-term objectives and disturb the regional stabilization and development, sustainability. This multi-level involvement and as well as EU security threats will be a success commitment of the international community if the Western Balkan countries and the EU is a key factor for regional and trans-boundary work together to combat these threats hindering cooperation in the Western Balkans. Gradual legitimate economic growth and undermining the progress is being made. Even if they are at a fairly rule of law, democracy and stability in the region. low level, there should be considered wars and Combating organized crime and corruption is a ethnic conflicts of the 1990s. key priority for governments in the region. Special Regional Cooperation Council (RCC), emphasis is placed on the fight against all forms of established in 2008 and located in Sarajevo, is illegal trafficking (in particular, of human beings, the most visible sign of new institutional capacity drugs and weapons, and contraband goods). to advance regional and local ownership of the Strengthening operational cooperation of regional political process. The hope is that such regional police and prosecutors is essential. Regional cooperation in the Balkans can also be carried out cooperation contributes to reconciliation, to by those who are expected to benefit from it. CRC preserving good neighborly relations and a proper promotes mutual cooperation and European and climate for addressing outstanding bilateral Euro-Atlantic integration in Southeastern Europe. issues. It focuses on six priority areas: economic and On their European way, with EU’s support, the social development, energy, justice, infrastructure countries in the region – even with the existing and home affairs, security cooperation, building differences of status, in terms of European human capital and parliamentary cooperation. integration – continue developing. Regional In operational terms, the Heads of State and cooperation is essential to record progress towards Government of the South-East Europe (within accession. Commission’s programs support the South-East European Cooperation Process Kosovo's participation in the IPA CBC Former – SEECP), (including Greece, Turkey, Eastern Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Albania. and Western Balkans and Black Sea Area) ensure In 2011, support will also include programs with political support for the CRC’s annual work Montenegro. program, while the European Commission offers Regional and cross border cooperation in most of the financing. The key objective is to the Western Balkans is one of the key areas generate and coordinate development projects of intervention of international multilateral and create a political climate for implementing institutions like the European Union, World Bank, projects of a large, regional nature, good for each UNDP, Council of Europe and the European Bank member. for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD). To Regional and cross-border cooperation in the illustrate this fact and to strengthen cooperation EU context uses an approach modeled largely on with countries bordering the European Union, the the principles of structural funds, such as multi- European Neighborhood Partnership Instrument year programming, partnerships and co-financing (ENPI) includes a specific component of cross- tailored to take into account the specific external border cooperation (CBC). There are 15 cross- rules and regulations of the European Commission. border cooperation programs (9 land borders, three A major innovation of the ENPI CBC can be seen sea crossings and 3 sea basin programs). They in the fact that programs involving regions on both were established along the eastern and southern sides of the EU border have a single budget, joint external borders of the European Union, with a management structures and a legal framework

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(mil. euro) 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Croatia 9,7 14,7 15,9 15,6 15,8 16,1 16,7 FYROM 4,1 4,0 4,3 5,0 5,1 5,2 5,2 Turkey 2,1 2,8 3,4 9,5 9,7 9,9 10,1 Albania 6,6 8,5 9,8 9,9 10,1 10,2 10,6 Bosnia and Herzegovina 3,9 4,9 5,2 4,7 4,7 4,8 4,9 Monntenegro 3,9 4,5 4,6 4,2 4,3 4,3 4,4 Serbia 8,2 11,4 12,2 11,7 11,9 12,1 11,6 Kosovo 0 0 0 2,8 2,8 2,9 2,9

Chart 1: The CBC Assistance granted by the EU in the IPA programs in 2007-2013 Source: COM (2009) 543 and rules for joint implementation, contributing region, which lies at the border between Albania at balancing partnerships between participating and Kosovo, has a total budget of 0.46 million countries. The European Commission also in 2009/2010. Compared with the previous promotes cross-border cooperation and bilateral example, the amounts are small, largely because development in the Western Balkans through many implementing regulations are absent in the Instrument for Pre-Accession (IPA), an Kosovo. Currently, the EU CBC programming instrument of financial assistance. This instrument involving cooperation with neighboring Kosovo has been operational since 2008 and currently is affected by limitations in the ongoing process applies to all countries in South-Eastern Europe of international recognition. These limitations that want the EU accession. Annual programs are suggest that regional disparities may actually be implemented in cooperation with the international strengthened despite the cross-border cooperation donor community and co-managed with local that seeks to reduce these differences. representatives of beneficiary countries. Another example highlighting the importance To illustrate the operation of the IPA, it is and challenges for regional development and cross- taken into account the 2009/2010 Annual Program border cooperation are the rights of minorities on cooperation for Montenegro. Under priority in the Western Balkans. Most countries in the axis 2, the so-called economic criteria, the EU region continue to have refugees and displaced Delegation in Podgorica has granted five million persons following the 1990 war. In Montenegro, euros for the rehabilitation of railway lines – Bar- for example, the Podgorica authorities must still Vrbnica, on the border with Serbia. Beneficiaries resolve the status of some 16,200 refugees from of this project are the Ministry of Transport Kosovo. Cross-border cooperation between and Telecommunications, in both countries and Montenegro and Kosovo, a delicate area, must companies of the respective railways. Since address issues such as: such investments for transport infrastructure - The legal status of refugees and displaced requires substantial financial resources which the persons (for example, as regards access to beneficiary countries do not have, the project is co- employment of foreigners); funded with additional loans from the European - Construction of residential facilities for Roma Investment Bank and EBRD, totaling 10 million refugees from Kosovo; euros. - Create legal conditions for the integration of Commission’s cycle of IPA programming for these refugees and displaced persons who wish to 2009/2010 refers to joint trans-border programs remain in Montenegro and to acquire citizenship between Montenegro, Albania and Kosovo in the by naturalization; Kukes region. Rehabilitation and improvement - The ability to absorb and re-integrate refugees. of border crossing infrastructure in Morin, Kukes Providing housing, labor market participation and

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 87 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION addressing the educational infrastructure. While be accomplished by combining the imposition of Montenegro and Kosovo are trying to jointly solve stringent conditions with offering benefits related some of these challenges, there remain unresolved to progress towards EU accession. The process issues with neighboring states. Serbia can block of accession of Western Balkan countries and such bilateral initiatives. the EU influence increase its attractiveness in the The defense cooperation and joint training of Mediterranean and Black Seas and in the Danube border police are very important too. They take River Basin. EU institutions and Member States place between countries that one decade ago were should cooperate to strengthen understanding at war. Negotiations on agreements on social and support for the enlargement process and security are ongoing between the various countries to explain how this policy can contribute to of Western Balkans. the accomplishment of common objectives. The biggest challenge for cross-border Regarding the EU single market, the Commission cooperation in the Western Balkans refers to will seek to remove several persisting blockings political and institutional arrangements between and generate a new potential for growth. Serbia and Kosovo. Serbia refuses to recognize By extension, the countries involved in the Kosovo as a sovereign and independent state and, accession process will gradually adopt the acquis therefore, does not recognize the legitimacy of communautaire, enlarging the space in which they its borders. Meanwhile, the latter is struggling apply a single set of standards. This should spur to convince its own ethnic Albanian population new investment, innovation and social cohesion, regarding the trans-border cooperation with while enhancing the attractiveness of the EU Serbia, which could be of self-interest, in order to regulatory model among neighboring countries advance the international recognition for Kosovo. and also internationally. Cross-border cooperation also requires the NATO enlargement has contributed achievement of economic progress in trade and substantially to Allies’ security, the perspective of public-private investment of the EU, EBRD and the next enlargement and the spirit for cooperation World Bank. However, it seems that business in security offered a broader definition of stability initiatives lead, first of all, to this kind of regional in Europe. The idea of ​​Europe as a whole, free cooperation. Policy and implementation capacity and prosperous can only be achieved by sharing are supported by specific policies of the European common values, and would be better served by Union, the Regional Cooperation Council and an eventual integration of all European countries other international organizations. who wish to be included in the Euro-Atlantic structures. The door to NATO remains open to Prospects for the Euro-Atlantic integration European democracies that share the values ​​of the Alliance, who are willing and able to assume the The Western Balkans region is bordering the responsibilities and obligations of membership and EU member states. Construction of trans-European whose inclusion could contribute to the common transport corridors, energy diversification, climate values ​​of security and stability. change mitigation and adaptation, reducing trans- Cooperation between NATO and the EU in the boundary air pollution and water are among the Balkans provided the best example of what can EU's objectives to be met, whose full completion be done by these two organizations. Collaboration is conditioned by the complete commitment of between them in places like Bosnia and Herzegovina the countries involved in the accession process. and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia In turn, they generate benefits from progress in had a direct positive impact on regional stability and these areas; the prospect of adherence encourages security. The successful experience of NATO-EU them to give priority to the objectives shared with cooperation in the Western Balkans demonstrates EU. Grants awarded through the Instrument for that both organizations are indispensable partners Pre-Accession (IPA) and loans from the European in strengthening Euro-Atlantic and international Investment Bank and other international financial security. Romania, as a NATO and EU member, institutions provide practical support. supports democratic reforms and the integration The experience of the liberalization of visas for of Western Balkans and participates in programs the Western Balkan countries shows how much can to counter global challenges such as terrorism,

88 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION proliferation of weapons of mass destruction or Croatia has made good progress towards human trafficking. There is a huge potential for meeting the accession criteria and negotiations cooperation, by whose materialization NATO have reached the final stage. Former Yugoslav and the EU may have, together, an important Republic of Macedonia continues to meet the impact on regional security. Accession will take political criteria sufficiently. There has been place after the consolidation of internal reforms. further progress in the key areas of reform, Euro-Atlantic integration is particularly important albeit in an uneven pace. Efforts are needed because both organizations can provide stability especially in regard to judicial reform and public and security in the region. administration. In its opinion, the Commission The European Commission will continue to recommends opening accession negotiations with make full use of its instruments of accession and Montenegro and Albania when they will have economic surveillance mechanism to monitor reached the required degree of compliance with the economic and fiscal performance of Western membership criteria set by the European Council Balkan countries. The Union has a regular dialogue in Copenhagen in 1993. The two countries must with its candidate countries, familiarizing them meet specific key priorities under each opinion. with the coordination and surveillance of economic Serbia has submitted its application for EU policies within the EU. A similar process has been membership in December 2009 and, in October created with the potential candidate countries. 2010, the Council invited the Commission to Economic dialogues between the Commission and submit an opinion on this application. Accession the states involved in the accession process in the negotiations could be completed in early 2011, framework of adhesion are used for surveillance with the condition that Zagreb continues the of economic policies. In addition to dialogue reforms already initiated. and surveillance, the EU actively supports the Serbia has continued to implement the political efforts of economic recovery, of macroeconomic reform agenda and achieved positive results in the stabilization and consolidation of the countries application of the Interim Agreement. In terms of involved in the accession process. Enlargement meeting the requirements of the SAA, it is on track contributes to the accomplishment of the Strategy and has taken important steps in the reconciliation Europe 2020, by extending the area in which EU in the region. Further efforts are needed in judicial regulatory framework is applied and by creating reform and public administration and in the fight new trade opportunities. against organized crime and corruption. Serbia As for starting the integration process, must show that it has a more constructive attitude numerous political and armed conflicts of the '90s, towards Kosovo's participation in trade and which were a key factor in creating a prolonged regional cooperation. economic blockade, led to Serbia's rejection by the Also, cooperation must be strengthened to European Union. Currently, the position of Serbia support the EU Rule of Law Mission (EULEX) towards Kosovo is another major impediment in in the northern region of Kosovo. Following this regard. In the last decade, Western Balkan the opinion expressed in July 2010 by the countries have made substantial progress in terms International Court of Justice on the legality of stability and regional cooperation. of the unilateral declaration of independence, However, a number of problems arising from Kosovo and Serbia face a number of significant conflicts in the region remain unresolved and obstacles towards finding a viable compromise. affect both the internal workings of states and Diplomatic recognition of Kosovo's statehood is the relations between them. As for Bosnia and the current bilateral impasse. This is the reason Herzegovina, the US long-term objective is to why EU's presence and active involvement in become a stable and prosperous country with finding a solution beneficial to both parties is vital a strong and effective state authority, which is for maintaining a favorable context. To facilitate directed towards the European Union. On long a rapprochement between Kosovo and Serbia is term perspective, the BiH government, the US a major challenge for a heterogeneous European and the EU have similar views on the future of Union. The decentralization process in Kosovo Bosnia and Herzegovina and of the region at the has advanced significantly and has increased same time. cooperation with EULEX. Government has

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 89 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION improved its ability to implement the European When the regarded countries will meet the agenda and reform policy in Kosovo. standards, including those related to democracy, However, there are still significant challenges rule of law, human rights and fundamental in terms of rule of law, including reform of freedoms, EU and NATO will cooperate to move public administration and judiciary and to to the next stages of the process. combat corruption, organized crime and money Western Balkan region is artificially created in laundering. Dialogue and reconciliation between order to serve the EU strategy and wider geopo- communities and the protection and integration litical considerations of the international actors. of minorities, particularly the Serbs in Kosovo, Regional cooperation is situated within a broader continue to be acute problems in the region. framework of South-East European space. Region- Bosnia and Herzegovina must form a government al cooperation process is seriously affected by the to commit to future EU efforts and intensify the competitive nature of the EU and NATO integra- pace of relevant reforms. The country should first tion. The transformation into a prosperous part of take emergency measures to align its constitution Europe does not depend mainly on the insistence to the European Convention on Human Rights and of regional cooperation, nor on its implementa- should improve the functioning of the institutions tion in the integration process, but on the ability in the region. of states in the region to collect all the implica- Since 1999, the UN representatives attempt to tions and importance of both regional cooperation reach an agreement between the two neighbors – and integration of Euro-Atlantic structures and to Greece and FYROM. On February 9, 2011, at the adapt their actions accordingly. With the creation UN headquarters, took place a meeting with the and definition of priorities of the Regional Coop- envoy, Matthew Nimetz, and the UN ambassadors eration Council, the region has entered a decisive of both countries, in order to find a solution for stage three of transformation. It is still a transi- FYROM’s name, whose international recognition tional stage, because the leverage of international under that name is blocked by Greece since 1991. institutions at this starting point is more powerful In late March 2011, the ICJ analyzed the dispute than the one of the countries in the region. The that opposes the two countries. Athens accuses support offered by the political elites of the coun- Skopje that it prevented its NATO accession. tries concerned in this unique regional institution About 20,000 Romanian speakers – and also the extent to which it reflects and articu- Aromanian/Vlach and Megleno-Romanian – live lates the interests of the region and will be crucial in this country. Because of the communist policies for the perspectives of regional cooperation. of forced assimilation and integration of national The process of integration in the European minorities, currently, there is a deep division of Union and NATO is the key driver for the security, the Aromanian community. For both countries, political and economic transformation of the minority rights are a particularly important region. These processes of integration are key segment. On February 23, 2011, a memorandum factors in promoting regional cooperation. It is of cooperation for the Euro-Atlantic integration essential to keep the pace of reforms to provide was signed between the Foreign Ministries of clear incentives for local political actors to both countries. FYROM made constructive efforts engage in regional cooperation. EU membership to make a better inter-ethnic climate. Romania is not only the best hope for stabilizing and will continue to act to complete EU and NATO transforming the region but also to develop enlargement with the Western Balkan countries. regional cooperation well. Taking into account that the clear prospect of accession to the EU is Conclusions the strategic goal of all Western Balkan countries, as this provides motivation for the local political The Euro-Atlantic integration process is elite's commitment to the reforms necessary for progressing at a rate that depends largely on the a clear transformation of the region, developing capacity of the candidate countries to assume a comprehensive strategy for enlargement should the obligations of membership. This requires be top priority for the region. sustainable reforms, legislative and institutional All the states in the region should achieve the adjustments which shall be credible and convincing. same status of candidate countries. In this way,

90 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 CROSS-BORDER REGIONAL COOPERATION it will be easier to harmonize multilateral ASA to a more harmonized approach in addressing the processes with the CRC bilateral program. The region's many challenges – from trade, investment, first visible sign of commitment to the region health research and development, to combating concerning the prospect of membership is the full organized crime and natural disasters. liberalization of visas for all countries. Regional It is in discussion to develop a regional platform cooperation faces obstacles to its development. that would facilitate long-term strategic policy The major ones are: options focused on overcoming the crisis and the - The effect of the independence of Kosovo on accession to the EU – the launching 2020 Western regional stability and cooperation; Balkans Futures Project, designed in accordance - Serbia's foreign policy dilemma; with the long-term projections of the EU 2020 - The problems of state reconstruction in Strategy, as a continuation of Lisbon Strategy, Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Former Yugoslav which was developed for the period comprised Republic of Macedonia; between 2000 and 2010. - The problems of internal cohesion in many The data from the EU Member States in the countries; region, the European Commission, international - Weak state structures in Albania. financial institutions, OECD, CEFTA Secretariat Despite the potential negative effects of these and other regional initiatives, as well as from barriers, it is recommended to continue building businessmen in the region have indicated the main networks and bridges between the networks of problems faced by the region in economic and non-state actors. Based on the experience of social development. A common formula for all the other regions, it is expected for such regional intended directions is: good governance and ways cooperation to develop after the EU and NATO to achieve this. Additional measures are needed accession, when countries in the region will have in the development of resources and improving established and promoted common interests in a the competitive potential. The Commission will specific broader Euro-Atlantic area. continue to make full use of its instruments of The Regional Cooperation Council (RCC) accession and economic surveillance mechanism analyzed the impact of global economic crisis to monitor economic and fiscal performance of on Western Balkan countries and assessed Western Balkan countries. various policy actions taken, and ways to better The European Union has a regular dialogue achieve the region's competitive position in the with candidate countries, familiarizing them with global economy. The key problem that appeared the coordination and surveillance of economic is strengthening the capacity to develop and policies within the EU. A similar process has been implement appropriate policy options and created for potential candidates too. Economic appropriate use of available resources so as to dialogues between the Commission and the overcome the crisis and, on long-term, to achieve countries involved in the accession process in the economic growth, stable knowledge-based framework of association are used for surveillance competitive advantages in the region. of economic policies. In addition to dialogue and There were three key areas where other surveillance, the EU actively supports economic activities will be planned in the region: recovery efforts, macroeconomic stabilization - With regard to human resources in the region and consolidation of the countries involved in as a key prerequisite for long-term competitiveness the accession process. The enlargement process (education, research and development, innovation contributes to the accomplishment of the objectives capacities); of Europe 2020 Strategy, by expanding the area in - Creating conditions to stimulate knowledge which EU regulatory framework is applied and by development (the role of institutions, businesses, creating new trade opportunities. international networks, improving regional cooperation and integration in the EU); BIBLIOGRAPHY: - Set up mechanisms for broader cooperation, which would provide for synchronized activities 1. ANATOL L., TRENIN D., Ambivalent over 40 regional organizations and initiatives Neighbors: The EU, NATO and the Price already operating in different fields and contribute of Membership, Carnegie Endowment for

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International Peace, 2003. 10. MUREŞAN D., BUŞE D., Securitatea 2. ASPINWALL M., SCHNEIDER G., şi insecuritatea în Balcanii de Vest: criza Institutional research on the European Union: interetnică din noua federaţie iugoslavă, CTEA mapping the field, 2001, 1-18. Publishinghouse, Bucharest, 2008. 3. AVERY G., The Enlargement 11. MUREŞAN M., Integrarea în UE şi Negotiations, The Future of Europe: Integration NATO a statelor Balcanilor de Vest, Impact and Enlargement, London: Routledge 2004, 35- strategic, “Carol I” National Defence University 62. Publishinghouse, Bucharest, 2008. 4. BEGG I., HODSON D., MAHER I., 12. Defence Select Committee Report on the future Economic Policy Coordination in the European of NATO, Martin Butcher, 2008 The Acronym Institute. Union, National Institute Economic Review, vol. 13. The Western Balkans: Between the Economic 183, 2003. Crisis and the European Perspective, Institute for 5. CHIRIAC M.D., DUMITRU D., Regional and International Studies, Sofia, septembrie ION E., Organizaţii şi instituţii politice şi de 2010. securitate, “Carol I” National Defence University 14. IMF Country Report No 11/20, Washington Publishinghouse, Bucharest, 2007. DC, ianuarie 2011, IMF. 6. DE GRAUWE P., SCHNABL G., 15. http://ec.europa.eu. EMU: Entry Strategies for New Member States, Intereconomics, vol. 39, pp. 241-47, 2004. NOTES: 7. DINU M.Ş., Balcanii de Vest, “Carol I” National Defence University Publishinghouse, 1 http://www.consilium.europa.eu/ueDocs/cms_ Bucharest, 2007. Data/docs/pressData/FR/genaff/118571.pdf, http:// 8. DUMITRU L.C., Implicarea NATO în ec.europa.eu/enlargement/pdf/key_documents/2010/ managementul crizelor din Balcanii de Vest, “Carol package/strategy_paper_2010_ro.pdf. 2 European Council Conclusions, 14-15 dec. 2010. I” National Defence University Publishinghouse, 3 According to the 1244/99 Resolution of the UN Bucharest, 2007. Security Council. 9. KENEN P., MEADE E., EU Accession 4 Speech by Commissioner for Enlargement and and the Euro: Together or Far Apart?, International European Neighbourhood Policy, Stefan Fule, the Economics Policy Briefs, No PB03-9, Institute for presentation package to expand the Foreign Affairs International Economics, Washington, 2003. Commission of the European Parliament, Brussels, 9 November 2010 (SPEECH/10/638).

92 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 POINTS OF VIEW TECHNOLOGICAL GAP. FORMS AND INFLUENCES ON ECONOMICAL DEVELOPMENT. IMPLICATIONS FOR CONTEMPORARY MILITARY PHENOMENON

Virgil BĂLĂCEANU, PhD*

Military technology is the amount of equipment, civilians with sometimes minor or no modifications vehicles, structures and communication systems at all. that are designed for use in warfare. It comprises Key-words: disparity; discontent; evolutionary the kinds of technology that are distinctly military change; revolutionary change; discriminator in nature and not civilian in application, usually element; technological edge. because they are impractical in civilian application or dangerous to use without appropriate military In Merriam-Webster Dictionary, technology is training. defined as the practical application of knowledge For military technology it is common to have in a domain, and also “the ability” conferred by been researched and developed by scientists the practical application of knowledge. and engineers specifically for being used by the In his writing “La technique et le temps, armed forces. This process involves the design, 1: La faute d’Epimethee”, French philosopher development, testing and lifecycle management Bernard Stiegler defined technology in two ways: of military weapons and systems. It draws on “research of life using other methods than life” the knowledge of several traditional engineering and “inorganic organized matter”. disciplines, including mechanical engineering, The term “technology” has a vast meaning, electrical engineering, mechatronics, electro- starting from simple material tools (a bar used optics, aerospace engineering, materials as a lever) to contemporary immaterial complex engineering, and chemical engineering. tools like an IT soft or the know-how and the Sometimes, the border between military and methods implemented in a domain. It is more and civilian technology is not further away. There are more accepted the opinion, according to which a significant number ofmilitary inventions that are technology is more than an exterior support, as technologies originally developed and designed it also represents an interior human conscience for military purposes, and which are now used by transformation, as new technologies bring also

* Major-General Virgil BĂLĂCEANU ([email protected]), PhD, is the head of the Department of International Cooperation in Defence Matters from the Ministry of National Defence, Bucharest. He has a PhD degree in Military Sciences (2003) and an MA degree in the US College of Defence of the Land Forces (2001) and a NATO senior executive master at National School of Political and Administrative Sciences (2003). He is the author of the following books: “Infantry’s power in the fight” (2004) and “The 7th Army Corps. The Romanian Armed Forces in Operation Budapest” (2001).

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 93 POINTS OF VIEW changes in the way of individual’s thinking. This their behavior in a community, the availability perception of technology gets new meanings of resources, various armed conflicts, other and applications, comprising all methods which social, economic elements and the evolution of expand individual’s knowledge and the perception civilizations. Some technologies were spread of the world1. relatively rapid and easy (fire, wheel) while other technologies were implemented or used by a A. Technological gap. Concepts, manifes- community or region after a long period of time tation and influences on economical develop- (use of different machines in agriculture, a domain ment with a significant advance in some countries). This process determined an unequal There is a symbiotic and interdependent development of human activities in different relation between technology and society. They domains. From a military point of view, if, at the have influenced each other determining reciprocal beginning, a conflict was won by the side which major modifications. had more strong fighters, after that, the focus was On cultural and civilization’s evolution plans, on their equipment, their protection by different technology has brought different bases and types of armors and shields and their training. modalities of writing, printing machine, musical Therefore, a community with limited possibilities instruments, road and city infrastructure, the ability for trading and working metals was inferior. to sail which extends the knowledge horizon, These technological gaps determined theories of the Universe, scientific discoveries economical gaps and established a hierarchy and inventions which have radically changed the between regions or countries, a phenomenon society in different points of its existence. which also exists today. This dynamic and very complex process got a special boom with the Industrial Revolution, when Manifestation and influences on the humans, using the available technologies, made economical development. The correlation their work much easier. Their work productivity between technological and economical gap and quality were improved. Going further, the modern age meant the facilitation of humans’ Nowadays, technological gap refers to the circulation (train, automobile, airplane), of the differences between those who have access possibility to communicate (telephone, radio, effectively to technology and use it and those who TV, computer, internet), and the improvement don’t, between those who innovate in technology of life conditions (electricity, medicine and food and produce it and those who don’t3. Figures industry development). On the other hand, in presented by the UN speak by themselves: there this period, some ideas manifested against an are 861 patented inventions to 1 million inhabitants excessive technology. It was taken into discussion in Japan, while, in many developing countries, the matter of restraining the individual’s spiritual this figure is 0; 84% of published articles are from development favoring technological, material developed countries; tuition period in USA is 12.1 development. years while under 1 year in Guinea Bissau; 27.3 % Martin Heidegger considered that technology, of people enrolled to a university in Finland choose at a certain moment, encumbers us to find the a scientific profile while in Chad the percent is absolute truth, limits us and alters our real nature 0.1. Research domain contributes significantly to and rationale2. diminishing these gaps by developing, accessing This philosophical perception of technology and absorbing new technologies. One of the is part of technology’s philosophy, a domain methods proposed to reduce the technological gap that existed through the history, from Plato and is the improvement of this domain. Aristotle to Karl Marx, Heidegger or Michel Technological gap theory, stated by the Dutch Foucault. economist Arnold Heertje4, stipulates that changes I will further sustain that technological produced in international exchanges are imposed process has never been uniform and concomitant by the relative “technological complexity” in the world. Its dynamics was conditioned by degree of countries. Developing regions use different factors: individuals’ way of thinking and only a quarter of the technology used by highly

94 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 POINTS OF VIEW developed countries. In the meantime, according solutions for simple recycling, the utilization of to the World Bank, there are important gaps even rain water, the technologies to conserve the food inside a country. The main cities and basic domains in regions without electricity, the refrigerating use more technology than others. An example is technologies considerably contribute to improving India, where last generation IT services are, in the life conditions. A UN report shows that, in urban regions, contrasting with the ones in rural Rwanda, a system for rain water collection cannot zones, where less than 10% of the population have be realized due to the absence of qualified workers telephone services. and engineers. In present, this country is trying to The apparition and evolution of these gaps are implement simple technologies in health domain, strictly related to the government’s involvement transport, water, constructions, and alternative and the development of private sector. The old power sources. technologies for road infrastructure, railway, There is a strong relation between innovation’s telephone services etc. are usually provided by intensity and per capita income. In China, the the government and have public financing; if the number of inventions has grown from 1.5 in ‘80s government fails, all these will fail. On the other to 10% in 2004. hand, new technologies, mobile phones, internet, The technological innovations of the last two computers are provided by a sector encouraging centuries are available in almost all the countries. the private domain and internal or external Nevertheless, there are some problems due to challenge. their unequal spreading inside a country. This is Thinking of productivity, we can say that the reason for a faint economical development of there is a major difference between using and many states in Latin America based on resources. not using technology. The estimated productivity These regional economic discrepancies in agriculture was four times bigger than in practically determine important financial processing industry because of new technologies. differences between countries or regions of the Technology is a critical and decisive factor same country, which encumber the access to of the income, but also an obvious consequence the basic needs. At the same time, this kind of of it. The relative efficiency of an economy is disparities affects global or regional projects; in represented by the productivity. According to the Europe, they affect the economical development World Bank reports5, in 2005, the productivity of of the community and EU is focusing on this developing countries was about 5% of the USA phenomenon. productivity. On regional plan, these discrepancies One method to calculate the economical have deepened. The countries with medium disparities is Gini coefficient, coming from the economies have come closer to the developed Italian inventor of the method, Corrado Gini. His economies (Hungary or Poland have grown their formula is based on the income average in every technological degree by 125% after 1990). But country. One example is the income average in there still is a huge gap between developed and Denmark, with a coefficient of 0.247, compared developing countries. with the coefficient of a country like Namibia, Poverty, corruption, internal and international which is 0.707. Europe and Canada have a conflicts encumber the access and implementation coefficient between 24 and 36, US and Mexico of technologies, even to those related to food, over 40, which shows a high degree of economical hygiene or individual security. Around 25,000 disparity. people die every day because of starvation, Coming back to technological gap, as a cause meaning one person every 3.5 seconds (according of economical disparities, let’s talk a little bit to the UN). about the situation in Europe. Technological gaps generate economical gaps. Taking into account unemployment and The economy is behind the times and absolutely productivity rates, we can speak about countries inefficient without appropriate production with a low unemployment and productivity rate methods, business know-how, own resources and (Slovenia, Portugal), countries with a high rate the ability to have constant trading relations. (Germany) and countries with low unemployment Even the simplest technologies have a strong rate and high productivity rate (Britain, impact on the development of a region. The Netherlands, Denmark).

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60

50

40

30

20

10

0 BEL DEU FRA IRL NLD GBR USA DNK

Figure 1. Number of Internet users in several European countries and USA (%)

Europe is, after USA, in a world hierarchy, ICT concept – Information Communications mainly due to an unequal implementation of ICT, Technology – refers to any device which receives, a term which will be discussed. stocks, manipulates and transmits information, Digital divide concept represents the difference electronically and digitally. We are talking about between persons who have direct access to digital computers, digital television, e-mail etc. In and information technology and those who have business domain, ICT has two aspects: traditional a limited or no access to these technologies. In technologies related to the use of computers other words, the absence of access to information (meaning usual things done with a personal means the absence of knowledge with all its computer: editing documents or creating a data consequences. In present, Digital divide refers base), and new digital communication technologies to technologies like radio, television, computer, which enable the companies to communicate and internet and mobile telephony. exchange information. The importance of this phenomenon consists The experts appreciate that, in present, we in the access to information and education and witness a real ICT revolution which, in concordance the amplification of gaps by not using these with globalization, are major social and economical technologies. changes. One of the implications is related to the A study led by Computer Aid International, labor market, a domain where the facilitation of a non-profit organization from Britain, focused rapid international communications allowed the on the mitigation of these differences at regional companies to subcontract various activities to other scale, shows that developed countries represent companies. This way, a significant reduction of the now about 15% of world population and 88% of production costs can be realized, but, at the same internet users in the world6. The study shows that time, proper conditions for abuses related to work 585 of 1000 US persons have a computer, while 4 contracts are created, inadequate salary and work out of 1000 Asian persons can say the same thing. conditions, all these generated by the fact that cheap

160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 SUA EU

Figure 2. The number of servers in the U.S. compared with Europe (per 1,000 inhabitants)

96 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 POINTS OF VIEW labor markets, without payment restrictions, become limitation of these gaps related to the access and more and more attractive. Global ICT expansion use of technology. G8 forum has a structure with is not uniform, due to the absence of adequate a similar goal, named DOT – Digital Opportunity technologies. This way, regional disparities become Task Force. deeper, and the countries unable to produce and use this kind of technology leg behind. B. Technological gap implication on con- Also, the social implications of ICT are temporary military phenomenon profound. On the one hand, those sustaining the phenomenon consider it revolutionary, conducting The Military domain represents an important professional training to a higher level. On the direction of science applications, states’ capacity other hand, the opponents reproach the negative of defence being connected and determined by influence on labor, technology replacing partially science development. There is no field within or totally the worker. The unequal spreading the military phenomenon, without influences of within a society, institution or state has negative modern science. consequences and can be amplified by causes In the last years, the military technology has which are not economical or related to the access advanced immensely. Modern armament systems to technologies. For example, English language allow targets’ hitting with extreme accuracy; is understood by 10% of the world population; reconnaissance and surveillance systems provide nevertheless, more than 80% of the websites are detailed information about the structure and in English. location of the enemy; combined data analyses and Danish assistant for internet and web services dissemination systems allow a rapid exploitation Jakob Nelsen7 talks about the idea of digital divide of information. and ICT focusing on three important elements: The directions of military technologies 1) Economic divide – considered the simplest development can be classified in different ways, form of the difference between those who have but all have similar assessment methods. Some of access and use digital technology and those who them are: don’t; it resides in the fact that some people do not - increased lethal effect; have financial resources necessary to purchase a - increased fire power and accuracy; computer. - implementation of armament systems which 2) Usability divide – more than 40% of the provide increased efficiency and effect; population has a poor training; very few websites - increased capacity of small units to establish take into account this fact; old agers have decisive results; difficulties in accessing these technologies, an - increased deceiving capacity9. aspect ignored by most of the websites. There are specific elements of the intelligent 3) Empowerment divide – refers to the absence armament generation, C4I systems, electronic of individual involvement in this kind of activities; surveillance systems, reconnaissance and hitting even if internet and computers can be used easily, systems, psychological and informational war not all the people will exploit the opportunities techniques and technologies; all these will be used offered by this technology. in the future military operations. Like other experts, Nelsen considers ICT a New technological discoveries request future very powerful instrument for transformation military actions with: extended proportions in and facilitation of daily life, but also, as one space and time, specialized forces and equipment, for manipulation which can deceive people and joint forces, increased intensity and complexity, remove them from the phenomenon. unexpected changes of situation, fighting in International institutions for global development all environments, very maneuverable forces, consider ICT concept very important for poor various tactical procedures, rapid actions in countries, its implementation being necessary to various terrain, time and weather conditions. We offer opportunities on international market and should emphasize the importance of command’s integration in global economy. cosmic components and the operation goals, U.N. has organized a veritable task force, the intensification of confrontation’s decisive “UN ICT Task Force”8, whose mission is the character, the synchronization and integration of

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 97 POINTS OF VIEW fighting actions. The armed conflicts, influenced off aircraft, accurate guided munitions, command, by the technologies of this century, will show in control and space communications technologies, the near future a big complexity of the theatre infrared guided arms etc10. of operations, a mixture of civil and military Information based armament is replacing more environment, guerilla’s extension – especially and more the fire power, and the targets of the the urban guerilla –, the use of lethal and non- military actions are becoming more and more pre- lethal armaments, explosives, and possibly the cisely determined. Thus, the mass armies, specific next generation of nuclear arms and plasma to the two World Wars, have become anachronic armament. and inefficient. The transition from mass armies to Long distance accurate hitting systems, modern operational structures should be consid- informational war, space war represent new ered a logical requirement, imposed by economi- elements in the military domain. Each of them is cal constraints of a future war. the result of the technological evolution. Military experts express different opinions Accurate hitting systems were developed at regarding the priority between military the beginning of the’70s and a rapid progress is organizational structure, technology and under progress. The existing systems include operational concepts. Some opinions sustain long range missiles and accurate munitions. An the technology priority. Other opinions support efficient identification of a target corroborated the operational concept as primary. There are with a rapid dissemination of information allows also opinions that emphasize the stimulant role a coordinated attack on the enemy’s targets with of technology and the influence of operational minimum damages and collateral victims, and concepts. limited possibilities for an enemy counterattack. Although the critical value of information was C. Military technological gaps between USA discussed from old times, the modern wars depend and the other NATO member states on information systems. There are reconnaissance and early warning satellites, a large range of The US has the hegemony in the world, like manned and unmanned air systems etc. which we have never seen from the Roman Empire. The provide a huge data amount. Gulf War, the interventions in former Yugoslavia Some analysts considered the informational and Afghanistan proved statistically an 80% US war as a fourth dimension of war along with the presence in these actions, the US armament and traditional dimensions: ground, air and maritime. logistic used were so costly and sophisticated that Space war is also considered another field of the allies cannot afford it. war. Even if the military importance of space Aware of its unique power in the world, the was big enough in the last decades, recent US realizes that, anyway, it cannot act alone technological developments allowed assigning it without risking arousing dissatisfaction of other a role which makes a military operation almost countries. impossible without space involvement. Certainly, The experience demonstrated that the the insurance of space superiority will be a critical development of general capabilities for defense advantage. depends on: political leaders’ options, economical The ongoing improvement of military technology power of a state, the correct perception of influences the armed forces’ development and technological evolution which changes the structure, their training, and determines changes approach and finality of the military conflicts. in the procedures for conducting military actions. NATO member states, except the USA, are The armed forces of all developed countries characterized by modest military capabilities, have ample and long-lasting structural changes, relatively numerous armed forces, but too small requested by the dynamics and modifications of engagement of forces and obsolete equipment. the armament systems and military technology. Their forces deployed in Iraq, Afghanistan, The multitude of technological research Western Balkans had difficulties in logistical applications in military domain includes: support and troops command, and the US has often unmanned aircraft, cruiser missiles, “intelligent” provided them support, a situation with political, arms, reactive munitions, hovercraft, vertical take- military and moral effects.

98 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 POINTS OF VIEW

The existing gaps between the two parts (US able to “digest” this amount of information and and the others) are generated mainly by the amount they will be tempted to be “disconnected” from of money allocated to the defense domain. the too fast-moving rhythm of life. Although the technological gap was reduced in the last period, even the pro-Atlantic allies BIBLIOGRAPHY: cannot keep the rhythm with the US progress in development and transformation of its forces. 1. Walter ONG, Writing is a technology that The fear that Europe will be again in the same restructures thought, 1985, Oxford University situation as in the period immediately after the Lectures. Second World War, with an economy lagged 2. Edward TUFTE, The cognitive style of behind and dependant on the US key technologies, Power Point, Graphics Press, 2003. determined the European leaders, traditional 3. Martin HEIDEGGER, Întrebare privitoare allies, to be skeptical regarding the US opening to la tehnică, în Originea Operei de Artă, Humanitas the military technology in the last two decades. Publishinghouse, Bucharest, 1995. 4. Arnold Heertje, Economics and technical Conclusions change, Editura Weidenfred and Nicolson, London, 1977. The technological gap phenomenon represents 5. Alvin and Heidi TOFFLER, Război şi a critical problem for the developing countries, antirăzboi, Antet Publishinghouse, Bucharest, with long lasting and profound economical 1995, p. 42, 87. consequences and the incapacity of evolution. 6. Mircea MUREŞAN, Costică ŢENU, Lucian From an economic point of view, the nucleus of STĂNCILĂ, Corelaţia artei militare cu fenomenul this problem is the poverty, the lack of resources militar contemporan, Curs de artă militară, „Carol necessary for acquisition, development or I” National Defence University Publishinghouse, improvement of new technologies, the absence or Bucharest, 2005, p. 9. the bad quality of the communication infrastructure, 7. GEP 2008, Global Economic Prospects. and a reduced government implication in some 8. UNCTAD, United Nations Conference on cases. Trade and Development, 2003. From a military point of view, it is less 9. www.bridgethedigitaldivide.com. possible to eliminate the existing technological 10. www.useit.com Jakob Nielsen. gaps on short or medium term. The future military 11. www.unicttaskforce.com. technologies will have a remarkable influence on 12. http://www.iwar.org.uk/rma/resources/ the conflicts. The war of 21st century will be the nato/ar299stc-e.html. space of more complex military systems, involving 13. http://www.cotidianul.ro/126734-Alvin_ new technologies, and super-specialized soldiers, Toffler_si-a_anuntat_predictiile. complex actions conducted according to different tactical and strategic procedures. NOTES: The enemy will be invisible and unpredictable. The goal of the technological innovation is to 1����������������������������������������� ����������������������������������������Walter ONG, Writing���������������������������� is a technology that increase the force capability. And the modern restructures thought, 1985, Oxford University Lectures; war capabilities are influenced by a relative Edward TUFTE, The cognitive style of Power Point, technological balance of the great powers. The Graphics Press 2003. 2�������������������������������������������� �������������������������������������������Martin HEIDEGGER, Questions about technics, war of the future will request: continuous and 1954. sufficient sustainability, good maintenance, 3������������������������������������������� ������������������������������������������UNCTAD, United Nations Conference on Trade maximum mobility, maneuver capabilities, proper and Development, 2003. logistical support, and technological superiority. 4���������������������������������������� ���������������������������������������Arnold HEERTJE, Economics����������������������� and technical Lessons learned from the recent wars are shaping change, London, 1977. the capabilities of the future wars. 5������������������������������������� ������������������������������������GEP 2008, Global Economic Prospects. The writer Alvin Toffler wrote that11, in the 6�������������������������������� �������������������������������www.bridgethedigitaldivide.com. future, the science and technology will be so 7 www.useit.com Jakob NIELSEN. developed that most of the people would not be 8 www.unicttaskforce.com.

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 99 POINTS OF VIEW

9 http://www.iwar.org.uk/rma/resources/nato/ contemporary military art, Military art Course, “Carol ar299stc-e.html. I” National Defense University Publishing House, 10�������������������������������������������� General Prof. Mircea MUREŞAN, Brigadier (r) Bucharest, 2005, p. 9. Professor Costica Ţ����������������������������������ENU,��������������������������������� Colonel (r) Professor Lucian 11 ������������������������������������������� http://www.cotidianul.ro/126734-Alvin_Tof������������������������������������������- STĂNCILĂ, Correlation with the phenomenon of fler_si-a_anuntat_predictiile.

100 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 POINTS OF VIEW LIBYA AND NATO’S OPERATIONS: THE RETURN FROM VOLUNTARISM TO THE CLASSICAL RULES OF INTERNATIONAL LAW

Iulian CHIFU, PhD*

The events in Libya erupted abruptly, along being able to compensate the corruption and the with the impact of the influence through cross- lack of economic and inclusive solutions for the border contamination and osmosis of the population – so that subsequently again the United changes given by the Arab revolutions from the States to take over the costs of its association with neighbouring Tunisia and Egypt, which were these regimes and to be the target of the Islamist expected to have an impact on the situation in radicals, displeased with the isolation and the this country. As a matter of fact, it has become a repercussions against political Islam in these common place the assertion that if Hosni Mubarak societies. has been unsceptered in Egypt, no other Arab Key-words: voluntarism; humanitarian leader can be sure of his position, in this Arab war; responsibility to protect; interventionism; spring announced by the visit of the Secretary of legitimacy; civil war. State Hillary Clinton in the Middle East and the reunion in Doha, on 30 January 2011, when Mrs. Theoretical Instruments, methodology Secretary of State announced that the system of and visited schools of thought the secular autocrats on Western money can no longer continue. To describe the phenomenon of the Arab crisis, It is far from our intention to formulate a I used a cognitive-institutional approach, of conspiracy theory regarding the fall of the liberal essence, in which two currents of strict Arab regimes in a domino system, much less of actuality and with a major impact in a media passing a retractable America which is turned era overlap: neo-institutionalism – the level to its domestic issues, fully de-committed from of institutionalisation, real functioning of these its external responsibilities, the blame of the fall institutions, the degree of coverage in relation with of the Arab regimes. Except that, then, Hillary the community and the administrative capacity, of Clinton announced the acknowledgements and transposing in life, of the plans elaborated and the the will of the United States of being no more cognitive revolution in psychology – respectively the piggy-bank of the Arab nationalist, secular, the new ‘religion’ of the world in which the authoritarian regimes, paying money for their perception takes over the leading role, not rarely arming, development aids – allocated without replacing the reality and, in any case, influencing

* Iulian CHIFU ([email protected]),PhD, is an associate professor at the National School for Political and Administrative Studies Bucharest, specialised in Conflict Analysis and Decision Making in Crisis, Director of the Conflict Prevention and Early Warning Centre and the Dean of the Faculty for Political and Social Sciences of the “Titu Maiorescu” University Bucharest.

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 101 POINTS OF VIEW regimes and decisions in the democratic world especially the discussions of principle and the and more and more in the Arab world. gestures and solutions implications embraced here For if it is not a democracy in the Western by the international community upon the fabric of acceptance – except maybe in a few states that the international relations in the future. have entered such a course, the most likely to Hence, we have to consider concomitantly the come close to it being Morocco and Jordan, an three levels of the Hanoi towers relative to the electoral democracy, as well as an imposition of fabric of the contemporary international relations: the will of the majority and a trend of inclusion of the normative base, political fundaments and the all the currents and influences in the political life field application of the theoretical concepts, of will surely dominate the MENA region, as will the humanitarian war in this case. From this point of relevance of the public perception formed through view, our analysis reveals a rather unique solution, free media, internet and socializing networks respectively the rebound from voluntarism do, generated by the growth of the virtual to the classical rules of international law, i.e. community’s role in the entire world. a transition from Bush Jr.’s neo-conservatism , But maybe more important than the real course through Obama’s internationalist liberalism to of the events is becoming their impact and sig- political conformist neo-realism in the US and nification in the course of contemporary inter- from the manifest revengeful authoritarism of national relations, of the evolution tendencies August 2008 and the Russian revisionism of the of the international relations’ nature, in an era of new European security plans and implementation turbulences and excessive contemporary tectonic- of the euro-asiatism to an apparent volunteer ity. For the war in Libya, NATO’s operations and conformism in Moscow’s case. others associated to them have made a reference As for the European Union, the post-modernism to some fundamental themes and concepts which characteristic to the institutional construction are very popular in the contemporary international was balanced with a value-based neo-realistic relations, ranging from R2P – „responsibility to utilitarianism–resulting from the need to readjust protect”, a retrieved fundamental principle of the the financial crises, from the budgetary deficits but UN, although formulated in an era in which the also from the detection of the real hard power’s resources and the will for such interventions are limits which hasn’t doubled for a long time now missing more and more – to humanitarian inter- the impression of the soft power professed by ventions, the concept to which the international Brussels, even when it is about a revival of the community appealed when it started to discuss the promotion of the fundamental values of the Union, situation in Libya. at least outside the relation with the Russian Naturally, in the theoretical discussion and Federation or its space of interests –but which in the calming of the fears of interventionism’s denotes itself amendable immediately after the rivals of any kind – especially the Russian Libya episode again in terms of conformist neo- Federation, China, but also Germany, this time, not realism, when it discovers, in reality, the lack of to mention the more supportive conglomerate of European capabilities to face a ‚long war’, even in the BRIC/BRICS countries – entered the famous its neighbourhood. question why Libya, with the reinstatement in the foreground of the resource war, for oil respectively. 1. Libya in the protests’ sign. From peaceful But if here the answers and the dispute are demonstrations to repression, civil war and classical – we are not interested in oil, we had international military intervention the majority of the contracts, it was easier to do business with a well-known Gaddafi than with 1.1. Situation on the ground an instable and unpredictable democratic regime In order to be able to enter the concrete analysis’ contrary to some arguments of the type - blow the sign of the events in Libya, we must notice more oil prices, it is fine with us because we are the and more the impossibility of simplification, producers, undermine the global economic growth process that is so useful for the polarisation and especially in your part of the world, reproaches support of a conflict by the modern societies, and arguments coming especially from Moscow because of the inherent complexity associated and Beijing – of major interest for us become with such a conflict. The complexity becomes

102 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 POINTS OF VIEW more and more from corollary of crisis situations, Also before the protest movements’ outbreak, an attribute harder to ignore in a ultra-publicised, Muammar Gaddafi was a good ally of the Wets, perception-based world. of the US especially, but of France as well, in So, if at a global level, the great experts of combating international terrorism, more the world amend today the economic models precisely of the Al Qaeda franchises, this time with feed-back mechanisms and tinting based Al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb. This constant on the public’s perception – that can determine fight, with relevance in Algeria, the South of major falls in confidence, changes in consumer Morocco, Western Sahara, Mali and Mauritania, behaviour, terrible crashes or, on the contrary, has permitted the leadership in Tripoli to improve profit increases of some companies or others – and its file tarnished by the support offered to global in the domain of international crisis, of violent terrorist movements, the fostering of various conflicts, perception comes to amend the same groups training on Libyan territory and by the realities and to affect a logical determinism or a Lokerbie episode, as well as by the attack on the decision obtained on an optimal causal chain. American soldiers in a disco in Berlin. This has affected, as such, the decision in the What is more, at his positive file appeared the case of Libya, as well, as some states, including disclosure of his own nuclear program, the drop Romania, stayed on hold, considering more out from the attainment of the nuclear weapon and attentively one segment or another of the responses the exposure of Iran’s nuclear programs and of the from the field to shape the reality, the definition of private network of A. Q. Khan, the famous father the problem and, obviously, shaping the optimal of the Pakistani nuclear weapon. This role in solution. combating the global nuclear proliferation brought This because in Libya we dealt with him additional positive points and contributed as overlapping events’ typologies with extremely well to Gaddafi’s posture of frequentable leader fine demarcation lines and which required in the past years, as well as with his arming with arsenals of instruments and approaches of weapons, especially French. distinct political and military nature, some of From now on we enter the overlapping realities them radically different; hence the difficulty of proposed by the current situation in Libya, which positioning. So, in Libya, before the detaching of started with peaceful street protests, of democratic street protests influenced by the situation in the essence, with a major impact and that were neighbouring countries and the lack of horizon threatening to peacefully overthrow the regime. of the 42 year immovable governance, we had to The reaction was tough and it determined armed deal with a secessionist movement in the Eastern reactions as well as summoning the mercenaries1 zone, in Cyrenaica, unto Tripolitania, the Western because of the regime breach2. Some categories zone. It was determined by the historical memory of armed forces got out of control, some ministers of col. Muammar Gaddafi’s coup against the abandoned the ship and have chosen the formula former king, originating from this region. of the National Transition Committee (NTC) in However, the secessionism was not perfect, as Benghazi, others deserted in different capitals there existed other regions as well having problems where they were accredited, and this regime breach in relation to Muammar Gaddafi, given especially gave the most important impetus to the riots and by the formulas of tribal alliances, between his their potential success. This phenomenon also tribe and other tribes, which left outside or at the generated the appeal to the mercenaries especially periphery of the power other tribes situated in from the neighbouring Chiad, and triggered the other regions, some of them even at the frontier violent repression in the street. with Tunisia, others situated fundamentally in the Overall, the violent reaction of the regime has Western zone of Libya, such as Misrata/Misurata. determined two phenomena: the repression and the In this secessionist geography, the location of withdrawal of the demonstrators from the street the oil reserves played an important role as well, and the attack on the arms’ deposits, especially although the major zone of processing was placed in the areas already declared as associated to by the Libyan leader in the West, although the the rebel movement, in the Eastern area. Here, majority of the resources are rather in the East, paradoxically, an important role has been played the majority being still under his control. by the institutional structure of Libya, constructed

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 103 POINTS OF VIEW under Gaddafi, Jamahiria – the society without military attacks of the regime, and “to protect a state, where Gaddafi is playing the role of civilians” by “all necessary measures” – article 4 “spiritual leader and guide”, and he has no formal of the resolution – as well as the interdiction “of posture, no state position. So, the local councils an occupation through the troops entering on the of the big cities – separated by hundreds and ground”. thousands of straight highway, through the desert, The normative base was, therefore, established: in the open field – could overtake the complete we find ourselves in the classical framework of control and arm the civilians. the concept of the responsibility to protect the And so, in a confirmation of Mckinder’s classical civilians in the war zone, the protection towards the geopolitics, we find ourselves in a fatality of the repressions of an abusive regime, but also towards geography which has imposed the political an intervention with a profound humanitarian structure of the state where the mistaken idea character, drawn from the related doctrine. This of a leader has already diminished the force of a level of the international relations Hanoi tower state in favour of the local administrations, thing was complete, although, after explaining the also favoured by the tribal organisation and by the political level, we shall see that it was not fully lack of the statal bond in Libya. Worse, the same complete. geography has permitted the access to resources, At the level of the decision and manifest including military ones, and to the arming of the political will, it is evident to include concrete civilians, moment from which we could speak of elements of Libya’s bi and multi-lateral relations a civil war in Libya. with the international community and with third Unfortunately, all these phenomena and states5. Therefore, the decision upon the fact that events overlap. Protest demonstrations and Gaddafi had to leave became evident on two levels: repressions went on occurring, there were fights on the one hand, the context of the changes in the between authorities and rebels, and there still are Arab world, which claim the need of relaunching separatist tendencies, of at least one part of the hope, of inclusion in the power structures and Benghazi Council, as the situation has passed to some democratic forms transferred and adapted to intervention formulas quantified by the UN. the best to the specific horizon of these states, and The overlapping of these events also gave rise on the other hand the need to respect the Security to different reactions – enhanced by particular Council’s Resolutions, in their letter and spirit. experiences – of some countries, of international The authorisation of the international institutions and their overlapping continues to community’s operations gave rise to numerous affect the unity of thought, as well as that of action variants of action. First came to the fore the of the international community. unilateral voluntarism, especially of France6, followed immediately by that of Great Britain. 1.2. The normative base and the manifest The explanations are diverse and reside in political will the historic memory, in the complexity of the If we are to enter now the normative base and relations Paris-Tripoli – from the liberation of political reactions’ area, we could approach the the Pakistani doctor and the Bulgarian nurses tensions between the two levels of manifestation. accused of infecting Libyan children with AIDS We had, therefore, the Resolution 1970, whose and condemned to death, by the former Madame effect was the prohibition of the arms’ delivery Sarkozy, in the first year of presidential mandate, – an embargo – but also the prohibition of with the respective non-public costs assumed by mercenaries’ entrance in Libya, the aim being France, the luxurious visit and the emplacement to limit the repression. A month later, the UN of Gaddafi’s tent on Champs Elisées, the weapons Security Council Resolution 1973 - voted with the supply, technique and know how, probably in the abstention of Russia – based on its own games3, of same price, so that the subsequent claims from China – out of principle, and of Germany – to cap Paris to be ignored by Gaddafi when it came to opinion differences at European level4, not only giving up his position. the usual differences - marked both the need of The immediate attacks of France, after the introducing an area of flight exclusion –“no flight adoption of the Resolution 1973 demonstrated zone”, to protect civilians from the repressive the voluntarist approach of Paris, beginning

104 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 POINTS OF VIEW from the „civilians’ protection” in Misrata and the aircraft defence, aerodromes and the NFZ, lately rebels’ fiefs, directly involvement in a civil war, on authorizing even armed drones in Libya8, however the rebels’ side, after the unilateral recognition of passing the primordial responsibility to Europeans the Benghazi Council as the “single representative and marching on the command transfer to NATO. of the Libyan people”. Then, the attacks upon the command centres in or about the residencies of the 1.3. Political problems of the intervention in Libyan leader have permitted the interpretations Libya of the actions as the will to hunt Gaddafi. These There are three intercurrent problems at reactions had nothing to do with the spirit of the political level: one residing in the relations Resolutions and were betraying the political will between different actors, especially the US and contrary to international law, which determined the European actors, and sharing responsibilities, the distance of some of the European states and NATO second residing in the legitimate commandment members, but especially the reactions of the Arab of the operations and the strict framing in the states, of the Arab League and the African Union. limits of the Security Council’s resolutions, and The gesture and intervention of France allowed, the third is an internal affair which rises problems however, the blocking of the rebel troops’ defeat concerning the potential armament deliveries by Gaddafi and decimating the opposition, but to rebalance the relation of forces. Hence, the with a high cost, unilaterally assumed. US has been retractile and indecisive at first, Great Britain joined France as a political will, refusing a new interventionist episode required from national reasons, the Lockerbie affair having by the Europeans – especially by France. Then left deep unhealed wounds, but with more nuanced they intervened forcefully, rapidly solving the interpretations of the rules normatively proposed major problems, passing subsequently, at a later by the Security Council’s resolutions. Great moment, the responsibility and the command to Britain officially saw article 4 of the Resolution the Europeans. 1973 as allowing the delivery of equipment others The US has learned from the lessons of Irak and than weapons, even defensive weapons for rebels, Afghanistan, but also from those of the crisis. It is not being contrary – because of the succession good to be moralist and well-seen in the world, – to the weapon delivery interdiction advanced as a defender of the values, when, if something by Resolution 1970. Moreover, this last resolution happens in the world, you call out for the US does not forbid the presence of ground troops, to intervene militarily, but you accuse them of but only occupation, so special forces groups unilateralism or imperatively ask them to consult ensuring military and technical guidance, as well you when you have no contribution on the field or as organising of the rebels, can be sent, in virtue the theme addressed does not suit you. The US do of this interpretation. not want this role anymore, having supplementary Even if it accepts the two interpretations in costs, they have not declined, eventually, their the light of open options, Great Britain does not global responsibilities, but they have passed the appeal to them, so it does not deliver weapons, command of operation to the Europeans9. This it has not sent troops to assist the rebels7, it does gesture’s relevance and effects were the major not formally recognize but it dialogues with the implication of the Europeans in the operations, National Transition Council (NTC) and it supports the sharing of the expenses, the acknowledging it through guidance, telecommunications and of these costs and the objective ascertaining the annex material. The political will of removing lack of capabilities, reason for the US to claim Gaddafi is present, but its manifestation is within the abidance by the informal commitment amidst the limits of Resolution 1973. NATO of allocating 2% of the GDP for the military Ultimately, the most expected position was that domain. of the United States. In the same terms – although Passing of the operations’ command president Barack Obama has discussed armament towards NATO10 was a consistent political delivery, guidance and even the possibility of gesture, but with many problems, of two types: the intervention on the ground – he rejected the France desired the independence of the operations alternatives, for the moment, sticking to direct and the preservation of its unilateral voluntarist intervention and solving the radar problems, anti- plan, not the subordination to the NAC decision,

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 105 POINTS OF VIEW and the adherence to the rules of the Resolution of the theoretical precepts and the transposition 1973, while Turkey had major reserves regarding in reality of the manifest political will. This the implication in the intervention in Libya – gives the substantial limits of an “immaculate surpassed immediately after it has been offered a intervention”, in strict conformity with the concept role and a commandment, with a major relevance and the theoretical limits of the intervention, even for the impact and legitimacy of the action11, in the case of a humanitarian war. especially through the joining in the effort of a number of four Arab states. Romania has fought 2. Crimes against humanity as a motivation for this payoff that allowed the re-entrance in an for war, from the concept to the practical area of normality at political level. This gesture application: the mandate and the temptation of of assumption of the individual states’ operations voluntarism under NATO canopy and command, with the strict adherence to the Security Council’s Resolutions Crimes against humanity and the humanitar- has represented, in fact, the quintessence of the ian wars are not a new category. Although we come-back from the temptation of voluntarism were accustomed to wars determined by interests to the conformation to the international law – authority, resources, or ideology – religious or rules, and respectively to the conformist neo- secular, the “good” described for one society or realism. another in order to direct and coagulate wishes The third problem of political nature, related to and to polarize the wills, the humanitarian wars the internal security and the evolutions in Libya have their relevance and the constant presence in after the protests, refers to armament delivery12. the international law, but especially in the recent It has become clear that Al Qaeda from the Islamic practice. Obviously the purity of a motivation/ Maghreb has taken advantage of the anarchy cause of the war is arguable –referring to resourc- created by the protests, and by the striking of the es – especially because there are numerous similar civil war and has managed to acquire important situations where there is no intervention. quantities of weapons13, which were deposited, The motivation of the lack of resources for according to the statements, especially in the an intervention, of the major costs in crisis or of Western Sahara14,15. Here can be found also the absence of the interest of the strong states’ ground-to-air missiles which can affect the air community, with capabilities, is hard to defend, no traffic in the region of the Mediterranean Sea16 matter how real, because it fundamentally attacks and the costs of such an imprudence - of providing both the principle of human solidarity and that of Libya with this kind of capabilities, then losing equal treatment of the states. The contemporary them by attacking the armament deposits1717 18- neo-realist approach show, cynically though, the may cost in time. reality of these motivations. As a matter of fact it has been rumoured that beside the rebels, there are operative Al Qaeda 2.1. Humanitarian interventions in the past fighters, which was denied by the Benghazi The genocide and the crimes against humanity, Council1918. What is sure is that the arming of as a moral motivation of the military intervention, the rebel forces creates this major problem of the appear as far back as Kosovo, when the desire possibility to control the final user and of spreading was to suppressing and preventing new human the weapons to civilians, from where resides the sufferings caused by legitimately established diffidence of political nature, not only normative, leadership of a state. The arrest of a government, of the international community, in the cases where of an authority, from committing mass crimes is a an interpretation of the matters already exists. precept sanctioned by the UN and encompassed If, normatively, the bases for open options in the short list of the motivations for the in support of the Libyan rebels are insured and international community’s interventions, politically the problematic of complex nature as it is the case in Libya. A classical case is the can be nuanced and interpreted, maybe the most intervention of the American military troops in relevant argument is given by the third level of the organisation of the Haiti airport and of the the Hanoi Tower, the fabric of the international humanitarian help arrived by air to Haiti, after the relations, respectively the practical application last devastating earthquake.

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We also enlisted a smooth sliding of the system, 2.2. The doctrine and the conceptual limitations of relations and of the international law, from of the “immaculate intervention” shared, but broken rules, to voluntarism, rules In Sudan, for example, at Darfur, we deal with forcing and even the temptation of the normative a president already condemned for genocide, who revisionism. Hence, we can talk about different avoids the punishment decided by a Court of the degrees of voluntarism, even guilty voluntarism international community because he does not and revisionist politics, actually, in cases such as recognize this International Criminal Court - a the ‘90s intervention in Somalia, to prevent the gesture of national sovereignty; hence the practical famine and the convoy of humanitarian aids, or difficulties of applying these provisions. Usually, that in Haiti, to eliminate a repressive and corrupt the massacre or the genocide, repression is directed regime which was creating sufferings to its own against a minority that opposes the majority that population, down to the second category, with gives legitimacy to the presidential election – or the intervention of the Russian Federation in the to the toleration of the regime. Preventing the Russo-Georgian war, in August 2008, on a pseudo- minority slaughtering by the legitimate authority intervention to an ethnical genocide, built on the implies the contraposition of the sovereignty Kosovo model, to resolve a problem of ambition principle to that of the right of humanitarian and interventionist, revisionist politics, in intervention, hence the difficulty to determine, relation to the borders consented by the OSCE. theoretically, but especially practically, the clear, The clear distinction which imposes itself is certain demarcation lines. that between intervention on humanitarian grounds The “immaculate intervention”20, claimed by of a third party and peace-keeping missions. In the respecting in letter and spirit the rules and the pro- second case it is about observing and keeping of visions of the normative documents that author- an agreement between the two parties, pre-existing ize the humanitarian intervention, doesn’t exist and supervised by force of arms, first theneutrality in reality. This is also the current case, in which and protection of the civilians and victims; hence France made a great show of zeal and excessive the complexity of practice at this level. voluntarism, having particular interests to force Thus, we already have a very thin line, in the Gaddafi’s discharging, in the framework of pro- case of the war in Libya, between the peaceful tecting the civil society, even armed and engaged protests, repression and the rights of the attacked in a civil war, but its intervention protected the civilians to defend themselves, including by opposition in the rebel cities from being slaugh- attacking the deposits and weapons procurement, tered, while the cease fire claimed by Gaddafi was but from here to civil war there is a very small step, a cover to continue the attacks and fights inside as there is a very fine balance betweenprotecting the cities, sheltered by the human shields of vari- the civilians or the oppressed and intervention ous civilians involved in the confrontations. Fur- in favour of one party, in a civil war. The thermore, if the attack and elimination of Gaddafi complexity has, still, a procedural explanation, intervened, the conviction would not have been as well as one arising from past experiences and made ​​for hunting the Libyan leader, as it appears sequelae of the past that we carry on even to this today, when this operation failed. day and which alter our judgment in the case of In this context, the NATO operations’ limits these “border” events. are worth mentioning, from the maritime limit Hence, crimes against humanity and the most of applying the Resolution 1970, of blocking famous genocides confess, in practice, the adverse the armament traffic and mercenaries, to that experiences of opportune and in time non- of applying Resolution 1973, introducing the intervention, from the Holocaust in the Second flight interdiction and protecting the civilians World War to the genocide in Rwanda or at by any measures. Obviously the intervention is Srebrenica, in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Nobody even more restrictive in the context of the last intervened to prevent or stop the atrocities, documents adopted at the Lisbon NATO summit fact assumed by the international community in 2010, where in the New Strategic Concept as a moral failure. There from appeared the and in the final Document of the NATO-Russia humanitarian interventionism in order to Summit is reaffirmed the North Atlantic Treaty prevent such carnage. principle marking the pre-eminence of the UN

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Resolutions and of the United Nations as an organization required to take responsibility for the 3. Libya’s Perspective: a way out situation of the international interventions, except the notable case of common defence, of article The perspectives in Libya are not necessarily 5, where the Alliance reserves its right to react simple to distinguish today, because the immediately, also based on the UN Charter, but in intervention is at the beginning and negotiations self-defence or against an external aggressor. that exclude the maintenance of Gaddafi and his Reaffirming these principles in 2010, in the family or guarantees for them have been doubled by context of the reset and revival of the relations with the inclusion at the contact group meeting in Doha the Russian Federation – the motto of this summit of representatives of the National Transitional – underlines the Alliance’s interest in respecting Council (TNC) from Benghazi. But some lessons – in letter and spirit – the international provisions learned by the international community play an regarding interventionism, but also the mandates important role in the evolution. formulated and assumed by the international Thus, cases of premature withdrawal and community. NATO’s command taking of the failure almost universally recognised in Somalia, Libya operations represents, as highlighted above, the Iraq 1 case of “unfinished businesses” that an inclination to neorealist conformism, but it later claimed for a new intervention against Saddam cannot limit the actions of the Alliance on the Hussein, but also the Iraq 2 and Afghanistan level of “immaculate intervention”. cases, when international intervention has fallen The clearest motivation and reasoning for into a “long war” with a “nation building” or at this is given by the situation on the ground. least a “state building” component have marked Thus, we deal with an almost clear case of flight any further intervention of the international ban, a formula to protect the rebel civilian areas community. against the heavy weapon military intervention, The options are fairly predictable: either there but this does not protect the cities where urban is a change in the nature and course of the war guerrilla fighting takes place21 – where the or there is a negotiated withdrawal of the current intervention involves collateral civilian casualties authorities without any engaged direct guarantees, – nor from direct interventions of Gaddafi’s loyal or there is a stand-off recorded as soon as possible troops, possibly an irregular army, militia and in order to avoid wasting resources. The alternative pro-Gaddafi civilians armed with light weapons. is the long war, which the US rejected when it The tendency to intervene in these cases has led to handed over the initiative and that Europe cannot attacks on insurgents in tanks or armoured cars or afford because it has no capabilities of carrying attacks on happy civilians, who were greeting the it. These alternatives were claimed because the Alliance’s air planes with gunshots in the air. rebels appear to have neither the resources, will, In these circumstances, NATO is in a position knowledge, ideology nor the leaders to carry of choosing between passively assisting at the out their own war26 and to remove Gaddafi and attacks in Misrata/Misurata, inside the city22, at his clan, and that is why they require more and repressions on peaceful demonstrations in Tripoli more vigorous interventions of the international and other towns, or at conquering, step by step, the community, even the land intervention which they rebel cities by Gaddafi’s troops and loyal militias originally vehemently rejected27, in the absence of – armed and well prepared – and to intervene on opportunities to defeat Gaddafi, on the short and one side in a civil war, fighting against Gaddafi even medium term. directly, or by introducing ground troops23. And Under these conditions, the formulas that the this because the maximum that NATO can expect international community disposes range from the today from the developments on ground in Libya is gradual escalation of the intervention – with a split of Libya in two, the Eastern rebel zone and the introduction of new and new items, special the Western loyalist24 zone, but here the financial operations, training and state-building at the sustainability of such a partition and ensuring the rebels level – to humanitarian intervention security of the separatist region creates major and corridors, allowing either the presence problems as the oil wells25 are still placed under of troops on the ground, including with their the control of Gaddafi’s Libyan authorities. engagement in the separation of the parties and

108 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 POINTS OF VIEW the defence of a “civil”, “suppressed”28party, or motivation for intervention. Once this step is an intervention with absolute powers, meaning done, we can enter the classical diagram of post- a direct intervention, with full force and the rapid conflict reconstruction and of a democratic fabric elimination of the Gaddafi regime. in Libya. To conclude, whether we are in the wake of The lessons learned in the past show that the a “long war”, resource-consuming, or just of the first variant is unlikely to be accomplished, after post-conflict reconstruction, those who entered the non-interventionism and the abstinence Libya did it to stay, and the intervention on the marked by the US, and even the rejection of the ground is indispensable, with a Security Council arms’ deliveries and of other land operations on resolution or the interpretation and use of existing behalf of Barack Obama, who will soon enter an ones. Anyway, this pudicity unparalleled in the electoral year. The second one would require, in international relations in the last decade, which the current context of the conformist neo-realism, requires an international normative sanction before a new resolution of the Security Council stating any other gesture, clearly shows the return from that Gaddafi did not cease fire, but has continued voluntarism to the classical rules of international the attacks and repressions on the civilians29 and law, with the major effects on how the future he must be eliminated, respectively condemned international relations will be drawn, between for crimes against humanity. Unfortunately, even power politics and the formal observance of the this solution has a minimum probability of being international law rules, but also the temptation obtained, so there should be someone fast enough and revisionist tendency to change and adapt and with sufficiently large resources to intervene them to own ideals, intention doomed to fail in abruptly, shortly, assuming the voluntarist the predictable future. gestures’ costs, but the effect is hardly predictable; what is more, it would involve an actual breaking BIBLIOGRAPHY: off between the population and Gaddafi, fact that appears to be less obvious in the last weeks. We 1. Derek Henry FLOOD, Special Report from are not excluding de plano and obviously, nor Inside Libya: Assessing Libyan Rebel Forces, the outcome of some negotiations30 which would Jamestown Foundation – March 3, 2011. mark the withdrawal of the leader and his family, 2. Derek Henry FLOOD, After Ajdabiya: in acceptable conditions. Libya’s Under-Armed Rebels in Turmoil, Unfortunately, not even such a relatively quick Jamestown Foundation – March 16, 2011. result guarantees a strong and clear succession 3. Derek Henry FLOOD, Objective Sirte: to the leadership of the country. Things can very Gains and Setbacks Among Libya’s Rebel Forces, quickly fall into anarchy and lack of leadership, Jamestown Foundation – March 9, 2011. and a democratic construction may last, although 4. George FRIEDMAN, Immaculate it is the only one that can claim full legitimacy. Intervention: The Wars of Humanitarianism, Reality flows in any case, if not necessarily in the Stratfor, Stratfor, April 5, 2011. direction of a “long war”, towards the assumption 5. George FRIEDMAN, The Libyan War of of the task of post-conflict reconstruction and 2011, Stratfor, March 19, 2011. state-building in Libya, fact that recomposes 6. Andrew MCGREGOR, It Didn’t Start This the Golgotha path made in Irak, at least, that is a Way, But It’s a War For Oil Now, Jamestown long foreign presence in the field, in one form or Foundation – April 18, 2011. another, and a costly assistance for the reforms. 7. John MOORE, How a Libyan No-fly Zone This version seems to be the best, most credible Could Backfire, Stratfor, March 8, 2011. and feasible, since Libya has enough oil resources 8. Ian O. LESSER, Libya’s revolution: Strategic to sustain such an enterprise. More than that, it stakes for transatlantic partners, Transatlantic should be retained that, since the “hypocrisy of Trends, April, 2011. altruism” that launched this campaign, based on 9. Vladimir SOCOR, Moscow Positioning To different interests and personal motivations, the Exploit Libya Stalemate, Eurasia Daily Monitor, international community has to redirect its efforts April 18. towards the task of maintaining international 10. Vladimir SOCOR, Russia Unveils Political

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Objectives In Libya, Eurasia Daily Monitor, April from Gaddafi’s regime is good news for the rebels and 18. good news for us’, stated Rogers. But it is not sufficient 11. Scott STEWART, Will Libya Again Become for supplying arms to the Libyan Opposition, he also the Arsenal of Terrorism?, Stratfor, March 10, said. (…)” 2011. 3�������������������������������������� Vladimir SOCOR, Moscow Positioning To Exploit Libya Stalemate, Eurasia Daily Monitor, April 12. Philippe WOJAZER, European Disunity 18; Vladimir Socor, Russia Unveils Political Objectives on Lybia, Stratfor, March 12, 2011. In Libya, Eurasia Daily Monitor, April 18. 13. Scott STEWART, Libya’s Terrorism 4��������������������������������������� Philippe WOJAZER, European Disunity on Option, Stratfor, March 23, 2011. Libya, Stratfor, March 12, 2011. 14. Mahmud TURKIA, Libya Crisis: 5������ Idem. Implications of the Cease-Fire, Stratfor, March 6��������������������������������������������� Ian O. LESSER, Libya’s revolution: Strategic 18, 2011|. stakes for transatlantic partners, Transatlantic Trends, 15. The Libyan Battle for Misurata: A Special April, 2011. Report, Stratfor, April 21, 2011. 7 “British Prime Minister, David CAMERON 16. The Problem with Arming the Libyan declared that NATO and its allies must turn up the military pressure in Libya, but it should not deploy troops. Rebels, Stratfor, March 30, 2011. Cameron said the UN Security Council resolutions 17. Red Alert: Libyan Forces Approach forbids terrestrial invasion, adding that neither Great Benghazi, Stratfor, March 19, 2011. Britain, nor the world states or the Libyans want such a scenario.” ‘BBC Scotland’, 21.04.2011. NOTES: 8�������������������������������������������� “The President of the United States, Barack Obama, has approved the use of armed ‘Predator’ drones 1����������������������������������������������� “Outside the town of al-Aghela, residents told in Libya, Defence Secretary Robert Gates said, on 21 the author that nationals from Mali, Chad and Niger April 2011”, Robert GATES: the US will use ‘Predator’ (from the northern Nigerién city of Agadez) had been drones in Libya, The New York Times, 23 April. imported to fight for the regime. These mercenaries 9 “Transatlantic relations are being tested by the were brought to the Libyan town of Sebha, the U.S.’s refusal to lead the military mission in Libya, with principal city of the Fezzan region, then transported to figures on both sides of the ocean depicting the conflict various fronts across the country.” Derek Henry Flood, as a wake-up call for Europe’s military and political Objective Sirte: Gains and Setbacks Among Libya's establishments. Britain and France are straining to fill Rebel Forces, Jamestown Foundation – March 9, 2011; the gap left by Washington’s decision to pull back, as “According to a witness who arrived behind rebel lines Europe’s military ambitions are tested. The Pentagon after escaping RasLanuf, Tripoli’s soldiers consisted of said on Tuesday that it had flown 1,600 sorties since three distinct groups: Professional soldiers and officers operations began on March 19 and would no longer from Sirte and Tripoli who remained loyal to Qaddafi be involved in air strikes against Libyan targets. (...) and feared persecution in a new, rebel-controlled Libya; Defence experts maintain that the U.S. move has a Clans like the al-Ah’soun and Awlad Suleiman who had longer-term significance, since it signals that Europeans been press ganged into service having been told their cannot rely on Washington to provide security in crises families would suffer and they would be killed if they in their neighborhood.(...) Nicholas Burns, a former refused to fight; and the aforementioned mercenaries U.S. ambassador to NATO, added that Washington who had reportedly been trained to fight regional proxy (…) welcomed the Franco-British lead in Libya. (…)”, wars against the regime’s enemies du jour elsewhere in Daniel DOMBEY, James BLITZ, Europe’s military Africa.” Derek Henry FLOOD, Objective Sirte: Gains ambitions, challenged by the US withdrawal from and Setbacks Among Libya's Rebel Forces, Jamestown operations in Libya, Financial Times (Great Britain) Foundation – March 9, 2011. 06.04.2011. “Following the defection of two Libyan pilots to 10��������������������������������������������� Ian O. LESSER, Libya’s revolution: Strategic Malta at the start of the troubles, Qaddafi has reportedly stakes for transatlantic partners, Transatlantic Trends, outsourced aerial assaults on his subjects to Serbian April, 2011. and Syrian pilots”, http://af.reuters.com/article/ 11��������������������������������������� “D. CAMERON: (...) “I’m glad to announce today commoditiesNews/idAFWEA675320110305. that Turkey will have a seat at the International Contact 2 ��������������������������������������������Mike ROGERS, Chairman of the House Permanent Group that will coordinate our policies towards Libya. Select Committee on Intelligence, welcomed the We’ve also agreed to establish a joint humanitarian aid resignations of several leaders of Muammar Gaddafi’s unit in Ankara to address the most urgent needs of the regime, including that of Foreign Affairs Minister, people of Libya”, Joint Press Conference by British Moussa Koussa. (…) ‘Every time someone resigns Prime minister, David Cameron, and Turkish Prime

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Minister, RecepTayip Erdongan, BBC World (Great 15���������������������������������������������� „The countries in the Sahel region, headed by Britain), 31.03.2011. Algeria, launched a warning about the fact that it is 12 The Problem with Arming the Libyan Rebels, possible that Al Qaeda in Islamic Maghreb (AQMI) Stratfor, March 30, 2011; “R.T. Erdogan: with regard purchased heavy weapons from Libya, especially to arming the rebels, we are against this. We do not ‘Sam-7’ ground-to-air missiles. In an interview with agree with this possibility (...). In our opinion, this the weekley 'JeuneAfrique', Chadian Prime Minister could create conditions conducive to terrorism and it Idriss Deby stated that 'the Islamist extremists have could be dangerous. (...)”, Joint Press Conference by taken advantage of the robberies at the arsenals in British Prime minister, David Cameron, and Turkish the rebel areas to supply themselves with weapons, Prime Minister, RecepTayip Erdongan, BBC World including ground-to-air missiles, which they have (Great Britain), 31.03.2011; „The United states do not afterwards illegally transported in Sahara.' Hence, in have enough information about rebel force in Libya Chiad president’s opinion, AQMI is about to become to arm them, stated, on 3 April 2011, Mike Rogers, a real army, the best equipped in the region.’ Chiad, Chairman of the House Permanent Select Committee Mauritania and Algeria have strengthened their security on Intelligence”, CNN International (United States of forces at the borders to control terrorist movements that America), 04.04.2011. drift from Libya to their territories. In turn, the rebel 13“Al Qaeda is exploiting the conflict in Libya to forces in Benghazi have always denied that there are acquire weapons, including surface-to-air missiles, infiltrations by Al Qaeda in their midst. (...)”,Giampaolo and smuggle them to a stronghold in northern Mali, a Musumeci, Libia, Al-Qaeda against Gaddafi, the entire security official from neighboring Algeria told Reuters. Sahel in state of alarm, Panorama (Italy), 11-17 April The official said a convoy of eight trucks left eastern 2011. Libya, crossed into Chad and then Niger, and from 16������������������������������������������� Scott Stewart, Will Libya Again Become the there into northern Mali where in the past few days it Arsenal of Terrorism?, Stratfor, March 10, 2011. delivered a cargo of weapons. According to the source, 17 “The German Federal Intelligence service the weapons included Russian-made RPG-7 anti-tank (BND) fears a consolidation of the Islamist-terrorist rocket-propelled grenades, Kalashnikov heavy machine organization Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb, in the guns, Kalashnikov rifles, explosives and ammunition. context of the Libyan conflict. From now delineates According to the statement of the Algerian official, the possibility that Al-Qeda in the Islamic Maghreb to al Qaeda's North African wing, known as al Qaeda consolidate ‘by acquiring weapons – including very in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM), had acquired from modern weapons – from the army’s deposits’, stated Libya Russian-made shoulder-fired Strela surface-to- the chairman of BND, Ernst Uhrlau, to the publication air missiles known by the NATO designation SAM-7. 'Frankfurter AllgemeineSonntagszeitung' ('F.A.S.'). 'Several military barracks have been pillaged in eastern (...) Uhrlauwarned also about the possibility the long- Libya, with their arsenals and weapons stores and the term instability in Libya may favor the radicals. 'In the elements of AQIM who were present could not have situation of some conflicts similar to civil wars and of failed to profit from this opportunity', the Algerian an endangered public order there are always spaces official stated. According to the source, al Qaeda was left for the radical elements’, declaredUhrlau. What exploiting disarray among forces loyal to Libyan leader is more, the BND has information regarding the fact Muammar Gaddafi, and had also infiltrated the anti- that members of Al-Qaeda are trying to move from Gaddafi rebels in eastern Libya. The rebels deny any Afghanistan and Pakistan in Libya, to participate there ties to Al Qaeda., Al-Qaeda is exploiting the conflict in at fights against the Gaddafi regime. Overall, theAl- Libya to acquire weapons, states an Algerian official, Qaeda was surprised by the riots in North Africa, stated Reuters, 4 April 2011. Uhrlau.”, BND warns about a consolidation of Al- 14 „(...) The insurrection in Libya worries more and Qaeda, „Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung” (Germany), more Algeria and its neighbors in Sahel, all convinced Aprilie 23, 2011. that a good part of col. Muammar Gaddafi’s has now 18 American Admiral James Stavridis, NATO’s reached in the hand of Al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb supreme allied commander for Europe, stated that, (AQMI). (...) 'The threat is real and it is not at all according to last week intelligence, there were only exaggerated’, stated Eric DENECE, Chairman of the 'flickers' of Al-Qaeda in Libya, without having a French Center for Research on (CF2R), which carries significant role in this country’s riots. (...)” Al-Qaeda out a mission in Tripoli. The expert refuses, for the is exploiting the conflict in Libya to aquire weapons, moment, to declare more, waiting for the publication, states an Algerian official,Reuters, April 4, 2011. in approximately ten days, of the mission’s report, after 19������������������������������������������� Enunciation and concept introduced and described a next visit he will pay in Benghazi, the capital of the by George Friedman, Immaculate Intervention: The insurgents. ������������������������������������������(...)”, Alert in Sahel regarding Al-Qaeda, Wars of Humanitarianism, Stratfor, Stratfor, April 5, «L’Orient - Le Jour» (Liban), 09.04.2011. 2011.

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20����������������������������������� Derek���������������������������������� Henry FLOOD, After Ajdabiya: by Libyan rebels since the country's uprising began Libya’s Under-Armed Rebels in Turmoil, Jamestown two months ago. ‘We are calling for foreign forces to Foundation – March 16, 2011, Derek Henry FLOOD, protect our citizens', stated on April 19, 2011, Nouri Objective Sirte: Gains and Setbacks Among Libya’s Abdallah Abdel Aati, a member of Misrata's leadership Rebel Forces, Jamestown Foundation – March 9, committee. ‘We want the UN or NATO on the ground. 2011. This is not a Western occupation or colonialism. This is 21 John MOORE, How a Libyan No-fly Zone Could needed to protect our people’, he added. (…)”, Charles Backfire, Stratfor, March 8, 2011. LEVINSON, Rebels in Misrata call for foreign troops, 22 “���������������������������������������The�������������������������������������� White House asked the Pentagon and The Wall Street Journal (USA), April 20, 2011. Central Intelligence Agency to propose ways the U.S. 27���������������������������������������� “Our duty (…) under UN Security Council can ramp up its assistance to rebels battling Libyan Resolution 1973 is to protect civilians, (…) not to Col. Moammar Gadhafi- beginning with shipments remove Gaddafi by force. But it is impossible to imagine of nonlethal equipment such as communications gear, a future for Libya with Gaddafi in power. (…) It is and potentially escalating to large-scale transfers of unthinkable that someone who has tried to massacre his weapons. The administration is taking a cautious own people can play a part in their future government. approach because of doubts the ragtag opposition can (…)’, Barack OBAMA, David CAMERON, Nicolas turn the tide in Tripoli. According���������������������������� to one US military SARKOZY, We shall continue the attacks until Gaddafi official, arming���������������������������������������������� the rebels “is certainly an idea that’s leaves, The Times (Great Britain), April 15, 2011. being discussed”, but it remains a move officials would 28������ Idem. prefer to avoid. The Pentagon vehemently opposed this 29 „(...) French foreign minister Alain Juppe, stated idea. (…)”, Adam Entous, Kieth Johnson, USA weights that Libya wants to head itself towards ‘an armistice’ the possibility of adopting supplementary measures conditioned by a retreat of the troops of the Libyan in Libya, The Wall Street Journal (United States of regime from the cities that have been invaded.’ 'We wish America), April 24, 2011. to head towards an armistice, but with the condition that 23������ �����Idem. it will be a truly controlled one, not just a simple cease 24������������������������������������������� Andrew McGREGOR, It Didn't Start This Way, fire.’, said Alain Juppe during a press conference, at the But It's a War For Oil Now, Jamestown Foundation end of a Libya Contact Group reunion. (...) likewise, – April 18, 2011. Alain Juppe declared that Muammar Gaddafi should 25���������������������������������������������� Derek Henry FLOOD, Special Report from Inside give up power in Libya. 'The objective is very clear: Libya: Assessing Libyan Rebel Forces, Jamestown Gaddafi must leave, but we need a political solution’, Foundation – March 3, 2011. stated the French minister (...)”, Alain Juppe refers to a 26 „The leadership of the besieged rebel-held city conditional armistice in Libya, Le Point (France), April of Misrata called for the urgent intervention of foreign 14, 2011. ground forces to protect the citizens, the first such call

112 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 POINTS OF VIEW BARACK H. OBAMA’S VIEW ON GLOBAL SECURITY: A SHIFT IN THE US FOREIGN AND SECURITY POLICY?

Pavel NEČAS, PhD* Blažej LIPPAY** Stanislav SZABO, PhD***

The aim of this article is to analyze the extent to policy of President Obama administration has which US foreign and security policy has shifted shifted when compared to his predecessor, George under the presidency of Barack H. Obama. When W. Bush. US foreign and security policy of the first elaborating on this issue, authors have analyzed decade of the 21st century carried out by President National Security Strategy of the United States of George W. Bush is considered by many as one of America from 2010, which materializes President the most controversial periods of the US history. Obama’s foreign and security policy. The first part It was marked by neoconservative perception of of the article focuses its attention to President US foreign and security policy, which eventually Obama’s perception of the current strategic led the US into its military involvement in Iraq environment, which serves as a launching platform and Afghanistan, and which greatly shattered the for setting the US strategic interests. In the second US reputation even among its closest allies and part, the article elaborates on President Obama’s partners. security pillars on which he builds the strategy to With arrival of Barack H. Obama into office face current security environment. in 2008 many expected a change in US foreign Key-words: National Security Strategy 2010; and security policy. President Obama’s principles Strategic Environment; Security; Al-Qa’ida; on foreign and security policy have been Nuclear and Biological weapons; Middle East; materialized in the National Security Strategy of Secure Cyberspace. the United States of America from 2010 (NSS 2010). By studying NSS 2010, one can identify 1. Introduction that President Obama’s perception of US foreign and security policy, especially his approaches for The aim of this article is to analyze the extent to dealing with existing challenges are significantly which the United States (US) foreign and security different from his predecessor George W. Bush.

* Col. (GS, ret.) Assoc. Prof. Dipl. Eng. Pavel NEČAS, PhD ([email protected]), Armed Forces Academy of General Milan Rastislav Štefánik, Slovakia. ** 1st Lt. M. A., Blažej LIPPAY, ([email protected]), National Security Authority of the Slovak Republic. *** Major (ret.) Assoc. Prof. Dipl. Eng. Stanislav SZABO, PhD ����������������������������������([email protected]), Faculty of Aeronautics, Technical University of Košice, Slovakia.

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In order to prove this argument, the article will universal values at home and around the world; analyze President Obama’s perception of current an international order advanced by US leadership strategic environment, which serves as a launching promoting peace, security and opportunity through platform for setting US strategic interests. In stronger cooperation to meet global challenges. its second part, the article will elaborate on the However, when comparing NSS 2010 to security threats and challenges that arise from those from 2002 and 2006, the novelty of the the global security environment, which can be current administration is its strategic approach described as highly asymmetrical. on achieving these goals. President Obama has refused Bush doctrine, established on four 1.1. Obama’s perception of strategic neoconservative pillars aimed against existing environment and potential threats abroad, which included In characterizing current global security promotion of democracy by all available tools, environment, NSS 2010 goes in line with NSS of right for launching pre-emptive strikes, waging George W. Bush from 2002 and 2006. Generally the War on Terror and carrying out flexible said, it recognizes the fact that the development of deterrence. Instead, President Obama recognizes past 20 years has changed the world dramatically the importance of reshaping US foundation at in both positive and negative terms. The number home, pursuing comprehensive engagement with of democracies has expanded significantly. allies and partners abroad and promoting a just The chance of a massive nuclear exchange has and sustainable order as a universal solution to lowered significantly, yet it has not disappeared meet existing threats and challenges. completely. Historically, it is the era when major Under the term reshaping US foundation, powers coexist in peace. Economically speaking, President Obama underlines the importance of a the global economy and commerce have grown strong and healthy economy. It is the source of and attached the world together. Consequently, as its military power, the core of diplomatic and NSS 2010 points out, these developments enabled development efforts and it serves as a leading greater amount of people to grasp responsibility for source of its global influence. Additionally, the their own destiny. Naturally, these positive trends strong economy supports American jobs, forges have been accompanied by negative ones. In the links among nations, spurs global development, past two decades, the war of ideologies has been and as such, it contributes to a stable and peaceful replaced by wars of religious, tribal, and ethnic political and economic development of global identity. As already mentioned above, nuclear economy. These factors are currently essential proliferation has persisted. In terms of economical especially when, as the NSS 2010 recognizes, the affairs, social inequality and economic instability notion of security is moving beyond traditional has intensified enormously. At the same time, we distinctions between homeland and national have come to pay a closer attention to new trends security. National security draws on the strength such as environmental and food security, including and resilience of the citizens, communities, and issues related to the threats to public health. economy. In President Obama’s philosophy, this Analogously to Bush’s administration, includes a determination to prevent terrorist threat President Obama has declared the main goal by fully coordinated actions taken abroad with of the US National Security Strategy to assure precautions taken at home. American leadership in the 21st Century. In The solid foundation of the US leads to the order to meet this aim, the US possesses all the next principle, which is pursuing comprehensive necessary attributes such as well-built alliances, engagement. As it is stated by NSS 2010, an unmatched military, the world’s largest isolationism, or unilateral approach in US foreign economy, a strong and evolving democracy, and relations, never succeeded. On the other hand, a dynamic citizenry. These attributes have defined engagement, as an active participation of the US in its four top national interests, which are: security relationship beyond its borders, did. Engagement of the US, its citizens, as well as its allies and begins with US closest Allies, continues by partners; a strong, innovative, growing economy cooperating with other centres of influence such in an open international economic system as China, India, and Russia, and it ends with promoting opportunity and prosperity; respect for pursuing of partnership with those who wish to do

114 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 POINTS OF VIEW so. Another benefit of engagement is sending the 2. Security message to adversarial governments. Principally, it is the message of choice. It is either to accept At the beginning of this article, we have international norms and to achieve greater summarized the state of play of global integration, or to continue in its original pathway security environment as it is perceived by the and, consequently, to remain in isolation from the Administration of President Obama. Its general rest of international community. Furthermore, idea is that at the beginning of the 21st century the NSS 2010 states that an active engagement will security environment has changed dramatically. not limit itself only to other governments, but it Even by ignoring detailed listing of all kind of will also involve people around the world. The possible threats to the US security, the general benefit of engagement of people is such that it evaluation is such that boarders between external will help the US to thrive a global economy, while and domestic threats, so clear over past 100 years, building the goodwill and relationships that are has disappeared. Under such conditions, President invaluable to sustain the US leadership. Obama declared protecting the American people President Obama correctly recognizes that a to be his greatest responsibility. Furthermore, he comprehensive engagement will be successful embraces US unique responsibility to promote only when clear rules equal for everyone are put international security that will be based on close in place. In other words, theses clear rules mean cooperation with US allies and partners either on a promotion of just and sustainable international bilateral or multilateral levels. To achieve these order. The reason for just order is because it goals, Obama’s strategy lays on the following advances mutual interests, protects the rights pillars for sustaining security. of all, and holds accountable those who refuse to meet their responsibilities. The reason for 2.1. Strengthening Security and Resilience sustainable order is because it is based on broadly at Home shared norms and fosters collective action to Within its domestic territory, the US must address common challenges. That is the reason pursue a strategy capable of meeting the full why international law should be strengthened and range of threats and hazards to its communities, international institutions should be modernized. such as terrorism, natural disasters, large-scale Furthermore, international order must recognize cyber attacks and pandemics. In order to be able the increasing influence of an individual in meet these threats effectively, NSS introduces five contemporary world. methods to be implemented. In order to achieve the desired state of the The first method is to enhance security at home, world, the US must apply its strategic approach which relies on shared efforts to prevent and in pursuit of four enduring national interests. The deter attacks by identifying and interdicting the first and foremost national interest is security: threats, prevent hostile actors from carrying out not only of the US and its citizens, but also of their activities within national territory, protecting its allies and partners. The three other interests, critical infrastructure, key resources and securing which do not only derive from security, but which cyberspace. are also mutually interconnected to security The second method is effective management of include prosperity based on strong, innovative emergencies. This requires building of capabilities and growing economy in an open international that will reduce or eliminate long-term effects economic system; interest in values, which of large scale of disasters on people and their guarantees a respect for universal values at property. home and around the world and an international The third method is empowering communities order advanced by the US leadership, which will to counter radicalisation. Prevention of promote peace, security, and opportunity through radicalization will require implementation of stronger cooperation to meet global challenges. a large variety of different tools starting from The rest of the article will be dedicated to the first working with communities, by implementation US national interest – security. of different social and development programs and ending by conducting intelligence and empowering law enforcement agencies.

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The fourth method is flexibility through The US declares its will to leverage all available increased public-private partnership that will information and intelligence to disrupt attacks and strengthen the critical infrastructure for case of dismantle Al-Qa’ida, bringing terrorists to justice, general emergency and critical accident. This and acting in line with the rule of law. will require cooperation not only in post-accident stage, but also in pre-accident stage when major 2.3. Reverse the spread of Nuclear and infrastructure is being designed and constructed. Biological weapons and secure nuclear The fifth method is engaging with communities materials and citizens in order to provide them with clear NSS 2010 points out that with a rapid and reliable risk and emergency information. development of technologies in the globalised world, the US faces no gravest danger than 2.2. Disrupt, dismantle, and defeat Al- terrorists attack with a nuclear weapon. Moreover, Qa’ida and its violent extremist affiliates in international peace and security is threatened by Afghanistan, Pakistan, and around the world proliferation that could lead to nuclear exchange. In US efforts to wage a global campaign against The US efforts to contain these dangers are Al-Qa’ida and its affiliates, President Obama centred in a global non-proliferation regime that lists a range of methods to do so. These methods has frayed, as more people and nations break are of both domestic and foreign nature. It is to the rules. This is the reason for why reversing prevent attack on US territory by enlisting all the spread of nuclear weapons is a top priority its intelligence, law enforcement, and homeland for Obama’s administration. In order to face this security capabilities. priority effectively, NSS 2010 suggests several Secondly, it will require continuous methods to be applied. strengthening of aviation security at home and The US must pursue a world without nuclear abroad. weapons. Despite the fact that President Obama Denying terrorists weapons of mass destruction admits this goal to be rather ambitious, which (WMD) requires taking actions to safeguard will not be achieved during his administration, knowledge and capabilities in the life and chemical launching this effort will increase global security sciences that could be vulnerable to misuse. from a long run. Moreover, the US keeps its The fourth method is denying Al-Qa’ida the commitment under Non-proliferation Treaty ability to threat the US and its allies and partners. (NPT), builds its cooperation with Russia and the President Obama introduces three components other states, and it will increase the US credibility necessary to be applied in exercising this method. to hold other accountable for their obligations. These are: the US military as well as ISAF partners By strengthening the NPT, the US will seek targeting the insurgency, working to secure key to provide more resources and authority for population centres and increasing efforts to train international inspections. Strengthening the NPT Afghan National Army; working with the United will require developing a new framework for Nations and Afghan Government to improve civil nuclear cooperation in order to insist that accountable and effective governance, which all nations meet their obligations. Those who fail include US assistance to Afghan population in to meet their obligations under NPT must face form of support of human rights and development meaningful consequences. assistance; fostering relationship with Pakistan Besides these two methods, NSS 2010 intends founded upon mutual interest and mutual respect. to secure vulnerable nuclear weapons and material, The fifth method is denying safe havens and support peaceful nuclear energy and counter strengthening at risk states. This will not only biological threats. prevent terrorists from establishing their safe havens in failing states, but also the US readiness 2.4. Advance peace, security and opportunity to get establishing own networks of cooperation in the Greater Middle East in these kind of states. NSS 2010 declares the region of Middle East The sixth method is the most crucial one. It to be a key region for US interests. In the region, refers to establishing durable legal approaches the US has both its closest allies as well as its consistent with US security as well as its values. most harmful adversaries. Moreover, it is a central

116 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 POINTS OF VIEW region in which a struggle against terrorism is strengthening of capacity of security forces to fought. Thus, President Obama could not omit it guarantee internal security, protect from external in his NSS 2010. Obama’s strategy toward this threats, as well as strengthening the administrative region is based on three methods. and oversight capability of civilian security sector The first one is ending the combat operations institutions. in Iraq and completing a responsible transition, Prevention of emergence of conflict, which which will enable Iraq to become sovereign, helps diminish military risk, act before crises and stable, and self-reliant state. In order to achieve conflict erupt is another method of addressing this goal, the US will pass responsibility for Iraqi common security. This will require investing now security to Iraqis; foster and deepen US civilian in the capable partners of the future, building engagement in order to overcome the disturbance capacity to strengthen the foundation of common of war by providing assistance in a large variety of security and modernizing capabilities in order to fields including defence and security cooperation, be agile in the face of change. diplomatic and political cooperation, rule of law, science, health, education and economics; pursue 2.6. Secure Cyberspace of comprehensive engagement across the region Security of cyberspace is not a completely new to ensure US drawdown in Iraq will contribute to threat to which attention is being given by the advancing of security and sustainable development presidential administration. However, it is a first in the region. time when it has been given a separate chapter. Pursuing Arab-Israeli Peace is the second President Obama correctly points out that cyber- method of the strategy toward the Middle East; security threats represent one of the most serious the desire of the US is to have Israel and Palestine national security, public safety and economic to live side by side in peace and security. For this challenges the US faces. The threat that the US purpose the US will use not only its own political, faces in the field of cyberspace ranges from economic and military resources, but also individual criminal hackers to organized criminal international support. According to the US, any groups, from terrorist networks to advanced Arab-Israeli peace will only be lasting if harmful nations states. Defending against these threats regional interference ends and constructive requires networks that are secure, trustworthy, regional support deepens. and resilient. The US is prepared to deter, prevent, The third method is to promote a responsible defend against and quickly recover from cyber Iran; this is in both its regional and nuclear intrusions and attacks by investing in people and ambitions. US interest is for Iran to be a state that technology and by strengthening partnerships. meets its international responsibilities, takes its To meet the former, the US must work across rightful place in the community of nations and the government and with private sector to design enjoys the political and economic opportunities more secure technology that gives us the ability that its people deserve. to better protect and to improve the resilience of critical government and industry systems and 2.5. Invest in the Capacity of Strong and networks. Moreover, the US has already launched Capable Partners a comprehensive national campaign to promote In order to advance common security, the US cyber security awareness and digital literacy in will address the underlying political and economic order to build a digital workforce for the 21st deficits that foster instability, enable radicalisation Century. and extremism, and ultimately undermine the In terms of the latter, the US recognizes that ability of governments to manage threats within neither government not the private sector or their boarders and to be the US partners in individual citizens can meet this challenge alone. addressing common challenges. Therefore, the US calls, and it will continue to call, Such common security can be addressed by for strengthening its international partnerships pursuing sustainable and responsible security in on a range of issues, including the development at risk states. This can be achieved by improving of norms for acceptable conduct in cyberspace, US capability to strengthen the security of state laws concerning cyber-crime, data preservation, at-risk of conflict and violence, which includes protection, and privacy, and approaches for

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 117 POINTS OF VIEW network defence and response to cyber attacks. proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, Therefore this cooperation will include all the key advancing peace in the Middle East, or dealing players from government and private sector, both with a new space - cyberspace. In dealing with all nationally and internationally. of these issues, Obama’s administration calls for cooperation with international community, where Conclusion clear rules and norms are put in place. It can be stated without any hesitation that The aim of the article was to identify the mag- when comparing foreign and security policy of nitude of change in Barack H. Obama’s percep- President Obama with that of his predecessor, there tion of foreign and security policy of the US when can be seen significant changes. It is reasonable to compared to George. W. Bush. It can be argued expect that if the US will stick to this approach, that while both administrations have, or had, per- there is a chance that global security environment ceived the current global security environment will improve at least a little bit and the world will trough the same lenses, what is materialized in become more secure. However, one must keep their strategic interests, there has or had been a in mind that it will take a longer period of time significant differences in meeting these strategic and the fruits of this approach will not be visible objectives, especially in the field of security. immediately. From purely security point of view, both presidencies perceived the current global security BIBLIOGRAPHY: environment as highly asymmetrical one. On one hand, unprecedented globalization, development 1. The National Security Strategy of the United of technologies, expansion of democracies, and States of America, The White House, 2002, http:// the absence of symmetric conflict among major www.whitehouse.gov/nsc/nss/2002/. powers have improved quality of life for many. 2. The National Security Strategy of the United On the other hand, new asymmetric threats States of America, The White House, 2006, http:// such as conflict over religious, tribal, and ethnic www.whitehouse.gov/nsc/nss/2006/. identity combined with widening of economic 3. The National Security Strategy of the United discrepancies have created highly unpredictable States of America, The White House, 2010, http:// global security environment, which lacks of easily www.whitehouse.gov/nsc/nss/2010/. identified adversary and where boarders between 4. UŠIAK, J, LASICOVÁ, J., The Reasons domestic and foreign threats have completely for Social Discrepancies and Conflicts in disappeared. Central European States, In Proceeding of III. In such security environment, the US is the only Ogólnopolska konferencje naukokwa Proces remaining military and economic superpower, transformacji ustrojowej w Europie Środkowo- which bears responsibility for its own security, Wschodniej: pryzyczyny, kierunki i rezultaty, as well as for security and stability of the World. Chorzow: Wyzsa Szkola Bankowa w Chorzowie, Such task, however, cannot be fulfilled only by the Poľsko, 2009. US alone. NSS 2010 recognizes the importance 5. IVANČÍK, R., National and International of pursuing a comprehensive engagement with Security in a Time of Globalization and Financial international community based on clear rules Crisis. In Science and Military, 2011. for everyone having in place. Moreover, NSS 6. TEREM, P., Globalisation and its 2010 emphasizes on the importance of economic Environmental Dimension, SIWEK, T.; BAAR, economy, which is a prerequisite for being able to V.(ed.), Globalisation and its Geopolitical, defend US interest abroad. Cultural, Economic and Ecological Context, 8- In facing the exiting threats, unlike Bush’s 10.10 2003 University of Ostrava, 2004. administration, President Obama proposes 7. SOPOCI M., Membership in Alliance asymmetric solutions to asymmetric problems. and Security of Country, In Security and Safety This is related to all challenges whether it requires Management and Public Administration: taking action at home or abroad. This philosophy Proceedings of Conference, Praha: Policejní is based on six pillars, which include strengthening akademie České republiky v Praze, 2008. domestic security, facing terrorism, dealing with

118 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 POINTS OF VIEW NATO’S ENERGY SECURITY: POST-LISBON CHALLENGES

Gabriela TRANCIUC* Costinel ANUŢA**

Within an extended approach on national Key-words: energy security; NATO; EU; security - where the energy turns out to be an energy infrastructure; military capabilities; early essential topic - NATO’s relevance for the energy warning; intelligence fusion; cyber attacks. security domain is becoming controversial and caught between two debates – a political one, The “energy security” syntagm prevails in centred on the Alliance’s role in countering the the current security discourses due to recent policies of some states in this field, and a military developments, and its apologists try to delimit one, focused on critical infrastructures protection. and impose it as a freestanding dimension of the On the other hand, NATO’s strategic and security concept1. institutional transformation – the political-military However, this topic is not completely new, as consultations and intelligence sharing network, energy supply problems also occurred in the past. crisis management instruments, international Thus, following the 1973 – 1974 oil crisis, the and regional cooperation – represent a few International Energy Agency (IEA) was established substantiations converging towards supporting as an autonomous organisation comprising several NATO’s relevance for the energy security domain. member states of the Organisation for Economic Meanwhile, the recent turmoil from Middle East Cooperation and Development. While the agency’s and Northern Africa, as well as the development initial role was to coordinate the measures taken of Stuxnet-like applications – able to sabotage during the crisis situations in the oil delivery industrial systems - are emphasizing the NATO’s field, the changes occurred in the energy market comparative advantages within the network of development triggered the reconfiguration of its international organisations sharing concerns mandate on three dimensions: energy security, regarding energy security domain. economic development and environment

* Gabriela TRANCIUC ([email protected])����������������������������������������������� is currently a PhD student at the National In- telligence Academy “Mihai Viteazul” in Bucharest. She has a BA in foreign languages (French and English) and an MA in Applied Linguistics, at the University of Bucharest. In 2004 she earned an MA degree in International Studies at the University of Birmingham, UK. She served as a civil ser- vant in the Ministry of Defence and graduated from prestigious institutions such as the NATO De- fence College, George C. Marshall Center for Security Studies, the NATO School. She was involved in several international conferences and seminars and published and co-authored several papers on international and regional security, as well as on intelligence issues. ** Costinel ANUŢA ([email protected]) ������������������������������������������graduated the Program in Advanced Security Studies (George C. Marshall Center for Security Studies), and he holds an MA in Public Relations, as well as two BAs in Informatics and Management. He has worked as expert within the Ministry of Defence, Bucharest.

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 119 POINTS OF VIEW protection. The Agency defines energy security sources by opening, respectively integrating and as “the uninterrupted physical availability [of diversifying the energy markets9. Although the resources] at an affordable price, while observing Obama Administration’s Security Strategy (2010) environment concerns”2. is strongly oriented towards renewable energy As a matter of fact, the importance of energy sources (bio-fuels, nuclear energy) and energy and the effects of the supply disruption have efficiency (investments in different activity sectors drawn the attention of several UN officials3, aimed at reducing consumption)10, the energy who call for a global energy agency with a security syntagm being mentioned only four comprehensive mandate concerning all energy times in the document, one can identify general types, as the organisations currently working in guidelines, also seen in the National Security the field approach the issue from different points Strategy 2006, and notice a certain continuity. of view – the Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Nevertheless, the above-mentioned efforts Countries (OPEC) from the perspective of do not offer a clear definition of the “energy producers, IEA from that of consumers, the Treaty security” concept. Thus, we will turn to the on the Energy Charter approaches only the trade, vision of the US Defence Department, which transit and dispute settlement and the UN Energy has proposed a working definition encompassing coordinating mechanism is divided, has no budget three constitutive dimensions, namely sufficiency, and serves mainly as a debate and information surety, sustainability. Sufficiency means having sharing forum. adequate power to conduct critical missions for Considering that only approximately 70% the duration of that mission. Surety, which directly of the IEA countries are members of the North influences sufficiency, consists in ensuring resilient Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and /or the and redundant energy supplies that are accessible European Union (EU)4, and the UN efforts are when needed. Finally, sustainability highlights insufficient in this field, we will not use the efforts the fact that the energy supplies must present undertaken by the International Energy Agency the lowest life cycle cost, while considering in the field as a starting point in our endeavour all the other requirements (impact to mission, to identify the main trends in approaching the community, and environment)11. This “militaristic” “energy security” topic within the allied context, vision in terms of relating energy to the missions but the distinctive elements highlighted by the US of the American military “complex” highlights and the EU5, the dominant players in NATO, as four features that can be translated into a general well as the official positions of the allies on this definition of energy security – sufficient energy, issue. In order to make the language more clear, at an affordable price from sources located in one should first identify the strategic documents stable regions around the globe, observing the governing the energy policies of the US, the EU environmental norms. and NATO, respectively their understanding of While ensuring energy resources is an impor- the “energy security” syntagm. tant security issue for the US due to the intercon- nection between the economic and military com- Mars, Venus6 and Energy Security plexes, in the EU case one can notice a more po- In the case of the US, the worrying statistics litical and/ or diplomatic approach. Thus, while regarding the correlation of oil consumption and the EU Security Strategy 2003 did not contain the import costs with the trade deficit7 highlighted “energy security” syntagm or references to such the need to promote a coherent energy strategy threats, later, against the background of the gas focused on reducing dependence on foreign crisis in early 200612, the European Strategy for resources. While a consensus on promoting an Sustainable, Competitive and Secure Energy13, energy strategy emerges at the political level8, there emphasised, during the same year, the need for a is also a powerful trend connecting energy field to coherent EU energy policy offering “clear Europe- national security. Thus, the Bush Administration’s an framework for national decisions on the energy National Security Strategy 2006 contains a mix”, its strategic goal being that of balancing, at chapter dedicated to economic growth through the same time, the goals of sustainable energy use, free markets and free trade which puts priority competitiveness and security of supply14. Thus, at on reducing the US reliance on foreign energy least terminologically, energy security is assimi-

120 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 POINTS OF VIEW lated to the “security of supply” syntagm, defined a limited number of states, most of them facing as “uninterrupted physical availability of energy instability, the document approaches the energy products on the market at an affordable price for security on two dimensions – internal and external. all (private and industrial) consumers, observing At the internal level, a more unified energy the environmental protection norms and support- market, with greater interconnection, especially ing sustainable development”15. At the same time, with the most isolated countries, as well as crisis the security of supply has two key components mechanisms to deal with the temporary supply – technical (physical access to resources and un- disruptions are needed. At the external level, interrupted supply) and commercial (affordable it is about both promotion of good governance, prices). Within this context, the ‘energy security’ the observance of law and investments in the syntagm is distinctly used in the EU vocabulary, source countries (Russia, Central Asia, Caucasus meaning mainly the technical safety of energy in- and Africa) or the transit-countries (Turkey and frastructure16. Ukraine), and partnerships (especially with China, The EU Strategic Energy Review represents India, Japan and the US) on renewable energy, low- the instrument designated through the above- level carbon technologies and energy efficiency, mentioned strategy in order to establish the as well as transparent and well-regulated global communitarian framework in the energy field. markets. The Energy Policy for Europe, promoted by the Beyond the US and EU distinct efforts in the European Commission in 2007, was the first energy field, some American politicians support strategic analysis highlighting that a European a trans-Atlantic energy security strategy17. energy policy should rely on three elements: Starting from the premise that Russia will be the combating climate change, limiting the EU’s main energy supplier for the next years, Senator external vulnerability to imported hydrocarbons Dick Lugar proposed, within the US-Ukraine and promoting growth and jobs, thereby providing Energy Dialogue Group, a trans-Atlantic energy secure and affordable energy to consumers. Within strategy, aiming at diversifying energy sources this context, one may consider that the EU’s for Europe, establishing a collective framework actions for the elaboration and implementation of to work with Russia, as well as banning the use a coherent energy policy reflect the similar efforts of energy as a coercive instrument. Senator Lugar undertaken by the US in the field. was the one who stressed the importance of A second strategic review, respectively the debating the energy security within NATO during EU Energy Security and Solidarity Action Plan, the 2006 Riga Summit. presented in 2008, highlights the following key While Senator Lugar believes that NATO fields in the European energy policy: issues related plays a central role in promoting such a strategy, to infrastructure and diversification of energy the experts of the Atlantic Council and the Centre supplies, improved gas and oil stocks and the for Strategic and International Studies18 consider creation of energy crisis response mechanisms, that the EU is the appropriate forum for a US energy efficiency as well as making use of EU’s – Europe dialogue on the energy security. At the indigenous energy resources. same time, they outlined recommendations for the As noticed, although at the political level transatlantic community to maximize “common, the importance of investments and research- compatible and complementary” efforts in order development increased to diversify the energy to develop some energy strategies, standards sources, the security of the traditional energy and regulations, research and development, routes is an important element. Thus, in parallel markets, institutions, infrastructure protection to the political developments, energy security has and the response to supply disruption, proposing emerged as a major concern for the EU security as a working instrument a Transatlantic Forum sector, especially as a result of the August 2008 on Energy Cooperation, that would include the Russian-Georgian conflict, adequately covered US, the EU, NATO, as well as the International in the 2008 Report on the Implementation of the Energy Agency. The same experts plead for European Security Strategy. Beyond highlighting the development of a substantiated NATO-EU the fact that the EU will import more than 75% of dialogue on energy security, establishing clear the necessary gas and oil supplies until 2030, from roles for the two organizations.

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NATO Energy Security, from Riga to security concept and - implicitly – to the inclusion Lisbon of the energy issue on the security agenda of every There is a series of arguments supporting member state and of the Alliance, as well. To that NATO’s consolidated role in energy security. For a end, it is increasingly clear that the energy emerged clearer perspective, we could group them into two as an essential component of the national security categories – the first being related to the evolution strategy of the NATO Member States, and NATO of the security environment and its reflection in is no longer an exclusively military, collective security studies throughout time (widening the defence organisation, the Alliance turning into a concept), while the second category focuses on the security organisation. At the same time, we should Alliance evolution (including at the institutional remember that - today - the NATO mission is to level) in relation to the energy security issue. ensure the security for 28 states, whose combined In the first category, the evolution of the population amounts to almost 900 de millions21, and security environment highlighted an increasing since the energy became a key security element, interdependence of threats – in the energy the energy security should obviously be one of the sector – against the allied states. Thus, the Alliance’s concerns. current scenario should take into account a series As the matter of fact, the energy security - of factors with an impact on the Alliance energy narrowly speaking - does not represent a new security, such as: the economic and financial concern for the Alliance, as it has been managing global crisis, increased dependence on the energy its own energy supplying system even since the imports from unstable regions or the use of energy Cold War period (it is practically an 11,500 km as political leverage, with effect over the energy grid in 12 states, consisting of warehouses, air price volatility, respectively climate changes, bases, civil airports, fuel stations, refinery, and terrorist threats, piracy or cyber-attacks, with entrance points). consequences on the energy resources extraction, Another category of arguments is related the energy infrastructure or energy supply under to the progress made within the Alliance’s safe conditions19. strategic and institutional transformation. The factor changing the energy issue into a Thus, all strategic documents – starting with threat against security is NATO states dependence the 1999 Strategic Concept that warns over the on energy resource imports. Taking into account possibility that the NATO states’ security interests only oil and gas, we have the following situation: be affected by banning the access to the critical − NATO states account together for 6% of resources - promote NATO’s role in ensuring the the discovered oil fields, and the oil production energy security of its Member States. capacity on their territory is very low, representing However, the energy security issue became almost 18% of the global production. Meanwhile, increasingly relevant only during the 2006 Riga the necessary consumption for NATO states Summit. Besides Senator Richard Lugar’s speech represents almost 39% of the global consumption, - during the above-mentioned summit – who so there is a quite significant dependence on the oil supported the inclusion of energy security issue imports from non-NATO Member States; under the scope of Article 5, referring especially − NATO states account for 7% of the global gas to the threat of terrorist attacks against critical reserves, with a 34% global production capacity infrastructures, respectively to energy as a (superior to the oil production capacity), and the potential conflict source in Europe22, the statement necessary consumption is around 50% of the adopted during the Summit announced for the first global consumption.20 time that the energy security emerged as a concern Thus, also the current developments on shale for the Alliance which should analyse the way in gas extraction and alternative energy sources which it protected the Member States’ interests or could change the statistics, for the moment, it is supported the national and international efforts in obvious that NATO states need a strong energy that field23. infrastructure to ensure a safe and constant access Subsequently, the 2008 Bucharest Summit de- to the energy resources. tailed how NATO should contribute to ensuring A second category of arguments is of energy security for its Member States – informa- conceptual nature. We could refer here to broader tion and intelligence sharing/fusion, projection of

122 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 POINTS OF VIEW stability, the promotion of the regional and interna- its complex mechanism to respond to natural tional cooperation, support for consequence man- disasters, having as central element the Euro- agement and support for critical infrastructure pro- Atlantic Disaster Response Coordination Centre tection – and the 2010 Lisbon Summit’s statement (EADRCC)26. As a matter of fact, the complex offered the first definition of the NATO energy crisis management system, with procedures tested security, comprising three key elements: safe and every year through drills including different constant access to energy supplies, diversification scenarios, as well as unconventional threats and a of routes, suppliers and energy resources, respec- crisis response handbook with clear procedures for tively the inter-connection of the energy grids (a different situations, can represent a framework to key topic also on the EU agenda on energy secu- approach the energy security crises. rity as a result of the 2009 gas crisis). An important role is also played by the At the same time, further efforts to implement instruments with a direct impact in ensuring the the Bucharest Summit guideline on including the energy security, namely the military operations27 energy security in NATO policies and activities, (anti-piracy missions carried out along the Somali the new Strategic Concept adopted in 2010 coastline, the Mediterranean Sea patrol missions mentions the interest in developing the capacity to carried out within the counterterrorist operations contribute to the energy security, including through with an energy security dimension) or the the protection of the critical energy infrastructure capabilities needed to tackle the current challenges and the transit regions, respectively contingency in the field, such as the cyber defence threats amid planning. the development of software applications which Besides being highlighted within the affect the functionality of certain types of automated programmatic documents, the energy security industrial data control and acquisition systems has also practical implications, the issue (also used in the nuclear plant construction). being linked to both the change of the military Last but not least, one should mention certain capacities - NATO Reaction Force (NRF) – or civil research projects, financed through the Science capacities, the change of structures (the decrease for Peace and Security Programme, which focus in the number of committees, the flexibilisation on the development of technologies for renewable of the decision-making process, a new Division energy production from wind turbines (Sahara managing the emerging security challenges) Trade Winds to Hydrogen, a cooperation project and NATO intelligence reform (ensuring a more between NATO and the Mediterranean Dialogue efficient consultation and information process at countries, including Morocco and Mauritania) or NATO level by integrating the military and civil the assessment of seismic risks along the allies’ intelligence)24. energy supply lines (Seismic Hazard and Risk Therefore, apart from using NATO as a Assessment for Southern Caucasus-Eastern Turkey dialogue and cooperation forum for the allies and Energy Corridors, a project where scientists from partners (the energy security issue has already been Turkey, Georgia and Azerbaijan assess the seismic included in individual cooperation programs with risk along the Baku-Ceyhan oil pipeline and the partner states) - practically gathering producers, Baku-Erzurum natural gas pipeline). consumers and transit countries - or as a forum for sharing information and best practices on the Energy Security Challenges after Lisbon response to energy risks and threats25 (regular A first challenge refers to the “legacy” of the conferences and workshops), there are also other current controversy on NATO’s role in the aspects of the Alliance’s practical involvement in energy security field. Most experts reject NATO’s ensuring the Member States’ energy security. involvement in the energy security field, starting To that end, NATO can ensure support for the from the simplification of the organisation’s allies’ critical infrastructure protection through potential role, reduced to the exclusive use of the aviation and maritime communication and military means, or from the reference to other surveillance systems (such as the marine monitoring organisations – for example the EU – and, under program - Maritime Situational Awareness - or the the pretext of avoiding duplication, they plead for AWACS fleet), which can supplement the national a unilateral management – either NATO or the EU capabilities, including intelligence, or it can use – of the energy security issues.

STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 123 POINTS OF VIEW The above-mentioned controversy has during the crisis situations, while other NATO generated debates on NATO’s political role in the member countries “dream” about a consolidated energy security and military fields. Therefore, on organization which should respond to Russia’s the political dimension, some experts claim that “soft power” actions through allied interventions the impact of the energy threats against world of the same nature. states involves NATO’s political role; on the Although it has been obvious so far that other hand, critics argue that NATO’s political NATO could not play a leading role on that involvement is difficult due to the countries’ dimension, ensuring the complementary support divergent interests, a fact which could block the for the efforts undertaken by the states or other Alliance’s decision-making process, undermining international organisations, there are currently thus its role (an alliance which cannot make certain evolutions which tend to substantiate decisions, cannot intervene, therefore it manifests the Alliance’s actions in this domain. like an alliance which does not exist). However, We will stop only on two evolutions to that we cannot challenge that the energy security enters end. First of all, the recent tensions in the Middle the scope of Article IV of the Washington Treaty, East and North Africa have completed the “arc of which encourages discussions and consultations instability” at the NATO’s periphery - caused by among allies on security issues of major interest. the perpetuation of piracy in the Aden Gulf, the At the same time, the discussions do not imply an tense relations with the Russian Federation – with automatic consensus on NATO’s intervention or a direct impact on the Alliance’s energy supplies. the Alliance’s decision to adopt a prominent role Coupled with the emergence - in the vicinity of in coordinating a response to a crisis situation, the allied territory - of incidents similar to the but they do not rule out either the possibility for Fukushima, which might question the safety of NATO to assume a limited, but complementary exploiting nuclear energy and generate decisions/ role to other actors or organisations28. As far as policies similar to those adopted by Germany in the the military dimension is concerned, the dilemma above-mentioned situation30, the instability could takes into account the use of NATO’s consecrated create major disruptions in the allies’ energy supply instruments in the field (naval surveillance and flows. Secondly, the development of a Stuxnet- escort capabilities, the military protection of type application, able to undermine industrial infrastructure) versus the avoidance of militarising systems, opens a Pandora’s Box in the energy field an economic and political problem29. - planting and propagating such a “weapon” in the There is also a series of impediments which energy infrastructure of one or several allied stated are linked to the diversity of the NATO can lead to the same disruptions in the supply Member States, starting from the fact that the flows, as mentioned above. critical infrastructure protection is an exclusively Therefore, at least from the perspective of these national responsibility or from some governments’ two evolutions, NATO should develop new types reluctance to share information on sensitive of capabilities focused on providing early warning energy security issues, to the allies’ different or rapid intervention in case of complex attacks views on that issue. As a matter of fact, we should against the allied energy infrastructures. not forget that there are inherent disagreements The NATO Intelligence Fusion Centre31 could within the Alliance, triggered either by the status play an important role in the early warning of providers/ consumers/ transit countries or by component, as it could provide a system to the zones of interest (US - Middle East, Europe - monitor in real-time the parameters of the energy former Soviet Union), respectively by the different flows on the allied territory as well as consolidated approaches/ strategies. For instance, following capabilities to analyse the potential implications of the repeated gas conflicts between Ukraine and such crisis. At the same time, the energy security the Russian Federation, several perceptions have issue - monitored by the Centre - can be defined consolidated in approaching the energy relations as a warning problem within NATO Intelligence with Russia - the Western European powers want Warning System and connected thus to the Allied to maintain the status-quo, the Eastern European Crisis Management Process32. states, depending in a great extent on the Russian As for the rapid intervention, deemed as supplies, see NATO as a potential energy “broker” absolutely necessary due to the diversification of

124 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 POINTS OF VIEW the methods of attack against energy infrastructures 5��������������������������������������������� The EU influence originates in the number of (especially in the cyber domain), a potential members attending both organisations (NATO and intervention unit should take the NATO Task Force EU). as a model, or even be established as a “module” 6���������������������������������������������� Mars-Venus binomial is often used to describe within the latter (with connections – in case of the US-European relations, being promoted by Robert KAGAN’s Of����������������������������������������� Paradise and Power: America and Europe cyber threats, for instance - with NATO Computer in the New World Order (Vintage Books, New York, 33 Incident Response Capability ). 2004). The lack of consensus in overcoming the 7��������������������������������������������� For instance, over 2007, the American nation current approaches (the limitation to the critical consumed more than 7.5 billion barrels of oil at a total energy infrastructure protection against “classical” cost of approximately 550 billion US dollars. 60% of threats) or using NATO as a “broker” on the energy this petroleum was imported, at a cost of nearly 300 market, especially in crisis situations (such as the billion US dollars, representing about 40% of the total 2009 gas crisis or the Georgian war), as well as US trade deficit. (Source: A National Strategy for the reduced support for the implementation of Energy Security, http://www.secureenergy.org/sites/ concrete risk management solutions in the energy default/files/936_A_National_Strategy_for_ Energy_ Security.pdf). field (elaborating a common policy, diversifying 8�������������������������������������������������� The 2005 Energy Policy Act was the first important sources, jointly assessing and exploiting alternative energy law which focused on granting significant fiscal energy sources, approaching new challenges in incentives and loan guarantees for energy production. the energy infrastructure protection) are likely to In less than two years, it became obvious that those turn the energy security in a “apple of discord” in provisions would not solve the energy problem. the Euro-Asia area. Therefore, the Energy and Security Act 2007 - providing for improved energy security through an efficient NOTES: resource management, research and development in the field of renewable energy sources and international 1������������������������������������������������ In his work, People, States and Fear. An Agenda energy programs - was adopted. The 2009 change in the For International Security Studies in The Post-Cold War US Administration did not significantly change those Era, first published in 1983, Barry BUZAN identified, action directions, linking, however, the energy issues to besides the military dimension of security, a non- the environmental ones. military one focusing on the following levels: political 9���������������������������������������� National Security Strategy, March 2006, http:// (organisational stability of states, systems of government georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/nsc/nss/2006/, and their legitimating ideologies), economic (access accessed on May 20, 2011. to resources, finance and markets needed to maintain 10�������������������������������������� National Security Strategy, May 2010, http:// an appropriate level of welfare and power), social www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/rss_viewer/ (the maintenance of traditional patterns of language, national_ security_ strategy.pdf, accessed������������������ on May 20 culture, religion, national identity and customs) and 2011. environmental (maintenance of the planetary biosphere 11��������������������������������������������� ��������������������������������������������LALLY, Brian J., Making a Case for an Energy as the essential support system of human existence). Security Strategy in an Energy-Climate Change Era, Subsequently, although the ‘energy security’ syntagm Department of Defense, http://dodreports.com/pdf/ was not used, the energy implications in the security ada530880.pdf, accessed on May 20, 2011. field were analysed particularly in terms of the drop 12������������������������������������������� Tensions between Ukraine and Russia in the in quantities and access to that type of resources, in context of gas prices alteration. the moves of the Copenhagen School representatives, 13���������������������������������������������� Green Paper aimed at fostering energy debates especially Barry BUZAN, Ole WAEVER and Jaap within the EU. de WILDE (efforts broadly approached by the three 14��������������������������������������������� Such an objective might be, according to the authors in their paper Security: A New Framework for above-mentioned strategy, to “aim for a minimum level Analysis, published in 1997). of the EU energy mix originating from secure and low- 2������������� AIE������������ website, http://www.iea.org/, accessed on carbon energy sources”. May 20, 2011. 15���������������������������������������� Commission of the European Communities, 3������������������������������������������� ������������������������������������������ElBaradei, �������������������������������Mohamed, A Global Agency Needed A European Strategy for Sustainable, Competitive for Energy Crisis, OpEd, Financial Times, 24 July and Secure Energy, Green Paper, http://europa.eu/ 2008, http://www.iaea.org/newscenter/transcripts/2008/ documents/comm/green_papers/pdf/com2006_105_ ft240708.html,������������������������� accessed on May 20 2011. en.pdf, �������������������������accessed on May 20, 2011. 4��������������������������������������������� The European Commission also participates as 16���������������������������������������� SELIVERSTOV, Sergey, Energy Security of separate entity in the Agency’s activities. Russia and the EU: Current Legal Problems, Institut

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Français des Relations Internationales, Avril 2009, downloads/assets/Energy_Security_PP_13_Feb_2008. http://www.ifri.org/files/Energie/Seliverstov.pdf, pdf, �������������������������accessed on May 20, 2011. accessed on May 20, 2011. 27��������������������������������������������������� As a matter of fact, the Alliance also carried out 17 Lugar Calls for Trans-Atlantic Energy Security such missions in the past. To that end, we could recall Strategy, the American Senator speech from US - the Earnest Will Operation (1980), which included Ukraine Energy Dialogue Series, April 2008, http:// missions aimed at protecting and escorting the Gulf oil lugar.senate.gov/energy/press/speech/ukraine.cfm, tankers during the Iraq-Iran war (1980-1988). accessed on May 20, 2011. 28�������������������������������������� SHEA, Jamie, “Energy Security: NATO’s 18 ����������������������������������������KRAMER, Franklin; LYMAN, John, �������������Transatlantic Potential Role”, NATO Review, No. 3, Autumn 2006, Cooperation for Sustainable Energy Security. A http://www.nato.int/docu/ review/2006/issue3/english/ Report of the Global Dialogue between the European special1.html, ������������������������accessed on May 20 2011. Union and the United States��������������������������, Center for Strategic and 29�� R�Ü����������������������HLE, Michael, op. cit.� International Studies, 2009, http://www.acus.org/ 30����������������������������������������������� Following the disaster in Japan, Angela Merkel files/publication_pdfs/523/EnergySecurityReport.pdf, ordered the shut down for three months of country’s accessed on May 20, 2011. reactors built before 1980, being expected to decide 19�� R�Ü���������������������������������������HLE, Michael, Energy Security and NATO: later if they would receive again the functioning Emerging Challenges to Critical Energy Infrastructure, authorisation or if they would be closed. OSCE special expert meeting on assessing the OSCE’s 31����������������������������������������������� The Center’s current mission aims at providing future contribution to international energy security integrated intelligence products in support of planning co-operation, September 2010, http://www.osce.org/ and execution of NATO operations (see ������Mixon, eea/71290, ������������������������accessed on May 20 2011. Laurence, ��������������������������������������Requirements and Challenges facing the 20�� R�Ü����������������������HLE, Michael, op. cit. NATO Intelligence Fusion Center��������������������, US Air University, 21�� R�Ü����������������������HLE, Michael, op. cit. https://www.afresearch.org/skins/RIMS/display.aspx? 22����������������������������������� MONAGHAN, Andrew, Energy Security: moduleid=be0e99f3-fc56-4ccb-8dfe-670c0822a153& NATO’s Limited, Complementary Role, Research mode=user&action=researchproject&objectid=9a47b0 Paper, No. 36, NATO Defense College, Rome, May f3 -9dcb-41d3-b677-79544cdd6921,���������������� accessed on May 2008, http://www.ndc.nato.int/download/publications/ 20, 2011).�� rp_36en.pdf, ������������������������accessed on May 20 2011. 32��������������������������������������� ��������������������������������������KRIENDLER, John, ���������������������NATO Intelligence and 23������������������������� Riga������������������������ Summit Declaration, http://www.nato. Early Warning, Conflict Studies Research Centre, int/docu/pr/2006/p06-150e.htm, accessed on May 20 2006, http://www.isn.ethz.ch/isn/Digital-Library/ 2011. Publications/Detail/?id=39988&lng=en,������������ accessed on 24�� R�Ü���������������������HLE, Michael, op.cit.� May 20, 2011.� 25�� R�Ü���������������������HLE, Michael, op.cit.� 33��������������������������������������������� Which ensures centralized cyber incident services, 26������������������������������������������������ Royal United Services Institute for Defence and facilitating both prevention (information products, Security Studies, Energy Security and NATO Policy, updates to applications), and response or investigations Research paper prepared for NATO Allied Command after the incidents. Transformation, London, 2008, http://www.rusi.org/

126 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 CDSSS’ AGENDA THE ACTIVITIES OF THE CENTRE FOR DEFENCE AND SECURITY STRATEGIC STUDIES

On 14th and 15th of April, “Carol I” National Defence University organised the Annual Scientific Session with International participation STRATEGIES XXI, whose theme was “The Universe of Military Science”. The activity, having 11 panels, gathered officials from the Ministry of National Defence, Ministry of Education, Research, Youth and Sport, Ministry of Interior, rectors of military and civilian higher education institutions, as well as representatives of the scientific community. CDSSS was in charge with the “Security and Defence” Panel. On this occasion were granted the awards offered by “General Ştefan Guşă” Foundation for the best book and the best article published in 2010 in “Carol I” National Defence University. The award for the best book was received by lieutenant-colonel lecturer Ion CĂLIN, PhD, author of “Information management of the force groups with operative role in joint operations”. The commission of evaluation awarded the best article entitled “Progresses and obstacles in the process of European integration of the Western Balkan states”, published in Strategic Impact magazine no. 1/2010 by scientific research assistant Cristina BOGZEANU. On 17th of May, CDSSS held the Seminary on “Cross-border regional cooperation – instrument of enhancing European security”. In the event, there were presented interesting papers by representatives of the Ministry of National Defence, “Carol I” National Defence University, Romanian Scientists Academy, the Ministry of Environment and Forests, the Centre of Conflict Prevention and Early Warning, and the European Institute of Romania. The most important CDSSS activity to come is the Annual Scientific Session with International participation, which will take place in November, on 17th and 18th, whose theme is “The balance of power and the security environment”.

APRIL - JUNE 2011 JUNE - APRIL Information on participation conditions will be found in due time on our web-site, http//cssas.unap.ro.

Irina TĂTARU

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INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS

On selecting the articles, the following criteria are taken into consideration: the theme of the article must comply with the area of the subjects presented in the magazine, and be of current interest, the articles’s novelty and originality, its scien- tific content and the adequacy to the editorial norms adopted by the magazine. The article should not contain any party political connotations. The papers’ scientific evaluation is done by two scientific experts that are either professors or senior fellow researchers. The article, written in a foreign language (English, French) may have maxi- mum 10-12 pages (6.000 – 7.000 words) and has to be sent both in print and ellec- tronically, using Times New Roman font, size 12, one line spacing, and the tables and schemes have to be printed separately. The translation into Romanian will be provided by the editor. The text has to be preceded by an abstract which is not to exceed 250 words, both in Romanian and in English and not more than 10-12 keywords. The papers have to be signed adding the authors’s scientific degree, name, first name, the institution he comes from and have to end with a curriculum vitae, which should include the following elements: a short biography, a list of personal papers, birthyear, birthplace, address, city, postal code, country, telephone, fax, e-mail address, photo in jpeg format. Bibliographic references will be included at the end of the article and have to respect international regulations. Authors can publish only one article by issue. The text has to present an easy-to-follow structure, using titles (subtitles). Ab- breviations will be explicit at their first mentioning on the text. It is likely to end the papers with some important conclusions regarding the importance of the research. The articles will not use classified information. As the magazine does not have a profitable purpose, the articles cannot be paid. Everyone interested in publishing articles in STRATEGIC IMPACT magazi- ne is welcomed. Materials have to comply with the conditions mentioned above and to be of interest for the international scientific community. Thus, it is necessary that documentation resources used in the elaboration of the articles have in their composition prestigious paperworks or publications widely recognized at national or international level. Our address is: “Carol I“ National Defence University, Centre for Defence and Security Strategic Studies, 68-72 Panduri Street, sector 5, Bucharest, Roma- nia, telephone: (021) 319.56.49; Fax: (021) 319.55.93, e-mail: [email protected], web address: http://cssas.unap.ro, http://impactstrategic.unap.ro

128 STRATEGIC IMPACT No. 2/2011 STRATEGIC IMPACT

After nine years since its first edition, STRATEGIC IMPACT magazine, edited by the Centre for Defence and Security Strategic Studies from “Carol I” National Defence University is a quarterly scientific magazine acknowledged locally and internationally for the wide area of topics: the political-military topicality, security strategy and military security, NATO and EU actions, informational society, strategic synthesis and evaluations, a special column “Strategic Event” that studies the strategic impact of the dynamics of the actions undertaken nationally, regionally and globally. STRATEGIC IMPACT collaborates with Romanian and foreign important researchers and personalities within the scientific research area and the civilian and military academia from the Ministry of National Defence, General Staff, services’ staffs, the Ministry of Administration and Interior, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, military units and other state organisations, NGOs, companies, etc. The international acknowledgement of the magazine’s quality is confirmed by its editions presented on sites belonging to prestigious foreign institutions (Defence Guide, in collaboration with the Hellenic Institute of Strategic Studies – HEL.I.S.S.), The Institute for Development and Social Initiatives – IDIS from the Republic of Moldova – the virtual library for political and security studies. Also, the magazine is included in international databases: CEEOL - Central and Eastern European Online Library (Germany), IndexCopernicus International (Poland). The magazine is accredited by the National������������������������������� Council for Scientific Research in Higher Education������������������������ and acknowledged as a B+ ���������magazine, proving its potential to become an international acknowledged magazine. STRATEGIC IMPACT is a representative forum for reflection and debates on topics related to strategy and security for the national and international scientific and academic community. At present, STRATEGIC IMPACT magazine is issued separately in two editions, Romanian and English, and disseminated in the domes- tic and international scientific environment and also to the main institu- tions involved in security and defence.

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Issue organizer: Cristina BOGZEANU Designer: George RĂDUICĂ Masterproof: Cristina BOGZEANU, Daniela RĂPAN “Carol I” National Defence University Printing House

0162/943/2011 C 233/2011

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