The United Nations University is an organ of the United Nations estab- lished by the General Assembly in 1972 to be an international community of scholars engaged in research, advanced training, and the dissemination of knowledge related to the pressing global problems of human survi- val, development, and welfare. Its activities focus mainly on the areas of peace and governance, environment and sustainable development, and science and technology in relation to human welfare. The University op- erates through a worldwide network of research and postgraduate train- ing centres, with its planning and coordinating headquarters in Tokyo. A history of water issues A history of water issues: Lessons to learn Edited by Richard Coopey, Henning Fahlbusch, Nobumasa Hatcho and Libor Jansky 6 United Nations University, 2005 The views expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not nec- essarily reflect the views of United Nations University. United Nations University, 53-70, Jingumae 5-chome Shibuya-ku, Tokyo, 150-8925, Japan Tel: þ81-3-3499-2811 Fax: þ81-3-3406-7345 E-mail: [email protected] General enquiries: [email protected] http://www.unu.edu United Nations University Office at the United Nations, New York 2 United Nations Plaza, Room DC2-2062, New York, NY 10017, USA Tel: þ1-212-963-6387 Fax: þ1-212-371-9454 E-mail: [email protected] Cover design by Mea Rhee Printed in Hong Kong ISBN 92-808-8025-X Contents Acknowledgements ..................................................... viii Listoffiguresandtables................................................ ix Listofacronyms......................................................... xiv 1 Introduction .......................................................... 1 Richard Coopey I: Investment and management of water resources .................. 11 2 The mining ponds of Banska´ Sˇ tiavnica: Large-scale technology transfer 300 years ago ................................. 13 Libor Jansky and Matu´sˇ Jakubis 3 General perspective of the Sayama-Ike Land Improvement District ............................................................... 20 Yoshihiko Ogino and Barnabas Mulenga 4 Sayama-Ike and the Japanese experience: Traditional irrigationsystemsandproblemsofmodernization............... 35 Akihiro Kinda 5 Fair distribution and allocation of water among farmers in ancienttimes......................................................... 48 A.R. Salamat v vi CONTENTS 6 Agency/farmer participation in the management of public sector irrigation schemes: Lessons from Nigeria’s Kano River IrrigationProject .................................................... 55 M. Sani Bala, I.K. Musa and S.D. Abdulkadir 7 History of flood damage and control in Japan after World WarII ................................................................ 68 Yutaka Takahashi II: Political economy, control and markets of water ................. 79 8 TheparticipatoryapproachofmanagingwaterinJapan........ 81 Nobumasa Hatcho and Yutaka Matsuno 9 History and paradigm shift of Japan’s ODA policy in the watersector.......................................................... 96 Masahiro Murakami 10 Lessons learned in the history of Dutch water management .... 116 Dick De Bruin and Bart Schultz 11 Irrigation design in the Netherlands East Indies: The TjipoenegarasysteminWestJava................................. 133 Maurits Ertsen 12 Municipal or private ownership of water and sewage utilities? 151 Jarmo J. Hukka and Tapio S. Katko III: Water technology and innovations ................................ 161 13 OldflumingdamsnearVienna .................................... 163 Alexius Vogel 14 The history and importance of the oldest torrent control in the Slovak Republic ................................................. 178 Matu´sˇ Jakubis and Libor Jansky 15 Lessons learned from Qanat studies: A proposal for international cooperation ........................................... 187 Iwao Kobori 16 Computational fluid mechanics analysis of the Roman siphon at Aspendos, Turkey, and a PreColumbian Chimu hydraulic controlsystemintheJequetepequeValley,Peru ................ 195 Charles Ortloff CONTENTS vii 17 Roman hydraulic technology and problems in modern pressurizedpipelinesystems ....................................... 217 Paul Kessener 18 TheSaddelKafara:Theoldesthighdamoftheworld ......... 238 Henning Fahlbusch 19 Thedesignprincipleofhistoricalcurvilinearobliqueweirs..... 250 Koichiro Sakitani, Yu Nakai and Osamu Shinohara 20 Conclusion ........................................................... 274 Remi Chandran Contributors ............................................................. 276 Acknowledgements This publication is the result of the outstanding efforts of numerous indi- viduals and organizations involved in understanding the History of Water Issues. The editors of this volume, A History of Water Issues: Lessons to Learn, would like to express their sincere appreciation for the generous contributions of the International Commission on Irrigation and Drain- age (ICID), International Water History Association, United Nations University (UNU) and Osaka Prefectural Sayamaike Museum. Valuable support was also provided by Mr. Remi Chandran of the UNU Environ- ment and Sustainable Development Programme, in reviewing the papers and assisting the editors during the technical editing process. Finally, this book stands as a tribute to all the people who have worked toward un- derstanding the various water management systems around the world and have contributed to their well-being. Richard Coopey Henning Fahlbusch Nobumasa Hatcho Libor Jansky viii List of figures and tables Figures 2.1 A map of Slovakia highlighting the location of Banska´ S´ tiavnica ......................................................... 14 3.1 An aerial view of the mother pond of Sayama-ike Land ImprovementDistrict .......................................... 21 3.2 Labour farmers with compaction tampers (in 1925) ........ 22 3.3 TherehabilitationofSayama-Ike(in1925).................. 23 3.4 Old wooden intake structures ................................. 23 3.5 ‘‘Thanksgiving ceremony’’ at the site on 1 June by the president and board members of Sayama-Ike Land ImprovementDistrict .......................................... 24 3.6 Watermasterinintaketower ................................. 24 3.7 Gate-keepersandfarmersoperatinganoldintake.......... 25 3.8 A painting of the Sayama-Ike mother pond in the 1700s ... 26 3.9 A painting of the Sayama-Ike Water Users’ Association in the 1700s ......................................................... 27 3.10 The organizational structure of the Sayama Ike Land ImprovementDistrict .......................................... 28 3.11 The command area of the Sayama-Ike Land Improvement District........................................................... 32 3.12 A schematic diagram of the pond-fed irrigation system .... 33 4.1 Irrigation channels drawn on an 8th-century manorial map 36 4.2 A reservoir for irrigation with a sluice gate drawn on an 8th-centurymanorialmap ..................................... 37 ix xFIGURESANDTABLES 4.3 Location of Sayama-Ike: a reservoir that dams up a narrowvalley ................................................... 38 4.4 Two types of reservoirs (tane-ike and sara-ike) in Nara Basin............................................................. 39 4.5 Presumed origin of reservoirs and irrigation patterns in NaraBasin ...................................................... 40 4.6 Sayama-Ikedepictedina 17th-centurypictorialmap....... 41 4.7 A reservoir network and irrigation water system from Sayama-Ike depicted in a pictorial map (1669) .............. 42 4.8 A traditional irrigation system without an intake for each paddy ............................................................ 43 4.9 A modern irrigation system with an intake for each paddy; ditches are used for both water supply and drainage ....... 44 4.10 A traditional rural landscape with a traditional irrigation system ........................................................... 45 4.11 A recent rural landscape after land consolidation, with separate ditches for drainage and water supply (common sincethe1970s) ................................................. 46 8.1 Historical development of paddy fields and population .... 83 8.2 Jo-Risystemandlandholding ................................ 84 8.3 Evolution of water user associations and LIDs in Japan ... 87 8.4 MaterialcycleinEdocity...................................... 91 8.5 Major stakeholders in irrigation development in Japan .... 93 9.1 Trends of major DAC countries’ ODA ...................... 100 9.2 Japanese grant aid projects to supply safe drinking water .. 106 9.3 Theworld’saridregion ........................................ 107 9.4 Decreasing annual per capita renewable freshwater ........ 108 9.5 Safe water supply coverage of the world ..................... 111 10.1 Map of The Netherlands, referring to names as mentioned inthischapter................................................... 117 10.2 A schematic presentation of a drainage system in a Dutch polder............................................................ 125 11.1 LocationoftheTjipoenegaraarea ........................... 134 11.2 Location of Javanese irrigation schemes mentioned in the text ............................................................... 137 11.3 Tjipoenegara irrigation command area in the 1922 design document ........................................................ 141 11.4 CapacitycurveofthePategoeanirrigationarea