Scaling the benefits of agri-environment schemes for biodiversity conservation in agricultural landscapes. Geoffrey Murray Kay Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of The Australian National University December 2016 Cover images (anti-clockwise from top): A remnant of critically endangered Box Gum Grassy Woodland; a sign on the gate of a site targeted under an Australian agri-environment scheme (the Environmental Stewardship Program); A Blue-tongued lizard (Tiliqua scincoides) and Marbled gecko (Christinus marmoratus) detected during biodiversity surveys of Box Gum Grassy Woodland. Images © Geoffrey Kay. ii DECLARATION This thesis is my own work except where otherwise acknowledged. Geoffrey M. Kay December 2016 iii PREFACE This thesis is structured as a compilation of six connected papers that have all been published in peer reviewed journals or books. These papers are listed at the end of this preface and are referred to in the text by their roman numerals. Additionally, a Context Statement has been provided at the beginning of the thesis, which provides a framework for understanding the relationship between all aspects of the research presented. The Context Statement identifies broad themes that should be relevant for practitioners and applicable to other studies further afield. It contains a brief introduction, outlines of experimental design, short summaries of each paper, and finally, a synthesis of the work of the entire thesis. It is not intended to be a comprehensive literature review. As a result, the thesis does not include a separate conclusion chapter after the main body of work; instead, all conclusions are presented in the context statement at the start of the thesis. The formatting and content of this thesis complies with The Australian National University’s College of Medicine, Biology and Environment guidelines. All papers were intended as stand-alone pieces of work. For this reason, there is some unavoidable repetition of content and methodology between chapters. Because of the data-rich nature of the research in the papers, it was necessary to include supplementary materials including extra tables and figures for papers I – VI. These materials are included at the back of the thesis. In addition, an additional 3 papers that derive from this research, but were not core to this thesis, have been included as appendices. In total, that makes 9 papers that I have been involved with over the duration of the thesis. iv I completed the majority of the work for the thesis, including: study design and establishment, data collection, data analysis and write-up. For all papers, I received advice from my supervisors: Professor David Lindenmayer, Professor Don Driscoll, Dr. Saul Cunningham, and Dr. Ayesha Tulloch. For paper I, I received statistical support from Wade Blanchard. All co-authors peer-reviewed written content and agreed to the submission of each paper. The addition of different co-authors to each paper reflects contributions from collaborators, which are detailed below. The author contribution statements below have been agreed to in writing by all authors. Other assistance is acknowledged in the Acknowledgments section at the end of each paper. Paper I. Kay, G.M., 2016. Scaling the benefits of agri-environment schemes for biodiversity, in: Ansell, D., Gibson, F., Salt, D. (Eds.), Learning from Agri-Environment Schemes in Australia: Investing in Biodiversity and Other Ecosystem Services on Farms. ANU Press. Canberra. Conceptualisation & design: GK; Manuscript drafting: GK; Manuscript revision: GK. Paper II. Kay, G.M., Michael, D.R., Crane, M., Okada, S., MacGregor, C., Florance, D., Trengove, D., McBurney, L., Blair, D., Lindenmayer, D.B., 2013. A list of reptiles and amphibians from Box Gum Grassy Woodlands in south-eastern Australia. Check List 9, 476–481. Conceptualisation & design: GK, DL; Data collection: GK, DM, MC, SO, CM, DF, DT, LM, DB; Data analysis: GK; Manuscript drafting: GK, DM; Manuscript revision: GK, DM, DL. v Paper III. Kay, G.M., Barton, P.S., Driscoll, D.A., Cunningham, S.A., Blanchard, W., McIntyre, S., Lindenmayer, D.B., 2016. Incorporating regional-scale ecological knowledge to improve the effectiveness of large-scale conservation programmes. Animal Conservation. 19, 515–525. doi:10.1111/acv.12267. Conceptualisation & design: GK, DL, DD, PB; Data collection: GK; Data analysis: GK, DD, PB, WB; Manuscript drafting: GK; Manuscript revision: GK, PB, DD, SC, WB, SM, DL. Paper IV. Kay, G.M., Mortelliti, A., Tulloch, A.I., Barton, P.S., Florance, D., Cunningham, S.A., Lindenmayer, D.B., 2016. Effects of past and present livestock grazing on herpetofauna in a landscape-scale experiment. Conservation Biology. 31, 446-458. doi:10.1111/cobi.12779. Conceptualisation & design: GK, AM, AT, PB; Data collection: GK, DF; Data analysis: GK, AM, PB; Manuscript drafting: GK; Manuscript revision: GK, AM, AT, PB, DF, SC, DL. Paper V. Kay, G.M., Tulloch, A., Barton, P., Cunningham, S.A., Driscoll, D.A., Lindenmayer, D.B., 2017. Species co-occurrence networks reveal patterns of community restructure under agricultural intensification. Ecography. 40, 1-13. doi:10.1111/ecog.03079. Conceptualisation & design: GK, AT, PB; Data collection: GK; Data analysis: GK, AT, PB; Manuscript drafting: GK; Manuscript revision: GK, AT, PB, SC, DD, DL. Paper VI. Kay, G.M., Driscoll, D.A., Lindenmayer, D.B., Pulsford, S.A., Mortelliti, A., 2016. Pasture height and crop direction influence reptile movement in an agricultural vi matrix. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. 235, 164-171. doi:10.1016/j.agee.2016.10.019. Conceptualisation & design: GK, AM, DD; Data collection: GK, SP; Data analysis: GK; Manuscript drafting: GK; Manuscript revision: GK, AM, SP, DD, DL. Appendices Appendix I. Michael, D.R., Kay, G.M., Crane, M., Florance, D., MacGregor, C., Okada, S., McBurney, L., Blair, D., Lindenmayer, D.B., 2015. Ecological niche breadth and microhabitat guild structure in temperate Australian reptiles: Implications for natural resource management in endangered grassy woodland ecosystems. Austral Ecology. 40, 651–660. doi:10.1111/aec.12232 Conceptualisation & design: DM, DL; Data collection: GK, DM, MC, SO, CM, DF, DT, LM, DB; Data analysis: DM, GK; Manuscript drafting: DM, GK; Manuscript revision: DM, GK, DL. Appendix II. Barton, P.S., Sato, C.F., Kay, G.M., Florance, D., Lindenmayer, D.B., 2016. Effects of environmental variation and livestock grazing on ant community structure in temperate eucalypt woodlands. Insect Conservation and Diversity. 9, 124–134. doi:10.1111/icad.12151 Conceptualisation & design: PB, GK, DL; Data collection: GK, DF; Data analysis: PB, GK; Manuscript drafting: PB; Manuscript revision: GK, CS, DL. Appendix III. Tulloch, A.I.T., Mortelliti, A., Kay, G.M., Florance, D., Lindenmayer, D., 2016. Using empirical models of species colonization under multiple threatening processes vii to identify complementary threat-mitigation strategies. Conservation Biology. 00, 1–38. doi:10.1111/cobi.12672 Conceptualisation & design: AT, DL; Data collection: GK, DF; Data analysis: AT; Manuscript drafting: AT; Manuscript revision: AT, GK, AM, DL. viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my supervisors David Lindenmayer, Don Driscoll, Saul Cunningham and Ayesha Tulloch for their support and guidance. In particular, I thank David Lindenmayer for availing my interests in agricultural ecosystems and for providing me the rare opportunity to explore and study the length and breadth of the wonderful woodland ecosystems of south-eastern Australia. I am especially grateful for the freedom, trust and belief that David has offered, not just over the last 3 years of this PhD but over the past decade that we have worked together. I also thank Don Driscoll, Saul Cunningham and Ayesha Tulloch who have played key roles in shaping and refining my work and have offered invaluable advice and mentoring along the way. I am also indebted to several key collaborators who have helped with various aspects of my research, and perhaps more valuably, have been wonderful mentors and friends over the years. In particular, I would like to thank Philip Barton, for stimulating ideas and for many times provided me with support and a clear path forward when none seemed available. Wade Blanchard provided exceptional statistical guidance, friendship and timely Canadian digression (curling, baseball and US politics – in that order). Alessio Mortelliti opened my eyes to a number of exciting research possibilities, and shared his knowledge with an ever- present positivity. This project would not have been possible without the support, insight, trust, generosity and encouragement of the many hundreds of landholders within the south-eastern Australian woodlands. The relationships developed over the past 7 years have inspired and challenged me deeply. Above all else, I hope this work goes some way to fulfilling the many ix discussions we shared over the kitchen table and in the woodlands. Similarly, the staff of a number of NRM agencies provided critical support for which I am grateful, including David Trengove, Gus Arnott and Milton Lewis. Thank you to the Australian Government, Great Eastern Ranges Initiative and the former Lachlan Catchment Management Authority for granting financial support to this project. Thank you also to the ANU College of Medicine, Biology and Environment for providing me with a supplementary scholarship. There are a great many colleagues from the ANU Fenner School that have helped with various aspects of my research – certainly too many to mention here. I especially would like to thank the ANU Long Term Ecology field team, and particularly Daniel Florance who brought a dedication and boundless energy that made working across this vast study a richly rewarding experience. I also thank my peers for their support and camaraderie over the past few years, including: Ingrid Stirnemann, Dean Ansell, Stephanie Pulsford, David Johnson, Wendy Neilan, Shana Nerenberg, George Olah, Laura Rayner, Chloe Sato, Kathy Eyles, Rick Zentelis, Mishka Talent, Karen Ikin, Clare Foster, Crid Fraser, Ben Scheele and Martin Westgate. Thanks to Ben Broadhurst for the temporary-permanent loan of a $2 UV torch.