Introduction A few centuries ago, ancient inhabitants of the British Isles moved massive blocks of stone and created a large number of stone structures. Many years later, these ancient sites all over the British Isles, of which Stonehenge and Avebury are probably two of the most well-known ones, have been attracting the attention of thousands of visitors. There are not many people who would deny the mysteriousness and charm that these sites radiate. Visitors come to these structures every year to look at the megaliths and wonder: Who built them? Why are they here? What was the reason for erecting them? What significance did they have for their creators and what significance do they have for today’s society? Is there anything these sites can teach us today? These are the questions to which I hope to find the answers to in my thesis. My intention is to examine three different time periods: the Neolithic and Bronze Age, the Romantic period, and the twentieth century era. I am going to take these three periods of time, determine what cultural significance the ancient stone structures had for the society of that time and compare them. There are hundreds, even thousands of sites all over the British Isles where ancient stone structures can be found. There are also many different types of them and the time of their construction varies considerably. In the first chapter, therefore, there is a brief description of the historical overview and of basic types of ancient stone structures which are located in Britain. The chapter is rather descriptive, but nevertheless, it provides the reader of this paper with valuable information regarding the definition, purpose and possible uses of the individual types of stone monuments. Selected monuments are accompanied by pictures which are enclosed in the appendix. 1 For years, archaeologists and other researchers have been trying to find out and determine what role ancient stone structures played in the lives of their creators and what purpose they served. The second chapter, therefore, is focused on the cultural significance of ancient stone monuments in the Neolithic and Bronze period. It deals with three main issues: astronomy, economic and socio-political aspect, and religious significance. It is quite important to point out that all three of these aspects are very closely related and mutually interconnected, so it is probable that each of the three sub- chapters contain references related to the remaining two. There are several examples of stone monuments by which I hope to prove that the Neolithic society was indeed aware of the astronomical alignments of their structures with solar and lunar events. Furthermore, I hope to prove that ancient stone monuments were an inseparable part of Neolithic and Bronze cultures, as they were important places of gathering where people exchanged their goods, as well as places of social interaction. Finally, I deal with the religious significance of the structures focusing on burial customs and ceremonies, and rituals connected to astronomical events. Years later, the Neolithic and Bronze cultures that created the stone monuments were replaced with a culture recognizing a completely different set of values. People no longer regarded stone as the most valuable material, but rather as an everyday commodity. The sacred and spiritual connection between people and megalithic monuments has been lost for centuries. In the Romantic period, however, this lost connection experienced a notable revival, and megalithic monuments sparked a growing interest among writers, poets and other artists, bringing their existence to the attention of the general population. The third chapter, for that reason, is devoted to some of the famous works of art and literature of the Romantic period that feature one particular megalithic monument – Stonehenge. I will examine and analyze the work of 2 various writers and painters and pinpoint the important symbolic aspects of the famous stone circle. A considerable number of individuals and researchers from Britain and all over the world have been drawn to the ancient stone structures because they sense and feel some sort of connection to these places. It stirs their emotions and they believe that by visiting such sites they will find some link to the builders and users of these sites, giving them some idea about their roots. Whereas some feel such spiritual connection, many others may view ancient stone monuments as a good place to spend a day out with their families, and some regard them purely as a good source of income and the spiritual or emotional connection plays little or no role for them. Such views and attitudes towards the ancient sites, Stonehenge chiefly, will be discussed in the last chapter. In particular, the last chapter focuses on the beliefs and points of view of the members of the dominant culture and compares these views with the attitudes of the sub-cultural groups. 3 1. Historical Overview and Types of Ancient Stone Structures Although this chapter is rather descriptive, it gives us an important overview of the types of stone structures which can be found in the British Isles, which might be quite helpful when reading the other three chapters of this thesis. It already suggests some ideas regarding the astronomical significance, but this topic will be dealt with in more detail in chapter two. 1.1 Long Barrows and Chambered Tombs These types of structures are the oldest. Most of them were constructed between 4,000 – 2,500 BC. As for the term ‘barrow’, it refers to an earthen or stone mound usually built over the remains of human burials or cremation. There is a wide variety of barrows. The most common being the long barrows which have an elongated structure and are usually wider and higher at one end. The Chambered type long barrows have stones, usually local sarsens, included in their construction, which form a chamber at the burial end. Large stones form both the vertical walls as well as the roof of the chamber. As the stones weigh many tons, it is clear that building such structure was an arduous and long process. It is quite usual with chambered long barrows that the earthen cover that forms the major part of the mound eroded away over the centuries, leaving only the bare stones. It is believed that the erosion was caused either by the British climate or farming. The perfect example of such an eroded chambered tomb is the Dorset’s Hellstone (Pic. 1). Such structures can be also found in Cornwall, Devon and other parts of Britain. There is a suggestion, however, that many chamber tombs have never had the earthen covering at all. As Peter Knight points out in his work, “Why did the wind erode some and not others? There appear to be few semi-denuded ones! Food for thought.” (6). 4 There are examples where a chambered long barrow with both the large entrance stones and the long earthen mound has been preserved. Two excellent examples of such structures are the Dorset’s Grey Mare and Her Colts near Portesham (Pic. 2) and West Kennet (Pic. 3) near Sillbury Hill in Wiltshire. In the former, the earthen mound extends 25 metres from the huge entrance stones; in the latter, the mound is even longer. The actual chamber, curiously, takes up only a small part of the total length. Another aspect of the chambered long barrows lies in the position in which they were built. A study carried out by Peter Knight illustrates some interesting facts. Out of 47 long barrows found in Dorset, eighteen point to Winter Solstice sunrise, fourteen of them point towards the spring and autumn Equinox sunrises, and some of the other directions mark other astronomical events. It is also clear from the study, that some structures have double orientations. The large chambered end points towards the Winter Solstice sunrise, whereas the pointed end gives us a Summer Solstice sunset. Such practice can be seen very well at the already mentioned Grey Mare and Her Colts long barrow. Equally, while the chambered end points towards the Equinox sunrises, the other end gives us Equinox sunsets. Studies of astronomical alignments at other sites, Stonehenge in particular, prove to us that People of the Neolithic Period had a profound knowledge of both astronomy and geometry. To sum up, it should be repeated that the position and location of long barrows were the principal aspect to their creators. Many are situated in a way to enable astronomical observations; many others lie on ley lines 1, while others are placed in close proximity to other ancient structures such as other barrows, standing stones and 1 hypothetical alignments of a number of places of geographical interest, such as ancient monuments and megaliths. 5 the like. All in all, they prove that there was a close relationship between the ancient British population and the landscape that surrounded them. 1.2 Henges The way to define a henge is that it is a roughly circular area, but more importantly, this area is surrounded by a ditch which has a bank of earth on the outer side of the ditch. Having the bank of earth on the outside and not the inside of the ditch, it strongly suggests that henges were built for the ceremonial purposes, making them places of worship and not defensive structures. Henges date from around mid-Neolithic to mid-Bronze period and they are characteristic to the British Isles and Ireland. The number of henges found in Britain and Ireland is roughly a hundred. As for the word itself, it derives from the ancient name for the most famous one – Stonehenge (Pic. 4).