COMMUNITY, PATRIOTISM AND THE WORKING CLASS IN THE FIRST WORLD WAR: THE HOME FRONT IN WEDNESBURY, 1914-1918 by PAUL ADRIAN FANTOM A thesis submitted to The University of Birmingham for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY School of History and Cultures College of Arts and Law The University of Birmingham October 2015 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. STATEMENT Elements of Chapters 2, 4 and 5 have been published as 'Industry, Labour and Patriotism in the Black Country: Wednesbury at War, 1914-1918' in The Great War: Localities and Regional Identities eds. N. Mansfield and C. Horner (Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2014), pp. 53-76. A version of Chapter 6 has been published as ‘Zeppelins over the Black Country: The Midlands’ First Blitz’ in Midland History, 39 (2) (2014), pp. 236-254. ABSTRACT This thesis examines the impact of the First World War on the town of Wednesbury. Although receiving limited scholarly consideration to date, it is contended that this Black Country town played an important wartime role and this study, based upon extensive archival research, has investigated the key economic, political and social consequences and changes occurring during this period. Embedded within the broader contexts of time and place, it draws extensively on the experiences of the town’s working-class community to demonstrate how a local history can enrich our appreciation of the lives of working people and inform our understanding of the national picture. Following the establishment of the rationale, methodology and the principal historiographical debates, life and society in Wednesbury on the eve of war are described. Reaction to the outbreak of hostilities, economic and manpower mobilization, and wartime industrial relations are assessed. Also charted are the main social and political developments. There is a chapter devoted to the locality’s first air raid, when the German Navy’s airships bombed Wednesbury, Bradley, Tipton and Walsall. In evaluating this community’s patriotism, it is concluded that whilst the adjustment of attitudes was unavoidable, many aspects of Wednesbury’s contribution should be viewed as truly unique. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This researching and writing up of this thesis has been undertaken on a part-time basis and this has added considerably to the challenges of balancing study, employment and life in general, whilst endeavouring not to neglect family and friends. Therefore, I would like to express my appreciation to the many people and organizations that have provided me with assistance, guidance, inspiration and support throughout this time. Without them, the completion of this thesis could not have been accomplished. First and foremost, I must begin by thanking my PhD Supervisor at the University of Birmingham, Professor Carl Chinn. Carl has been a steadfast champion of my work and an unstinting source of sound advice, encouragement, friendship and wisdom. Also at the University of Birmingham, I have been grateful to Dr John Bourne for asking me to contribute an article to the Special Issue of Midland History dedicated to ‘The Midlands and the Great War’ and to Dr Malcolm Dick, Dr Michael Snape and Dr Jonathan Boff for their support of my endeavours. The late Dr Bob Bushaway was instrumental in shaping some of my early thoughts during one of the legendary Ludlow summer schools that he ran, and which, like the man himself, are much missed. Attendance at a number of academic conferences and day schools has given me the chance to engage with fellow enthusiasts in the most convivial and stimulating of circumstances. The opportunity to discuss, reflect further upon and re-evaluate some of the aspects of this research and, on occasion, to communicate my own findings to such audiences, has been tremendously beneficial because it has led to the consequential revision and strengthening of several of the key aspects of this thesis. I am indebted to Dr Nicholas Mansfield of the University of Central Lancashire and Dr Craig Horner of Manchester Metropolitan University for inviting me to make a presentation to the 2012 conference, The Great War: Localities and Regional Identities, and for the inclusion of that paper as a chapter in the volume of the same name that they have edited. It would be remiss of me not to acknowledge the professional staffs of the National Archives, the People’s History Museum, the Staffordshire Record Office and the Centre for Modern Records at the University of Warwick. All were unfailingly courteous, knowledgeable and helpful in tracking down obscure documents and other materials just when they were needed most. Several local archives have been visited on a frequent basis, especially those in Sandwell, Walsall and Wolverhampton, and I am very much obliged to Richard Slaughter of the Sandwell Community History and Archive Service and Paul Ford of the Walsall Local History Centre for their help. In the six years that it has taken me to produce, I have discussed this work with numerous people and have benefited enormously from the copious ideas and suggestions that this has generated, and for the motivation and stimulation they have provided, for which I am most grateful. I would like to express my appreciation to Emeritus Professor Owen Ashton of Staffordshire University, Peter and Mandy Griffin, Brendan and Lynn Hawthorne, Dr Spencer Jones of the University of Wolverhampton, Mark Kendrick, Peter Knowles, Dr Michael LoCicero, Mick Pearson, Stephen Roberts, Professor Gary Sheffield of the University of Wolverhampton, Mark Terrett, Dr Alun Thomas, Andrew Thornton, and Geoff Webb. The resultant thesis, however, together with any errors and shortcomings in the text, remains my own. Last but certainly not least, my parents, Edith and Derek Fantom, have been unwavering in their love, patience, support and understanding. This has combined with their resolute belief in what I have attempted to achieve by carrying out this research and it has helped me to persevere during those difficult moments that all postgraduate research students inevitably face. My debt of gratitude to them is incalculable. DEDICATION This work is dedicated to the memory of two of the author’s Great-Grandfathers, both of whom served with the South Staffordshire Regiment during the First World War. 10331 Private Samuel Boyrd (1871-1947) 30692 Private John Millington (1895-1963) 3rd Battalion, South Staffordshire Regiment 2/5th Battalion, South Staffordshire Regiment CONTENTS Page LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS i LIST OF MAPS AND TABLES ii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND PHOTOGRAPHS iii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND HISTORIOGRAPHY 1 1.1 Background to the thesis 1 1.2 The rationale and structure of the thesis 4 1.3 The methodology of the thesis 10 1.4 A review of historiographical debates and literature 21 1.5 Conclusion 30 CHAPTER 2: WEDNESBURY ON THE EVE OF THE WAR 32 2.1 Introduction 32 2.2 The growth of Wednesbury to 1914 33 2.3 The pre-war economic, political and social context 36 2.4 Wednesbury and the 1913 Black Country strike 51 2.5 Conclusion 70 CHAPTER 3: WAR AND THE MOBLIZATION OF MANPOWER 72 3.1 Introduction 72 3.2 Wednesbury and the outbreak of the war 75 3.3 Manpower - from voluntarism to conscription 83 3.4 Civilians in uniform – Wednesbury’s servicemen 96 3.5 Conclusion 105 CHAPTER 4: THE MOBILIZATION OF THE ECONOMY - 109 INDUSTRY AND MUNITIONS PRODUCTION 4.1 Introduction 109 4.2 Meeting the requirements for waging the war 110 4.3 Industrial output for the war effort 115 4.4 The impact of the war on industry in Wednesbury 120 4.5 Conclusion 133 CHAPTER 5: INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS DURING THE WAR 135 5.1 Introduction 135 5.2 The trade union movement in wartime 136 5.3 Industrial relations and productivity 141 5.4 The 1917 Crown tube works strike 152 5.5 Conclusion 159 Page CHAPTER 6: ZEPPELINS OVER THE BLACK COUNTRY - 161 THE MIDLANDS’ FIRST BLITZ 6.1 Introduction 161 6.2 The war reaches the home front 162 6.3 The Zeppelin raid of 31 January - 1 February 1916 169 6.4 The implications and legacy of the raid 180 6.5 Conclusion 190 CHAPTER 7: THE IMPACT OF THE WAR ON SOCIETY 192 IN WEDNESBURY 7.1 Introduction 192 7.2 Health, housing and welfare in Wednesbury 194 7.3 Citizenship and community support for the war 209 7.4 Press and propaganda on the home front 215 7.5 Conclusion 222 CHAPTER 8: POLITICAL CHANGE DURING THE WAR 224 8.1 Introduction 224 8.2 National politics in wartime 226 8.3 Local politics in Wednesbury during the war 235 8.4 Wednesbury and the 1918 general election 243 8.5 Conclusion 254 CHAPTER 9: CONCLUSION 257 APPENDICES: 1: Maps of the Black Country and of Wednesbury 268 2: A map and tables summarizing a survey of employment 270 and housing in a sample of six Wednesbury streets 3: A table showing the political composition of 277 Wednesbury Council, 1913-1919 4: A table summarizing data from the reports of 278 Wednesbury’s Medical Officer of Health, 1913-1918 5: A table summarizing commercial and industrial 279 activity in Wednesbury, 1912-1918 6: Illustrations